title: Metalloid

text: Boron trifluoride and trichloride are used as catalysts in organic synthesis and electronics; the tribromide is used in the manufacture of diborane. Non-toxic boron ligands could replace toxic phosphorus ligands in some transition metal catalysts. Silica sulfuric acid (SiOOSOH) is used in organic reactions. Germanium dioxide is sometimes used as a catalyst in the production of PET plastic for containers; cheaper antimony compounds, such as the trioxide or triacetate, are more commonly employed for the same purpose despite concerns about antimony contamination of food and drinks. Arsenic trioxide has been used in the production of natural gas, to boost the removal of carbon dioxide, as have selenous acid and tellurous acid. Selenium acts as a catalyst in some microorganisms. Tellurium, its dioxide, and its tetrachloride are strong catalysts for air oxidation of carbon above 500 °C. Graphite oxide can be used as a catalyst in the synthesis of imines and their derivatives. Activated carbon and alumina have been used as catalysts for the removal of sulfur contaminants from natural gas. Titanium doped aluminium has been identified as a substitute for expensive noble metal catalysts used in the production of industrial chemicals.


title: Metalloid

text: Compounds of boron, silicon, arsenic, and antimony have been used as flame retardants. Boron, in the form of borax, has been used as a textile flame retardant since at least the 18th century. Silicon compounds such as silicones, silanes, silsesquioxane, silica, and silicates, some of which were developed as alternatives to more toxic halogenated products, can considerably improve the flame retardancy of plastic materials.


title: Metalloid

text: Arsenic compounds such as sodium arsenite or sodium arsenate are effective flame retardants for wood but have been less frequently used due to their toxicity. Antimony trioxide is a flame retardant. Aluminium hydroxide has been used as a wood-fibre, rubber, plastic, and textile flame retardant since the 1890s. Apart from aluminium hydroxide, use of phosphorus based flame-retardants – in the form of, for example, organophosphates – now exceeds that of any of the other main retardant types. These employ boron, antimony, or halogenated hydrocarbon compounds.


title: Metalloid

text: The oxides BO, SiO, GeO, AsO, and SbO readily form glasses. TeO forms a glass but this requires a "heroic quench rate" or the addition of an impurity; otherwise the crystalline form results. These compounds are used in chemical, domestic, and industrial glassware and optics. Boron trioxide is used as a glass fibre additive, and is also a component of borosilicate glass, widely used for laboratory glassware and domestic ovenware for its low thermal expansion. Most ordinary glassware is made from silicon dioxide. Germanium dioxide is used as a glass fibre additive, as well as in infrared optical systems. Arsenic trioxide is used in the glass industry as a decolourizing and fining agent (for the removal of bubbles), as is antimony trioxide. Tellurium dioxide finds application in laser and nonlinear optics.


title: Metalloid

text: Amorphous metallic glasses are generally most easily prepared if one of the components is a metalloid or "near metalloid" such as boron, carbon, silicon, phosphorus or germanium. Aside from thin films deposited at very low temperatures, the first known metallic glass was an alloy of composition AuSi reported in 1960. A metallic glass having a strength and toughness not previously seen, of composition PdPSiGe, was reported in 2011.


title: Metalloid

text: Phosphorus, selenium, and lead, which are less often recognised as metalloids, are also used in glasses. Phosphate glass has a substrate of phosphorus pentoxide (PO), rather than the silica (SiO) of conventional silicate glasses. It is used, for example, to make sodium lamps. Selenium compounds can be used both as decolourising agents and to add a red colour to glass. Decorative glassware made of traditional lead glass contains at least 30% lead(II) oxide (PbO); lead glass used for radiation shielding may have up to 65% PbO. Lead-based glasses have also been extensively used in electronic components, enamelling, sealing and glazing materials, and solar cells. Bismuth based oxide glasses have emerged as a less toxic replacement for lead in many of these applications.


title: Metalloid

text: Varying compositions of GeSbTe ("GST alloys") and Ag- and In- doped SbTe ("AIST alloys"), being examples of phase-change materials, are widely used in rewritable optical discs and phase-change memory devices. By applying heat, they can be switched between amorphous (glassy) and crystalline states. The change in optical and electrical properties can be used for information storage purposes. Future applications for GeSbTe may include, "ultrafast, entirely solid-state displays with nanometre-scale pixels, semi-transparent 'smart' glasses, 'smart' contact lenses, and artificial retina devices."


title: Metalloid

text: The recognised metalloids have either pyrotechnic applications or associated properties. Boron and silicon are commonly encountered; they act somewhat like metal fuels. Boron is used in pyrotechnic initiator compositions (for igniting other hard-to-start compositions), and in delay compositions that burn at a constant rate. Boron carbide has been identified as a possible replacement for more toxic barium or hexachloroethane mixtures in smoke munitions, signal flares, and fireworks. Silicon, like boron, is a component of initiator and delay mixtures. Doped germanium can act as a variable speed thermite fuel. Arsenic trisulfide AsS was used in old naval signal lights; in fireworks to make white stars; in yellow smoke screen mixtures; and in initiator compositions. Antimony trisulfide SbS is found in white-light fireworks and in flash and sound mixtures. Tellurium has been used in delay mixtures and in blasting cap initiator compositions.


title: Metalloid

text: Carbon, aluminium, phosphorus, and selenium continue the theme. Carbon, in black powder, is a constituent of fireworks rocket propellants, bursting charges, and effects mixtures, and military delay fuses and igniters. Aluminium is a common pyrotechnic ingredient, and is widely employed for its capacity to generate light and heat, including in thermite mixtures. Phosphorus can be found in smoke and incendiary munitions, paper caps used in toy guns, and party poppers. Selenium has been used in the same way as tellurium.


title: Metalloid

text: All the elements commonly recognised as metalloids (or their compounds) have been used in the semiconductor or solid-state electronic industries.


title: Metalloid

text: Some properties of boron have limited its use as a semiconductor. It has a high melting point, single crystals are relatively hard to obtain, and introducing and retaining controlled impurities is difficult.


title: Metalloid

text: Silicon is the leading commercial semiconductor; it forms the basis of modern electronics (including standard solar cells) and information and communication technologies. This was despite the study of semiconductors, early in the 20th century, having been regarded as the "physics of dirt" and not deserving of close attention.


title: Metalloid

text: Germanium has largely been replaced by silicon in semiconducting devices, being cheaper, more resilient at higher operating temperatures, and easier to work during the microelectronic fabrication process. Germanium is still a constituent of semiconducting silicon-germanium "alloys" and these have been growing in use, particularly for wireless communication devices; such alloys exploit the higher carrier mobility of germanium. The synthesis of gram-scale quantities of semiconducting germanane was reported in 2013. This consists of one-atom thick sheets of hydrogen-terminated germanium atoms, analogous to graphane. It conducts electrons more than ten times faster than silicon and five times faster than germanium, and is thought to have potential for optoelectronic and sensing applications. The development of a germanium-wire based anode that more than doubles the capacity of lithium-ion batteries was reported in 2014. In the same year, Lee et al. reported that defect-free crystals of graphene large enough to have electronic uses could be grown on, and removed from, a germanium substrate.


title: Metalloid

text: Arsenic and antimony are not semiconductors in their standard states. Both form type III-V semiconductors (such as GaAs, AlSb or GaInAsSb) in which the average number of valence electrons per atom is the same as that of Group 14 elements. These compounds are preferred for some special applications. Antimony nanocrystals may enable lithium-ion batteries to be replaced by more powerful sodium ion batteries.


title: Metalloid

text: Tellurium, which is a semiconductor in its standard state, is used mainly as a component in type II/VI semiconducting-chalcogenides; these have applications in electro-optics and electronics. Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is used in solar modules for its high conversion efficiency, low manufacturing costs, and large band gap of 1.44 eV, letting it absorb a wide range of wavelengths. Bismuth telluride (BiTe), alloyed with selenium and antimony, is a component of thermoelectric devices used for refrigeration or portable power generation.


title: Metalloid

text: Five metalloids – boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, and antimony – can be found in cell phones (along with at least 39 other metals and nonmetals). Tellurium is expected to find such use. Of the less often recognised metalloids, phosphorus, gallium (in particular) and selenium have semiconductor applications. Phosphorus is used in trace amounts as a dopant for n-type semiconductors. The commercial use of gallium compounds is dominated by semiconductor applications – in integrated circuits, cell phones, laser diodes, light-emitting diodes, photodetectors, and solar cells. Selenium is used in the production of solar cells and in high-energy surge protectors.


title: Metalloid

text: Boron, silicon, germanium, antimony, and tellurium, as well as heavier metals and metalloids such as Sm, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, and Se, can be found in topological insulators. These are alloys or compounds which, at ultracold temperatures or room temperature (depending on their composition), are metallic conductors on their surfaces but insulators through their interiors. Cadmium arsenide CdAs, at about 1 K, is a Dirac-semimetal – a bulk electronic analogue of graphene – in which electrons travel effectively as massless particles. These two classes of material are thought to have potential quantum computing applications.


title: Metalloid

text: The word metalloid comes from the Latin "metallum" ("metal") and the Greek "oeides" ("resembling in form or appearance"). Several names are sometimes used synonymously although some of these have other meanings that are not necessarily interchangeable: "amphoteric element," "boundary element," "half-metal," "half-way element," "near metal," "meta-metal," "semiconductor," "semimetal" and "submetal". "Amphoteric element" is sometimes used more broadly to include transition metals capable of forming oxyanions, such as chromium and manganese. "Half-metal" is used in physics to refer to a compound (such as chromium dioxide) or alloy that can act as a conductor and an insulator. "Meta-metal" is sometimes used instead to refer to certain metals (Be, Zn, Cd, Hg, In, Tl, β-Sn, Pb) located just to the left of the metalloids on standard periodic tables. These metals are mostly diamagnetic and tend to have distorted crystalline structures, electrical conductivity values at the lower end of those of metals, and amphoteric (weakly basic) oxides. "Semimetal" sometimes refers, loosely or explicitly, to metals with incomplete metallic character in crystalline structure, electrical conductivity or electronic structure. Examples include gallium, ytterbium, bismuth and neptunium. The names "amphoteric element" and "semiconductor" are problematic as some elements referred to as metalloids do not show marked amphoteric behaviour (bismuth, for example) or semiconductivity (polonium) in their most stable forms.


