title: Chair

text: For someone seated, the popliteal height is the distance from the underside of the foot to the underside of the thigh at the knees. It is sometimes called the "stool height". The term "sitting height" is reserved for the height to the top of the head when seated. For American men, the median popliteal height is and for American women it is . The popliteal height, after adjusting for heels, clothing and other issues, is used to determine the height of the chair seat. Mass-produced chairs are typically high.


title: Chair

text: Researchers such as Mary Blade and Galen Cranz found that sitting on the edge of a high stool with feet on the floor is less harmful for the lower back than sitting up straight on a conventional chair.


title: Chair

text: Different types of chairs can have a variety of seating positions, depending on the intended task. Typically, chairs intended for people completing work or dining can only recline very slightly (otherwise the occupant is too far away from the desk or table). Dental chairs are necessarily reclined. Research has shown that the best seated posture is a reclined posture of 100°–110°. In order to recline, the back-rest may be independently adjustable. A reclining seat and back will reduce the load on the occupant's back muscles. In general, if the occupant is supposed to sit for a long time, weight needs to be taken off the seat area and thus "easy" chairs intended for long periods of sitting are generally at least slightly reclined.


title: Chair

text: The back of the chair will support some of the weight of the occupant, reducing the weight on other parts of the body. Some back-rests support only the lumbar region, while shoulder height back-rests support the entire back and shoulders. Headrests support the head as well and are important in vehicles for preventing "whiplash" neck injuries in rear-end collisions where the head is jerked back suddenly. Reclining chairs typically have at least shoulder-height back-rests to shift weight to the shoulders.


title: Chair

text: There may be cases where padding is not desirable, such as chairs that are intended primarily for outdoor use. Where padding is not desirable, contouring may be used instead. A contoured seat pan attempts to distribute weight without padding. By matching the shape of the occupant's buttocks, weight is distributed and maximum pressure is reduced.


title: Chair

text: A chair may or may not have armrests; chairs with armrests are termed "armchairs". In French, a distinction is made between "fauteuil" and "chaise", the terms for chairs with and without armrests, respectively. In Germany, an armchair was once called a "Krankensessel", or sick-chair, because it was intended for people who were too ill to stand or sit without extra support.


title: Chair

text: If present, armrests will support part of the body weight through the arms if the arms are resting on the armrests. Elbow rest height is used to determine the height of the armrests. Armrests should support the forearm and not the sensitive elbow area. Hence in some chair designs, the armrest is not continuous to the chair back, but is missing in the elbow area. Armrests further have the function of making entry and exit from the chair easier (but from the side it becomes more difficult).


title: Chair

text: For someone seated, the buttock popliteal length is the horizontal distance from the back most part of the buttocks to the back of the lower leg. This anthropometric measurement is used to determine the seat depth. Mass-produced chairs are typically deep.


title: Chair

text: Additional anthropometric measurements may be relevant to designing a chair. Hip breadth is used for chair width and armrest width. The buttock-knee length is used to determine "leg room" between rows of chairs. "Seat pitch" is the distance between rows of seats. In some airplanes and stadiums the leg room (the seat pitch less the thickness of the seat at thigh level) is so small that it is sometimes insufficient for the average person.


title: Chair

text: A wide variety of chairs have emerged throughout the ages, some based on formal usages, and others based on domestic needs, and some based on needs within the workplace or various professions.


title: Chair

text: An office chair is one used by employees within an office. Modern office chairs are usually adjustable and wheeled. Caster wheels are attached to the feet of chairs to give more mobility.


title: Chair

text: A dining room chair is a specific type of design, used around a dining room table. It can be found in most ordinary residential homes, and also may appear in formal settings, such as any formal event or reception that includes a formal meal or banquet.


title: Chair

text: A work chair is a specialized chair, adapted to the needs of a particular profession or setting. For example, a designing chair will be used for designers who sit at high easels; it will usually have added height.


title: Chair

text: Some chairs have two curved bands of wood (also known as rockers) attached to the bottom of the legs. They are called rocking chairs.


title: Chair

text: A kneeling chair adds an additional body part, the knees, to support the weight of the body. A sit-stand chair distributes most of the weight of the occupant to the feet. Many chairs are padded or have cushions. Padding can be on the seat of the chair only, on the seat and back, or also on any arm rests or foot rest the chair may have. Padding will not shift the weight to different parts of the body (unless the chair is so soft that the shape is altered). However, padding does distribute the weight by increasing the area of contact between the chair and the body, and thus reducing the amount of pressure at any given point. By contrast, a hard wood chair feels hard because the contact point between the occupant and the chair is small. In lieu of padding, flexible materials, such as wicker, may be used instead with similar effects of distributing the weight.


title: Chair

text: Chair seats vary widely in construction and may or may not match construction of the chair's back (back-rest).


title: Chair

text: Design considerations for chairs have been codified into standards. ISO 9241, "Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs) – Part 5: Workstation layout and postural requirements", is the most common one for modern chair design.


title: Chair

text: There are multiple specific standards for different types of chairs. Dental chairs are specified by ISO 6875. Bean bag chairs are specified by ANSI standard ASTM F1912-98. ISO 7174 specifies stability of rocking and tilting chairs. ASTM F1858-98 specifies plastic lawn chairs. ASTM E1822-02b defines the combustibility of chairs when they are stacked.


title: Chair

text: The Business and Institutional Furniture Manufacturer's Association (BIFMA) defines ANSI/BIFMA X5.1 (titled: General-Purpose Office Chairs – Tests) for testing of commercial-grade chairs. It requires:


title: Chair

text: The specification further defines heavier "proof" loads that chairs must withstand. Under these higher loads, the chair may be damaged, but it must not fail catastrophically.


title: Chair

text: Large institutions that make bulk purchases will reference these standards within their own even more detailed criteria for purchase. Governments will often issue standards for purchases by government agencies (e.g. Canada's Canadian General Standards Board CAN/CGSB 44.15M on "Straight Stacking Chair, Steel" or CAN/CGSB 44.232-2002 on "Task Chairs for Office Work with Visual Display Terminal").


title: Chair

text: Chairs may be rated by the length of time that they may be used comfortably – an 8-hour chair, a 24-hour chair, and so on. Such chairs are specified for tasks which require extended periods of sitting, such as for receptionists or supervisors of a control panel.


title: Chair

text: In place of a built-in footrest, some chairs come with a matching ottoman. An ottoman is a short stool that is intended to be used as a footrest but can sometimes be used as a stool. If matched to a glider chair, the ottoman may be mounted on swing arms so that the ottoman rocks back and forth with the main glider.


title: Chair

text: A chair cover is a temporary fabric cover for a side chair. They are typically rented for formal events such as wedding receptions to increase the attractiveness of the chairs and decor. The chair covers may come with decorative chair ties, a ribbon to be tied as a bow behind the chair. Covers for sofas and couches are also available for homes with small children and pets. In the second half of the 20th century, some people used custom clear plastic covers for expensive sofas and chairs to protect them.


title: Chair

text: Chair pads are cushions for chairs. They contain cotton or foam for padding. Some are decorative. In cars, they may be used to increase the height of the driver. Orthopedic back-rests provide support for the back. Car seats sometimes have built-in and adjustable lumbar supports. These can also be used on kitchen chairs.


title: Chair

text: Chair mats are mats meant to cover different types of flooring. They are usually made from plastic. This allows chairs on wheels to roll easily over the carpet and protects the carpet or floor. They come in various shapes, some specifically sized to fit partially under a desk.


title: Chair

text: Remote control bags can be draped over the arm of easy chairs or sofas and used to hold remote controls for home cinemas. They are counter-weighted so as to not slide off the arms under the weight of the remote controls.


title: Chair

text: Chair glides are attached to the feet of chairs to prevent them from scratching or snagging on the floor.


title: Chair

text: The "Broken Chair" is a monumental sculpture in wood, constructed of 5.5 tons of wood, high standing across the street from the Palace of Nations in Geneva. It has broken leg symbolizing opposition to land mines and cluster bombs. In 2001, Steve Mann exhibited a chair sculpture at San Francisco Art Institute. The chair had spikes that retracted when a credit card was inserted to download a seating license. Later other museums and galleries were equipped with the "Pay to Sit" chair, with a global central seating license server located in Toronto. The first sitting session was free, with a database of persons who had already used their free session.


title: Chair

text: In a performance piece at the 2012 Republican National Convention, Clint Eastwood addressed an empty chair, as if it represented President Barack Obama (meant to be construed as MIA or ineffectual). The address was controversial, with critics describing it as bizarre and supporters describing it as poignant. Japanese designer Tokujin Yoshioka has created several chairs as art forms such as "Honey-pop": honey-comb paper chair (2001), "Pane chair": natural fiber chair (2006), "Venus": natural crystal chair (2007).


title: Chair

text: New York industrial designer Ian Stell creates steel and wood kinetic sculptures that transform into chairs, including "Roll Bottom Chair" (2016) that turns into a secretariat desk and Loop that transforms into two interlocking chairs when expanded (2015).


title: Chair

text: In Welsh culture, an eisteddfod is a festival with several ranked competitions, including in poetry and music.


