title: The Script

text: On 24September, tickets for the Script's three nights at the O2 Dublin, two nights at the Odyssey, Belfast and two at the INEC, Killarney went on sale and sold out in less than 40 minutes, with over 60,000 tickets sold. On 1October at 9:00am tickets for the Script arena tour in March 2011 went on sale. The tickets for all 12 arenas around the UK sold out in five days. They also announced that they would play a "Homecoming" concert at the Aviva Stadium in Dublin. This is part of the Science & Faith Tour and will be their biggest headline show to date.


title: The Script

text: The Script also took part in Children in Need 2010 and BRMB's live 2010 with acts such as the Saturdays, Mark Ronson and Mcfly. They were nominated for Best International Act at the 2011 Brit Awards and performed at: Pinkpop festival, V festival, Oxegen, Isle of Wight Festival, T in the park, Thetford Forest Show, iTunes Festival, Skanderborg Festival, Sudoeste Festival, Tennents ViTal. They also played to the biggest indoor crowd of 18,300 people at the Coca-Cola Dome in Johannesburg, South Africa on 24 June 2011. They later went on to play their official biggest crowd on 2 July 2011 in Dublin's Aviva Stadium, and performed to a sold-out crowd of 50,000 people. the Coronas and Tinie Tempah were support acts on the night.


title: The Script

text: The band's third album was titled "#3". It was released in the UK on 10 September 2012 and in the United States on 9 October 2012. "Hall of Fame" was the lead single, which debuted on radio on 23 July 2012. It was recorded in Los Angeles, Studio 3, and released on iTunes on 21 August 2012. The single features will.i.am, whom Danny works alongside on "The Voice UK". The song became their most successful to date, being certified 5× Platinum in Australia, Platinum in Italy, 2× Platinum in New Zealand, 6× Platinum in Norway, 2× Platinum in Sweden and 2× Platinum in the US. The song also peaked at number 1 in the UK, Scotland, Ireland, Europe and Austria, and charted in over 30 countries. It is their highest-charting single to date worldwide.


title: The Script

text: Other singles include "Six Degrees of Separation" and "If You Could See Me Now", a tribute to O'Donoghue's father and Sheehan's parents. On 16 September 2012, the Script achieved their first UK number one for a period of two weeks with their single "Hall of Fame" in its second week after being released.


title: The Script

text: On 5 October 2012, the Script kicked off the Major League Baseball Postseason by playing a free concert at the MLB Fan Cave in New York City. The Script was nominated for Best International band at the 2013 BRIT Awards.


title: The Script

text: On 5 September 2012, the Script embarked on a headlining concert tour to promote the album, known as the #3 World Tour. The tour spanned over 11 months and included shows in Europe, North America, Asia, and Australia, ending in August 2013. The band also went on tour with OneRepublic for their Native Summer Tour to promote the album, during the summer of 2014.


title: The Script

text: The band's fourth studio album was titled "No Sound Without Silence" and the lead single from the album, "Superheroes", was released on 22 July 2014. The album has been described by O'Donoghue as a prequel to their debut album, with many of the songs being recorded on the road. The album was released on 15 September 2014.


title: The Script

text: Other singles from the album include "No Good in Goodbye", which was released on 15 October 2014 and "Man on a Wire" which was released on 15 March 2015.


title: The Script

text: The band's tour for this album. titled the "No Sound Without Silence Tour" occurred from 16 January 2015 through 18 September 2015. Throughout the tour, the band played a total of 56 total shows, and performed within Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, and North America.


title: The Script

text: Immediately after the tour, the band went on a nearly year-long unannounced hiatus. O'Donoghue didn't reveal this information until July 2017 and claimed that the hiatus occurred due to the band wanting some time off to "chill" after making four albums and going on five world tours. Shortly after this announcement, it was revealed that another reason the band went on hiatus was due to O'Donoghue needing throat surgery. The band returned to making new music in late 2016.


title: The Script

text: Beginning in early 2017, the band began teasing their new fifth album. They did so by releasing a couple of sneak peeks of songs from the album throughout the year. A sneak peek of a song titled "Divided States of America" was released on 5 January 2017. A few months later, a sneak peek of a song titled "Written in the Scars" was released on 8 June 2017. On 13 July 2017, the band officially announced the lead single from the album, "Rain". The song was released on 14 July 2017. On 21 July 2017, it was announced that the new album would be titled "Freedom Child". The album was put up for pre-order that same day. It contains 14 tracks and was released on 1 September 2017.


title: The Script

text: Prior to the album's release, two promotional singles were released to further promote the album. On 25 August 2017, "Written in the Scars" was released as the first promotional single from the album. A few days later, on 30 August 2017, "Love Not Lovers" was released as the second promotional single from the album.


title: The Script

text: Upon release, the album received mixed to negative reviews from critics upon release, but still managed top the charts in some countries. The album hit number one in Ireland, Scotland, and the United Kingdom, their third album to do so.


title: The Script

text: The song "Arms Open" was released as the second single from the album on 13 November 2017. A music video for the song was released on 1 December 2017.


title: The Script

text: The tour for the album, simply titled "Freedom Child Tour", took place between September 2017 and June 2018.


title: The Script

text: On 16 March 2018, the band released a live cover of the Aslan song "Crazy World" featuring Christy Dignam, the lead singer of Aslan. This single was featured on an acoustic EP titled "Acoustic Sessions", which also feature the songs "No Man is an Island", "Never Seen Anything 'Quite Like You'", and "The Man Who Can't Be Moved". The full EP was released on 18 April 2018.


title: The Script

text: On 17 March 2018, at a concert in Brussels, the band bought the whole audience a drink to celebrate Saint Patrick's Day. The 8,000 drinks were enough to set a new world record.


title: The Script

text: Beginning on 13 September 2019, the band began teasing a new album on Twitter. A few days later, on 19 September 2019, the band announced the lead single from the album, "The Last Time". The single and an accompanying music video were released on 20 September 2019.


title: The Script

text: On 11 October 2019, the band announced that the album would be titled "Sunsets & Full Moons" and consist of nine songs. The album was made available for pre-order the same day. It was released on 8 November 2019.


title: The Script

text: In December 2019, The Script performed at the Jingle Bell Ball, alongside other artists such as Ava Max, Rita Ora, Regard and Mabel.


title: The Script

text: On 10 January 2020, "Run Through Walls" was released as the second single from the album. A music video for the song was released the same day.


title: The Script

text: On 11 March 2021, the band released an acoustic version of "For the First Time", which would serve as the lead single off of their second acoustic EP titled "Acoustic Sessions 2". The remainder of the EP was released on 17 March 2021. The remaining songs that are included are "Breakeven", "Millionaires", and "Nothing".


title: The Script

text: Beginning in late August 2021, the band began teasing a new song on their website and Twitter page. The song, "I Want It All", was released on 27 August along with an announcement for a greatest hits album, "". The announcement set the album's release date for 1 October 2021; a worldwide tour was also announced in support of the album, beginning in Los Angeles on 30 March 2022 and concluding in Lisbon, Portugal on 18 November 2022.


title: The Script

text: In November 2021, The Script performed at Hits Live in Liverpool, alongside other artists such as Mimi Webb, Mabel, Becky Hill, Joel Corry, Tom Grennan, Ella Henderson and Ed Sheeran.


title: The Script

text: On 10 February 2022, the band released an acoustic version of "I Want It All", which would serve as the lead single off of their third acoustic EP titled "Acoustic Sessions 3". "Superheroes" was released as the second single from the EP on 11 March 2022. The remainder of the EP was released on 17 March 2022. The remaining songs that are included are "Paint the Town Green" and "Good Ol' Days".


title: Artemis 3

text: Artemis 3 (officially Artemis III) is planned as the first crewed Moon landing mission of the Artemis program and the first crewed flight of the Starship HLS lander. Scheduled for launch in 2025, Artemis 3 is planned to be the second crewed Artemis mission and the first crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in 1972. Artemis 3 is planned to place the first woman and non-white person on the Moon.


title: Artemis 3

text: The Artemis III plan is to land a crew at the Moon's south polar region. It is planned to have two astronauts on the surface of the Moon for about one week. The mission is intended to be the first to place a woman and a non-white person on the Moon. While up to four astronauts would leave Earth on board Orion MPCV, the surface mission with the Human Landing System (HLS) will consist of two crew members, who will remain on the surface for 6.5 days. The remaining astronauts will stay on board Orion. The two astronauts will conduct up to four spacewalks on the Moon's surface, performing a variety of scientific observations, including sampling water ice. Before the Artemis III landing, some additional equipment will be pre-positioned on the surface, including an unpressurized rover for astronauts to use during their lunar excursions. This rover will have the capability to be controlled remotely. Several permanently shadowed regions could be reached by short forays of , well within the range of the rover.


title: Artemis 3

text: The Space Launch System is a super-heavy-lift launcher used to launch the Orion spacecraft from Earth to a trans-lunar orbit. This will be the final mission using SLS Block 1, the design used for the first three missions. Afterward, from Artemis 4, until the proposed Artemis 9, all Space Launch System and Artemis missions will use SLS Block 1B, with an expanded Exploration Upper Stage, and a cargo hold to transport other payloads.