title: Metalloid

text: The origin and usage of the term "metalloid" is convoluted. Its origin lies in attempts, dating from antiquity, to describe metals and to distinguish between typical and less typical forms. It was first applied in the early 19th century to metals that floated on water (sodium and potassium), and then more popularly to nonmetals. Earlier usage in mineralogy, to describe a mineral having a metallic appearance, can be sourced to as early as 1800. Since the mid-20th century it has been used to refer to intermediate or borderline chemical elements. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) previously recommended abandoning the term metalloid, and suggested using the term "semimetal" instead. Use of this latter term has more recently been discouraged by Atkins et al. as it has a different meaning in physics – one that more specifically refers to the electronic band structure of a substance rather than the overall classification of an element. The most recent IUPAC publications on nomenclature and terminology do not include any recommendations on the usage of the terms metalloid or semimetal.


title: Metalloid

text: Pure boron is a shiny, silver-grey crystalline solid. It is less dense than aluminium (2.34 vs. 2.70 g/cm), and is hard and brittle. It is barely reactive under normal conditions, except for attack by fluorine, and has a melting point of 2076 °C (cf. steel ~1370 °C). Boron is a semiconductor; its room temperature electrical conductivity is 1.5 × 10 S•cm (about 200 times less than that of tap water) and it has a band gap of about 1.56 eV. Mendeleev commented that, "Boron appears in a free state in several forms which are intermediate between the metals and the nonmmetals."


title: Metalloid

text: The structural chemistry of boron is dominated by its small atomic size, and relatively high ionization energy. With only three valence electrons per boron atom, simple covalent bonding cannot fulfil the octet rule. Metallic bonding is the usual result among the heavier congenors of boron but this generally requires low ionization energies. Instead, because of its small size and high ionization energies, the basic structural unit of boron (and nearly all of its allotropes) is the icosahedral B cluster. Of the 36 electrons associated with 12 boron atoms, 26 reside in 13 delocalized molecular orbitals; the other 10 electrons are used to form two- and three-centre covalent bonds between icosahedra. The same motif can be seen, as are deltahedral variants or fragments, in metal borides and hydride derivatives, and in some halides.


title: Metalloid

text: The bonding in boron has been described as being characteristic of behaviour intermediate between metals and nonmetallic covalent network solids (such as diamond). The energy required to transform B, C, N, Si, and P from nonmetallic to metallic states has been estimated as 30, 100, 240, 33, and 50 kJ/mol, respectively. This indicates the proximity of boron to the metal-nonmetal borderline.


title: Metalloid

text: Most of the chemistry of boron is nonmetallic in nature. Unlike its heavier congeners, it is not known to form a simple B or hydrated [B(HO)] cation. The small size of the boron atom enables the preparation of many interstitial alloy-type borides. Analogies between boron and transition metals have been noted in the formation of complexes, and adducts (for example, BH + CO →BHCO and, similarly, Fe(CO) + CO →Fe(CO)), as well as in the geometric and electronic structures of cluster species such as [BH] and [Ru(CO)]. The aqueous chemistry of boron is characterised by the formation of many different polyborate anions. Given its high charge-to-size ratio, boron bonds covalently in nearly all of its compounds; the exceptions are the borides as these include, depending on their composition, covalent, ionic, and metallic bonding components. Simple binary compounds, such as boron trichloride are Lewis acids as the formation of three covalent bonds leaves a hole in the octet which can be filled by an electron-pair donated by a Lewis base. Boron has a strong affinity for oxygen and a duly extensive borate chemistry. The oxide BO is polymeric in structure, weakly acidic, and a glass former. Organometallic compounds of boron have been known since the 19th century (see organoboron chemistry).


title: Metalloid

text: Silicon is a crystalline solid with a blue-grey metallic lustre. Like boron, it is less dense (at 2.33 g/cm) than aluminium, and is hard and brittle. It is a relatively unreactive element. According to Rochow, the massive crystalline form (especially if pure) is "remarkably inert to all acids, including hydrofluoric". Less pure silicon, and the powdered form, are variously susceptible to attack by strong or heated acids, as well as by steam and fluorine. Silicon dissolves in hot aqueous alkalis with the evolution of hydrogen, as do metals such as beryllium, aluminium, zinc, gallium or indium. It melts at 1414 °C. Silicon is a semiconductor with an electrical conductivity of 10 S•cm and a band gap of about 1.11 eV. When it melts, silicon becomes a reasonable metal with an electrical conductivity of 1.0–1.3 × 10 S•cm, similar to that of liquid mercury.


title: Metalloid

text: The chemistry of silicon is generally nonmetallic (covalent) in nature. It is not known to form a cation. Silicon can form alloys with metals such as iron and copper. It shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals. Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions. The high strength of the silicon–oxygen bond dominates the chemical behaviour of silicon. Polymeric silicates, built up by tetrahedral SiO units sharing their oxygen atoms, are the most abundant and important compounds of silicon. The polymeric borates, comprising linked trigonal and tetrahedral BO or BO units, are built on similar structural principles. The oxide SiO is polymeric in structure, weakly acidic, and a glass former. Traditional organometallic chemistry includes the carbon compounds of silicon (see organosilicon).


title: Metalloid

text: Germanium is a shiny grey-white solid. It has a density of 5.323 g/cm and is hard and brittle. It is mostly unreactive at room temperature but is slowly attacked by hot concentrated sulfuric or nitric acid. Germanium also reacts with molten caustic soda to yield sodium germanate NaGeO and hydrogen gas. It melts at 938 °C. Germanium is a semiconductor with an electrical conductivity of around 2 × 10 S•cm and a band gap of 0.67 eV. Liquid germanium is a metallic conductor, with an electrical conductivity similar to that of liquid mercury.


title: Metalloid

text: Most of the chemistry of germanium is characteristic of a nonmetal. Whether or not germanium forms a cation is unclear, aside from the reported existence of the Ge ion in a few esoteric compounds. It can form alloys with metals such as aluminium and gold. It shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals. Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions. Germanium generally forms tetravalent (IV) compounds, and it can also form less stable divalent (II) compounds, in which it behaves more like a metal. Germanium analogues of all of the major types of silicates have been prepared. The metallic character of germanium is also suggested by the formation of various oxoacid salts. A phosphate [(HPO)Ge·HO] and highly stable trifluoroacetate Ge(OCOCF) have been described, as have Ge(SO), Ge(ClO) and GeH(CO). The oxide GeO is polymeric, amphoteric, and a glass former. The dioxide is soluble in acidic solutions (the monoxide GeO, is even more so), and this is sometimes used to classify germanium as a metal. Up to the 1930s germanium was considered to be a poorly conducting metal; it has occasionally been classified as a metal by later writers. As with all the elements commonly recognised as metalloids, germanium has an established organometallic chemistry (see Organogermanium chemistry).


title: Metalloid

text: Arsenic is a grey, metallic looking solid. It has a density of 5.727 g/cm and is brittle, and moderately hard (more than aluminium; less than iron). It is stable in dry air but develops a golden bronze patina in moist air, which blackens on further exposure. Arsenic is attacked by nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. It reacts with fused caustic soda to give the arsenate NaAsO and hydrogen gas. Arsenic sublimes at 615 °C. The vapour is lemon-yellow and smells like garlic. Arsenic only melts under a pressure of 38.6 atm, at 817 °C. It is a semimetal with an electrical conductivity of around 3.9 × 10 S•cm and a band overlap of 0.5 eV. Liquid arsenic is a semiconductor with a band gap of 0.15 eV.


title: Metalloid

text: The chemistry of arsenic is predominately nonmetallic. Whether or not arsenic forms a cation is unclear. Its many metal alloys are mostly brittle. It shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals. Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions. Arsenic generally forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of +3 or +5. The halides, and the oxides and their derivatives are illustrative examples. In the trivalent state, arsenic shows some incipient metallic properties. The halides are hydrolysed by water but these reactions, particularly those of the chloride, are reversible with the addition of a hydrohalic acid. The oxide is acidic but, as noted below, (weakly) amphoteric. The higher, less stable, pentavalent state has strongly acidic (nonmetallic) properties. Compared to phosphorus, the stronger metallic character of arsenic is indicated by the formation of oxoacid salts such as AsPO, As(SO) and arsenic acetate As(CHCOO). The oxide AsO is polymeric, amphoteric, and a glass former. Arsenic has an extensive organometallic chemistry (see Organoarsenic chemistry).


title: Metalloid

text: Antimony is a silver-white solid with a blue tint and a brilliant lustre. It has a density of 6.697 g/cm and is brittle, and moderately hard (more so than arsenic; less so than iron; about the same as copper). It is stable in air and moisture at room temperature. It is attacked by concentrated nitric acid, yielding the hydrated pentoxide SbO. Aqua regia gives the pentachloride SbCl and hot concentrated sulfuric acid results in the sulfate Sb(SO). It is not affected by molten alkali. Antimony is capable of displacing hydrogen from water, when heated: 2 Sb + 3 HO → SbO + 3 H. It melts at 631 °C. Antimony is a semimetal with an electrical conductivity of around 3.1 × 10 S•cm and a band overlap of 0.16 eV. Liquid antimony is a metallic conductor with an electrical conductivity of around 5.3 × 10 S•cm.


title: Metalloid

text: Most of the chemistry of antimony is characteristic of a nonmetal. Antimony has some definite cationic chemistry, SbO and Sb(OH) being present in acidic aqueous solution; the compound Sb(GaCl), which contains the homopolycation, Sb, was prepared in 2004. It can form alloys with one or more metals such as aluminium, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, tin, lead, and bismuth. Antimony has fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals. Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions. Like arsenic, antimony generally forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of +3 or +5. The halides, and the oxides and their derivatives are illustrative examples. The +5 state is less stable than the +3, but relatively easier to attain than with arsenic. This is explained by the poor shielding afforded the arsenic nucleus by its 3d electrons. In comparison, the tendency of antimony (being a heavier atom) to oxidize more easily partially offsets the effect of its 4d shell. Tripositive antimony is amphoteric; pentapositive antimony is (predominately) acidic. Consistent with an increase in metallic character down group 15, antimony forms salts or salt-like compounds including a nitrate Sb(NO), phosphate SbPO, sulfate Sb(SO) and perchlorate Sb(ClO). The otherwise acidic pentoxide SbO shows some basic (metallic) behaviour in that it can be dissolved in very acidic solutions, with the formation of the oxycation SbO. The oxide SbO is polymeric, amphoteric, and a glass former. Antimony has an extensive organometallic chemistry (see Organoantimony chemistry).