title: Chair

text: The term "eisteddfod", which is formed from two Welsh morphemes: , meaning 'sit', and , meaning 'be', means, according to Hywel Teifi Edwards, "sitting-together." Edwards further defines the earliest form of the eisteddfod as a competitive meeting between bards and minstrels, in which the winner was chosen by a noble or royal patron.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: The Battle of Alesia or Siege of Alesia (September 52 BC) was a military engagement in the Gallic Wars around the Gallic "oppidum" (fortified settlement) of Alesia in modern France, a major centre of the Mandubii tribe. It was fought by the Roman army of Julius Caesar against a confederation of Gallic tribes united under the leadership of Vercingetorix of the Arverni. It was the last major engagement between Gauls and Romans, and is considered one of Caesar's greatest military achievements and a classic example of siege warfare and investment; the Roman army built dual lines of fortificationsan inner wall to keep the besieged Gauls in, and an outer wall to keep the Gallic relief force out. The Battle of Alesia marked the end of Gallic independence in the modern day territory of France and Belgium.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: The battle site was probably atop Mont Auxois, above modern Alise-Sainte-Reine in France, but this location, some have argued, does not fit Caesar's description of the battle. A number of alternatives have been proposed over time, among which only Chaux-des-Crotenay (in Jura in modern France) remains a challenger today.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: The event is described by several contemporary authors, including Caesar himself in his "Commentarii de Bello Gallico". After the Roman victory, Gaul (very roughly modern France) was subdued, although Gaul would not become a Roman province until 27 BC. The Roman Senate granted Caesar a thanksgiving of 20 days for his victory in the Gallic War.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: In 58 BC, following his first consulship in 59 BC, Julius Caesar engineered his own appointment as proconsul (governor) of three Roman provinces by the First Triumvirate. These were Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy), Illyricum (on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea) and Gallia Narbonensis (in southeastern France and the rest of France's Mediterranean coast). Although the proconsular term of office was meant to be one year, Caesar's governorship was for an unprecedented five years. He also had the command of four legions.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Caesar engaged in the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), which led to his conquest of Gaul beyond Gallia Narbonensis. When the Helvetii, a federation of tribes from what is now Switzerland, planned a migration to the Atlantic coast through Gaul, Caesar went to Geneva and forbade the Helvetii to move into Gaul. While he went to Gallia Cisalpina to collect three other legions, the Helvetii attacked the territories of the Aedui, Ambarri, and Allobroges, three Gallic tribes, which called for Caesar's help. Caesar and his Gallic allies defeated the Helvetii. The Gallic tribes then asked for Caesar to intervene against an invasion by the Suebi, a Germanic tribe. Caesar defeated the Suebi. In 57 BC he intervened in intra-Gallic conflicts and marched on the Belgae of northern Gaul. From then on he conquered the Gallic peoples one by one. His successes in Gaul brought Caesar political prestige in Rome and great wealth through the spoils of wars and the sale of war captives as slaves.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Gallic existential concerns came to a head in 52 BC and caused the widespread revolt the Romans had long feared. The campaigns of 53 BC had been particularly harsh, and the Gauls feared for their prosperity. Previously, they had not been united, which had made them easy to conquer. But this changed in 53 BC, when Caesar announced that Gaul was now being treated as a Roman province, subject to Roman laws and religion. This was a subject of immense concern for the Gauls, who feared the Romans would destroy the Gallic holy land, which the Carnutes watched over. Each year the druids met there to mediate between the tribes on the lands considered the center of Gaul. A threat to their sacred lands was an issue that finally united the Gauls. Over the winter the charismatic king of the Arverni tribe, Vercingetorix, assembled an unprecedented grand coalition of Gauls.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Caesar was still in Rome when news of the revolt reached him. He rushed north in attempt to prevent the revolt from spreading, heading first to Provence to see to its defense, and then to Agedincum to counter the Gallic forces. Caesar took a winding route to the Gallic army to capture several "oppidum" for supplies. Vercingetorix was forced to withdraw from his siege of the Boii (allied to Rome) capital of Gorgobina. However, it was still winter, and Vercingetorix realised the reason Caesar had detoured was that the Romans were low on supplies. Thus, Vercingetorix set out a strategy to starve the Romans. He avoided attacking the Romans outright, and instead raided foraging parties and supply trains. Vercingetorix abandoned a great many "oppidum", seeking to only defend the strongest, and to ensure the others and their supplies could not fall into Roman hands. Once again, Caesar's hand was forced by a lack of supplies, and he besieged the "oppidum" of Avaricum where Vercingetorix had pulled back to.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Vercingetorix had originally been opposed to defending Avaricum, but the Bituriges Cubi had persuaded him otherwise. The Gallic army was camped outside the settlement. Even while defending, Vercingetorix wished to abandon the siege and outrun the Romans. But the warriors of Avaricum were unwilling to leave it. Upon Caesar's arrival, he promptly began construction of a defensive fortification. The Gauls continuously harassed the Romans and their foraging parties while they built their camp, and attempted to burn it down. But not even the fierce winter weather could stop the Romans, and a very sturdy camp was built in just 25 days. Siege engines were built, and Caesar waited for an opportunity to attack the heavily fortified "oppidum". He chose to attack during a rainstorm, where the sentries were distracted. Siege towers were used to assault the fort, and artillery battered the walls. Eventually, the artillery broke a hole in the wall, and the Gauls were unable to stop the Romans from taking the settlement. The Romans then looted and raped the settlement; Caesar took no prisoners and claimed the Romans slew 40,000. That the Gallic coalition did not fall apart after this defeat is a testament to the leadership of Vercingetorix. Even despite this setback, the Aedui were willing to revolt and join the coalition. This was yet another setback to Caesar's supply lines, as he could no longer get supplies through the Aedui (though the taking of Avaricum had supplied the army for the moment).


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Vercingetorix now withdrew to Gergovia, the capital of his own tribe, which he was eager to defend. Caesar arrived as the weather warmed and fodder finally became available which somewhat eased supply issues. As usual, Caesar promptly set to building a fortification for the Romans. Caesar set about capturing territory closer to the "oppidum". What happened in the ensuing Battle of Gergovia remains somewhat unclear. Caesar claims that he had just ordered his men to take a hill near to the "oppidum", and that he then sounded a retreat. But no such retreat occurred and the Romans directly assaulted the settlement. Gilliver finds it likely that Caesar did not actually sound a retreat and that it was his plan all along to directly assault the settlement. Caesar's dubious claim is likely to distance himself from the ensuing and overwhelming failure of the Romans. The Roman assault ended in clear defeat as the Romans were greatly outnumbered. Caesar (whose self-reported casualty numbers are likely much lower than the actual amount) claims that 700 men died including 46 centurions. Caesar withdrew from his siege and Vercingetorix's victory attracted many new tribes to his cause. So too, however, did the Romans who convinced numerous Germanic tribes to join them.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Vercingetorix marched the army he had gathered thus far, mainly cavalry, to intercept Caesar. The two armies met at the Vingeanne, where Caesar won the subsequent battle defeating Vercingetorix's cavalry.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: With his cavalry routed Vercingetorix withdrew towards the Mandubii "oppidum" of Alesia, in what would become the siege of Alesia. After the poor performance at Gergovia, a direct assault on the Gauls by Caesar was no longer a viable solution. Thus, Caesar opted simply to besiege the settlement and starve out the defenders. Vercingetorix was fine with this, as he intended to use Alesia as a trap to conduct a pincer attack on the Romans, and sent a call for a relieving army at once. Vercingetorix likely did not expect the intensity of the Roman siege preparations. Although modern archeology suggests that Caesar's preparations were not as complete as he describes, it is apparent that Caesar laid some truly incredible siege works. Over the span of a month, some 25 miles of fortifications were built. They included a trench for soldiers, an anti-cavalry moat, towers at regular intervals, and booby traps in front of the trenches. The fortifications were dug in two lines, one to protect from the defenders, and one to protect from the relievers. Archeological evidence suggests the lines were not continuous as Caesar claims, and made much use of the local terrain, but it is apparent that they worked. Vercingetorix's relieving army arrived quickly, yet concerted coordinated attacks by both the defenders and relievers failed to oust the Romans.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Alesia was an "oppidum" (fortified settlement) on a lofty hill, with two rivers on two different sides. Due to such strong defensive features, Caesar decided on a siege to force surrender by starvation. Considering that about 80,000 men were garrisoned in Alesia, together with the local civilian population, this would not have taken long. To guarantee a perfect blockade, Caesar ordered the construction of an encircling set of fortifications, a circumvallation, around Alesia. It was eleven Roman miles long (16 km or 10 modern miles, each Roman mile equal to 1,000 paces), and had 23 redoubts (towers). While work was in progress, the Gauls carried out cavalry sallies to disrupt the construction. Caesar placed the legions in front of the camp in case of a sortie by the enemy infantry and got his Germanic allies to pursue the Gallic cavalry.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Vercingetorix sent messengers around Gaul to rally the tribes to war and come to Alesia. When Caesar heard of this from deserters and captives, he dug a trench twenty "pedes" (6 metres, 19 modern feet) with perpendicular sides and built all the other works four hundred stades (probably 592 m, 1943 feet) away from that trench. The object of placing this trench so far away from the rest of the works was, as Caesar explained, that the manning of the entrenchment was not easy and, thus, this distance was a protection against surprise enemy advances at night or against javelins or other missiles being thrown at the Roman troops who were building the works during the day. Between this advance trench and the entrenchment, he dug two more trenches 15 "pedes" (4.45 m, 14.6 ft) wide and deep. He filled the inner one, where the ground was level with the plain or sank below it, with water from the river. Behind the three trenches he built a rampart riveted with palisades 12 "pedes" high (3.57 m, 11.7 ft). On top this he built battlements (parapets with squared openings for shooting through) and breastwork (wooden screens at breast height to protect the defenders) with large horizontal pointed stakes projecting from the joints of the screens to prevent the enemy from scaling it. All round the works he set turrets at intervals of 80 "pedes" (24 m, 78 ft).