title: Artemis 3

text: Orion is the crew transport vehicle used by all Artemis crewed missions. It will transport the crew from Earth to the Gateway orbit, and return them back to Earth. It has a crew capacity of 4, and may also be utilized to carry crew and cargo in deep space exploration.


title: Artemis 3

text: Gateway is a small modular space station to be established in near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO) prior to the Artemis 3 mission. HLS and Orion will both dock to Gateway for crew transfer. To mitigate the effects of a possible schedule slip, the Artemis 3 mission does not depend on Gateway. If Gateway is unavailable, astronauts will transfer directly from Orion to HLS.


title: Artemis 3

text: After a multi-phase design effort, on 16 April 2021, NASA selected SpaceX to develop Starship HLS and deliver it to the Gateway orbit prior to arrival of the crew for use on the Artemis 3 mission. The delivery requires that Starship HLS be refueled in low Earth orbit (LEO) before boosting the NRHO, and this refueling requires a prepositioned propellant depot in LEO that is filled by multiple tanker flights. Two astronauts will transfer from Orion to Starship HLS, which will descend to the lunar surface and sustain them for several days before returning them to Orion. Following the return of the astronauts, Starship HLS will be disposed of by sending it into heliocentric orbit.


title: Artemis 3

text: Upon the December 2017 ratification of the Trump administration's Space Policy Directive 1, a crewed lunar campaign – later known as the Artemis program – utilising the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV) and a space station in lunar orbit was established. Originally billed as Exploration Mission-3 (EM-3), the goal of the mission was to send four astronauts into a near-rectilinear halo orbit around the Moon and deliver the ESPRIT and U.S. Utilization Module to the lunar space station, known as the Gateway. By May 2019 however, ESPRIT and the U.S. Utilization Module – now called HALO – were re-manifested to fly separately on a commercial launch vehicle instead. Artemis 3, as it was now billed, was repurposed to accelerate the first crewed lunar landing of the Artemis program by the end of 2024, with a profile that would've seen the Orion MPCV rendezvous with a minimal Gateway made up of only the Power and Propulsion Element and a small habitat/docking node with an attached commercially-procured lunar lander known as the Human Landing System (HLS).


title: Artemis 3

text: By early 2020, plans for Orion and the HLS to rendezvous with the Gateway were abandoned in favour of a solo demonstration of Orion and HLS, and development of the Gateway independent of the Artemis program.


title: Artemis 3

text: On 10 August 2021, an Office of Inspector General audit reported a conclusion that the spacesuits would not be ready until April 2025 at the earliest, likely delaying the mission from the planned late 2024 launch date.


title: Artemis 3

text: On 9 November 2021, the Administrator of NASA Bill Nelson confirmed that Artemis III will take place no earlier than 2025.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 442nd Infantry Regiment () was an infantry regiment of the United States Army. The regiment is best known as the most decorated in U.S. military history and as a fighting unit composed almost entirely of second-generation American soldiers of Japanese ancestry ("Nisei") who fought in World War II. Beginning in 1944, the regiment fought primarily in the European Theatre, in particular Italy, southern France, and Germany. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team (RCT) was organized on March 23, 1943, in response to the War Department's call for volunteers to form the segregated Japanese American army combat unit. More than 12,000 Nisei (second-generation Japanese American) volunteers answered the call. Ultimately 2,686 from Hawaii and 1,500 from U.S. concentration camps assembled at Camp Shelby, Mississippi in April 1943 for a year of infantry training. Many of the soldiers from the continental U.S. had families in concentration camps while they fought abroad. The unit's motto was "Go for Broke".


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 442nd Regiment is the most decorated unit for its size in U.S. military history. Created as the 442nd Regimental Combat Team (,


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Arriving in the European Theatre, the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, with its second and third infantry battalions, one artillery battalion and associated HQ and service companies, was attached to the 34th Infantry Division. On 11 June 1944, near Civitavecchia, Italy, the 100th Infantry Battalion, another all-Nisei fighting unit which had already been in combat since September 1943, was transferred from the 133rd Infantry Regiment to the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. Because of its combat record, the 100th was allowed to keep their original designation as the 100th Infantry Battalion. The related 522nd Field Artillery Battalion liberated at least one of the satellite labor camps of Dachau concentration camp and saved survivors of a death march near Waakirchen.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 442nd RCT was inactivated in 1946 and reactivated as a reserve battalion in 1947, garrisoned at Fort Shafter, Hawaii. The 442nd lives on through the 100th Battalion/442nd Infantry Regiment, and is the only current infantry formation in the Army Reserve.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: More information about the current 100th Battalion/442nd Infantry Regiment and its current alignment with the active 25th Infantry Division, the reserve 9th Mission Support Command, and its combat duty in the Vietnam War and the Iraq War can be found at 100th Infantry Battalion (United States).


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 100th/442nd's current members carry on the honors and traditions of the historical unit. In recognition of its storied combat record, the 100th/442nd was also one of the last units allowed to use its individual shoulder sleeve insignia. In the interest of greater division unity, they officially relinquished their patch in 2016.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Most Japanese Americans who fought in World War II were Nisei, born in the United States to immigrant parents. Shortly after the Imperial Japanese Navy's attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, Japanese-American men were initially categorized as 4C (enemy alien) and therefore not subject to the draft. On 19 February 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing military authorities.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: to prescribe military areas in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military Commander may determine, from which any or all persons may be excluded, and with respect to which, the right of any person to enter, remain in, or leave shall be subject to whatever restrictions the Secretary of War or the appropriate Military Commander may impose in his discretion.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Although the order did not refer specifically to people of Japanese ancestry, it was targeted largely for the internment of people of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast. In March 1942, Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, head of the Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, issued the first of 108 military proclamations that resulted in the forced relocation from their residences to guarded concentration camps of more than 110,000 people of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast, the great majority of the ethnic community. Two-thirds were born in the United States.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: In Hawaii, the military imposed martial law, complete with curfews and blackouts. As a large portion of the population was of Japanese ancestry (150,000 out of 400,000 people in 1937), internment was deemed not practical; it was strongly opposed by the island's business community, which was heavily dependent on the labor force of those of Japanese ancestry, unlike businesses on the mainland. There, business interests competed with those of Japanese Americans, and many bought up Japanese American properties that had to be surrendered. It was accurately believed that an internment of Japanese Americans and Japanese immigrants in Hawaii would have had catastrophic results for the Hawaiian economy; intelligence reports at the time noted that "the Japanese, through a concentration of effort in select industries, had achieved essential roles in several key sectors of the economy in Hawaii." In addition, other reports indicated that those of Japanese descent in Hawaii "had access to virtually all jobs in the economy, including high-status, high-paying jobs (e.g., professional and managerial jobs)," suggesting that a mass internment of people of Japanese descent in Hawaii would have negatively impacted every sector of the Hawaiian economy. When the War Department called for the removal of all soldiers of Japanese ancestry from active service in early 1942, General Delos C. Emmons, commander of the U.S. Army in Hawaii, decided to discharge those in the Hawaii Territorial Guard, which was composed mainly of ROTC students from the University of Hawaii. However, he permitted the more than 1,300 Japanese-American soldiers of the 298th and 299th Infantry Regiment regiments of the Hawaii National Guard to remain in service. The discharged members of the Hawaii Territorial Guard petitioned General Emmons to allow them to assist in the war effort. The petition was granted and they formed a group called the Varsity Victory Volunteers, which performed various military construction jobs. General Emmons, worried about the loyalty of Japanese-American soldiers in the event of a Japanese invasion, recommended to the War Department that those in the 298th and 299th regiments be organized into a "Hawaiian Provisional Battalion" and sent to the mainland. The move was authorized, and on 5 June 1942, the Hawaiian Provisional Battalion set sail for training. They landed at Oakland, California on 10 June 1942 and two days later were sent to Camp McCoy, Wisconsin. On 15 June 1942, the battalion was designated the 100th Infantry Battalion (Separate)—the "One Puka Puka".


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Partly because of the actions of the 100th and the Varsity Victory Volunteers, the War Department directed that a Japanese-American Combat Team should be activated comprising the 442d Infantry Regiment, the 522d Field Artillery Battalion (), and the 232d Engineer Combat Company ().


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The order dated 22 January 1943, directed, "All cadre men must be American citizens of Japanese ancestry who have resided in the United States since birth" and "Officers of field grade and captains furnished under the provisions of subparagraphs a, b and c above, will be white American citizens. Other officers will be of Japanese ancestry insofar as practicable."


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: In accordance with those orders, the 442d Combat Team was activated 1 February 1943, by General Orders, Headquarters Third Army. Colonel Charles W. Pence took command, with Lieutenant Colonel Merritt B. Booth as executive officer. Lieutenant Colonel Keith K. Tatom commanded the 1st Battalion, Lieutenant Colonel James M. Hanley the 2d Battalion, and Lieutenant Colonel Sherwood Dixon the 3d Battalion. Lieutenant Colonel Baya M. Harrison commanded the 522d Field Artillery, and Captain Pershing Nakada commanded the 232d Engineers.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Colonel Charles W. Pence, a World War I veteran and military science professor, commanded the regiment until he was wounded during the rescue of the "Lost Battalion" in October 1944. He was then replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Virgil R. Miller.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The US government required that all internees answer a loyalty questionnaire, which was used to register the Nisei for the draft. Question 27 of the questionnaire asked eligible males, "Are you willing to serve in the armed forces of the United States on combat duty, wherever ordered?" and question 28 asked, "Will you swear unqualified allegiance to the United States of America and faithfully defend the United States from any or all attack by foreign or domestic forces, and forswear any form of allegiance or obedience to the Japanese emperor, or any other foreign government, power or organization?"