title: Metalloid

text: Tellurium is a silvery-white shiny solid. It has a density of 6.24 g/cm, is brittle, and is the softest of the commonly recognised metalloids, being marginally harder than sulfur. Large pieces of tellurium are stable in air. The finely powdered form is oxidized by air in the presence of moisture. Tellurium reacts with boiling water, or when freshly precipitated even at 50 °C, to give the dioxide and hydrogen: Te + 2 HO → TeO + 2 H. It reacts (to varying degrees) with nitric, sulfuric, and hydrochloric acids to give compounds such as the sulfoxide TeSO or tellurous acid HTeO, the basic nitrate (TeOH)(NO), or the oxide sulfate TeO(SO). It dissolves in boiling alkalis, to give the tellurite and telluride: 3 Te + 6 KOH = KTeO + 2 KTe + 3 HO, a reaction that proceeds or is reversible with increasing or decreasing temperature.


title: Metalloid

text: At higher temperatures tellurium is sufficiently plastic to extrude. It melts at 449.51 °C. Crystalline tellurium has a structure consisting of parallel infinite spiral chains. The bonding between adjacent atoms in a chain is covalent, but there is evidence of a weak metallic interaction between the neighbouring atoms of different chains. Tellurium is a semiconductor with an electrical conductivity of around 1.0 S•cm and a band gap of 0.32 to 0.38 eV. Liquid tellurium is a semiconductor, with an electrical conductivity, on melting, of around 1.9 × 10 S•cm. Superheated liquid tellurium is a metallic conductor.


title: Metalloid

text: It shows some cationic behaviour. The dioxide dissolves in acid to yield the trihydroxotellurium(IV) Te(OH) ion; the red Te and yellow-orange Te ions form when tellurium is oxidized in fluorosulfuric acid (HSOF), or liquid sulfur dioxide (SO), respectively. It can form alloys with aluminium, silver, and tin. Tellurium shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals. Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions. Tellurium generally forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of −2, +4 or +6. The +4 state is the most stable. Tellurides of composition XTe are easily formed with most other elements and represent the most common tellurium minerals. Nonstoichiometry is pervasive, especially with transition metals. Many tellurides can be regarded as metallic alloys. The increase in metallic character evident in tellurium, as compared to the lighter chalcogens, is further reflected in the reported formation of various other oxyacid salts, such as a basic selenate 2TeO·SeO and an analogous perchlorate and periodate 2TeO·HXO. Tellurium forms a polymeric, amphoteric, glass-forming oxide TeO. It is a "conditional" glass-forming oxide – it forms a glass with a very small amount of additive. Tellurium has an extensive organometallic chemistry (see Organotellurium chemistry).


title: Metalloid

text: Carbon is ordinarily classified as a nonmetal but has some metallic properties and is occasionally classified as a metalloid. Hexagonal graphitic carbon (graphite) is the most thermodynamically stable allotrope of carbon under ambient conditions. It has a lustrous appearance and is a fairly good electrical conductor. Graphite has a layered structure. Each layer consists of carbon atoms bonded to three other carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice arrangement. The layers are stacked together and held loosely by van der Waals forces and delocalized valence electrons.


title: Metalloid

text: Like a metal, the conductivity of graphite in the direction of its planes decreases as the temperature is raised; it has the electronic band structure of a semimetal. The allotropes of carbon, including graphite, can accept foreign atoms or compounds into their structures via substitution, intercalation, or doping. The resulting materials are referred to as "carbon alloys". Carbon can form ionic salts, including a hydrogen sulfate, perchlorate, and nitrate (CX.2HX, where X = HSO, ClO; and CNO.3HNO). In organic chemistry, carbon can form complex cationstermed "carbocations"in which the positive charge is on the carbon atom; examples are and , and their derivatives.


title: Metalloid

text: Carbon is brittle, and behaves as a semiconductor in a direction perpendicular to its planes. Most of its chemistry is nonmetallic; it has a relatively high ionization energy and, compared to most metals, a relatively high electronegativity. Carbon can form anions such as C (methanide), C (acetylide), and C (sesquicarbide or allylenide), in compounds with metals of main groups 1–3, and with the lanthanides and actinides. Its oxide CO forms carbonic acid HCO.


title: Metalloid

text: Aluminium is ordinarily classified as a metal. It is lustrous, malleable and ductile, and has high electrical and thermal conductivity. Like most metals it has a close-packed crystalline structure, and forms a cation in aqueous solution.


title: Metalloid

text: It has some properties that are unusual for a metal; taken together, these are sometimes used as a basis to classify aluminium as a metalloid. Its crystalline structure shows some evidence of directional bonding. Aluminium bonds covalently in most compounds. The oxide AlO is amphoteric and a conditional glass-former. Aluminium can form anionic aluminates, such behaviour being considered nonmetallic in character.


title: Metalloid

text: Classifying aluminium as a metalloid has been disputed given its many metallic properties. It is therefore, arguably, an exception to the mnemonic that elements adjacent to the metal–nonmetal dividing line are metalloids.


title: Metalloid

text: Stott labels aluminium as a weak metal. It has the physical properties of a metal but some of the chemical properties of a nonmetal. Steele notes the paradoxical chemical behaviour of aluminium: "It resembles a weak metal in its amphoteric oxide and in the covalent character of many of its compounds ... Yet it is a highly electropositive metal ... [with] a high negative electrode potential". Moody says that, "aluminium is on the 'diagonal borderland' between metals and non-metals in the chemical sense."


title: Metalloid

text: Its most stable form, the grey trigonal allotrope, is sometimes called "metallic" selenium because its electrical conductivity is several orders of magnitude greater than that of the red monoclinic form. The metallic character of selenium is further shown by its lustre, and its crystalline structure, which is thought to include weakly "metallic" interchain bonding. Selenium can be drawn into thin threads when molten and viscous. It shows reluctance to acquire "the high positive oxidation numbers characteristic of nonmetals". It can form cyclic polycations (such as Se) when dissolved in oleums (an attribute it shares with sulfur and tellurium), and a hydrolysed cationic salt in the form of trihydroxoselenium(IV) perchlorate [Se(OH)]·ClO.


title: Metalloid

text: The nonmetallic character of selenium is shown by its brittleness and the low electrical conductivity (~10 to 10 S•cm) of its highly purified form. This is comparable to or less than that of bromine (7.95 S•cm), a nonmetal. Selenium has the electronic band structure of a semiconductor and retains its semiconducting properties in liquid form. It has a relatively high electronegativity (2.55 revised Pauling scale). Its reaction chemistry is mainly that of its nonmetallic anionic forms Se, SeO and SeO.


title: Metalloid

text: Selenium is commonly described as a metalloid in the environmental chemistry literature. It moves through the aquatic environment similarly to arsenic and antimony; its water-soluble salts, in higher concentrations, have a similar toxicological profile to that of arsenic.


title: Metalloid

text: Polonium is "distinctly metallic" in some ways. Both of its allotropic forms are metallic conductors. It is soluble in acids, forming the rose-coloured Po cation and displacing hydrogen: Po + 2 H → Po + H. Many polonium salts are known. The oxide PoO is predominantly basic in nature. Polonium is a reluctant oxidizing agent, unlike its lightest congener oxygen: highly reducing conditions are required for the formation of the Po anion in aqueous solution.


title: Metalloid

text: Whether polonium is ductile or brittle is unclear. It is predicted to be ductile based on its calculated elastic constants. It has a simple cubic crystalline structure. Such a structure has few slip systems and "leads to very low ductility and hence low fracture resistance".


title: Metalloid

text: Polonium shows nonmetallic character in its halides, and by the existence of polonides. The halides have properties generally characteristic of nonmetal halides (being volatile, easily hydrolyzed, and soluble in organic solvents). Many metal polonides, obtained by heating the elements together at 500–1,000 °C, and containing the Po anion, are also known.


title: Metalloid

text: As a halogen, astatine tends to be classified as a nonmetal. It has some marked metallic properties and is sometimes instead classified as either a metalloid or (less often) as a metal. Immediately following its production in 1940, early investigators considered it a metal. In 1949 it was called the most noble (difficult to reduce) nonmetal as well as being a relatively noble (difficult to oxidize) metal. In 1950 astatine was described as a halogen and (therefore) a reactive nonmetal. In 2013, on the basis of relativistic modelling, astatine was predicted to be a monatomic metal, with a face-centred cubic crystalline structure.


title: Metalloid

text: Several authors have commented on the metallic nature of some of the properties of astatine. Since iodine is a semiconductor in the direction of its planes, and since the halogens become more metallic with increasing atomic number, it has been presumed that astatine would be a metal if it could form a condensed phase. Astatine may be metallic in the liquid state on the basis that elements with an enthalpy of vaporization (∆H) greater than ~42 kJ/mol are metallic when liquid. Such elements include boron, silicon, germanium, antimony, selenium, and tellurium. Estimated values for ∆H of diatomic astatine are 50 kJ/mol or higher; diatomic iodine, with a ∆H of 41.71, falls just short of the threshold figure.


title: Metalloid

text: "Like typical metals, it [astatine] is precipitated by hydrogen sulfide even from strongly acid solutions and is displaced in a free form from sulfate solutions; it is deposited on the cathode on electrolysis." Further indications of a tendency for astatine to behave like a (heavy) metal are: "... the formation of pseudohalide compounds ... complexes of astatine cations ... complex anions of trivalent astatine ... as well as complexes with a variety of organic solvents". It has also been argued that astatine demonstrates cationic behaviour, by way of stable At and AtO forms, in strongly acidic aqueous solutions.


title: Metalloid

text: Some of astatine's reported properties are nonmetallic. It has been extrapolated to have the narrow liquid range ordinarily associated with nonmetals (mp 302 °C; bp 337 °C), although experimental indications suggest a lower boiling point of about 230±3 °C. Batsanov gives a calculated band gap energy for astatine of 0.7 eV; this is consistent with nonmetals (in physics) having separated valence and conduction bands and thereby being either semiconductors or insulators. The chemistry of astatine in aqueous solution is mainly characterised by the formation of various anionic species. Most of its known compounds resemble those of iodine, which is a halogen and a nonmetal. Such compounds include astatides (XAt), astatates (XAtO), and monovalent interhalogen compounds.