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Some of the Roman soldiers had to go a considerable distance to get the timber for the construction of the works and grain to feed the troops. This reduced the number of troops at the Roman works. The Gauls made sorties with large forces to attack the works. Therefore, Caesar added further structures to the works to make them defensible by the reduced number of troops. Cut tree trunks were sharpened to create stakes. They were fastened at the bottom and sunk into a five "pedes" deep trench (1.5 m, 4.9 ft) with the boughs protruding from the ground. They were tied in rows of five so that they could not be pulled up without being impaled by the sharp stakes. Pits three "pedes" (0.9 m, 2.9 ft) deep which sloped inwards slightly to the bottom were dug in front of the stakes. They were placed in five intersected rows in the shape of a quincunx (an arrangement of five objects with four at the corners and the fifth at the centre). Tapering stakes, the thickness of a man's thigh, were sharpened at the top, hardened with fire, and sunk in the pits. They protruded from the bottom of the pit to a height of four fingers. Earth was pressed hard to a height of one foot from the bottom of the pit to make the stakes firm. The rest of the pit was covered with twigs and broken-off tree branches to hide the trap. Eight rows of this kind were placed three "pedes" (0.9 m, 2.9 ft). In front of these, one "pes" (0.3 m, 0.97 ft) stakes with iron hooks were sunk into the ground and scattered close to each other all over the field.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: To prepare for the arrival of the Gallic relief forces, Caesar constructed an outer fortification (a contravallation) with the same specifications but facing the opposite way as protection against the external attack by this relief force. It followed the most favourable ground and formed a circuit of 14 Roman miles (20.7 km, 12.86 modern miles).


title: Battle of Alesia

text: The food supply of the population of Alesia and the 80,000 soldiers it hosted could not last long. Vercingetorix ordered all the grain to be brought to him and rationed it. The Gauls held a council, and it was decided that the old and the sick should leave the town. The inhabitants of the town also sent out their wives and children to save food for the fighters, hoping that Caesar would take them as captives and feed them. However, Caesar forbade their being admitted to his fortification, and Vercingetorix left his people out between the fortifications to starve to death.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Meanwhile, the Gallic relief force arrived and encamped on a hill one mile from the Roman fortification. The next day the Gauls encamped near the town. They then attacked the outer Roman fortification. The besieged Gauls simultaneously attacked the inner Roman fortification. However, this combined attack was unsuccessful. The next day the Gauls attacked at night. Marc Antony and Caius Trebonius brought in troops from the remotest forts in support of their comrades. At the first light of day, the Gallic relief forces, fearing being surrounded by a Roman sally, withdrew. The advance of the besieged Gauls, led by Vercingetorix, was delayed by having to fill trenches dug by the Romans. On hearing of the retreat of their comrades the besieged Gauls returned to the town.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: The Gauls spotted a weakness in the Roman fortification. The north side of a hill could not be included in the Roman works and they placed a camp with two legions on steep and disadvantageous ground (this is indicated by a circle in the figure). Thus, the Gauls selected 60,000 men and appointed Vercassivellaunus, a near relative of Vercingetorix, to lead the attack on that spot. They marched there before dawn and launched the attack at noon. Vercingetorix made a sally and attacked any part of the inner fortification which seemed weak. Caesar sent Labienus to support the defense of the weak area with six cohorts of cavalry. He sent Brutus with six cohorts of cavalry and then Caius Fabius with a further seven cohorts of cavalry to defend the inner fortification. Finally, leading fresh troops, he joined in. The attack was repelled. Caesar then marched to the assistance of Labienus, drafting four cohorts and ordering part of the cavalry to follow him and part of it to leave the outer fortification and attack the Gallic relief force from the rear. Labienus was on the verge of collapse and informed Caesar of his decision of making a sally as he had been instructed. Caesar hastened. His arrival galvanised the Roman troops, who "lay aside their javelins [and] carr[ied] on the engagement with their swords." The Roman cavalry was suddenly seen at the rear of the Gauls, the Roman troops advanced rapidly and the Gauls fled. They were intercepted by the cavalry and slaughtered. The besieged Gauls were pulled back from the fortification. They fled their camps and Caesar commented that "had not the soldiers been wearied by sending frequent reinforcements, and the labour of the entire day, all the enemy's forces could have been destroyed". At midnight the Roman cavalry was sent to pursue them. Many were killed and many fled to the lands they came from.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: After multiple attacks, the Gauls realized that they could not overcome the truly impressive Roman siege works. At this point, it became clear that the Romans would be able to outlast the defenders, and that the revolt was doomed. The relieving army melted away.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: The next day Vercingetorix convened the Gallic council and proposed that he should be killed or surrendered alive to appease the Romans. Caesar ordered the Gauls to surrender their weapons and deliver their chieftains. The chieftains were brought before him and Vercingetorix was surrendered. Captives were given to the Roman soldiers as part of the spoils of war apart from the Aedui and Arverni, whom he hoped to win over.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: With the revolt crushed, Caesar set his legions to winter across the lands of the defeated tribes to prevent further rebellion. Troops were also sent to the Remi, who had been steadfast allies to the Romans throughout the campaign. But resistance was not entirely over: southwest Gaul had not yet been pacified.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Alesia proved to be the end of generalized and organized resistance against Caesar's invasion of Gaul and effectively marked the end of the Gallic Wars. In the next year (50 BC) there were mopping-up operations. During the Roman civil wars Gallia was essentially left on its own. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa became its first governor in 39–38 BC. In 39 BC he settled the Ubians on the west bank of the River Rhine and in 38 BC he suppressed a rebellion in Aquitania. He built a radial network of roads centred on the Gallic capital, Lugdunum (Lyon). Gallia was divided into three Roman provinces; Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Lugdununensis and Gallia Belgica. Only the Arverni kept their independence thanks to their victory against Caesar at the Battle of Gergovia.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: For Caesar, Alesia was an enormous personal success, both militarily and politically. The Senate declared 20 days of thanksgiving for this victory but, due to political reasons, refused Caesar the honour of celebrating a triumphal parade, the peak of any general's career. Political tension increased, and two years later, in 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon, precipitating the Roman Civil War of 49–45 BC, which he won. After having been elected consul for each of the years of the civil war, and appointed to several temporary dictatorships, he was finally made "dictator perpetuus" (dictator for life), by the Roman Senate in 44 BC. His ever-increasing personal power and honours undermined the tradition-bound republican foundations of Rome. More civil wars followed his assassination. The last one was a conflict between Octavian (later known as Augustus) and Marc Antony over who would be the sole ruler of Rome, which Octavius won. This led to the "de facto" end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of rule by emperors.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Vercingetorix was taken prisoner and held as a captive in Rome for the next five years awaiting Caesar's triumph (which was delayed by the Civil War). As was traditional for such captured enemy leaders, he was paraded in the triumph, then taken to the Tullianum and ritually garrotted in 46 BC.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: The Gallic Wars lack a clear end date. The legions continued to be active in Gaul through 50 BC, when Aulus Hirtius took over the writing of Caesar's reports on the war. The campaigns may well have continued, if not for the impending Roman civil war. The legions in Gaul were eventually pulled out in 50 BC as the civil war drew near, for Caesar would need them to defeat his enemies in Rome. The Gauls had not been entirely subjugated, and were not yet a formal part of the empire. But that task was not Caesar's, and he left that to his successors. Gaul would not formally be made into Roman provinces until the reign of Augustus in 27 BC, and there may have been unrest in the region as late as AD 70.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Paul K. Davis writes that "Caesar's victory over the combined Gallic forces established Roman dominance in Gaul for the next 500 years. Caesar's victory also created a rivalry with the Roman government, leading to his invasion of the Italian peninsula."


title: Battle of Alesia

text: For many years, the actual location of the battle was unknown. Competing theories focused first on two towns, Alaise in the Franche-Comté and Alise-Sainte-Reine in the Côte-d'Or. Emperor Napoleon III of France supported the latter candidate, and, during the 1860s, funded archaeological research that uncovered the evidence to support the existence of Roman camps in the area. He then dedicated a statue to Vercingetorix in the recently discovered ruins.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Uncertainty has nevertheless persisted, with questions being raised about the validity of Alise-Sainte-Reine's claim. For example, the site is said to be too small to accommodate even revised estimates of 80,000 men with the Gallic infantry, along with cavalry and additional personnel. It is also alleged that the topography of the area does not fit with Caesar's description. In the 1960s, a French archaeologist, André Berthier, argued that the hill top was too low to have required a siege, and that the "rivers" were actually small streams.


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Berthier proposed that the location of the battle was at Chaux-des-Crotenay at the gate of the Jura mountains – a place that better suits the descriptions in Caesar's "Gallic Wars". Roman fortifications have been found at this site. Danielle Porte, a Sorbonne professor, continues to challenge the identification of Alise-Sainte-Reine as the battle site, but the director of the Alesia museum, Laurent de Froberville, maintains that scientific evidence supports this identification. Classical historian and archaeologist Colin Wells took the view that the excavations at Alise-Sainte-Reine in the 1990s should have removed all possible doubt about the site and regarded some of the advocacy of alternative locations as "...passionate nonsense".