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Nearly a quarter of the Nisei males answered with a no or a qualified answer to both questions in protest, resenting the implication they ever had allegiance to Japan; some left them blank. Qualified answers included those who said, yes, but criticized the internment of the Japanese or racism. Many who responded that way were imprisoned for evading the draft. Such refusal is the subject of the postwar novel "No-No Boy". But more than 75% indicated that they were willing to enlist and swear allegiance to the U.S. The U.S. Army called for 1,500 volunteers from Hawaii and 3,000 from the mainland. An overwhelming 10,000 men from Hawaii volunteered. The announcement was met with less enthusiasm on the mainland, where most draft-age men of Japanese ancestry and their families were held in concentration camps. The Army revised the quota, calling for 2,900 men from Hawaii, and 1,500 from the mainland. Only 1,256 volunteered from the mainland during this initial call for volunteers. As a result, around 3,000 men from Hawaii and 800 men from the mainland were inducted.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Roosevelt announced the formation of the 442nd Infantry Regimental Combat Team, saying, "Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry." Ultimately, the draft was instated to obtain more Japanese Americans from the mainland and these made up a large part of the 14,000 men who eventually served in the 442nd Regiment.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 100th Infantry Battalion relocated to Camp Shelby in Mississippi. Eventually, the 100th was joined by 3,000 volunteers from Hawaii and 800 from the mainland concentration camps. As a regimental combat team (RCT), the 442nd RCT was a self-sufficient fighting formation of three infantry battalions (originally 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Battalions, 442nd Infantry, and later the 100th Infantry Battalion in place of the 1st), the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion, the 232nd Engineer Company, an anti-tank company, cannon company, service company, medical detachment, headquarters companies, and the 206th Army Band.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Although they were permitted to volunteer to fight, Americans of Japanese ancestry were generally forbidden to fight in combat in the Pacific Theater. No such limitations were placed on Americans of German or Italian ancestry, who were assigned to units fighting against the Axis Powers in the European Theater. There were many more German and Italian Americans than Japanese Americans, and their political and economic power reduced the restrictions against them. Many men deemed proficient enough in the Japanese language were approached, or sometimes ordered, to join the Military Intelligence Service (MIS) to serve as translators/interpreters and spies in the Pacific, as well as in the China Burma India Theater. These men were sent to the MIS Language School at Camp Savage, Minnesota to develop their language skills and receive training in military intelligence. While the 442nd trained in Mississippi, the 100th departed for Oran in North Africa to join the forces destined to invade Italy.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 442nd Combat Team, less its 1st Battalion, which had remained in the U.S. to train Nisei replacements after many of its members were levied as replacements for the 100th, sailed from Hampton Roads, Virginia, on 1 May 1944 and landed at Anzio on 28 May. The 442nd would join the 100th Battalion in Civitavecchia north of Rome on 11 June 1944, attached to the 34th Infantry Division. The 100th was placed under the command of the 442nd on 15 June 1944 but on 14 August 1944, the 100th Battalion was officially assigned to the 442nd as its 1st battalion, but was allowed to keep its unit designation in recognition of its distinguished fighting record. The 1st Battalion, 442nd Infantry at Camp Shelby was then redesignated the 171st Infantry Battalion (Separate) on 5 September 1944. The 100th Battalion's high casualty rate at Anzio and Monte Cassino earned it the unofficial nickname "Purple Heart Battalion."


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The newly formed Nisei unit went into battle together on 26 June 1944 at the village of Belvedere in Suvereto, Tuscany. Although the 100th was attached to the 442nd, its actions earned it a separate Presidential Unit Citation. Second and Third Battalions were the first to engage the enemy, in a fierce firefight. F Company bore the worst fighting. A, B, and C Companies of the 100th were called into combat and advanced east using a covered route to reach the high ground northeast of Belvedere. The enemy did not know that the 100th was flanking the German exit, trapping them in Belvedere. C Company blocked the town's entrance while A Company blocked the exit. Meanwhile, the 442nd's 2nd Battalion was receiving a heavy barrage by the Germans from inside Belvedere, and the Germans remained unaware of their situation. B Company stayed on the high ground and conducted a surprise attack on the German battalion's exposed east flank, forcing the Germans to flee and run into C Company, which then drove the Germans to A Company.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 442nd, along with its first battalion, the 100th, kept driving the enemy north, engaging in multiple skirmishes until they had passed Sassetta. The battle of Belvedere showed that the 442nd could hold their own and showed them the kind of fighting the 100th Battalion had gone through in the prior months. After only a few days of rest, the united 442nd again entered into combat on 1 July, taking Cecina and moving towards the Arno River. On 2 July, as the 442nd approached the Arno, 5th Battalion engaged in a hard-fought battle to take Hill 140, while on 7 July the 100th fought for the town of Castellina Marittima.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: For the first three weeks of July, the 442nd and its 1st Battalion, the 100th, were constantly attacking German forces, leading to 1,100 enemy killed and 331 captured.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Hill 140 was the main line of enemy resistance. A single German battalion held the hill and, along with the help of artillery, had completely wiped out a machine-gun squad of L Company of the 3rd Battalion and G Company of 2nd Battalion except for its commander. A constant artillery barrage was launched against the 2nd and 3rd Battalions as they dug in at the hill's base. The 442nd gained very little ground in the coming days only improving their position slightly. The 232nd Engineers aided the 442nd by defusing landmines that lay in the 442nd's path. The entire 34th Division front encountered heavy resistance. "All along the 34th Infantry Division Front the Germans held more doggedly than at any time since the breakthrough at Cassino and Anzio." Hill 140 had been dubbed "Little Cassino" as the resistance by the Germans was so fierce. "Hill 140, when the medics were just overrun with all the casualties; casualties you couldn't think to talk about." The 2nd Battalion moved to the eastern front of Hill 140 and 3rd Battalion moved to the western front, both converging on the German flanks. It wasn't until 7 July, when the last German resistance was overcome, that the hill came under the 34th Division's control.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: On the day Hill 140 fell, the battle for the town of Castellina Marittima began. The 100th began its assault on the northwestern side of the town taking the high ground. Just before dawn, 2nd Platoon C Company moved into town, encountering heavy resistance and multiple counterattacks by German forces but held them off. In the meantime Company B moved north into Castellina, encountering heavy resistance as well. First they helped defend 2nd and 3rd Battalions in the taking of Hill 140. Then with the help of the 522nd Field Artillery, they lay down a heavy barrage and forced the Germans to retreat by 1800 hours on 7 July. The 100th dug in and waited for relief to arrive after spending an entire day securing the town.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Until 25 July, the 442nd encountered heavy resistance from each town when they reached the Arno River, ending the Rome-Arno Campaign. The 100/442 suffered casualties of 1,272 men (17 missing, 44 non-combat injuries, 972 wounded, and 239 killed) in the process, a distance of only . They rested from 25 July to 15 August, when the 442nd moved to patrol the Arno. Crossing the Arno on 31 August was relatively uneventful, as they were guarding the north side of the river in order for bridges to be built. On 11 September the 442nd was detached from the Fifth Army and then attached to the 36th Infantry Division of the Seventh Army.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: On 15 July the Antitank Company was pulled from the frontlines and placed with the 517th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 1st Airborne Task Force. They had trained at an airfield south of Rome to prepare for the invasion of Southern France which took place on 15 August, landing near Le Muy, France. They trained for a few weeks to get used to, prepare, properly load, and fly gliders. These gliders were long and high, and could hold a jeep and a trailer filled with ammunition, or a British six-pounder antitank gun. The Southern France Campaign, 15 August to 14 September, led the 442nd to its second Presidential Unit Citation for invading in gliders and the Combat Infantryman Badge for fighting with the infantrymen of the 7th Army. The soldiers of Antitank Company received the Glider Badge. After many rough landings by the gliders, hitting trees or enemy flak, they held their positions for a few days until relieved by Allied troops coming in by sea. For the next two months the Antitank Company guarded the exposed right flank of the Seventh Army and protected the 517th Parachute Infantry. The unit also cleared mines, captured Germans, and guarded roads and tunnels. In mid-to-late October, the Antitank Company rejoined the 442nd during the battle to find the "Lost Battalion."