title: Metalloid

text: Restrepo et al. reported that astatine appeared to be more polonium-like than halogen-like. They did so on the basis of detailed comparative studies of the known and interpolated properties of 72 elements.


title: Metalloid

text: In the periodic table, some of the elements adjacent to the commonly recognised metalloids, although usually classified as either metals or nonmetals, are occasionally referred to as "near-metalloids" or noted for their metalloidal character. To the left of the metal–nonmetal dividing line, such elements include gallium, tin and bismuth. They show unusual packing structures, marked covalent chemistry (molecular or polymeric), and amphoterism. To the right of the dividing line are carbon, phosphorus, selenium and iodine. They exhibit metallic lustre, semiconducting properties and bonding or valence bands with delocalized character. This applies to their most thermodynamically stable forms under ambient conditions: carbon as graphite; phosphorus as black phosphorus; and selenium as grey selenium.


title: Metalloid

text: Different crystalline forms of an element are called allotropes. Some allotropes, particularly those of elements located (in periodic table terms) alongside or near the notional dividing line between metals and nonmetals, exhibit more pronounced metallic, metalloidal or nonmetallic behaviour than others. The existence of such allotropes can complicate the classification of the elements involved.


title: Metalloid

text: Tin, for example, has two allotropes: tetragonal "white" β-tin and cubic "grey" α-tin. White tin is a very shiny, ductile and malleable metal. It is the stable form at or above room temperature and has an electrical conductivity of 9.17 × 10 S·cm (~1/6th that of copper). Grey tin usually has the appearance of a grey micro-crystalline powder, and can also be prepared in brittle semi-lustrous crystalline or polycrystalline forms. It is the stable form below 13.2 °C and has an electrical conductivity of between (2–5) × 10 S·cm (~1/250th that of white tin). Grey tin has the same crystalline structure as that of diamond. It behaves as a semiconductor (as if it had a band gap of 0.08 eV), but has the electronic band structure of a semimetal. It has been referred to as either a very poor metal, a metalloid, a nonmetal or a near metalloid.


title: Metalloid

text: The diamond allotrope of carbon is clearly nonmetallic, being translucent and having a low electrical conductivity of 10 to 10 S·cm. Graphite has an electrical conductivity of 3 × 10 S·cm, a figure more characteristic of a metal. Phosphorus, sulfur, arsenic, selenium, antimony, and bismuth also have less stable allotropes that display different behaviours.


title: Metalloid

text: The table gives crustal abundances of the elements commonly to rarely recognised as metalloids. Some other elements are included for comparison: oxygen and xenon (the most and least abundant elements with stable isotopes); iron and the coinage metals copper, silver, and gold; and rhenium, the least abundant stable metal (aluminium is normally the most abundant metal). Various abundance estimates have been published; these often disagree to some extent.


title: Metalloid

text: The recognised metalloids can be obtained by chemical reduction of either their oxides or their sulfides. Simpler or more complex extraction methods may be employed depending on the starting form and economic factors. Boron is routinely obtained by reducing the trioxide with magnesium: BO + 3 Mg → 2 B + 3MgO; after secondary processing the resulting brown powder has a purity of up to 97%. Boron of higher purity (> 99%) is prepared by heating volatile boron compounds, such as BCl or BBr, either in a hydrogen atmosphere (2 BX + 3 H → 2 B + 6 HX) or to the point of thermal decomposition. Silicon and germanium are obtained from their oxides by heating the oxide with carbon or hydrogen: SiO + C → Si + CO; GeO + 2 H → Ge + 2 HO. Arsenic is isolated from its pyrite (FeAsS) or arsenical pyrite (FeAs) by heating; alternatively, it can be obtained from its oxide by reduction with carbon: 2 AsO + 3 C → 2 As + 3 CO. Antimony is derived from its sulfide by reduction with iron: SbS → 2 Sb + 3 FeS. Tellurium is prepared from its oxide by dissolving it in aqueous NaOH, yielding tellurite, then by electrolytic reduction: TeO + 2 NaOH → NaTeO + HO; NaTeO + HO → Te + 2 NaOH + O. Another option is reduction of the oxide by roasting with carbon: TeO + C → Te + CO.


title: Metalloid

text: Production methods for the elements less frequently recognised as metalloids involve natural processing, electrolytic or chemical reduction, or irradiation. Carbon (as graphite) occurs naturally and is extracted by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite to the surface. Aluminium is extracted by dissolving its oxide AlO in molten cryolite NaAlF and then by high temperature electrolytic reduction. Selenium is produced by roasting the coinage metal selenides XSe (X = Cu, Ag, Au) with soda ash to give the selenite: XSe + O + NaCO → NaSeO + 2 X + CO; the selenide is neutralized by sulfuric acid HSO to give selenous acid HSeO; this is reduced by bubbling with SO to yield elemental selenium. Polonium and astatine are produced in minute quantities by irradiating bismuth.


title: Metalloid

text: The recognised metalloids and their closer neighbours mostly cost less than silver; only polonium and astatine are more expensive than gold, on account of their significant radioactivity. As of 5 April 2014, prices for small samples (up to 100 g) of silicon, antimony and tellurium, and graphite, aluminium and selenium, average around one third the cost of silver (US$1.5 per gram or about $45 an ounce). Boron, germanium, and arsenic samples average about three-and-a-half times the cost of silver. Polonium is available for about $100 per microgram. Zalutsky and Pruszynski estimate a similar cost for producing astatine. Prices for the applicable elements traded as commodities tend to range from two to three times cheaper than the sample price (Ge), to nearly three thousand times cheaper (As).


title: Lindsey Shaw

text: Lindsey Shaw (born May 10, 1989) is an American actress. She is known for playing Jennifer "Moze" Mosely on the Nickelodeon series "Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide". She also co-starred in the 2007 CW sitcom "Aliens in America", and was the lead on ABC Family's 2009 comedy series "10 Things I Hate About You". From 2011 to 2017 she played the recurring role of Paige McCullers on the ABC Family teen drama series "Pretty Little Liars".


title: Lindsey Shaw

text: Shaw portrayed Jennifer Ann "Moze" Mosely on the Nickelodeon series "Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide", which debuted in 2004 and ended in 2007 after three seasons. She dated her co-star Devon Werkheiser briefly. After the show ended, the sitcom "Aliens in America" debuted on The CW, where Shaw played the character Claire. "Aliens in America" was cancelled after one season, lasting only eighteen episodes.


title: Lindsey Shaw

text: Shaw played the lead role of Kat Stratford in "10 Things I Hate About You". The show lasted one season of twenty episodes. She briefly appeared in Nickelback's "Rockstar" music video.


title: Lindsey Shaw

text: Shaw was the 2010 Azalea Queen at the Azalea Festival in Wilmington, North Carolina. She starred as Trip alongside Andy Serkis in Ninja Theory's videogame "", released in October 2010.


title: Lindsey Shaw

text: In 2011, she landed the recurring role of Paige McCullers, Emily's girlfriend on "Pretty Little Liars". Also in 2011, Shaw appeared as Lisa in the ABC Family original film "Teen Spirit". The following year, Shaw starred in the film "16-Love" as Ally Mash, a hard-working tennis player who learns to loosen up with the help of a carefree male tennis player. She appeared as June in five episodes of the third and final season of the ABC sitcom "Suburgatory".


title: Lindsey Shaw

text: Shaw joined the cast of "Faking It" in 2015 as Michael J. Willett's character Shane Harvey's sister, Sasha Harvey, who served as a love interest for Gregg Sulkin's character Liam Booker.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya (; 27 February 1939) was a Russian revolutionary and the wife of Vladimir Lenin.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya was born in Saint Petersburg to an aristocratic family that had descended into poverty, and she developed strong views about improving the lives of the poor. She embraced Marxism and met Lenin at a Marxist discussion group in 1894. Both were arrested in 1896 for revolutionary activities and after Lenin was exiled to Siberia, Krupskaya was allowed to join him in 1898 on the condition that they marry. The two settled in Munich and then London after their exile, before briefly returning to Russia to take part in the failed Revolution of 1905.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Following the 1917 Revolution, Krupskaya was at the forefront of the political scene, becoming a member of the Communist Party's Central Committee in 1924. From 1922 to 1925, she was aligned with Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, and Lev Kamenev against Leon Trotsky's Left Opposition, though she later fell out with Stalin. She was deputy education commissar from 1929 to 1939, with strong influence over the Soviet educational system, including development of Soviet librarianship.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Nadezhda Krupskaya was born to an upper class but impoverished family. Her father, Konstantin Ignat'evich Krupski (1838–1883), was a Russian military officer and a nobleman of the Russian Empire who had been orphaned in 1847 at the age of nine. He was educated and given a commission as an infantry officer in the Russian Army. Just before leaving for his assignment in Poland, he married Krupskaya's mother. After six years of service, Krupski lost favour with his supervisors and was charged with "un-Russian activities." He may have been suspected of being involved with revolutionaries. Following this time he worked in factories or wherever he could find work. Just before his death, he was recommissioned as an officer.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya's mother, Elizaveta Vasilyevna Tistrova (1843–1915), was a daughter of landless Russian nobles. Elizaveta's parents died when she was young and she was enrolled in the Bestuzhev Courses, the highest formal education available to women in Russia at the time. After earning her degree, Elizaveta worked as a governess for noble families until she married Krupski.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Having parents who were well educated and of aristocratic descent, combined with first-hand experience of lower-class working conditions, probably led to the formation of many of Krupskaya's ideological beliefs. "From her very childhood Krupskaya was inspired with the spirit of protest against the ugly life around her."