title: Battle of Alesia

text: Precise figures for the size of the armies involved, and the number of casualties suffered, are difficult to know. Such figures have always been a powerful propaganda weapon, and are thus suspect. Caesar, in his "De Bello Gallico", refers to a Gallic relief force of a quarter of a million, probably an exaggeration to enhance his victory. Unfortunately, the only records of the events are Roman and therefore presumably biased. Modern historians usually believe that a number between fifty thousand and one hundred thousand men is more credible.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: Space Shuttle "Discovery" (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-103) is one of the orbiters from NASA's Space Shuttle program and the third of five fully operational orbiters to be built. Its first mission, STS-41-D, flew from August 30 to September 5, 1984. Over 27 years of service it launched and landed 39 times, aggregating more spaceflights than any other spacecraft to date. The Space Shuttle launch vehicle has three main components: the Space Shuttle orbiter, a single-use central fuel tank, and two reusable solid rocket boosters. Nearly 25,000 heat-resistant tiles cover the orbiter to protect it from high temperatures on re-entry.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: "Discovery" became the third operational orbiter to enter service, preceded by "Columbia" and "Challenger". It embarked on its final mission, STS-133, on February 24, 2011, and touched down for the last time at Kennedy Space Center on March 9, having spent a cumulative total of nearly a full year in space. "Discovery" performed both research and International Space Station (ISS) assembly missions, and also carried the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit among other satellites.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: "Discovery" was the first operational shuttle to be retired, followed by "Endeavour" and then "Atlantis". The shuttle is now on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: The name "Discovery" was chosen to carry on a tradition based on ships of exploration, primarily , one of the ships commanded by Captain James Cook during his third and final major voyage from 1776 to 1779, and Henry Hudson's , which was used in 1610–1611 to explore Hudson Bay and search for a Northwest Passage. Other ships bearing the name have included of the 1875–1876 British Arctic Expedition to the North Pole, and , which carried the 1901–1904 "Discovery" Expedition to Antarctica, led by Captain Scott.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: Space Shuttle "Discovery" launched the Hubble Space Telescope and conducted the second and third Hubble service missions. It also launched the "Ulysses" probe and three TDRS satellites. Twice "Discovery" was chosen as the "Return To Flight" Orbiter, first in 1988 after the loss of "Challenger" in 1986, and then again for the twin "Return To Flight" missions in July 2005 and July 2006 after the "Columbia" disaster in 2003. Project Mercury astronaut John Glenn, who was 77 at the time, flew with "Discovery" on STS-95 in 1998, making him the oldest person to go into space at that time in history.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: Had plans to launch United States Department of Defense payloads from Vandenberg Air Force Base gone ahead, "Discovery" would have become the dedicated US Air Force shuttle. Its first West Coast mission, STS-62-A, was scheduled for 1986, but canceled in the aftermath of the "Challenger disaster".


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: "Discovery" was retired after completing its final mission, STS-133 on March 9, 2011. The spacecraft is now on display in Virginia at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, an annex of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: During its construction, "Discovery" was fitted with several black tiles near the middle starboard window where there should have been white tiles. It is unknown if this was the result of a harmless manufacturing mishap or done intentionally to give a distinctive look to the shuttle. This feature has been called 'teardrop' and allowed "Discovery" to be told apart from the rest of the fleet without looking at its name, although often unnoticed by the uninitiated.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: The spacecraft weighed roughly less than "Columbia" when it was brought into service due to optimalizations determined during the construction and testing of "Enterprise", "Columbia" and "Challenger". "Discovery" weighs heavier than "Atlantis" and heavier than "Endeavour" after further weight-saving adjustments were made.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: Part of the "Discovery" weight optimizations included the greater use of quilted AFRSI blankets rather than the white LRSI tiles on the fuselage, and the use of graphite epoxy instead of aluminum for the payload bay doors and some of the wing spars and beams.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: Upon its delivery to the Kennedy Space Center in 1983, "Discovery" was modified alongside "Challenger" to accommodate the liquid-fueled Centaur-G booster, which had been planned for use beginning in 1986 but was cancelled in the wake of the "Challenger" disaster.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: Beginning in late 1995, the orbiter underwent a nine-month Orbiter Maintenance Down Period (OMDP) in Palmdale, California. This included outfitting the vehicle with a 5th set of cryogenic tanks and an external airlock to support missions to the International Space Station. As with all the orbiters, it could be attached to the top of specialized aircraft and did so in June 1996 when it returned to the Kennedy Space Center, and later in April 2012 when sent to the Udvar-Hazy Center, riding piggy-back on a modified Boeing 747.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: After STS-105, "Discovery" became the first of the orbiter fleet to undergo Orbiter Major Modification (OMM) period at the Kennedy Space Center. Work began in September 2002 to prepare the vehicle for Return to Flight. The work included scheduled upgrades and additional safety modifications.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: NASA offered "Discovery" to the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum for public display and preservation, after a month-long decontamination process, as part of the national collection. "Discovery" replaced in the Smithsonian's display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia. "Discovery" was transported to Washington Dulles International Airport on April 17, 2012, and was transferred to the Udvar-Hazy on April 19 where a welcome ceremony was held. Afterwards, at around 5:30 pm, "Discovery" was rolled to its "final wheels stop" in the Udvar Hazy Center.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: By its last mission, "Discovery" had flown 149 million miles (238 million km) in 39 missions, completed 5,830 orbits, and spent 365 days in orbit over 27 years. "Discovery" flew more flights than any other Orbiter Shuttle, including four in 1985 alone. "Discovery" flew both "return to flight" missions after the "Challenger" and "Columbia" disasters: STS-26 in 1988, STS-114 in 2005, and STS-121 in 2006. "Discovery" flew the ante-penultimate mission of the Space Shuttle program, STS-133, having launched on February 24, 2011. "Endeavour" flew STS-134 and "Atlantis" performed STS-135, NASA's last Space Shuttle mission. On February 24, 2011, Space Shuttle "Discovery" launched from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39-A to begin its final orbital flight.


title: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: The Flow Director was responsible for the overall preparation of the shuttle for launch and processing it after landing, and remained permanently assigned to head the spacecraft's ground crew while the astronaut flight crews changed for every mission. Each shuttle's Flow Director was supported by a Vehicle Manager for the same spacecraft. Space Shuttle "Discovery"'s Flow Directors were:


title: Moonstone (gemstone)

text: Moonstone is a sodium potassium aluminium silicate ((Na,K)AlSiO) of the feldspar group that displays a pearly and opalescent schiller. An alternative name is hecatolite.


title: Moonstone (gemstone)

text: The name "moonstone" derives from the stone's characteristic visual effect, called adularescence (or schiller), which produces a milky, bluish interior light. This effect is caused by light diffraction through alternating layers of orthoclast and albite within the stone. The diffracted light varies from white to blue, depending on the thinness of the albite layers. More technically, this micro-structure consists of regular exsolution layers (lamellae) of different alkali feldspars (orthoclase and sodium-rich plagioclase).


title: Moonstone (gemstone)

text: Polished moonstones often display chatoyancy ("cat's eye" effect), where a luminous streak appears through the stone. Asterism is rare and produces four-legged stars.


title: Moonstone (gemstone)

text: The most common moonstone is of the orthoclase feldspar mineral adularia, named for an early mining site near Mt. Adular in Switzerland, now the town of St. Gotthard. A solid solution of the plagioclase feldspar oligoclase +/− the potassium feldspar orthoclase also produces moonstone specimens.


title: Moonstone (gemstone)

text: Deposits of moonstone occur in Armenia (mainly from Lake Sevan), Australia, the Austrian Alps, Mexico, Madagascar, Myanmar, Norway, Poland, India, Sri Lanka,


title: Moonstone (gemstone)

text: and the United States. Historically, the most valuable, transparent moonstones with strong blue sheen came from Myanmar. Today, most commercial moonstones come from Sri Lanka.


title: Moonstone (gemstone)

text: Moonstone has been used in jewelry for millennia, including ancient civilizations. The Romans admired moonstone, as they believed it was derived from solidified rays of the Moon. Both the Romans and Greeks associated moonstone with their lunar deities. In more recent history, moonstone became popular during the Art Nouveau period; French goldsmith René Lalique and many others created a large quantity of jewelry using this stone.


title: Moonstone (gemstone)