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: After leaving Naples, the 442nd landed in Marseille on 30 September and for the next few weeks they traveled through the Rhone Valley, by walking and by boxcar, until 13 October. On 14 October 1944 the 442nd began moving into position in the late afternoon preparing the assault on Hills A, B, C, and D of Bruyères. Each hill was heavily guarded, as each hill was key in order to take and secure the city. Hill A was located Northwest of Bruyères, Hill B to the North, Hill C Northeast, and Hill D to the East. The 442nd had experienced mainly prairie in Italy, but the Vosges Mountains provided a very different terrain. The unit faced dense fog, mud, heavy rain, large trees, hills, and heavy enemy gunfire and artillery while moving through the Vosges. Hitler had ordered the German frontline to fight at all costs as this was the last barrier between the Allied forces and Germany. On 15 October 1944 the 442nd began its attack on Bruyères. The 100th Battalion moved on Hill A, which was held by the SS Polizei Regiment 19, as 2nd Battalion moved in on Hill B. Third Battalion was left to take Bruyères.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: After heavy fighting dealing with enemy machine guns and snipers and a continuous artillery barrage placed onto the Germans, the 100th Battalion was eventually able to take Hill A by 3 a.m. on 18 October. 2nd Battalion took Hill B in a similar fashion only hours later. Once Hill A and B were secured, 3rd Battalion along with the 36th Infantry's 142nd Regiment began its assault from the south. After the 232nd broke through the concrete barriers around town hall of Bruyères, the 442nd captured 134 Wehrmacht members including Poles, Yugoslavs, Somalis, East Indians of the Regiment "Freies Indien", 2nd and 3rd Company of Fusilier Battalion 198, Grenadier Regiment 736, and Panzer Grenadier Regiment 192. After three days of fighting Bruyères fell but was not yet secured. Germans on Hill C and D used that high-ground to launch artillery barrages on the town; Hills C and D needed to be taken to secure Bruyères.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 442nd initially took Hills C and D but did not secure them and they fell back into German hands. By noon of 19 October, Hill D was taken by 2nd and 3rd Battalions, who then were ordered to take a railroad embankment leaving Hill D unsecure. As the 100th began moving on Hill C on 20 October, German forces retook Hill D during the night. The 100th Battalion was ordered back to Bruyères into reserve, allowing a German force onto Hill C, surprising another American division arriving into position. Retaking Hill C cost another 100 casualties. Hill D fell back into Allied hands after a short time, finally securing the town. The 232nd Engineers had to dismantle roadblocks, clear away trees and clear mine fields all in the midst of the battle. The 100th rested, then was called to the battle for Biffontaine.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 100th was ordered to take the high-ground but was eventually ordered to move into the town, leading to a bitter fight after the 100th were encircled by German forces: cut off from the 442nd, outside radio contact, and outside artillery support. The 100th were in constant battle from 22 October until dusk of 23 October, engaging in house to house fighting and defending against multiple counterattacks. 3rd Battalion of the 442nd reached the 100th and helped drive out the remaining German forces, handing Biffontaine to the 36th. On 24 October the 143rd Infantry of the 36th Division relieved the 100th and 3rd Battalion who were sent to Belmont, another small town to the north, for some short-lived rest. Nine days of constant fighting continued as they were then ordered to save T-Patchers, the 141st Regiment of the 36th Infantry, the "Lost Battalion."


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: After less than two days in reserve, the 442nd was ordered to attempt the rescue of the "Lost Battalion" two miles east of Biffontaine. On 23 October Colonel Lundquist's 141st Regiment, soon to be known as the "Alamo" Regiment, began its attack on the German line that ran from Rambervillers to Biffontaine. Tuesday morning, 24 October, the left flank of the 141st, commanded by Technical Sergeant Charles H. Coolidge, ran into heavy action, fending off numerous German attacks throughout the days of 25 and 26 October. The right flank command post was overrun and 275 men of Lieutenant Colonel William Bird's 1st Battalion Companies A, B, C, and a platoon from Company D were cut off behind enemy lines. The "Lost Battalion" was cut off by German troops and was forced to dig in until help arrived. It was nearly a week before they saw friendly soldiers.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: At 4 a.m. on Friday 27 October, General John E. Dahlquist ordered the 442nd to move out and rescue the cut-off battalion. The 442nd had the support of the 522nd and 133rd Field Artillery units but at first made little headway against German General Richter's infantry and artillery front line. For the next few days the 442nd engaged in the heaviest fighting it had seen in the war, as the elements combined with the Germans to slow their advance. Dense fog and very dark nights prevented the men from seeing even twenty feet. Many men had to hang onto the man in front of him just to know where to go. Rainfall, snow, cold, mud, fatigue, trench foot, and even exploding trees plagued them as they moved deeper into the Vosges and closer to the German frontlines. The 141st continued fighting—in all directions.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Airdrops with ammo and food for the 141st were called off by dense fog or landed in German hands. Many Germans did not know that they had cut off an American unit. "We didn't know that we had surrounded the Americans until they were being supplied by air. One of the supply containers, dropped by parachute, landed near us. The packages were divided up amongst us." Only on 29 October was the 442nd told why they were being forced to attack the German front lines so intensely.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The fighting was intense for the Germans as well. Gebirgsjäger Battalion 202 from Salzburg was cut off from Gebirgsjager Battalion 201 from Garmisch. Both sides eventually rescued their cut-off battalions.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: As the men of the 442nd went deeper and deeper they became more hesitant, until reaching the point where they would not move from behind a tree or come out of a foxhole. However, this all changed in an instant. The men of Companies I and K of 3rd Battalion had their backs against the wall, but as each one saw another rise to attack, then another also rose. Then every Nisei charged the Germans screaming, and many screaming "Banzai!" Through gunfire, artillery shells, and fragments from trees, and Nisei going down one after another, they charged.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Colonel Rolin's grenadiers put up a desperate fight, but nothing could stop the Nisei rushing up the steep slopes, shouting, firing from the hip, and lobbing hand grenades into dugouts. Finally the German defenses broke and the surviving grenadiers fled in disarray. That afternoon the American aid stations were crowded with casualties. The 2nd platoon of Company I had only two men left, and the 1st platoon was down to twenty." On the afternoon of 30 October, 3rd Battalion broke through and reached the 141st, rescuing 211 T-Patchers at the cost of 800 men in five days. However, the fighting continued for the 442nd as they moved past the 141st. The drive continued until they reached Saint-Die on 17 November when they were finally pulled back. The 100th fielded 1,432 men a year earlier, but was now down to 239 infantrymen and 21 officers. Second Battalion was down to 316 riflemen and 17 officers, while not a single company in 3rd Battalion had over 100 riflemen; the entire 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team was down to less than 800 soldiers. Earlier (on 13 October) when attached to the 36th Infantry, the unit was at 2,943 riflemen and officers, thus in only three weeks 140 were killed and a further 1,800 had been wounded, while 43 were missing.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: As the division commander, General Dahlquist's utilization of the 442nd received mixed reviews, chiefly from the unit's officers who believed that Dahlquist considered their Nisei soldiers to be expendable cannon fodder. Despite examples of ostensibly courageous behavior, his decisions were undermined by the failure to tally victories without considerable costs. A particular example was when his aide Lieutenant Wells Lewis, the eldest son of novelist Sinclair Lewis, was killed while Dahlquist was issuing orders standing in the open during a battle. When Dahlquist ordered the 442nd to take Biffontaine, it was despite the sparsely populated farming town being militarily insignificant, out of the range of artillery and radio contact. In another example, Lieutenant Allan M. Ohata was ordered to charge with his men up a hill toward the enemy, who were dug in and well supplied. Ohata considered the order a certain suicide mission. Despite the threat of court-martial and demotion he refused, insisting that the men would be better off attacking the position "their own way." Lt. Ohata's Distinguished Service Cross, for his actions in Italy as a Staff Sergeant, was ultimately upgraded to the Medal of Honor.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: On 12 November, General Dahlquist ordered the entire 442nd to stand in formation for a recognition and award ceremony. Of the 400 men originally assigned, only eighteen surviving members of K Company and eight of I Company turned out. Upon reviewing the meager assemblage Dahlquist became irritated, ignorant of the sacrifices that the unit had made in serving his orders. He demanded of Colonel Virgil R. Miller, "I want all your men to stand for this formation." Miller responded simply, "That's all of K company left, sir."