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: One of Krupskaya's friends from gymnasium, Ariadne Tyrkova, described her as "a tall, quiet girl, who did not flirt with the boys, moved and thought with deliberation, and had already formed strong convictions . . . She was one of those who are forever committed, once they have been possessed by their thoughts and feelings . . ." She briefly attended two different secondary schools before finding the perfect fit with Prince A. A. Obolensky's Female Gymnasium, "a distinguished private girls' secondary school in Petersburg." This education was probably more liberal than most other gymnasiums since it was noted that some of the staff were former revolutionaries.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: After her father's death, Krupskaya and her mother gave lessons as a source of income. Krupskaya had expressed an interest in entering the education field from a young age. She was particularly drawn to Leo Tolstoy's theories on education, which were fluid instead of structured. They focused on personal development of each individual student and centred on importance of the teacher–student relationship.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: This led Krupskaya to study many of Tolstoy's works, including his theories of reformation. These were peaceful, law-abiding ideas, which focused on people abstaining from unneeded luxuries and being self-dependent instead of hiring someone else to tend their house, etc. Tolstoy made a lasting impression on Krupskaya; it was said that she had "a special contempt for stylish clothes and comfort." She was always modest in dress, as were her furnishings in her home and office.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: As a devoted, lifelong student, Krupskaya began to participate in several discussion circles. These groups were formed to study and discuss particular topics for the benefit of everyone involved. It was later, in one of these circles, that Krupskaya was first introduced to the theories of Marx. This piqued her interest as a potential way of making life better for her people and she began an in-depth study of Marxist philosophy. This was difficult since books on the subject had been banned by the Russian government, meaning that revolutionaries collected them and kept them in underground libraries. In 1890, she joined a Marxist circle organised by the engineer, Robert Klasson. The following year, she took a job in a Sunday school for adult workers.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya first met Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (later known as Vladimir Lenin) in February 1894 at a similar discussion group. She was impressed by his speeches but not his personality, at least not at first. It is hard to know very much of the courtship between Lenin and Krupskaya as neither party spoke often of personal matters.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: In October 1896, several months after Lenin was arrested, Krupskaya was also arrested. She was briefly interned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, but was released after another female convict burned herself to death. She was sentenced to three years exile in Ufa, but before she was deported, she received a "secret note" from Lenin, delivered by her mother, which suggested that she could be permitted to join him in his place of exile, a village in the Minusinsk region of Siberia if she told people she was his fiancée. Krupskaya was permitted to accompany Lenin but only if they were married as soon as she arrived. Her mother travelled with her to Siberia, where she joined Lenin in May 1898.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: It is believed Krupskaya suffered from Graves' disease, an illness affecting the thyroid gland in the neck which causes the eyes to bulge and the neck to tighten. It can also disrupt the menstrual cycle, which may explain why Lenin and Krupskaya never had children.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Upon his release, Lenin went off to Europe and settled in Munich. Upon her release Krupskaya joined him (1901). After she arrived, the couple moved to London.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya's political life was active: she was anything but a mere functionary of the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party from 1903.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Leon Trotsky, who was working closely with Lenin and Krupskaya from 1902 to 1903, writes in his autobiography ("My Life", 1930) of the central importance of Krupskaya in the day-to-day work of the RSDLP and its newspaper, "Iskra". "The secretary of the editorial board [of Iskra] was [Lenin's] wife [...] She was at the very center of all the organization work; she received comrades when they arrived, instructed them when they left, established connections, supplied secret addresses, wrote letters, and coded and decoded correspondence. In her room there was always a smell of burned paper from the secret letters she heated over the fire to read..."


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya became secretary of the Central Committee in 1905; she returned to Russia the same year, but left again after the failed revolution of 1905 and worked as a teacher in France for a couple of years.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: After the Russian Revolution in 1917, she was appointed deputy to Anatoliy Lunacharskiy, the People's Commissar for Education, where she took charge of "Vneshkol'nyi Otdel" of the Adult Education Division. She became chair of the education committee in 1920 and was the deputy education commissar (government minister) from 1929 to 1939.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya was instrumental in foundation of the Soviet educational system itself. She was also fundamental in the development of Soviet librarianship.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya became a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1924, a member of its control commission in 1927, a member of the Supreme Soviet in 1931 and an honorary citizen in 1931. Hilda Ageloff reportedly traveled to interview Krupskaya in 1931 for the newspaper "Brooklyn Daily Eagle."


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: In December 1922, just after Lenin had suffered a second stroke, Krupskaya had a violent quarrel with Stalin, who was demanding access to Lenin, when she argued that he was too ill. On 23 December, she wrote to Kamenev complaining that the "vile invectives and threats" that Stalin had directed at her were the worst abuse she had suffered from a fellow revolutionary in 30 years. When Lenin learned of this incident in March, he threatened to break off relations with Stalin.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: After the death of Vladimir Lenin in January 1924, Krupskaya grew closer to the political positions of Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev in Party debates. Factions that would later form throughout the 1920s included Trotsky-led Left Opposition, the Stalin-led "Centre", and the Bukharin-led Right Opposition. From 1922 to 1925, Zinoviev and Kamenev were in a triumvirate alliance with Stalin's Centre, against Trotsky's Left Opposition. Krupskaya supported them, though in more conciliatory language than they used, declaring in 1924 that "I don't know whether Trotsky is guilty of all the deadly sins of which he is accused." In 1925, Krupskaya attacked Leon Trotsky in a polemic reply to Trotsky's tract "Lessons of October." In it, she stated that "Marxist analysis was never Comrade Trotsky's strong point." In relation to the debate around socialism in one country versus permanent revolution, she asserted that Trotsky "under-estimates the role played by the peasantry." Furthermore, she held that Trotsky had misinterpreted the revolutionary situation in post-World War I Germany.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: In late 1925, when the 'triumvirate' split into two factions, she openly supported Zinoviev and Kamenev against Stalin, and went into an alliance with Trotsky's Left Opposition in early 1926, to form the United Opposition. Krupskaya was quoted by Trotsky's son Leon Sedov in his book "The Red Book: On the Moscow Trial" as saying "Lenin was only saved from prison by his death". But in a major boost for the leadership, Stalin announced at the end of his speech to the Fifteenth party congress in December 1927 that she had abandoned the opposition.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: In 1930, Krupskaya opposed Stalin again. This time, she gave a speech to the Bauman district party, in Moscow, defending the leaders of the right wing opposition, Nikolai Bukharin and Alexei Rykov, after which, according to Nikita Khrushchev, who was a party official at the time, "without any publicity, the word went out to party circles to give her a working-over ... It was a bitter thing to watch her at these sessions when everyone started coming out against her. I remember her as a broken old woman."


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Khrushchev also claimed that Stalin threatened to remove Krupskaya's status, and nominate another woman as "Lenin's widow." The same story was told by the former NKVD officer, Alexander Orlov, who claimed that the new 'widow' was to have been Yelena Stasova. Another rumour was that it would have been Rosalia Zemlyachka.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: In 1936, she defended restrictions on abortion passed by the Soviet government in that year, arguing that they were part of a consistent policy pursued since 1920 to do away with the reasons to have an abortion.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya wrote a memoir of her life with Lenin, translated in 1930 as "Memories of Lenin" and in 1959 as "Reminiscences of Lenin". The book gives the most detailed account of Lenin's life before his coming to power and ends in 1919.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya died in Moscow on 27 February 1939, the day after her seventieth birthday. According to Stalin's secretary Alexander Poskrebyshev, Stalin ordered Krupskaya's poisoning during her birthday celebration, her ashes were buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Before the revolution, Krupskaya worked for five years as an instructor for a factory owner who offered evening classes for his employees. Legally, reading, writing and arithmetic were taught. Illegally, classes with a revolutionary influence were taught for those students who might be ready for them. Krupskaya and other instructors were relieved of duty when nearly 30,000 factory workers in the area went on strike for better wages. Even after the revolution her emphasis was on "the problems of youth organization and education." In order to become educated, they needed better access to books and materials.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Pre-revolutionary Russian libraries had a tendency to exclude particular members. Some were exclusively for higher classes and some were only for employees of a particular company's "Trade Unions". In addition they also had narrow, orthodox literature. It was hard to find any books with new ideas, which is exactly why the underground libraries began. Another problem was the low level of literacy of the masses. Vyborg Library, designed by Alvar Aalto, was renamed the Nadezhda Krupskaya Municipal Library after the Soviet annexation of Vyborg.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: The revolution did not cause an overnight improvement in the libraries. In fact, for a while there were even more problems. The Trade Unions still refused to allow general public use, funds for purchasing books and materials were in short supply and books that were already a part of the libraries were falling apart. In addition there was a low interest in the library career field due to low income and the libraries were sorely in need of re-organization.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya directed a census of the libraries in order to address these issues. She encouraged libraries to collaborate and to open their doors to the general public. She encouraged librarians to use common speech when speaking with patrons. Knowing the workers needs was encouraged; what kind of books should be stocked, the subjects readers were interested in, and organizing the material in a fashion to better serve the readers. Committees were held to improve card catalogs.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya stated at a library conference: "We have a laughable number of libraries, and their book stocks are even more inadequate. Their quality is terrible, the majority of the population does not know how to use them and does not even know what a library is."


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: She also sought better professional schools for librarians. Formal training was scarce in pre-revolutionary Russia for librarians and it only truly began in the 20th century. Krupskaya, therefore, advocated creation of library "seminaries" where practicing librarians would instruct aspiring librarians in the skills of their profession, similar to those in the West. The pedagogical characteristics were however those of the Soviet revolutionary period. Librarians were trained to determine what materials were suitable to patrons and whether or not they had the ability to appreciate what the resource had to offer.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya also desired that librarians possess greater verbal and writing skills so that they could more clearly explain why certain reading materials were better than others to their patrons. She believed that explaining resource choices to patrons was a courtesy and an opportunity for more education in socialist political values, not something that was required of the librarian. They were to become facilitators of the revolution and, later, those who helped preserve the values of the resulting socialist state.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya was a committed Marxist for whom each element of public education was a step toward improving the life of her people, granting all individuals access to the tools of education and libraries, needed to forge a more fulfilling life. The fulfillment was education and the tools were education and library systems.


title: Nadezhda Krupskaya

text: Krupskaya was present at the plenum of the Central Committee in February 1937 which decided the fate of Nikolai Bukharin and Alexei Rykov, and voted in favour of expelling both from the Communist Party. But on other occasions, she tried to intervene on behalf of intended victims. At the Central Committee in June 1937, she protested, in vain, against the arrest of Osip Piatnitsky. She successfully secured the release of an Old Bolshevik named I.D. Chugurin, though he was barred from rejoining the party, and worked as a roofer for the rest of his life.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: Killer Joe is a 2011 American Southern Gothic black comedy crime psychological thriller directed by William Friedkin. The screenplay by Tracy Letts is based on his 1993 play of the same name. The film stars Matthew McConaughey in the title role, Emile Hirsch, Juno Temple, Gina Gershon and Thomas Haden Church. Friedkin and Letts had also collaborated on the 2006 film "Bug".