text: The moonstone is the Florida State Gemstone; it was designated as such in 1970 to commemorate the Moon landings, which took off from Kennedy Space Center. However, it does not naturally occur in the state.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: The sixth-generation Chevrolet Camaro is an American pony car. Produced by automobile manufacturer Chevrolet, it was first introduced to the public on May 16, 2015. Sales started in 2015 for the 2016 model year. The Camaro now utilizes the GM Alpha platform shared with the Cadillac ATS and CTS and features MacPherson struts in front, rather than the former multi-link setup. General Motors claims that 70 percent of architectural components in the new Camaro are unique to the car.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: The sixth generation of Camaro saw production return to the United States as the fourth and fifth-generation models had been assembled in Canada.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: Like its predecessor, the sixth generation of the Camaro is available in coupé and convertible bodystyles. Compared to the previous generation, it is shorter, narrower and shorter in height. With similar equipment and engine, it is also more than lighter.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: Trim levels introduced at launch were LT (1LT, 2LT) and SS (1SS, 2SS). Standard equipment on all trims includes automatic air conditioning, cruise control, tilt/telescoping steering wheel, satellite radio, parking assist, and seven airbags.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: Chevrolet added a base LS (1LS) trim level for the 2017 Camaro. Trim level content for the LS is identical to that of the base 1LT trim, with the exception that the 2.0 L turbocharged inline-4 engine and 6-speed manual transmission would be the only available powertrain options for the LS trim. The LS trim was initially introduced in coupé form, followed later by an LS convertible. The 1LT trim received the 8-speed automatic transmission with shift paddles as standard equipment for 2017.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: For China, the car was introduced on August 31, 2016 and sold under the RS trim with the 2 L turbocharged "LTG" four-cylinder engine and 8-speed automatic gearbox available for 2017 models onwards as standard.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: For the 2017 model year, the 1LE Performance Packages returned, tailored for the V6 and V8 powered six-speed manual-equipped coupé models respectively. Both of 1LE packages offered share a satin black hood wrap, front splitter, and a three-piece rear spoiler. The V6 1LE package adds FE3 suspension from the Camaro SS, 20-inch forged wheels with Goodyear Eagle F1 245/40R20 front tires and 275/35R20 rear tires, Brembo 4-piston front brake calipers, mechanical limited-slip differential with a 3.27:1 ratio, track-cooling package, suede steering wheel, short-throw shifter, dual-mode exhaust, Camaro SS fuel system to accommodate higher-load cornering, and a high flow front grille. The SS 1LE package adds the Magnetic Ride Control FE4 suspension derived from the ZL1, electronic limited-slip differential with 3.73:1 ratio, 20-inch forged wheels with Goodyear Supercar 3 285/30R20 front tires and 305/30R20 rear tires, Brembo six-piston front brake calipers with two-piece 14.6-inch rotors, track-cooling package, Recaro front seats with suede and leather upholstery, suede steering wheel and short-throw shifter, dual-mode exhaust, and a color heads-up display.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: Starting in 2019, the 1LE Package was also available with the four cylinder turbo. It adds similar equipment to the V6 1LE, including the FE3 suspension, Brembo brakes, 20" forged wheels with 245/40 and 275/35 Eagle F1 tires, track cooling, and mechanical limited slip differential. The visual changes are also the same as the V6 1LE's. Car and Driver testing showed the I4 1LE was only 1.6 seconds slower around VIR than the V6.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: The first special edition of the new Camaro became available in 2017. Available on 2LT and 2SS models in both coupe and convertible bodystyles, the 50th Anniversary Special Edition includes Nightfall Gray Metallic exterior paint, unique 20-inch aluminum-alloy wheels and wheel center caps, the RS Appearance Package (for LT/2LT models only), an orange 50th Anniversary exterior decal package with hood and rear trunk lid stripes, a "FIFTY" emblem on each front fender, a Nightfall Gray Metallic-painted front splitter, orange-painted front and rear brake calipers (front only for LT/2LT), black leather-and-suede-trimmed seating surfaces with orange color accent stitching (including stitching on the dashboard, door panels, and steering wheel), and special door sill plates. However, all 2017 Chevrolet Camaro models received the same "FIFTY" badge on the bottom of the three-spoke steering wheel to commemorate the Camaro's 50th Anniversary.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: At the 2017 SEMA Show in October 2017, Chevrolet introduced the Chevrolet Camaro Hot Wheels Special Edition, designed to commemorate both the 50th Anniversary of Hot Wheels die-cast toy vehicles, as well as all Hot Wheels diecast Chevrolet Camaro models, with inspiration coming from an actual Hot Wheels toy car. Available on 2LT and 2SS models in both coupe and convertible body styles, the Hot Wheels Special Edition includes a unique Crush Orange exterior paint, 20-inch Graphite-finished machined-face aluminum-alloy wheels (with summer-only tires on SS/2SS models), a Satin Graphite exterior decal package with hood and rear trunk lid stripes and silver accents, Satin Graphite exterior accents, a "Hot Wheels 50th Anniversary" front fender emblem, a unique front grille with Galvano chrome inserts, orange-painted front and rear brake calipers (front only for LT/2LT), a black Chevrolet bowtie emblem, a Jet Black leather-trimmed interior with orange color accent stitching (including stitching on the dashboard, door panels, and suede-wrapped steering wheel), illuminated front door sill plates with the 'Hot Wheels' insignia, premium carpeted floor mats with orange-colored stitching and "Ghost Stripes", and orange knee bolsters and seat belts.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: For the 2018 model year, Chevrolet introduced the Chevrolet Camaro Redline Edition which joins the lineup of Chevrolet Redline Edition models already on sale at dealerships nationwide. The Redline Edition package included 20-inch black aluminum-alloy wheels with red accent stripes (including summer-only tires), black-painted side mirrors, a black lower front grille insert with red accent stripes, black bowtie emblems, Gloss Black front fender accent hash marks with red accents, a blackout rear tail lamp panel, darkened tail lamps, premium carpeted floor mats with red accents, and Gloss Black "Camaro" emblems on each front fender with red outlining.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: The SS model is equipped with a 6.2L LT1 V8 engine offered both as a 6-speed manual and an 8-speed automatic. Chevrolet reports the SS capable of and of torque, performing 0- in 4.0 seconds. This model comes in two different trims, the 1SS and 2SS, which are mainly differentiated by their interior features. While the 1SS packs the same power, it lacks the leather heated/ventilated seats of the 2SS. The 2SS includes some other features left out in the 1SS like interior spectrum lighting, heated steering wheel, blind-spot monitoring, Bose audio, and wireless charging. Both trim levels allow the addition of the available 1LE "track package," which adds suede Recaro seats and upgraded performance features detailed elsewhere in this article. In 2019 and subsequent years the new 10L80 10 speed automatic transmission was offered in the SS trim level.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: The ZL1 model, which is a high-performance variant of the Camaro SS, was introduced in 2017. It features a lower grille opening for improved cooling, a new front splitter, and a carbon hood insert which removes hot air from the engine compartment. It also features wider front fenders to accommodate wider tires for improved handling, unique rockers, and Magnetic Ride suspension.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: Transmission choices are a rev matching six-speed manual or a newly developed 10-speed automatic. The 10-speed 10L90 transmission was developed in collaboration with Ford. General Motors manufactures its own version in its own factory in Romulus, Michigan. A more track-focused version known as the "ZL1 1LE" features Multimatic spool-valve shocks (similar to the previous generation of the Camaro Z28), a new front splitter, dive planes and a rear wing, and wide Goodyear Eagle F1 Supercar tires. Weight was also reduced by as compared to a standard ZL1.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: Performance figures include a acceleration time of 3.5 seconds, a 1/4 mile time of 11.4 seconds at . The ZL1's official top speed is .


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: The ZL1, along with the SS, were banned for sale in California and Washington due to their brake pads containing toxic metals and asbestos that were banned in California in 2014 and brake pads containing more than 5% of copper will be prohibited starting in January 2021. GM plans to reintroduce the ZL1 and SS in the two states for the 2022 model year with new brakes that meet state regulations.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: All engines were initially available with a 6-speed manual and 8-speed automatic transmissions, except for the ZL1 models, which use a 10-speed automatic in addition to a standard 6-speed manual. The 8-speed was replaced by the 10-speed automatic in the 2019 SS and 2020 V6 models.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: European Union's new have ended the European sale of Camaro on 31 August 2019. The 6.2-litre V8 engine fitted to the export version of Camaro could not be modified further to meet the new emission regulations.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: General Motors Holden's performance division, Holden Special Vehicles, was engaged in the import and conversion of the Camaro to right-hand-drive and Australian Design Rules, from the second half of 2018. Unlike Holden's previous American import, the Chevrolet badge remained on the converted Camaro. The Holden Suburban was also originally built as RHD, rather than being converted after arriving in Australia.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: HSV imported and converted the European Camaro 2SS and ZL1. The manual gearbox, along with the ZL1 model, were made available in 2019. Imports stopped in early 2020 following limited sales, with the possibility remaining of resuming them in the future under the new GMSV brand.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: In fall 2018 (for the 2019 model year), the sixth-generation of the Camaro received a mid-cycle redesign, along with the majority of the Chevrolet car lineup (including the Spark, Cruze and Malibu), in which the front end styling was universally panned. Changes for the 2019 model year also included a new third-generation MyLink infotainment system, revised exterior, and interior styling, new alloy wheel designs, the addition of the 1LE Performance Package for the base 2.0 L I4 equipped LT models (the 1LE Performance Package was previously only offered on V6-equipped LT and V8-equipped SS and ZL1 models), the addition of two new exterior colors (Riverside Blue Metallic and Satin Steel Gray Metallic), and a new performance hood for SS models. The SS also dropped the optional 8-speed automatic in favor of the 10-speed automatic. Driver-assistance features were also improved on the 2019 model, including Lane Change Alert with Side Blind Zone Alert. The 2019 Chevrolet Camaro went on sale in the fall of 2018.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: Chevrolet also exhibited a 2019 Camaro SS at the 2018 SEMA Show in the new Shock yellow-green exterior color, which became available in early 2019. It also featured a "concept" front end, which unlike the production version of the SS has a body-colored bumper and the Chevy "bow-tie" badge moved to the upper grille.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: For the 2020 model year, Chevrolet revised the front-end styling of the Camaro SS, the front bumper is now colored and the Chevy "bow-tie" has been moved to the upper grille. A new entry-level V8 trim called the "Camaro LT1 V8" equipped with a 6.2 L LT1 V8 engine rated at was added to the line-up. The V6 model is now equipped with a 10-speed automatic transmission as an option and replaces the previous 8-speed transmission. A new exterior color option called the "Rally Green" was added. The 2020 Camaro went on sale in fall 2019.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: Pratt & Miller developed the Chevrolet Camaro GT4.R for GT4 international racing in 2017. While based on the Camaro ZL1, regulations preventing the use of superchargers meant the naturally-aspirated LT1 6.2 liter V8 from the Camaro SS instead of the ZL1's LT4 supercharged V8 was used in the racing car featuring direct fuel injection, a carbon fiber intake, a custom camshaft, a Motec data acquisition system and a Bosch MS6 ECU. The engine has a power output up to . Other changes include the Xtrac paddle-shift operated 6-speed sequential transmission, an Xtrac Salisbury type differential, six-piston Brembo front brake calipers with four-piston rear calipers, custom adjustable front and rear antiroll bars, and two-way adjustable Öhlins TTX-46 front struts and TTX-36 rear dampers. Exterior changes include wider front fenders, a hood extractor, aerodynamic side skirts, lightweight carbon fiber doors and front fascia, a custom GT4 specification carbon fiber rear spoiler, GT4 specification front dive planes, and a GT4 specification carbon fiber front splitter the car also has 18-inch forged Forgeline one-piece alloy wheels with racing slicks. The total weight of the car is .