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Some time later, while the former commander of the 1st Battalion, Lieutenant Colonel Gordon Singles was filling the role of brigadier general at Fort Bragg (North Carolina), General Dahlquist arrived as part of a review. When he recognized Colonel Singles he approached him and offered the colonel his hand saying, "Let bygones be bygones. It's all water under the bridge, isn't it?" In the presence of the entire III Corps, Colonel Singles continued to salute General Dahlquist but refused to take Dahlquist's hand.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: During and after the war, the 442nd was repeatedly commemorated for their efforts in the Vosges Mountains. A commissioned painting now hangs in The Pentagon depicting their fight to reach the "Lost Battalion." A memorial was erected in Biffontaine by Gerard Henry, later the town's mayor. A monument was established in Bruyeres to mark the liberation of that city. At first a narrow road led to the monument, but the road was later widened to accommodate four tour buses and is now named "The Avenue of the 442nd Infantry Regiment" in honor of those brave soldiers.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Following the tough battle through the Vosges Mountains, the 442nd was sent to the Maritime Alps and the French Riviera. It was an easy assignment compared to what they had experienced in October. Little to no action occurred in the next four months as they rested. The 442nd guarded and patrolled a twelve to fourteen-mile front line segment of the French-Italian border. This part of the 442nd's journey gained the name "Champagne Campaign" because of the available wine, women, and merry times. The 442nd experienced additional losses as patrols sometimes ran into enemy patrols, or sometimes soldiers stepped on enemy and allied land mines. Occasionally, soldiers of the 442nd captured spies and saboteurs.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 442nd also captured an enemy submarine. A Nisei soldier noticed what looked like an animal in the water but upon closer look it was actually a one-man German midget submarine. The German and the submarine were captured and handed over to the U.S. Navy. On 23 March 1945, the 442nd Regimental Combat Team sailed back to Italy and returned to the Gothic Line.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: From 20 to 22 March, the 442 and the 232 shipped off to Italy from France but the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion was sent to another part of Europe. They traveled northwards some through the Rhone Valley and stopped at Kleinblittersdorf on the east bank of the Saar River. The 522nd aided the 63rd Division on the Siegfried Line defenses south of St. Ingbert from 12 to 21 March. The 522nd became a roving battalion, supporting nearly two dozen army units along the front traveling a total of across Germany and accomplishing every objective of their fifty-two assignments. The 522nd was the only Nisei unit to fight in Germany. On 29 April scouts of the 522nd located a satellite camp of the infamous Dachau concentration camp next to the small Bavarian town of Lager Lechfeld, adjacent to Hurlach. Scouts from the 522nd were among the first Allied troops to release prisoners from the "Kaufering IV Hurlach" satellite camp, one of nearly 170 such camps, where more than 3,000 prisoners were held.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: As we came around the way, there were a lot of Jewish inmates coming out of the camp, and I heard that the gate was opened by our advanced scouts. They took a rifle and shot it. I think it was a fellow from Hawaii that did that. I think it was a Captain Taylor, Company B was one of them, but another person from Hawaii, he passed away. They opened the gate and all these German, I mean, Jewish victims were coming out of the camp.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Then, when we finally opened the Dachau camp, got in, oh those people were so afraid of us, I guess. You could see the fear in their face. But eventually, they realized that we were there to liberate them and help them.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: They were all just skin and bones, sunken eyes. I think they were more dead than they were alive because they hadn't eaten so much because, I think, just before we got there the S.S. people had all pulled back up and they were gone. But, we went there, and outside of the camps there were a lot of railroad cars there that had bodies in them. I had the opportunity to go into the camp there, but you could smell the stench. The people were dead and piled up in the buildings, and it was just unbelievable that the Germans could do that to the Jewish people. I really didn't think it was possible at all actually.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The only thing the Nisei could really do was give them clothing and keep them warm. Nisei soldiers began to give the Jewish inmates food from their rations but were ordered to stop because the food could overwhelm the digestive systems of the starved inmates and kill them. As they continued past the subcamp, by 2 May they discovered the eastward path along which Jewish inmates were approaching Waakirchen, as the concentration camp survivors had been driven on a death march to another camp from Dachau starting there on 24 April, headed south through Eurasburg, then eastwards for a total distance of nearly sixty kilometers (37 miles), originally numbering some 15,000 prisoners.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: No, my first encounter was these lumps in snow, and then I didn't know what they were, and so I went and investigated them and discovered that they were people, you know. Most of them were skeletons or people who had been beaten to death or just died of starvation or overworked or whatever. Most of them I think died from exposure because it was cold.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: They discovered more subcamps and former inmates wandering the countryside. Following the German surrender, from May to November, the 522nd was assigned to security around Donauwörth, which consisted of setting up roadblocks and sentry posts to apprehend Nazis who were trying to disappear. The 522nd returned to the United States in November 1945. A memorial to the rescue by the 522nd on 2 May 1945, exists at , just under two kilometers west of the Waakirchen town centre.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: On 23 March 1945 the 100/442 shipped out from Marseille and traveled to Leghorn, Italy, attached to the 92nd Division. The Fifth Army had been stalemated at the Gothic Line for the prior five months. The 442nd faced extremely tough terrain, where the saw-toothed Apennines rose up from the Ligurian Sea. Starting from the northeast, the peaks hugged the east coast of Italy and stretched diagonally southward across the Italian boot. To the west, on the other side of the mountains, was the wide flat Po River Valley that led to the Austrian Alps—the last barrier to Germany. For nine months German Field Marshal Albert Kesselring directed the construction of the Gothic Line along the top of the Apennines. The Todt Organization (known for its fortifications at Monte Cassino) used 15,000 Italian slave laborers. They drilled into solid rock to make gun pits and trenches, which they reinforced with concrete. They built 2,376 machine gun nests with interlocking fire.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: On the Italian Front, the 442nd had contact with the only segregated African-American active combat unit of the U.S. Army in Europe, the 92nd Infantry Division, as well as troops of the British and French colonial empires (West and East Africans, Moroccans, Algerians, Indians, Gurkhas, Jews from the Palestine mandate) and the non-segregated Brazilian Expeditionary Force which had in its ranks ethnic Japanese.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: General Mark W. Clark welcomed the 442 and presented his plan to break the Gothic Line. General Clark had a disagreement with Supreme Commander Eisenhower. Clark had to negotiate for the return of the 100th and 442nd because Eisenhower wanted them for the Battle of the Bulge and General Devers, commander of the Sixth Army Group, needed fresh troops. General Clark got his wish. The 442nd and 100th, minus the 522nd, along with the 92nd Division, mounted a surprise diversionary attack on the left flank. They intended to shift enemy attention to it from the interior, allowing the Eighth Army to cross the Senio River on the right flank and then the Fifth Army on the left.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: In front of the 442nd lay mountains code-named Georgia, Florida, Ohio 1, Ohio 2, Ohio 3, Monte Cerreta, Monte Folgorito, Monte Belvedere, Monte Carchio, and Monte Altissimo. These objectives hinged on surprising the Germans. The 100th went after Georgia Hill and the 3rd Battalion attacked Mount Folgorita. On 3 April the 442nd moved into position under the cover of nightfall to hide from the Germans who had good sight lines from their location on the mountains. The next day the 442nd waited. At 0500 the following morning they were ready to strike. A little over 30 minutes later objectives Georgia and Mount Folgorita were taken, cracking the Gothic Line. They achieved surprise and forced the enemy to retreat. After counterattacking, the Germans were defeated. During this time, 2nd Battalion was moving into position at Mount Belvedere, which overlooked Massa and the Frigido River.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 442nd made a continuous push against the German Army and objectives began to fall: Ohio 1, 2, and 3, Mount Belvedere on 6 April by 2nd Battalion, Montignoso 8 April by 3rd Battalion, Mount Brugiana on 11 April by 2nd Battalion, Carrara by 3rd Battalion on 11 April, and Ortonovo by the 100th on 15 April. The 442 turned a surprise diversionary attack into an all-out offensive. The advance came so quickly that supply units had a hard time keeping up.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The Nisei drove so hard that beginning on 17 April the Germans decided to destroy their fortifications and pull back to make a final stand at Aulla. The last German defense in Italy was Monte Nebbione, directly south of Aulla. San Terenzo lay East of Mount Nobbione and became the launching point for the Aulla assault. The final drive of the 442nd began on 19 April and lasted until 23 April, when the 3rd Battalion finally took Mount Nebbione and Mount Carbolo. Following the fall of San Terenzo, 2nd Battalion hooked right around the mountains and Task Force Fukuda (consisting of Companies B and F from 2nd Battalion) flanked left from Mount Carbolo creating a pincer move onto Aulla. On 25 April Aulla fell and the German retreat was cut off. In the days that followed, Germans began to surrender in the hundreds and thousands to the Fifth and Eighth Armies. This was 442nd's final World War II action. On 2 May the war ended in Italy followed six days later by Victory in Europe.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team is the most decorated unit for its size and length of service in the history of American warfare. The 4,000 men who initially came in April 1943 had to be replaced nearly 2.5 times. In total, about 14,000 men served. The unit was awarded eight Presidential Unit Citations (5 earned in one month). Twenty-one of its members were awarded Medals of Honor. Members of the 442nd received 18,143 awards in less than two years, including:


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: In 1962 Governor John Connally of Texas made the members of the 442nd RCT honorary Texans in appreciation of their rescue of the Lost Battalion of the Texas National Guard in the Vosges in 1944.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: On 5 October 2010, Congress approved the granting of the Congressional Gold Medal to the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, the 100th Infantry Battalion, and Nisei serving in the Military Intelligence Service. The Nisei Soldiers of World War II Congressional Gold Medal was collectively presented on 2 November 2011.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: In 2012, the surviving members of the 442nd RCT were made chevaliers of the French Légion d'Honneur for their actions contributing to the liberation of France during World War II and their heroic rescue of the Lost Battalion outside of Biffontaine.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: 5 April is celebrated as National ""Go For Broke Day"", in honor of the 442nd's first Medal of Honor recipient, Pfc. Sadao Munemori, killed in action near Seravezza, Italy on 5 April 1945.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism During World War II in Washington, D.C. is a National Park Service site honoring Japanese American veterans who served in the Military Intelligence Service, 100th Infantry Battalion, 442nd RCT, and other units, as well as the patriotism and endurance of those held in Japanese American concentration camps and detention centers.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The Go for Broke Monument in Little Tokyo, Los Angeles, California, commemorates the Japanese Americans who served in the United States Army during World War II.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: California has given four state highway segments honorary designations for Japanese American soldiers:


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The USS "Hornet" Museum in Alameda, California, has a permanent special exhibit honoring the 442nd Infantry Regiment.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: On November 17, 2020, the United States Postal Service (USPS) announced they would release in 2021 a postage stamp honoring the contributions of Japanese American soldiers, 33,000 altogether, who served in the U.S. Army during World War II, following a multi-year nationwide campaign. The "stamp our story" campaign started in 2006.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The record of the Japanese Americans serving in the 442nd and in the Military Intelligence Service (U.S. Pacific Theater forces in World War II) helped change the minds of anti-Japanese American critics in the continental U.S. and resulted in easing of restrictions and the eventual release of the 120,000-strong community well before the end of World War II. In Hawaii, the veterans were welcomed home as heroes by a grateful community that had supported them through those trying times.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: However, the unit's exemplary service and many decorations did not change the attitudes of the general population in the continental U.S. towards people of Japanese ancestry after World War II. Veterans came home to signs that read "No Japs Allowed" and "No Japs Wanted", the denial of service in shops and restaurants, and the vandalism of their homes and property.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: On 15 July 1946, the 442nd Regiment marched down Constitution Avenue to the Ellipse south of the White House. President Truman gave a speech and honored the regiment by awarding them the Presidential Unit Citation. The American Legion refused to allow Nisei veterans into their group and removed Japanese-American soldiers from their honor rolls. It was not until white officers from the 442nd regiment intervened that the Legion began to accept Nisei veterans into the organization. Many Nisei veterans had difficulty finding houses in the continental United States. Their homes were occupied with new tenants. Due to the housing shortage, many Nisei veterans resorted to using federal housing programs. Many Nisei veterans used the G.I. Bill as an opportunity to attend university. Many Nisei became doctors, dentists, architects, scientists, and engineers.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: Anti-Japanese sentiment remained strong into the 1960s, but faded along with other once-common prejudices, even while remaining strong in certain circles. Conversely, the story of the 442nd provided a leading example of what was to become the controversial model minority stereotype.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: According to author and historian Tom Coffman, men of the 100th/442nd/MIS dreaded returning home as second-class citizens. In Hawaii these men became involved in a peaceful movement. It has been described as the 100th/442nd returning from the battles in Europe to the battle at home. The non-violent revolution was successful and put veterans in public office in what became known as the Revolution of 1954.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: One notable effect of the service of the Japanese-American units was to help convince Congress to end its opposition towards Hawaii's statehood petition. Twice before 1959, residents of Hawaii asked to be admitted to the U.S. as the 49th state. The exemplary record of the Japanese Americans serving in these units and the loyalty showed by the rest of Hawaii's population during World War II allowed Hawaii to be admitted as the 50th state (Alaska was granted statehood just prior).


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: In post-war American popular slang, the phrase "going for broke" was adopted from the 442nd's unit motto "Go for Broke", which according to the 1951 film "Go for Broke!" was derived from the Hawaiian pidgin phrase used by craps shooters risking all their money on one roll of the dice.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The 442nd RCT was inactivated in Honolulu in 1946, but reactivated in 1947 in the U.S. Army Reserve. It was mobilized in 1968 to refill the Strategic Reserve during the Vietnam War, and carries on the honors and traditions of the unit. Today, the 100th Battalion, 442nd Infantry, is the only ground combat unit of the Army Reserve. The battalion headquarters is at Fort Shafter, Hawaii, with subordinate units based in Hilo, American Samoa, Saipan, and Guam. The only military presence in American Samoa consists of the battalion's B and C companies.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: In August 2004, the battalion was mobilized for duty in Iraq. Stationed at Logistics Support Area Anaconda in the city of Balad, which is located about 50 miles northwest of Baghdad. Lt. Colonel Colbert Low assumed command of the battalion only a few weeks after the battalion arrived at Logistical Support Area Anaconda. In early 2006, the 100th had returned home. One soldier was killed by an improvised explosive device attack. Four members of the battalion were killed in action, and several dozen injured, before the battalion returned home. During the year-long deployment, one of Charlie Company's attached platoons, discovered over 50 weapons caches. Unlike the soldiers of World War II who were predominantly Japanese Americans, these soldiers came from as far away as Miami, Florida, Tennessee, Alaska and included soldiers from Hawaii, Philippines, Samoa and Palau. For their actions in Iraq the unit received the Meritorious Unit Commendation.


title: 442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)

text: The unit was once again deployed in 2009. The unit was called up alongside the 3rd brigade, 25th Infantry Division; and was assigned as an element of the 29th Infantry Brigade Combat Team. Nominally deployed to Kuwait, it conducted patrols into Iraq, leading to two fatalities; those patrols consisted of more than a million miles of driving conducting convoy duty. During the units deployment, several dozen of the unit's American Samoan servicemembers became naturalized U.S. citizens while in Kuwait.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: There have been four Provinces of Ireland: Connacht (Connaught), Leinster, Munster, and Ulster. The Irish word for this territorial division, , meaning "fifth part", suggests that there were once five, and at times Meath has been considered to be the fifth province; in the medieval period, however, there were often more than five. The number of provinces and their delimitation fluctuated until 1610, when they were permanently set by the English administration of James I. The provinces of Ireland no longer serve administrative or political purposes but function as historical and cultural entities.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: In modern Irish the word for province is (pl. ). The modern Irish term derives from the Old Irish (pl. ) which literally meant "a fifth". This term appears in 8th-century law texts such as and in the legendary tales of the Ulster Cycle where it refers to the five kingdoms of the "Pentarchy". MacNeill enumerates the five earliest fifths mentioned, these comprising the kingdoms of Ulster, Connacht, Munster, Tara (North Leinster) and Dinn Riogh (South Leinster), located on the Barrow. The earliest hero tales name the Boyne as the dividing boundary between Ulster and Leinster, indicating that no province representative of Meath or Brega was yet in existence. The kings of Tara and Dinn Riogh were said to derive from the same lineage, which ruled all the Laigin. In the 12th century (Book of Rights), the term means province, seemingly having lost its fractional meaning with seven listed. Similarly this seems to be the case in regards to titles with the Annals of Ulster using the term (king of the fifth/province) for certain overkings.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: The origins of the provinces of Ireland can be traced to the medieval (literally "fifths") or "over-kingdoms" of Ireland. There were theoretically five such over-kingdoms, however in reality during the historical period there were always more. At the start of the 9th century the following are listed: Airgíalla, Connachta, Laigin, Northern Uí Néill (Ailech), Southern Uí Néill (Mide), Mumu, and Ulaid. These seven over-kingdoms are again listed in the 12th-century .


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: Each over-kingdom was divided into smaller territorial units, the definition of which, whilst not consistent in Irish law tracts, followed a pattern of different grades. In theory in the early medieval period:


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: Paul MacCotter proposes the following structure of lordship in the 12th century: High-king of Ireland; semi-provincial king, such as Connacht, Ulaid, Desmumu; regional king, such as Dál Fiatach and Uí Fhiachrach Aidni; local king or king of a , such as Leth Cathail or Cenél Guaire; and at the bottom.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: The kingdom of Osraige, which had its genealogy traced back by early Irish genealogists to the Laigin, was part of Mumu from the 6th to 8th century and ruled by the Corcu Loígde dynasty. By the 7th century Osraige had lost their dependence on the Corcu Loígde, with the restoration of the local Dál Birn dynasty. Osraige remained part of Mumu until 859 when Máel Sechnaill I, king of the Uí Néill, forced Mumu to surrender it to his overlordship. After this situation ended it became an independent kingdom which gradually moved towards the Laigin sphere of influence as they sought to claim the Laigin kingship. It was during the 9th century that Osraige, ruled by Cerball mac Dúnlainge, became a major political player.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: Airgíalla had come under the dominance of the Ulaid, however Niall Caille, the son of Áed Oirdnide, brought it under the hegemony of the Northern Uí Néill after defeating the combined forces of the Airgíalla and Ulaid at the battle of Leth Cam in 827.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: After a period of dynastic infighting in the early 12th century, Osraige fragmented and after a heavy defeat at the hands of High-King Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn became part of Laigin. In 1169, the king of Osraige, Domnall Mac Gilla Pátraic, hired the Norman knight Maurice de Prendergast to resist the Laigin king, Diarmait Mac Murchada, who had also recruited Norman aid.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: In 1118, the king of Connacht, Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, aided the Mac Cárthaigh of south Munster in a rebellion against the ruling Uí Briain dynasty. This resulted in the division of Mumu into two: (Thomond, meaning "north Munster") to the north under the Uí Briain; and (Desmond, meaning "south Munster") to the south under the Mac Cárthaigh. Ua Conchobair would then conquer the heartland of the Uí Briain situated around modern County Clare and make it part of Connacht. This was to force them to accept Cormac Mac Carthaig, king of Desmumu, as the king of Mumu. Despite Ua Conchobair's aid, Mac Carthaig and the Uí Briain would form an alliance to campaign against Connacht's hegemony, and by 1138 ended the threat from that kingdom. The following decades would see Mumu united and repartitioned several times as the Uí Briain and Mac Cárthaigh vied for complete control. In 1168, the king of Connacht, Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, ensured Mumu remained divided. After Henry II, king of England, landed in Ireland in 1171, the Mac Cárthaigh submitted to him to prevent an Uí Briain invasion. The Uí Briain eventually followed suit in submitting to Henry II. The eagerness of these submissions encouraged Henry II to revive the papal grant, Laudabiliter, for Ireland.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: Osraige would be amongst the first Irish kingdoms to fall following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1170, and was soon afterwards split from Leinster and made part of the royal demesne lands of Waterford.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: In the years following the invasion, the kingdoms of Connacht, Desmumu, Laigin, Mide, Tuadmumu, and Ulaid formed the basis for the Norman liberties of Connacht, Desmond, Leinster, Meath, Thomond and Ulster respectively. These liberties were later subdivided into smaller ones that became the basis for the counties of Ireland.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: The Northern Uí Néill remained outside of Norman control, eventually absorbing the greater part of Airgíalla, which had by the end of the 12th century lost its eastern territory (afterwards known as "English Oriel" and later as Louth) to the Normans. Airgíalla would eventually no longer be reckoned an over-kingdom however it survived in present-day County Monaghan for as long as the Gaelic order survived, with the last king of Airgíalla being Hugh Roe McMahon, who reigned from 1589 until his execution in September/October 1590.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: With the collapse of English control in Ireland following the Bruce campaign in Ireland in 1315, and the subsequent collapse of the Earldom of Ulster, the Gaelic order had a resurgence and the Clandeboye O'Neills of the Northern Uí Néill stepped into the power vacuum in Ulster bringing it under the sovereignty of the O'Neills of Tyrone. After this they claimed for the first time the title of , "king of Ulster", amalgamating their territory into one united province. This reduced the number of provinces to five—Connact, Leinster, Meath, Munster, and Ulster.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: During the reign of Mary I (1553–1558), the Lord Deputy of Ireland, Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, sought to divide Ireland into six parts—Connaught, Leinster, Meath, Nether Munster, Ulster, and Upper Munster. His administrative reign in Ireland however was cut short and even with his reappointment by Elizabeth I (1558–1603) this plan was never implemented.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: Sir Henry Sidney during his three tenures as Lord Deputy created two presidencies headed by a Lord President to administer Connaught and Munster. In an attempt to reduce the importance of the province of Munster, Sydney, using the River Shannon as a natural boundary took Thomond and made it into the county of Clare as part of the presidency of Connaught in 1569. Around 1600 near the end of Elizabeth's reign, Clare was made an entirely distinct presidency of its own under the Earls of Thomond and would not return to being part of Munster until after the Restoration in 1660.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: The exact boundaries of the provinces of Ireland during the Tudor period changed several times, usually as a result of the creation of new counties:


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: It would not be until the reign of Elizabeth's successor, James I, that Meath by 1610 would cease to be considered a province and that the provincial borders would be permanently set.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: The earliest recorded mention of the major division of Ireland is in the Ulster Cycle of legends, such as the . The is set during the reign of , king of Ulster, and is believed to have happened in the 1st century. In this period Ireland is said to have been divided into five independent over-kingdoms, or whose (kings) were of equal rank, not subject to a central monarchy. Pseudo-historians called this era , which has been translated as: "Time of the Pentarchs"; "Time of the Five Fifths"; and "Time of the provincial kings". It was also described as "the Pentarchy".


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: Historians Geoffrey Keating and T. F. O'Rahilly differ suggesting that it is Munster, not Leinster, that formed two of the fifths. These two fifths were called by Keating: (eastern Munster) and (western Munster), both named after their respective king. Eoin MacNeill discounts this suggestion citing the , which makes mention of as king of all Munster, with simply a "great Munster hero". He also cites that the makes mention of the four fifths of Ireland that waged war on Ulster, which made reference to only one Munster. Another reason given by MacNeill was a problem made by Keating himself. According to Keating, when the province of was being founded, it was created from portions of each province which all met at the hill of Uisnech. The boundaries given by Keating himself for the five provinces however meant that this would have been highly unlikely, with the boundary between his Munster fifths nowhere near this area.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: Pseudo-historians list 84 kings of Ireland prior to the formation of the Pentarchy. When this mythical kingship was interrupted is a matter of dispute. The Annals of Tigernach state that Ireland was divided into the five upon the slaying of Conaire Mór, however it is suggested alternatively that it happened upon the death of Conaire's father, Eterscél Mór, the 84th king of Ireland. Keating however suggests it occurred in the reign of Eochu Feidlech who was the 82nd king of Ireland.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: MacNeill claims that this division of Ireland into five is pre-historic and pre-Gaelic, describing the Pentarchy as "the oldest certain fact in the political history of Ireland". The notion of Ireland being divided into five permeated itself throughout Irish literature over the centuries despite what the representing no longer existing by the time of Saint Patrick in the 5th century. By then, Ireland had become divided into seven over-kingdoms.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: The main body of the events in the myth of the Three Collas may have occurred in the late 4th to early 5th century, however as the centuries passed the myth underwent updating and alteration. The most oft quoted version of their story was written by Geoffrey Keating in the 17th century in his work the , also known as "The History of Ireland".


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: In it the Three Collas—Colla Menn, Colla Da Crioch, and Colla Uais—were the sons of Eocaidh Doimlén. It is from them that the Airgíalla are said to descend, branching off from the rest of the Connachta. The Northern and Southern Uí Néill dynasties are claimed to descend from Eocaidh's brother, Fiacha Sraibhtine. According to the story the Collas were told by Fiacha's son, Muiredach Tirech, the High King of Ireland, to conquer land of their own to pass on to their descendants, directing them to wage war on the Ulaid to avenge a slight against their great-grandfather Cormac mac Airt.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: The Collas with their army along with a host from Connacht marched to Achaidh Leithdeircc in Fernmagh, southern Ulaid, and fought the Ulaid in seven battles over the course of seven days. The host from Connacht fought the first six battles, and the Collas fought the seventh. It is after this last battle that the king of Ulaid, Fergus Foga, was killed and his army routed. The Collas then pursued the Ulaid east of the "Glen Righe" (the valley of the Newry River in eastern County Armagh), before returning to loot and burn the Ulaid capital, Emain Macha, after which it never again had a king. They then took possession of central Ulaid spanning the modern counties of Armagh, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Monaghan and Tyrone founding the over-kingdom of Airgíalla.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: In modern times the provinces have become associated with groups of counties, although they have no legal status. They are today seen mainly in a sporting context. Ireland's four professional rugby teams in the United Rugby Championship play under the names of the provinces. The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) has separate provincial councils and its county teams contest provincial championships.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: Six of the nine Ulster counties form modern-day Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. Many of Northern Ireland's unionist political parties use "Ulster" in their names such as the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) and the Ulster Democratic Party (DUP). The ITV regional service is known as Ulster Television but generally abbreviated to UTV, while BBC Radio Ulster is the main BBC radio station from BBC Northern Ireland.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: In education Munster Technological University and Ulster University both use the provinces in which they are located in their name.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: In media many local and regional newspapers use their province in their names such as The Munster Express in Waterford, Leinster Leader in Kildare, Connacht Tribune in Galway and Ulster Herald in Fermanagh.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: In modern times politically the four provinces were referred to in the proposal of ("New Ireland"), which was supported by the Provisional IRA and Sinn Féin during the 1970s and early 1980s for a federal United Ireland. The proposal was particularly associated with the Dublin-based leadership group centred on Ruairí Ó Brádaigh and Dáithí Ó Conaill, who were the authors of the policy. envisaged a united Ireland that would be created when the British withdrew from Northern Ireland, and the creation of a federal state with assemblies for each of its four historic provinces.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: Each province is today represented by its own unique arms and flag. These are joined to represent various All Ireland sports teams and organisations via the Four Provinces Flag of Ireland and a four province Crest of Ireland, with examples including the Ireland national field hockey team, Ireland national rugby league team, Ireland national rugby union team and Irish Amateur Boxing Association.