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: In West Dallas, Texas, 22-year-old drug dealer Chris Smith comes to the trailer park home of his dimwitted father Ansel and his cheating step-mother Sharla after his mother Adele, Ansel's ex-wife, threw Chris out of her house. To make matters worse, Adele stole his drugs he was supposed to sell and now owes the dealer money; now he (Chris) is desperate to pay off a $6,000 debt to his connection, Digger Soames. Chris tells Ansel that by killing Adele, they can collect on a $50,000 life insurance policy, of which Chris's sister Dottie is the sole beneficiary. Chris and Ansel agree that after paying a hit man from the proceeds of the insurance policy, they will split the remainder four ways between themselves, Dottie, and Sharla. Dottie approves of the plan and Chris arranges a meeting with Joe Cooper, a police detective who has a side career as a contract killer. Before the meeting, Dottie tells Joe that Adele tried to kill her once when she was an infant.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: Since Chris and Ansel are broke, the plan almost falls apart when Joe demands $25,000 in advance. However, Joe is interested in young Dottie, who is a 12 year old, and offers to take her as a "retainer" until the insurance money comes through. Joe seduces Dottie and they start a relationship. Digger has his goons beat Chris, injuring him badly, and threatens to have him killed unless he pays what he owes. Chris has a change of heart and asks Joe to call off the hit and stop seeing Dottie, only to discover that he has already killed Adele. With Chris' reluctant help, Joe hides the body in a car and torches it.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: After Adele's death, the family learns that the insurance beneficiary is actually Rex, Adele's boyfriend, rather than Dottie. Chris then admits he originally heard the details about the policy from Rex, who also told him about Joe, thereby duping Chris into hiring Joe to kill Adele. Ansel blames Chris for the fiasco and tells him he should just kill himself. Chris tries to persuade Dottie to run away with him to escape Digger and Joe, both of whom expect to be paid. Dottie agrees to go with Chris if she can see Joe first.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: After Adele's funeral, Joe pulls Rex over in his car and Chris buys an illegal pistol. When Ansel and Sharla return home, they find Joe inside with Dottie. He comes out of her room and asks increasingly pointed questions of Sharla, leading her to admit that she knew the policy was really for $100,000, since accidental death doubled the payout. Joe shows them a check of that amount payable to Rex, implying he is dead, as well as offering incriminating photos that prove Sharla was having an affair with Rex. Angered, Ansel declines to protect Sharla when Joe chokes her, punches her, and forces her to simulate oral sex on a fried chicken drumstick.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: Joe knows Chris is coming to take Dottie away, and threatens to kill Ansel and Sharla if they don't stop him. After Chris arrives and is seated for dinner, Joe announces that he and Dottie will be married. Chris rejects this, ordering Dottie to leave with him. Joe tells her to stay where she is, but Dottie stands up and walks away as both men yell at her. When Chris threatens Joe with his gun, Sharla stabs Chris with a steak knife and Joe tackles him. Ansel and Sharla rush to assist Joe as he savagely beats Chris, not wanting to be killed if Chris flees with Dottie. Dottie recovers the gun and, in a rage, fires several shots, killing Chris and seriously wounding Ansel. Dottie turns the gun on Joe, telling him that she is pregnant. Joe appears overjoyed as he inches closer to Dottie. The film ends just as Dottie moves her finger to the trigger.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: In the United States, the film received an NC-17 rating from the MPAA for "graphic disturbing content involving violence and sexuality, and a scene of brutality." After an unsuccessful appeal, LD Entertainment announced plans to release the movie uncut, with the NC-17 rating, on July 27, 2012.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: On October 23, 2012, the film's NC-17 rating was surrendered. It was released in the United States on DVD and Blu-ray unedited, as an unrated director's cut. An R-rated version also was released on DVD. The chicken leg scene was heavily censored, and the beating of Chris during the film's climax was substantially cut, in order to garner the more marketable R rating.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: "Killer Joe" premiered at the 68th Venice International Film Festival before making its North American debut at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival, where US distribution rights were acquired by LD Entertainment. LD Entertainment, Liddell's new theatrical distribution company headed by David Dinerstein, scheduled its release for July 2012.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: The film made its Quebec premiere at the Fantasia Festival, an annual international genre film festival held in Montreal, Quebec, on July 31, 2012.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: The film's UK premiere was at the Opening Gala of the Edinburgh International Film Festival on June 20, 2012, where it was introduced by Friedkin and Gershon, who later attended the after-party at the National Museum of Scotland. The film received a theatrical release in the United Kingdom on June 29. It opened in three theaters almost a month later (July 27) in the United States.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: The film was not a box office success, only grossing $1,987,762 in the domestic market and $2,645,906 internationally for a worldwide total of $4,633,668. The film was only released in 75 theaters nationwide and closed on October 14, nine days prior to the rating being surrendered. The film had an estimated $10 million budget.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: "Killer Joe" has a rating of 80% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 172 reviews, and an average rating of 6.7/10. The critics consensus on the website states: "Violent, darkly comic, and full of strong performances, "Killer Joe" proves William Friedkin hasn't lost his touch, even if the plot may be too lurid for some." The film also has an average score of 62 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 38 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: According to Justin Chang of "Variety," ""Killer Joe" was Letts' first play, written more than a decade before his smash hit "," and the text's sneer of condescension toward its panoply of trailer-trash caricatures has not entirely abated here," yet "the film doesn't belabor even its cheaper punchlines, and the fleet, kinetic visual style devised by d.p. Caleb Deschanel and editor Darrin Navarro emphasizes narrative momentum over cruel comedy. To be sure, Friedkin is clearly amused and appalled by his slovenly, foul-mouthed characters, with their off-the-charts levels of dysfunction and incompetence. But he directs them vigorously enough, pushing them past the realm of caricature to individuate themselves onscreen."


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: "The Daily Telegraph" said Church, Gershon, and Hirsch portray a "uniformly gormless family unit" in a film whose "positively Jacobean climax [earns] its 18 certificate and then some."


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: Keith Uhlich of "Time Out New York" named "Killer Joe" the fifth-best film of 2012, calling it a "thrilling black comedy."


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: McConaughey received an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Male Lead. The Women Film Critics Circle, however, nominated the film for its display of the worst female and male images.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: "Killer Joe" was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc December 21, 2012. The DVD features "Southern Fried Hospitality: From Stage to Screen" featurette, South by Southwest Q&A with the cast and intro by Friedkin, and the red-band theatrical trailer. The Blu-ray Disc includes all DVD features including the theatrically-released cut under the name the "Unrated Director's Cut" and an audio commentary by Friedkin.


title: Killer Joe (film)

text: On October 23, 2017, Friedkin announced that he was developing a television series based on his film, albeit without McConaughey.


title: Chani (character)

text: Chani ( ) is a fictional character featured in Frank Herbert's novels "Dune" (1965) and "Dune Messiah" (1969). Known mainly as the Fremen wife and legal concubine of protagonist Paul Atreides, Chani is the daughter of Imperial Planetologist Liet-Kynes and his Fremen wife Faroula, and later the mother of the twins Ghanima and Leto II Atreides. The character is later resurrected as a ghola, appearing in "Hunters of Dune" (2006) and "Sandworms of Dune" (2007), Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson's novels which complete the original series.


title: Chani (character)

text: Chani is portrayed by actress Sean Young in the David Lynch film "Dune" (1984), by Barbora Kodetová in the John Harrison miniseries "Frank Herbert's Dune" (2000) and the sequel "Frank Herbert's Children of Dune" (2003), and by Zendaya in the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film "Dune".


title: Chani (character)

text: In "Dune", Paul's prescience begins manifesting itself through dreams while he is still living in his ancestral home on the planet Caladan; he sees Chani in these visions, though they have not yet met. Paul and the Atreides come to the desert planet Arrakis, but Paul's father Duke Leto is soon killed by the Harkonnens and Paul and his mother Lady Jessica are forced to flee into the desert. They are reluctantly taken in by a tribe of the planet's native Fremen, and Chani is the Fremen woman put in charge of protecting and guiding Paul. They soon become lovers, and Paul rises as a religious leader among the Fremen, and is called Muad'Dib.


title: Chani (character)

text: Already a talented warrior before meeting Paul, Chani becomes deadly after training by Paul and Jessica in the Bene Gesserit martial arts called the "weirding way" by the Fremen. Chani later manages to bring Paul out of the deep spice trance he falls into after using spice essence to enhance his powers. Paul and Chani's first child, Leto II (not to be confused with their later son, Leto II Atreides), is killed as an infant in a Corrino raid on their home in the deep desert.


title: Chani (character)

text: To cement his control of the Empire after deposing Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV, Paul takes Shaddam's daughter, the Princess Irulan as his wife. Chani understands the political reasons, but Paul reassures her:


title: Chani (character)

text: "I swear to you now ... that you'll need no title. That woman over there will be my wife and you but a concubine because this is a political thing and we must weld peace out of this moment, enlist the Great Houses of the Landsraad. We must obey the forms. Yet that princess shall have no more of me than my name. No child of mine nor touch nor softness of glance, nor instant of desire."


title: Chani (character)

text: "Think on it, Chani: that princess will have the name, yet she'll live as less than a concubine—never to know a moment of tenderness from the man to whom she's bound. While we, Chani, we who carry the name of concubine—history will call us wives."


title: Chani (character)

text: Twelve years later in "Dune Messiah", Paul remains completely loyal to Chani. With their breeding program in mind, the Bene Gesserit are desperate to regain control of Paul's bloodline, and are fearful of the effect Chani's "wild" genes may have on their offspring. Wishing to rid himself of their machinations, Paul negotiates with the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam: "You may have my seed, but not my person ... Irulan banished and inseminated ... You may have my seed for your plans, but no child of Irulan's will sit on my throne." Of course, artificial insemination is prohibited in the wake of the Butlerian Jihad, and the idea of it is as horrific to the Sisterhood as the loss of the "precious Atreides genes".


title: Chani (character)

text: Irulan, herself Bene Gesserit-trained, secretly feeds Chani contraceptives to prevent her from conceiving an Imperial heir. However, Chani eventually changes to an ancient Fremen diet to enhance fertility; Irulan is unable to interfere, and Chani soon becomes pregnant. Tragically, Chani dies giving birth to the twins Ghanima and Leto II. His intricate plan coming to fruition, the Tleilaxu agent Scytale offers to "resurrect" Chani as a ghola in return for Tleilaxu control of the empire, but Paul has him killed. Through his prescience, Paul can see that Chani's death during childbirth is far less painful and cruel than her possible future fates had she survived.