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: The Camaro ZL1 replaced the Chevrolet SS, which has been used since 2013. The new Camaro started participating in the 2018 Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series season, and it won on its debut in the 2018 Daytona 500 with driver Austin Dillon. In the 2020 NASCAR Cup Series, the Camaro won its first NASCAR Cup Series championship with driver Chase Elliott. In the 2021 Season, Chevrolet backed-up their title with Kyle Larson, who won his first Cup championship.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: The Camaro SS is also currently used in the NASCAR Xfinity Series, being driven by the likes of A. J. Allmendinger, and Austin Hill. The SS has been used since the 2018 NASCAR Xfinity Series, and it won in its first race at Daytona. Tyler Reddick beat teammate Elliott Sadler in the closest finish in NASCAR history. The SS has so far won 2 championships, in 2018 and 2019, both won by Tyler Reddick.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (sixth generation)

text: The concept car of the sixth generation of the Camaro appears in the film "" as the second alternate mode for Bumblebee, and the paint job resembles that of the convertible variant of the car. A second modified version of the car appears in the film's sequel, "" previewing the redesign of the car which would be introduced in 2018.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: Bayesian statistics is a theory in the field of statistics based on the Bayesian interpretation of probability where probability expresses a "degree of belief" in an event. The degree of belief may be based on prior knowledge about the event, such as the results of previous experiments, or on personal beliefs about the event. This differs from a number of other interpretations of probability, such as the frequentist interpretation that views probability as the limit of the relative frequency of an event after many trials.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: Bayesian statistical methods use Bayes' theorem to compute and update probabilities after obtaining new data. Bayes' theorem describes the conditional probability of an event based on data as well as prior information or beliefs about the event or conditions related to the event. For example, in Bayesian inference, Bayes' theorem can be used to estimate the parameters of a probability distribution or statistical model. Since Bayesian statistics treats probability as a degree of belief, Bayes' theorem can directly assign a probability distribution that quantifies the belief to the parameter or set of parameters.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: Bayesian statistics is named after Thomas Bayes, who formulated a specific case of Bayes' theorem in a paper published in 1763. In several papers spanning from the late 18th to the early 19th centuries, Pierre-Simon Laplace developed the Bayesian interpretation of probability. Laplace used methods that would now be considered Bayesian to solve a number of statistical problems. Many Bayesian methods were developed by later authors, but the term was not commonly used to describe such methods until the 1950s. During much of the 20th century, Bayesian methods were viewed unfavorably by many statisticians due to philosophical and practical considerations. Many Bayesian methods required much computation to complete, and most methods that were widely used during the century were based on the frequentist interpretation. However, with the advent of powerful computers and new algorithms like Markov chain Monte Carlo, Bayesian methods have seen increasing use within statistics in the 21st century.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: Bayes' theorem is used in Bayesian methods to update probabilities, which are degrees of belief, after obtaining new data. Given two events formula_1 and formula_2, the conditional probability of formula_1 given that formula_2 is true is expressed as follows:


title: Bayesian statistics

text: where formula_6. Although Bayes' theorem is a fundamental result of probability theory, it has a specific interpretation in Bayesian statistics. In the above equation, formula_1 usually represents a proposition (such as the statement that a coin lands on heads fifty percent of the time) and formula_2 represents the evidence, or new data that is to be taken into account (such as the result of a series of coin flips). formula_9 is the prior probability of formula_1 which expresses one's beliefs about formula_1 before evidence is taken into account. The prior probability may also quantify prior knowledge or information about formula_1. formula_13 is the likelihood function, which can be interpreted as the probability of the evidence formula_2 given that formula_1 is true. The likelihood quantifies the extent to which the evidence formula_2 supports the proposition formula_1. formula_18 is the posterior probability, the probability of the proposition formula_1 after taking the evidence formula_2 into account. Essentially, Bayes' theorem updates one's prior beliefs formula_9 after considering the new evidence formula_2.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: The probability of the evidence formula_23 can be calculated using the law of total probability. If formula_24 is a partition of the sample space, which is the set of all outcomes of an experiment, then,


title: Bayesian statistics

text: When there are an infinite number of outcomes, it is necessary to integrate over all outcomes to calculate formula_23 using the law of total probability. Often, formula_23 is difficult to calculate as the calculation would involve sums or integrals that would be time-consuming to evaluate, so often only the product of the prior and likelihood is considered, since the evidence does not change in the same analysis. The posterior is proportional to this product:


title: Bayesian statistics

text: The maximum a posteriori, which is the mode of the posterior and is often computed in Bayesian statistics using mathematical optimization methods, remains the same. The posterior can be approximated even without computing the exact value of formula_23 with methods such as Markov chain Monte Carlo or variational Bayesian methods.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: The general set of statistical techniques can be divided into a number of activities, many of which have special Bayesian versions.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: Bayesian inference refers to statistical inference where uncertainty in inferences is quantified using probability. In classical frequentist inference, model parameters and hypotheses are considered to be fixed. Probabilities are not assigned to parameters or hypotheses in frequentist inference. For example, it would not make sense in frequentist inference to directly assign a probability to an event that can only happen once, such as the result of the next flip of a fair coin. However, it would make sense to state that the proportion of heads approaches one-half as the number of coin flips increases.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: Statistical models specify a set of statistical assumptions and processes that represent how the sample data are generated. Statistical models have a number of parameters that can be modified. For example, a coin can be represented as samples from a Bernoulli distribution, which models two possible outcomes. The Bernoulli distribution has a single parameter equal to the probability of one outcome, which in most cases is the probability of landing on heads. Devising a good model for the data is central in Bayesian inference. In most cases, models only approximate the true process, and may not take into account certain factors influencing the data. In Bayesian inference, probabilities can be assigned to model parameters. Parameters can be represented as random variables. Bayesian inference uses Bayes' theorem to update probabilities after more evidence is obtained or known.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: The formulation of statistical models using Bayesian statistics has the identifying feature of requiring the specification of prior distributions for any unknown parameters. Indeed, parameters of prior distributions may themselves have prior distributions, leading to Bayesian hierarchical modeling, also known as multi-level modeling. A special case is Bayesian networks.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: For reporting the results of a Bayesian statistical analysis, Bayesian analysis reporting guidelines (BARG) are provided in an open-access article by John K. Kruschke.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: The Bayesian design of experiments includes a concept called 'influence of prior beliefs'. This approach uses sequential analysis techniques to include the outcome of earlier experiments in the design of the next experiment. This is achieved by updating 'beliefs' through the use of prior and posterior distribution. This allows the design of experiments to make good use of resources of all types. An example of this is the multi-armed bandit problem.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: Exploratory analysis of Bayesian models is an adaptation or extension of the exploratory data analysis approach to the needs and peculiarities of Bayesian modeling. In the words of Persi Diaconis:


title: Bayesian statistics

text: The inference process generates a posterior distribution, which has a central role in Bayesian statistics, together with other distributions like the posterior predictive distribution and the prior predictive distribution. The correct visualization, analysis, and interpretation of these distributions is key to properly answer the questions that motivate the inference process.


title: Bayesian statistics

text: When working with Bayesian models there are a series of related tasks that need to be addressed besides inference itself:


title: Bayesian statistics

text: All these tasks are part of the Exploratory analysis of Bayesian models approach and successfully performing them is central to the iterative and interactive modeling process. These tasks require both numerical and visual summaries.


title: Molly Sims

text: Molly Sims (born May 25, 1973) is an American fashion model and actress. She has been featured in campaigns by a number of major brands, including Jimmy Choo, Escada, Giorgio Armani, Michael Kors, and Chanel. She was a frequent model in the "Sports Illustrated" swimsuit issue in the early 2000s, and walked the runway for the annual Victoria's Secret Fashion Show in 2001.


title: Molly Sims

text: As an actress, she portrayed Delinda Deline in NBC's comedy-drama series "Las Vegas" (2003–2008), and the "right Missy" in The Wrong Missy.


title: Molly Sims

text: Molly Sims was born on May 25, 1973, to Jim and Dottie Sims. As a child she lived in Mayfield, Kentucky, then moved to Murray, Kentucky, so that her father could continue working for his book company located in Murray, Kentucky. She has an older brother, Todd. She is of German descent on her mother's side and English and Cherokee on her father's side. Following her graduation from Murray High School in 1991, Sims enrolled in Vanderbilt University to study political science. In 1993, when Sims was 19 years old, she dropped out to pursue a career in modeling. At Vanderbilt, she was a member of Delta Delta Delta.


title: Molly Sims

text: After sending her photos to a few modeling agencies, Sims got signed to Next Models Management in New York City.


title: Molly Sims

text: She was featured on the cover of "Vogue" Spain's April 1997 issue and "Vogue Paris"' September 1999 issue. In 2001, Sims became an official spokesmodel for Old Navy, appearing in advertisements known for using the tag line "You gotta get this look!" Sims walked the runway for the annual Victoria's Secret Fashion Show in 2001 and the following year she landed a multiyear contract with "CoverGirl". She has also appeared on the runway for Veronique Leroy, Jerome L'Huillier, Givenchy, Ann Demeulemeester, and Emanuel Ungaro. She has graced the cover of numerous fashion magazines, including "Ocean Drive, Lucky, Marie Claire, Elle, Cosmopolitan, Allure, Glamour, Shape, Self", and "Vanidades".


title: Molly Sims

text: She appeared in the "Sports Illustrated" swimsuit issue in 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004, and 2006; in the 2006 issue, she appeared in a photo wearing a bikini designed by Susan Rosen worth $30 million that was made of diamonds.


title: Molly Sims

text: In 2004, Sims launched Grayce by Molly Sims, a jewelry line consisting of necklaces, earrings, rings, and bracelets. The collection is available at HSN, Henri Bendel, Scoop, Ron Herman, and Matches London.


title: Molly Sims

text: She has appeared as a hostess for MTV's "House of Style" (2000–02) and Lifetime's "Project Accessory" (2011), a spin-off of the series "Project Runway." Sims appeared in the music videos for Moby's "We Are All Made of Stars" (2002) and The Lonely Island's "Jizz in My Pants" (2008).


title: Molly Sims

text: Sims portrayed Delinda Deline in NBC's comedy-drama series "Las Vegas" (2003–2008), which focused on a team of people working at the fictional Montecito Resort and Casino dealing with issues that arise within the working environment. The series concluded after five seasons on February 15, 2008. Sims had guest roles on several television shows, such as "Crossing Jordan, The Twilight Zone, Andy Richter Controls the Universe, Royal Pains, Wedding Band", and "Men at Work." She has appeared in several films, such as "The Benchwarmers" (2006), "Yes Man" (2008), "The Pink Panther 2" (2009), and "Fired Up!" (2009).


title: Molly Sims

text: Sims married Netflix executive Scott Stuber on September 24, 2011, at a Napa Valley vineyard. The couple has three children, two sons, Brooks Alan, born on June 19, 2012, Grey Douglas, born on January 10, 2017, and a daughter, Scarlett May, born on March 25, 2015.


title: Molly Sims

text: Sims appeared on a special edition of "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire" (1999), and won $125,000 for ovarian cancer research. Sims is a global ambassador for Population Services International's Five & Alive program, which addresses health crises facing children under the age of five and their families. She is also an ambassador for Operation Smile.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: A baton (also known as a truncheon or nightstick) is a roughly cylindrical club made of wood, rubber, plastic, or metal. It is carried as a compliance tool and defensive weapon by law-enforcement officers, correctional staff, security guards and military personnel.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: A baton may be used in many ways as a weapon. It can be used defensively to block; offensively to strike, jab, or bludgeon; and it can aid in the application of armlocks. The usual striking or bludgeoning action is not produced by a simple and direct hit, as with an ordinary blunt object, but rather by bringing the arm down sharply while allowing the truncheon to pivot nearly freely forward and downward, so moving its tip much faster than its handle. Batons are also used for non-weapon purposes such as breaking windows to free individuals trapped in a vehicle, or turning out a suspect's pockets during a search (as a precaution against sharp objects).


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Some criminals use batons as weapons because of their simple construction and easy concealment. The use or carrying of batons or improvised clubs by people other than law enforcement officers is restricted by law in many countries.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: In the Victorian era, police in London carried truncheons about one foot long called "billy clubs". According to the "Online Etymology Dictionary", this name is first recorded in 1848 as slang for a burglars' crowbar. The meaning "policeman's club" is first recorded 1856. The truncheon acted as the policeman's 'Warrant Card' as the Royal Crest attached to it indicated the policeman's authority. This was always removed when the equipment left official service (often with the person who used it). Earlier on the word was used in vulgar Latin ("bastο"—a stick helping walking, from "basta"—hold).


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: The Victorian original has since developed into the several varieties available today. The typical truncheon is a straight stick made from wood or a synthetic material, approximately in diameter and long, with a fluted handle to aid in gripping. Truncheons are often ornamented with their organizations' coats of arms. Longer truncheons are called "riot batons" because of their use in riot control. Truncheons probably developed as a marriage between the club or military mace and the staff of office/sceptre.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Straight batons of rubber have a softer impact. Some of the kinetic energy bends and compresses the rubber and bounces off when the object is struck. Rubber batons are not very effective when used on the subject's arms or legs, and can still cause injury if the head is struck. That is why most police departments have stopped issuing them. The Russian police standard-issue baton is rubber, except in places such as Siberia, where it can be cold enough that the rubber may become brittle and break if struck. The traffic baton is red to make it more visible as a signaling aid in directing traffic. In Russia traffic batons are striped in black and white for the same reason, and in Sweden they are white. Until the mid-1990s, British police officers carried traditional wooden truncheons of a sort that had changed little from Victorian times. Since the late 1990s, the collapsible baton is issued except for public order duties, where a fixed, acrylic baton is used. Side-handled batons were issued for a while, but fell out of favour.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: In New York, the police used to use two kinds of batons depending on the time. The one for daytime was called a day-stick and was in length. Another baton, that was used at night, was long and called a night-stick, which is the origin of the word "nightstick". The night-stick was longer so it could provide extra protection which was thought to be necessary at night.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: In modern police training, the primary targets are large nerve clusters, such as the common peroneal nerve in the mid-thigh and large, easily targetable muscle groups, such as the quadriceps and biceps. The baton is swung in fast, "snapping" strikes to these areas, sometimes only making contact with the tip. Taken together, these are intended to impair the subject's ability to continue advancing (by striking the leg) or attack (by striking the arm) by causing transitory neurapraxia (temporary muscle pain, spasm and paralysis due to nerve injury). Modern systems strictly prohibit hitting the skull, sternum, spine, or groin unless such an attack is conducted in defense of life, with many jurisdictions considering this deadly force.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Before the 1970s, a common use of the police baton was to strike a suspect's head with a full-force overhand motion in order to stun them or knock them unconscious by cerebral concussion, similar to the pre-baton practice of buffaloing with the handle of a revolver. However, this practice had two major liabilities. First, there was a high risk and incidence of death or permanent injury, as the difference in force between that required to concuss a suspect into non-resistance and that which would fracture their skull tends to be narrow and unpredictable. Second, there were problems with reliability, as resistance to cerebral concussion varies widely between individuals, and head strikes that did not disable the suspect were found to merely escalate the encounter. Officer Arthur Lamb, a well-known trainer on the baton, once stated:


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: As a result, civil lawsuits and claims of police brutality resulted in revised training for officers.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Batons in common use by police around the world include many different designs, such as fixed-length straight batons, blackjacks, fixed-length side-handle batons, collapsible straight batons, and other more exotic variations. All types have their advantages and disadvantages. The design and popularity of specific types of baton have evolved over the years and are influenced by a variety of factors. These include inherent compromises in the dual (and competing) goals of control effectiveness and safety (for both officer and subject).


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: A straight, fixed-length baton (also commonly referred to as a "straightstick") is the oldest and simplest police baton design, known as far back as ancient Egypt. It consists of little more than a long cylinder with a molded, turned or wrapped grip, usually with a slightly thicker or tapering shaft and rounded tip. They are often made of hardwood, but in modern times are available in other materials such as aluminium, acrylic, and dense plastics and rubber. They range in size from short clubs less than in length to "riot batons" commonly used in civil disturbances or by officers mounted on horseback.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Straightsticks tend to be heavier and have more weight concentrated in the striking end than other designs. This makes them less maneuverable, but theoretically would deliver more kinetic energy on impact. Most agencies have replaced the straightstick with other batons because of inconvenience to carry, and a desire for their officers to look less threatening to the community they serve. Despite having been replaced by side-handle and expandable batons in many (if not most) law enforcement agencies, straightsticks remain in use by many major departments in the US, such as the Baltimore, Denver, Sacramento, Long Beach, Santa Ana, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Riverside Police Departments. They also are used by NYPD Auxiliary Police officers, as well as many Military Police forces around the world.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Side-handle batons (sometimes referred to as T-batons) are batons with a short side handle at a right angle to the shaft, about from one end. The main shaft is typically in length. They are derived from the tonfa, an Okinawan kobudō weapon, and are used with a similar technique (although tonfa are usually used in pairs, whereas side-handle batons are not). The best-known example is the Monadnock PR-24; "PR-24" has become a genericized trademark within the law enforcement and security communities for this type of product.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Side-handle batons are made in both fixed and collapsible models and may be constructed from a range of materials including wood, poly-carbonate, epoxy, aluminium, or a combination of materials. Some side-handle batons are one-piece design; the side-handle component and primary shaft are permanently fused together during manufacturing. One-piece designs are potentially stronger than two-piece designs, and have no risk of having a locking screw loosen from its threads. Other side-handle batons are two-piece in design (common among cheaper makes); the side-handle component is screwed into the primary shaft. The side handle may be removed from the shaft by the end-user, converting the side-handle into a straight baton.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Side-handle batons have been involved in high-profile incidents of alleged police brutality, such as in New Zealand's 1981 Springbok Tour and the Rodney King beating.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: It is a version of the side-handle baton released in the mid-1990s. It tries to address some of the disadvantages of straight, side and expandable batons and combine them with the strengths of the aforementioned.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: An expandable baton (also referred to variously as a collapsible baton, telescopic baton, tactical baton, spring cosh, ASP, or extendable) is typically composed of a cylindrical outer shaft containing telescoping inner shafts (typically 2 or 3, depending on the design) that lock into each other when expanded. The shafts are usually made of steel, but lightweight baton models may have their shafts made from other materials such as aluminium alloy.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Expandable batons may have a solid tip at the outer end of the innermost shaft; the purpose of the solid tip is to maximize the power of a strike when the baton is used as an impact weapon. Expandable batons are made in both straight and side-handle configurations, but are considerably more common in the straight configuration. The best-known example of the straight expandable baton is the ASP Baton, from Armament Systems and Procedures.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Depending on the holster or scabbard design, it may be possible to carry an expandable baton in either collapsed or expanded position, which would be helpful if an officer needed to holster an expanded baton and it was not possible or convenient to collapse it at the time. An expandable baton is opened by being swung in a forceful manner while collapsed, using inertia to extend and lock the segments by friction. Some mechanical-lock versions can also be opened by simply pulling the segments apart. Depending on the design, expandable batons may be collapsed either by being brought down (inverted) on a hard surface, or by depressing a button lock and manually collapsing the shafts. Additionally, the baton, in collapsed configuration, may be used as a control device against non-compliant subjects in conjunction with pain-compliance control techniques, such as to remove a driver refusing to exit his or her vehicle. It can be used as a large kubotan.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: The expandable baton is provided to most officers in the British police forces, the idea being that should violence suddenly escalate, the baton can be easily deployed but can be stowed neatly away so as not to affect movement due to its mounting point on the officer's clothing. It is also commonly used in the UK and many other countries as a means of gaining entry quickly to a vehicle that contains offenders. In such a situation the baton is deployed and, due to the solid end of the device, is used to strike windows and/or windscreens of the vehicle to either gain entry or to stop the driver seeing where they are going in circumstances where the officer has hit the screen while the vehicle is still in motion.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Since early law enforcement professionals were very reliant on their batons there was a popular movement to outfit police batons with implements like whistles, torches/flashlights and tear gas. At least four models were built with weapon-retention devices that would deploy "sharp spikes or blades" in case a suspect tried to grab an officer's baton. There is even a mention of two early 20th century patents for batons with guns built into the frame in "American Police Equipment".