title: Chani (character)

text: Despite her death, Chani lives on as part of the Other Memory of her pre-born twins. In "Children of Dune", this ancestral self is summoned by Ghanima for her guidance, but Chani's persona nearly possesses Ghanima completely. Leto II manages to save his sister from this Abomination by summoning Paul through his own Other Memory; Paul threatens Chani, who releases her hold on Ghanima. At the end of the novel, Chani's memory-self becomes a guardian against Ghanima's other ancestral memories who may try to possess her, allowing her daughter's personality to continue and grow in safety.


title: Chani (character)

text: According to "God Emperor of Dune", a version of Chani's memory-self also exists in Leto II. By the time of the novel, Leto is able to allow his ancestral memories to speak through his mouth without threat of Abomination. At one point, he allows Chani to speak through him.


title: Chani (character)

text: In the 2006 Brian Herbert/Kevin J. Anderson sequel "Hunters of Dune", gholas of Paul and Chani are among the others created to assist mankind in the climactic battle with what turns out to be the thinking machines.


title: Chani (character)

text: In "Sandworms of Dune" (2007), Paul ultimately duels another Paul Atreides ghola — named Paolo — created by the Face Dancers and twisted by the sadistic ghola of Baron Harkonnen himself. Paul is mortally wounded, but the trauma restores his memories and he manages to heal himself. Later, on the recovering planet Dune, the awakened gholas of Paul and Chani go about restoring the planet to its former glory. They have reverted to the ways of the ancient Fremen, resolving to lead simple lives and unafraid of the plots and schemes that had threatened them in their previous lives. Now able to devote all of his attention to her, Chani remarks that Paul has finally learned how to treat his wife. As the novel closes, Paul reaffirms his love for Chani, telling her he has loved her for five thousand years.


title: Chani (character)

text: Chani is portrayed by actress Sean Young in the David Lynch film "Dune" (1984), and by Barbora Kodetová in the John Harrison miniseries "Frank Herbert's Dune" (2000) and its sequel "Frank Herbert's Children of Dune" (2003). Zendaya portrays Chani in the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film "Dune". This is a minor role that only required four days of filming. Zendaya's portrayal of Chani, along with Timothée Chalamet's Paul were added to "Fortnite Battle Royale" in October 2021.


title: Chani (character)

text: Emmet Asher-Perrin of "Tor.com" wrote that "Kodetová is divine as Chani in both her sensitivity and fierceness".


title: Perry Mattfeld

text: Perry Frances Garcia Mattfeld is an American actress and producer. She is best known for her roles as Mel in "Shameless", FrankenGirl in "Wizards of Waverly Place", and her leading role as Murphy Mason in The CW crime drama, "In the Dark".


title: Perry Mattfeld

text: Mattfeld was born in Los Angeles County, California, United States. She grew up in Long Beach, California. Her mother is of Mexican descent. Her grandparents and great-grandparents were entertainers.


title: Perry Mattfeld

text: Mattfeld began her career as a ballet dancer from the age of five and studied for the following nine years under the guidance of Debbie Allen. By the age of 12, she was a full-fledged employee of Mattel when she played Kirsten Larson and Kit Kittredge as part of Mattel's American Girl Dolls musical theater troupe.


title: Perry Mattfeld

text: She stopped acting after graduating from high school to attend the University of Southern California School of Dramatic Arts where she earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in acting in 2016.


title: Perry Mattfeld

text: In her first starring role, in The CW crime comedy-drama, "In the Dark" (2019–present), she plays a blind woman. For this part, she learned skills for coping with blindness such as using a guide dog and sending text messages with voice commands. She shadowed a blind person, on whose life the show is based, to observe how she did ordinary things. Fans have reportedly believed that she was blind herself. Although the show has received criticism for not using an actual blind actress, the producer says she was "best for the role" despite having auditioned blind actresses.


title: Deb Haaland

text: Debra Anne Haaland (; born December 2, 1960) is an American politician serving as the 54th United States secretary of the interior. A member of the Democratic Party, she served as chair of the New Mexico Democratic Party from 2015 to 2017 and as the U.S. representative for New Mexico's 1st congressional district from 2019 to 2021. Haaland is a Native American and enrolled citizen of the Laguna Pueblo tribe.


title: Deb Haaland

text: Haaland's congressional district included most of Albuquerque and most of its suburbs. Along with Sharice Davids, she is one of the first two Native American women elected to the U.S. Congress. She is a political progressive who supports the Green New Deal and Medicare for All.


title: Deb Haaland

text: On December 17, 2020, then President-elect Joe Biden announced that he would nominate Haaland to serve as Secretary of the Interior. She was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 15, 2021, by a vote of 51–40. Following her swearing-in on March 16, she became the first Native American to serve as a Cabinet secretary and the second to serve in the Cabinet, after Republican former vice president and Kaw Nation citizen Charles Curtis.


title: Deb Haaland

text: Haaland was born in Winslow, Arizona. She is an enrolled member of the Laguna Pueblo. The Pueblo people have lived on the land that is now the state of New Mexico since the 1200s and Haaland identifies herself as a 35th-generation New Mexican. Her mother, Mary Toya, a Native American woman, served in the United States Navy. Her father, Major John David "Dutch" Haaland, a Norwegian Minnesotan, was an officer in the United States Marine Corps and recipient of the Silver Star for his actions in Vietnam; he was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery in 2005. As a child in a military family, Haaland moved frequently. She attended 13 public schools across the United States before the family settled in Albuquerque, New Mexico, to be close to family who also belong to the Laguna Pueblo. Haaland graduated from Highland High School in Albuquerque. She has two sisters, a brother, and two half-sisters.


title: Deb Haaland

text: After graduating from Highland High School, Haaland worked at a local bakery. In 1988, she enrolled at the University of New Mexico, where she earned her Bachelor of Arts in English in 1994. Her professors included future United States Poet Laureate Joy Harjo. Four days after graduating, she gave birth to her child, Somáh. As a single mother, Haaland started a salsa company to support herself and her child. At times during this period, she did not earn enough money to afford housing and had to rely on friends for shelter. She also relied on food stamps at times. She earned her Juris Doctor in Indian law from the University of New Mexico School of Law in 2006, but is not a member of the New Mexico State Bar. Haaland became the first chairwoman elected to the Laguna Development Corporation Board of Directors, a Laguna-owned business created to strengthen the Laguna Community and its economy. As chairwoman, she oversaw business operations for the second-largest tribal gaming enterprise in New Mexico and successfully advocated for the corporation to create policies and commitments to earth-friendly business practices. She served as the tribal administrator for the San Felipe Pueblo from January 2013 to November 2015.


title: Deb Haaland

text: In 2012, Haaland served as the state's vote director for Native Americans in Barack Obama's 2012 presidential reelection campaign. She served as the chair of Democratic Party of New Mexico Native American Caucus from 2012 to 2013. She ran for Lieutenant Governor of New Mexico in 2014. Her ticket, headed by then-Attorney General of New Mexico Gary King, the Democratic nominee for Governor of New Mexico, lost to the Republican ticket of Governor Susana Martinez and Lieutenant Governor John Sanchez.


title: Deb Haaland

text: Haaland was elected to a two-year term as the chair of the Democratic Party of New Mexico in April 2015. During her tenure, New Mexico Democrats regained control of the New Mexico House of Representatives and the office of the New Mexico Secretary of State. Haaland has been credited with rebuilding the state party after large defeats for Democrats in New Mexico in 2014. She raised enough money during her two-year term as chair to pay off seven years' worth of debt incurred under previous chairs.


title: Deb Haaland

text: After the expiration of her term as state party chair, Haaland announced her intention to run for the United States House of Representatives in in the 2018 elections, to succeed Michelle Lujan Grisham, who was running for governor. Haaland defeated Damon Martinez and Antoinette Sedillo Lopez to win the Democratic Party nomination in June 2018, receiving 40.5% of the vote and winning every county in the district.


title: Deb Haaland

text: In the November 6 general election, Haaland defeated former New Mexico State Representative Janice Arnold-Jones, receiving 59.1% of the vote and winning three of the district's five counties. Her victory was part of a sweep of New Mexico that saw Democrats win every statewide and federal office on the ballot that year, along with expanding their majority in the New Mexico House of Representatives.


title: Deb Haaland

text: In the November 3 general election, Haaland defeated retired police detective Michelle Garcia Holmes, who ran for Lieutenant Governor of New Mexico in the 2018 gubernatorial election. Haaland subsequently received 58.2% of the vote.


title: Deb Haaland

text: With Representative Sharice Davids of Kansas, a member of the Ho-Chunk Nation of Minnesota, elected simultaneously, Haaland was one of the first two Native American women to be seated in Congress. During the swearing-in ceremony in January 2019, Haaland wore traditional Pueblo dress, necklace and moccasins.


title: Deb Haaland

text: On March 7, 2019, during a debate on voting rights and campaign finance, Haaland became the first Native American woman to preside over the U.S. House of Representatives.


title: Deb Haaland

text: On December 17, 2020, incoming President Joe Biden announced that he would nominate Haaland as Secretary of the Interior. Before Biden nominated Haaland, many senior Democrats had voiced their support for her as Secretary of the Interior, including House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, Majority Leader Steny Hoyer, and Senator Elizabeth Warren. Republican representatives Don Young and Tom Cole (a member of the Chickasaw Nation) also expressed their support for Haaland's nomination.


title: Deb Haaland

text: On March 15, 2021, Haaland was confirmed by the Senate 51–40, with four Republicans (Collins, Murkowski, Sullivan, Graham) voting to confirm. She is the first Native American Cabinet secretary in U.S. history. Her departure from the House triggered a special election in 2021. Haaland was sworn in on March 18, 2021, wearing a combination of traditional Laguna Pueblo regalia and a colorful ribbon skirt, custom-made for her by Agnes Woodward.


title: Deb Haaland

text: In April 2021, Haaland announced a new unit within Bureau of Indian Affairs that plans to tackle the decades-long crisis of missing and murdered Native Americans, saying, "We are fully committed to assisting Tribal communities with these investigations, and the MMU will leverage every resource available to be a force-multiplier in preventing these cases from becoming cold case investigations".


title: Deb Haaland

text: In May 2021, Haaland approved the new constitution of the Cherokee Nation with protections for Cherokee Freedmen.


title: Deb Haaland

text: In June 2021, Haaland announced the creation of the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative. The initiative's goal is to investigate long-standing abuse in the now defunct residential boarding schools that housed Native American children under the 1819 Civilization Fund Act.


title: Deb Haaland

text: In November 2021, Haaland declared the word "squaw" to be derogatory and ordered a task force to determine new names for the 650 places in the country affected by the ruling.


title: Deb Haaland

text: Haaland has a child, Somáh, whom she raised on her own. Her hobbies include marathon running and gourmet cooking. Haaland is Catholic. On August 28, 2021, Haaland married her longtime partner, Skip Sayre, in Santa Ana Pueblo, New Mexico.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: The Jack Ryan franchise consists of American action-thriller installments, based on the fictional titular character from a series of novels written by Tom Clancy. Various actors have portrayed the role.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: Despite inconsistency with its lead actors and crew members, the series has been distributed solely by Paramount Pictures since its inception. Mace Neufeld has produced every film in the series, with producing partner Robert Rehme co-producing "Patriot Games" and "Clear and Present Danger", and Lorenzo di Bonaventura co-producing "Shadow Recruit". With a combined unadjusted worldwide gross of $788.4 million to date, the films constitute the 57th highest-grossing film series. The films have been nominated for four Academy Awards, winning one for Sound Effects (now Sound Editing) in "The Hunt for Red October" (at the 63rd Awards).