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: The terms blackjack, cosh, and sap refer to any of several short, easily concealed club weapons consisting of a dense (often lead) weight attached to the end of a short shaft, used as a bludgeon. These weapons work by transferring kinetic energy to the dense core, via the handle, during the swing. They can be directed at any normal blunt force target, but when directed at the head, it works by concussion. This is usually meant to stun or knock out the subject, although head strikes have a high risk of causing a permanent, disabling brain injury or a fatality.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: The terminology used to refer to these weapons varies and can be imprecise, and depends on the source and time period. In some contexts, these terms are used loosely to refer to any small, dense bludgeon, including those that are improvised.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: A late 19th-century type is a wooden shaft about one foot long, with a leather- or macramé-covered lead ball as the head. This weapon is referred to by some sources as a "sap" (derived from "sapling" due to its wood handle), or euphemistically as a "life-preserver". The term "cosh" may also originate with this weapon, being derived from the Romani word "kašt", meaning "stick" or "piece of wood". The term "blackjack" referring to a hand weapon is of unknown etymology, and the earliest text reference is 1889.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: A type used by sailors in the 19th and early 20th century was weighted with a heavy lead ball at one or both ends of a piece of baleen, which is then wrapped in woven or plaited marline or codline and then varnished over. Some carefully made examples were likely to have been used by a boatswain or ship's master-at-arms or ship's mate as a badge of office and discipline-enforcer, so some modern sources call this weapon a "bosun's cosh". The term "blackjack" is sometimes applied by early 20th-century maritime sources to a lead weight knotted or woven into the end of a short piece of rope that serves as a handle, though most sources would consider this weapon a type of slungshot.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: In the 20th century, newer designs emerged that were shorter and predominately made of stitched or braided leather, with a flexible spring inside the handle. The slight flexibility and resilience of the handle gave these small clubs a whip-like action. Law enforcement sources from the mid-20th century preferred to divide these into two categories: "Blackjacks", which have a mostly cylindrical striking head, and "saps" which have a flat, usually oval-shaped head. In common usage, these terms have become interchangeable, so a "sap" of this kind is sometimes more precisely called a "flat sap, slap jack" or "beavertail sap" to differentiate it. The sap's flat profile makes it easier to carry in a pocket and spreads its impact out over a broader area, making it less likely to break bone. However, it can also be used to strike with the edge for more focused impact, though this was discouraged by most police departments for precisely this reason. There are several variants of these weapons that use different materials, such as steel instead of lead for the weight, or plastic for the covering. Some variants use powdered metal or even sand for the weight inside the head, usually called a "soft sap", which reduces the likelihood of bone fractures.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Blackjacks and saps were popular among law enforcement for a time due to their low profile, small size, and usability at very close range, such as when grappling with a suspect. Besides the head, they were also used on the elbows, wrists, shins, collarbone, and groin. The flat sap, in particular, could be used to strike large muscle groups with the edge. In the early days of use, they were favored for their ability to stun or knock a suspect unconscious with a blow to the head. By the late 1960s head-strikes with impact weapons in general were strongly discouraged by most police departments and trainers because of the risk of death or permanent injury, as well as its questionable effectiveness. By the 1990s virtually all modern police departments had phased them out from their issued equipment, and most banned their use entirely.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Stun batons are an unusual modern variation designed to administer an electric shock in order to incapacitate the target. They consist of an insulated handle and guard, and a rigid shaft usually a foot or more in length for delivering a shock. Many designs function like an elongated stun gun or a cattle prod, requiring the tip to be held against the target and then manually triggering a shock by a switch in the handle. Some more sophisticated designs carry a charge along the shaft's entire surface, administering a shock on contact. This later design is especially useful in preventing the officer from having their weapon grabbed and taken away by an assailant.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Most batons of this design were not intended to be used as impact weapons and will break if used in this way, though a few were built to withstand occasional lighter impacts. They are rarely issued to patrol officers in modern times due to their price and the other associated problems with electroshock weapons.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: The jitte was a Japanese Edo period police weapon consisting of a round or octagonal metal rod about long with a hook-like guard above the handle. It was used in a similar manner to modern police batons and it continued to be issued in Japan to some police departments until the early 20th century. The jitte eventually inspired an early form of expandable baton called a "tokushu keibo" in the 1960s.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Some non-purpose-built items have been used by law enforcement over the centuries as impact weapons. Some examples include:


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Although the Kel-Lite in the 1970s appears to have been the third flashlight designed specifically to be useful as an emergency weapon, the best-known example is the large, metal D-cell Maglite, still in use by some law enforcement and security personnel. Use of such flashlights as a club or baton is generally officially discouraged by the manufacturers and law enforcement officials, but its use is an option. As with all police weapons, there have been many examples of misuse, such as in the Malice Green beating in Detroit. The use of flashlights as improvised impact weapons is subject to the same use of force regulations as the use of purpose-designed impact weapons like batons.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Police officers may often choose to use such flashlights because they are viewed primarily as illumination devices; thus, if a police officer carries one in their hands during nighttime encounters with potentially violent subjects, it would be less likely to escalate the situation (by making the subject feel threatened) than if the officer were to be equipped with a baton or pepper spray canister instead. This permits the officer to appear less threatening while having an impact weapon in hand and ready for instantaneous action, should the situation indeed turn violent.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Characteristic of a flashlight used as a baton or club is the grip employed. Flashlights are commonly held with the bulb end pointing from the thumb side of the hand, such that it is pointing outward from the body when held palm upward. When wielded as a club, the bulb end points inward when the hand is palm upward, and the grip is closely choked to the bulb end. Another advantage to using a flashlight as a club is that in poorly lit situations it can be used to initially dazzle the eyes of an opponent. Law enforcement officers often deliberately shine flashlight beams into the eyes of suspects at night to cause temporary night-blindness as a preemptive defensive measure, whether or not the individual is likely to behave violently. The weight of a flashlight makes it a clumsy baton, unable to be swung swiftly.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Batons are legal for sworn law enforcement and military in most countries around the world. However, the legality of civilian carry for purpose-built batons varies greatly by country, and by local jurisdictions.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: There are no restrictions about batons to the general public, but private security guards can only carry wooden or rubber batons (no length is specified) according to Law 7102/83. They may also carry electric shock batons if they have a Less-Lethal Certification course. There is a general belief in Brazil that rubber batons are less prone to break bones than the wooden ones.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: There is no law that prohibits batons; except for spring-loaded batons, which are defined as a prohibited weapon under a regulation entitled "Regulations Prescribing Certain Firearms and other Weapons, Components and Parts of Weapons, Accessories, Cartridge Magazines, Ammunition and Projectiles as Prohibited or Restricted" (also capable of being referred to by its registration number: SOR 98–462). However, it is a crime under section 90 of the Criminal Code to carry any weapon, including a baton, in a concealed fashion.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: According to Cap 217 (Weapons Ordinance), Laws of Hong Kong, any person who has possession of any prohibited items commits an offence, which includes expandable batons.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: In India, police often carry a large bamboo stick called a "lathi" (, , ) that is used during riot controlling or used when a person is arrested or for self or public defence.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: All types of batons can be owned but not carried in public spaces by private citizens according to law (1988:254).


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Straight, side-handled (PR-24) and friction-lock batons were added to the list of offensive weapons in 2004 (except Scotland, where they were added in 2005), which prohibited their manufacture, sale, hire, offering for sale or hire, lending or giving to any other person under Section 141 Criminal Justice Act 1988. A loophole exists by way of martial arts weapons such as the Tonfa being legal to own, which is the exact same design as the PR-24 baton. The telescopic truncheon – defined as being a truncheon which extends automatically by hand pressure applied to a button, spring or other device in or attached to its handle – was banned in the original 1988 order.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Section 46 of the Offensive Weapons Act 2019, passed in May 2019, prohibits possession even in a private dwelling (e.g. home, closed off building site, behind a sales counter, etc.) previously, possession in private was permitted after meeting certain conditions based on ownership.


title: Baton (law enforcement)

text: Legality is determined by the laws of the individual states. Some, such as Vermont or Arizona, allow for legal carry in the absence of unlawful behavior or criminal intent. Others previously prohibited possession but constitutional challenges have overturned the bans, e.g. "Connecticut v. DeCiccio" (2009). And others, such as California, have general prohibitions against the carrying of all "club" weapons by non-law enforcement; constitutional challenges to California's law have failed. Such jurisdictions will sometimes make exceptions for persons employed as security guards or bodyguards, will provide for permits to be obtained for legal carry, or make exceptions for persons who complete an appropriate training course.


title: Religion in France

text: Religion in France is diverse, with Christianity being the most widely professed faith. France can attribute its diversity to the country's adherence to secularism, freedom of religion and freedom of thought, as guaranteed by the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Republic is based on the principle of "laïcité" (or "freedom of conscience") established by the 1880s Jules Ferry laws and the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State.


title: Religion in France

text: Catholic Christianity, the religion of a plurality of the French people, is no longer the state religion that it was before the 1789 French Revolution, as well as throughout several non-republican regimes of the 19th century (the Restoration, the July Monarchy and the Second French Empire).