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: The continuity of the films does not follow the established timeline of the novels. In the book series, "Patriot Games" occurs before "The Hunt for Red October", though the order was reversed in the film adaptations. Additionally, "The Sum of All Fears" departs significantly from its source material, with the events of the plot shifted from 1991 to 2002. "" (2014) was a reboot, and intended first film in a new film series. Due to mixed reception, a sequel was never made. Despite this, the franchise continues with the television series titled "Tom Clancy's Jack Ryan", on Prime Video.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: After viewing galley proofs of Tom Clancy's 1984 novel "The Hunt for Red October", producer Mace Neufeld optioned the rights to the novel in 1985. Despite the book becoming a best seller, no Hollywood studio was interested in purchasing the film rights because of the high cost of trying to condense the book's massive content into a two-hour film. "This book doesn't condense well into two or three pages", said Neufeld. "I read some of the reports from the other studios and the story was too complicated to understand. Fortunately, I was able to get a major executive at Paramount to read the book and he said: 'I think this can make a great movie. Let's see if we can develop it'".


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: During 1984, Central Intelligence Agency analyst Jack Ryan (Alec Baldwin) must track down the "Red October", a technologically superior Soviet nuclear submarine heading to America's east coast under the command of Captain Marko Ramius (Sean Connery), and prove to the American government his theory that the sub's mission is to defect rather than attack the American coast. Upon successfully boarding the vessel, Ryan is to signal the American submarine USS "Dallas" to assist the "Red October" in escaping from attacks by the Soviet submarine "V.K. Konovalov" so that it may be brought safely into US waters.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: Former CIA analyst-turned field operative Jack Ryan (Harrison Ford), is now a professor at the U.S. Naval Academy after previously receiving serious injury while intervening in an attack on the British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in London and successfully killing one of the assailants. Because the remaining attackers were able to escape, the group now seeks revenge including Sean Miller (Sean Bean), the brother of the man Ryan killed. Miller vows to hunt down Ryan and avenge his brother, no matter how long it takes. Eventually, Ryan and his family are attacked in two separate, but simultaneous attempts. Ryan decides to rejoin the CIA, so that he can stop this group of Irish revolutionaries and protect the ones he loves.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: Jack Ryan (Harrison Ford) is appointed as acting-CIA Deputy Director of Intelligence, as Vice Admiral James Greer (James Earl Jones) has been battling cancer. When a family close to the President is murdered in their sleep, by what appears to be a drug cartel, Ryan is called as investigator. Unknown to him, the CIA sends in a secret field operative to lead an illegal paramilitary force against the cartels in Colombia with the help of John Clark (Willem Dafoe). Risking both his life and his career, Ryan races against time to expose the truth.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: A contemporary prequel, set during 2002, the plot portrays a younger Jack Ryan. After the President of the Russian Federation dies and is replaced by a man with a mysterious past, the United States goes on a Cold War-like state of alert. CIA director William Cabot (Morgan Freeman) recruits young analyst Jack Ryan (Ben Affleck) and assigns him to the situation in Russia, with the task to determine whether the paranoia is legitimate. Ryan soon discovers that a neo-nazi terrorist group plans to provoke a war between the U.S. and Russia, by detonating a nuclear bomb at a football game in Baltimore. Ryan works to resolve the assignment before it's too late.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: A reboot of the film series, set during 2013. After the events of the September 11 attacks, Jack Ryan (Chris Pine), studying at the London School of Economics, becomes a Marine second lieutenant in Afghanistan. While on military tour he is critically injured after his helicopter is shot down. Twelve years later, Ryan is working undercover as a CIA analyst, and posing in a cover job on Wall Street as a compliance officer at a stock brokerage. He quickly discovers that certain accounts are inaccessible to him as the auditor, which leads him to discover the scheme of Viktor Cherevin (Kenneth Branagh). With the help of Thomas Harper (Kevin Costner), Jack works to stop Cherevin's plot to collapse the US dollar.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: On February 7, 2003, Paramount announced a box set entitled "The Jack Ryan Special Edition DVD Collection", which includes new editions of "The Hunt for Red October", "Patriot Games" and "Clear and Present Danger" as well as the special edition of "The Sum of All Fears". Both the set and the individual editions of each film were released on May 6, 2003. While the four films were originally intended to be released in a Blu-ray collection entitled "The Jack Ryan Collection", the films were later broken up into separate releases for the high definition format on July 29, 2008. On December 3, 2013, "The Jack Ryan Collection" was finally issued on Blu-ray.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: The film series has spawned three video games for various systems. Two side scroller games were produced in 1990 to coincide with the release of "The Hunt for Red October", one for computer systems was released by Grandslam Interactive Ltd. while another was released for Nintendo consoles by Hi-Tech Expressions, Inc. In 2002, the video game "The Sum of All Fears" was released by Ubisoft for the PC, PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: Domingo Chavez (as Ding Chavez) and John Clark both appear as a member and the leader of Team Rainbow in the older Rainbow Six games, these characters also appeared in the book.


title: Jack Ryan (franchise)

text: A film, based on the novel "The Cardinal of the Kremlin", was planned. It was to involve Harrison Ford and William Shatner. It was never released and the idea was most likely scrapped.


title: Meatloaf

text: Meatloaf is a dish of ground meat that has been combined with other ingredients and formed into the shape of a loaf, then baked or smoked. The final shape is either hand-formed on a baking tray, or pan-formed by cooking it in a loaf pan. It is usually made with ground beef, although ground lamb, pork, veal, venison, poultry, and seafood are also used, sometimes in combination. Vegetarian adaptations of meatloaf may use imitation meat or pulses.


title: Meatloaf

text: The cooked meatloaf can be sliced like a loaf of bread to make individual portions. It can easily become dry; therefore, various techniques exist to keep the dish moist, like mixing in bread crumbs and egg, covering it with sauce, wrapping it, or using moisture-enhancing ingredients in the mixture, such as filling it with fatty meats, rich cheeses, or vegetables.


title: Meatloaf

text: Meatloaf of minced meat was mentioned in the Roman cookery collection "Apicius" as early as the 5th century. Meatloaf is a traditional German, Scandinavian and Belgian dish, and it is a cousin to the Dutch meatball.


title: Meatloaf

text: American meatloaf has its origins in scrapple, a mixture of ground pork and cornmeal served by German-Americans in Pennsylvania since colonial times. Meatloaf in the contemporary American sense did not appear in cookbooks until the late 19th century.


title: Meatloaf

text: The Austrian version of meatloaf is called "faschierter Braten" (literally "minced roast", from "faschieren", "to mince", and "ein Braten", "a roast"), also known as "falscher Hase", or 'fake rabbit'. Most of the time, it is not filled (as it may be in Germany), though the variation "im Speckmantel" involves wrapping the exterior in ham or bacon before baking. Often, it is served with mashed potatoes (when warm), or with Cumberland sauce (when cold).


title: Meatloaf

text: The Belgian version of meatloaf is called "vleesbrood" (meatbread); however, "fricandon" is also used to refer to it in Dutch. In French, it is called "pain de viande". It is usually served warm and can then be served with various sauces, but can also be eaten cold with a loaf of bread.


title: Meatloaf

text: "Rulo Stefani" (). The Bulgarian "rulo Stefani" meatloaf is similar to the Hungarian "Stefánia" meatloaf, with hard-boiled eggs, and sometimes with chopped carrots and pickled gherkins in the middle.


title: Meatloaf

text: Chilean meatloaf, known as "Asado Aleman" (German roasted meat) is a staple of southern Chilean cuisine, especially in areas known for having been influenced by the arrival of German colonizers during the 18th and 19th century. The most common recipe nowadays consists of ground beef, carrots, sausages, boiled eggs and breadcrumbs, cooked in the oven and normally served with a side-dish of mashed potatoes or rice.


title: Meatloaf

text: The Cuban version of meatloaf is called "pulpeta". It is made with ground beef and ground ham, and stuffed with hard boiled eggs, and it is cooked on the stovetop. The dish was brought to public attention, albeit mistakenly referred to as a sausage, in the second episode of the third season of "The Cosby Show", entitled "Food for Thought". However, due to Cuba’s strict laws regarding the purchasing of meat products, especially beef, meatloaf is not a common dish in Cuba.


title: Meatloaf

text: In the Czech Republic, meatloaf is referred to as "sekaná" ('chopped'). It is optional to put hard boiled eggs, gherkins, or wienerwurst inside.


title: Meatloaf

text: Danish meatloaf is called "forloren hare" ('mock hare') or "farsbrød" ('ground-meat bread') and is usually made from a mixture of ground pork and beef with strips of bacon or cubed bacon on top. It is served with boiled or mashed potatoes and brown gravy sweetened with red currant jam.


title: Meatloaf

text: Finnish meatloaf is called "lihamureke". It is entirely based on the basic meatball recipe. The only spices used are salt and pepper. It is not customary to stuff "lihamureke" with anything. The usual side dish is mashed potatoes, and "lihamureke" is usually served with brown sauce.