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: The poem named (Ruide Headland) poetically describes the five kingdoms of Ireland. Below is a translation from Old Irish:


title: Provinces of Ireland

text: The epic poem, "An Táin Bó Cúailnge" (the Cattle Raid of Cooley) describes a war between Connacht and Ulster, and is perhaps best known for CúChulainn's single handed defence of Ulster against the champions of Connacht in turn, while his comrades were disabled by a spell.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: A state-owned enterprise (SOE) is a government entity which is established or nationalised by the "national government" or "provincial government" by an executive order or an act of legislation in order to earn profit for the government, control monopoly of the private sector entities, provide products and services to citizens at a lower price and for the achievement of overall financial goals & developmental objectives in a particular country. The national government or provincial government has majority ownership over these "state owned enterprises". These "state owned enterprises" are also known as public sector undertakings in some countries. Defining characteristics of SOEs are their distinct legal form and possession of financial goals & developmental objectives (e.g., a state railway company may aim to make transportation more accessible and earn profit for the government), SOEs are government entities established to pursue financial objectives and developmental goals.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: The terminology around the term state-owned enterprise is murky. All three words in the term are challenged and subject to interpretation. First, it is debatable what the term "state" implies (e.g., it is unclear whether municipally owned corporations and enterprises held by regional public bodies are considered state-owned). Next, it is contestable under what circumstances a SOE qualifies as "owned" by a state (SOEs can be fully owned or partially owned; it is difficult to determine categorically what level of state ownership would qualify an entity to be considered as state-owned since governments can also own regular stock, without implying any special interference). Finally, the term "enterprise" is challenged, as it implies statutes in private law which may not always be present, and so the term "corporations" is frequently used instead.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: Thus, SOEs are known under many other terms: state-owned company, state-owned entity, state enterprise, publicly owned corporation, government business enterprise, government-owned company, government-owned corporation, government-sponsored enterprise, commercial government agency, state-privatised industry public sector undertaking, or parastatal, among others. In the Commonwealth realms, particularly in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, country-wide SOEs often use the term "Crown corporation", or "Crown entity", as cabinet ministers (Ministers of the Crown) often control the shares in them.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: The term "government-linked company" (GLC) is sometimes used to refer to corporate entities that may be private or public (listed on a stock exchange) where an existing government owns a stake using a holding company. The two main definitions of GLCs are dependent on the proportion of the corporate entity a government owns. One definition purports that a company is classified as a GLC if a government owns an effective controlling interest (more than 50%), while the second definition suggests that any corporate entity that has a government as a shareholder is a GLC.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: SOEs are common with natural monopolies, because they allow capturing economies of scale while they can simultaneously achieve a public objective. For that reason, SOEs primarily operate in the domain of infrastructure (e.g. railway companies), strategic goods and services (e.g. postal services, arms manufacturing and procurement), natural resources and energy (e.g. nuclear facilities, alternative energy delivery), politically sensitive business, broadcasting, banking, demerit goods (e.g. alcoholic beverages), and merit goods (healthcare).


title: State-owned enterprise

text: SOEs can also help foster industries that are "considered economically desirable and that would otherwise not be developed through private investments". When nascent or 'infant' industries have difficulty getting investments from the private sector (perhaps because the good that is being produced requires very risky investments, when patenting is difficult, or when spillover effects exist), the government can help these industries get on the market with positive economic effects. However, the government cannot necessarily predict which industries would qualify as such 'infant industries', and so the extent to which this is a viable argument for SOEs is debated.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: SOEs are also frequently employed in areas where the government wants to levy user fees, but finds it politically difficult to introduce new taxation. Next, SOEs can be used to improve efficiency of public service delivery or as a step towards (partial) privatization or hybridization. SOEs can also be a means to alleviate fiscal stress, as SOEs may not count towards states' budgets.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: Compared to government bureaucracy, state owned enterprises might be beneficial because they reduce politicians' influence over the service. Conversely, they might be detrimental because they reduce oversight and increase transaction costs (such as monitoring costs, i.e., it is more difficult and costly to govern and regulate an autonomous SOE than it is the public bureaucracy). Evidence suggests that existing SOEs are typically more efficient than government bureaucracy, but that this benefit diminishes as services get more technical and have less overt public objectives.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: Compared to a regular enterprise, state-owned enterprises are typically expected to be less efficient due to political interference, but unlike profit-driven enterprises they are more likely to focus on government objectives.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: In Eastern Europe and Western Europe, there was a massive nationalization throughout the 20th century, especially after World War II. In the Eastern Bloc, countries adopted very similar policies and models to the USSR. Governments in Western Europe, both left and right of centre, saw state intervention as necessary to rebuild economies shattered by war. Government control over natural monopolies like industry was the norm. Typical sectors included telephones, electric power, fossil fuels, iron ore, railways, airlines, media, postal services, banks, and water. Many large industrial corporations were also nationalized or created as government corporations, including, among many others: British Steel Corporation, Statoil and Irish Sugar.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: A state-run enterprise may operate differently from an ordinary limited liability corporation. For example, in Finland, state-run enterprises ("liikelaitos") are governed by a separate laws. Even though responsible for their own finances, they cannot be declared bankrupt; the state answers for the liabilities. Stocks of the corporation are not sold and loans have to be government-approved, as they are government liabilities.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: In most OPEC countries, the governments own the oil companies operating on their soil. A notable example is the Saudi Arabian national oil company, Saudi Aramco, which the Saudi government bought in 1988, changing its name from Arabian American Oil Company to Saudi Arabian Oil Company. The Saudi government also owns and operates Saudi Arabian Airlines, and owns 70% of SABIC as well as many other companies.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: In the EU directives were issued, and signed into law in member countries, that railways should be split into branches. So where everything from infrastructure to running the trains had been in one company (often owned by the local state or other authorities), now the various activities were to be separated into independent companies. A major motivation was to more easily enable free access to run trains in the various countries, and thereby increase competition and offer lower fees.


title: State-owned enterprise

text: In economic theory, the question of whether a firm should be owned by the state or by the private sector is studied in the theory of incomplete contracts that was developed by Oliver Hart and his co-authors. In a world in which complete contracts were feasible, ownership would not matter because the same incentive structure that prevails under one ownership structure could be replicated under the other ownership structure. Hart, Shleifer, and Vishny (1997) have developed the leading application of the incomplete contract theory to the issue of state-owned enterprises. These authors compare a situation in which the government is in control of a firm to a situation in which a private manager is in control. The manager can invest to come up with cost-reducing and quality-enhancing innovations. The government and the manager bargain over the implementation of the innovations. If the negotiations fail, the owner can decide about the implementation. It turns out that when cost-reducing innovations do not harm quality significantly, then private firms are to be preferred. Yet, when cost-reductions may strongly reduce quality, state-owned enterprises are superior. Hoppe and Schmitz (2010) have extended this theory in order to allow for a richer set of governance structures, including different forms of public-private partnerships.


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: In traditional festive legend and popular culture, Santa Claus's reindeer are said to pull a sleigh through the night sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to children on Christmas Eve.


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: The number of reindeer characters, and the names given to them (if any) vary in different versions, but those frequently cited in the United States are the eight listed in Clement Clarke Moore's 1823 poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas", the work that is largely responsible for the reindeer becoming popularly known. In the poem the reindeers' names are given as Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Donder and Blitzen.


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: The popularity of Robert L. May's 1939 storybook "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer", and Gene Autry's 1949 Christmas song "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer", resulted in Rudolph often being included as the ninth character.


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: The first reference to Santa's sleigh being pulled by a reindeer appears in "Old Santeclaus with Much Delight", an 1821 illustrated children's poem published in New York. The names of the author and the illustrator are not known. The poem, with eight colored lithographic illustrations, was published by William B. Gilley as a small paperback book entitled "The Children's Friend: A New-Year's Present, to the Little Ones from Five to Twelve". The illustration to the first verse features a sleigh with a sign saying "REWARDS" being pulled by an unnamed single reindeer.


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: The 1823 poem by Clement C. Moore, "A Visit from St. Nicholas" (also known as "Twas the Night Before Christmas"), is largely credited for the modern Christmas lore that includes eight named reindeer.


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: The poem was first published in the "Sentinel" of Troy, New York on 23 December 1823. All eight reindeer were named, the first six being Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet and Cupid, and the final two "Dunder" and "Blixem" (meaning "thunder" and "lightning" in colloquial New York Dutch). The relevant part of the poem reads:


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: Moore altered the names of the last two reindeer several times; in an early 1860s version of the poem, written as a gift to a friend, they are named "Donder" and "Blitzen" (with revised punctuation and underlined reindeer names). The relevant part reads:


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: When Edmund Clarence Stedman collected the poem in his "An American Anthology, 1787–1900", he also used "Donder" and "Blitzen", italicising the names.


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: The modern German spelling of "Donner" came into use only in the early twentieth-century, well after Moore's death.


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: L. Frank Baum's story "The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus" (1902) includes a list of ten reindeer, none of which match those in "A Visit from St. Nicholas". Santa's principal reindeer are Flossie and Glossie, and he gathers others named Racer and Pacer, Reckless and Speckless, Fearless and Peerless, and Ready and Steady.


title: Santa Claus's reindeer

text: Rudolph's story was originally written in verse by Robert L. May for the Montgomery Ward chain of department stores in 1939, and published as a book to be given to children in the store at Christmas time.


title: Sam Jaeger

text: Jaeger was born in Perrysburg, Ohio, the son of LeAnne (née Graening) and Charles Jaeger. He is the youngest of four children. He graduated from Perrysburg High School in 1995 and in 1999, he received a Bachelor of Fine Arts Degree at Otterbein College. Following his graduation, Jaeger worked in a casting office in New York. He married actress Amber Marie Mellott whom he met at Otterbein College, on August 25, 2007. He has four children, August, born in 2010, Redford, born ca. 2014, Calvin, born June 26, 2016, and stepdaughter, Aubrey.


title: Sam Jaeger

text: Jaeger started his acting career while still in college, with a small guest role in New York-based TV series "Law & Order" (1990). He also acted on several theater stages in New York before moving to Los Angeles and Hollywood to act in full-length movies. His career gained speed when he managed to get roles in well-known feature films as "Traffic" (2000) and "Behind Enemy Lines" (2001). After that he appeared alongside Bruce Willis and Colin Farrell in "Hart's War" (2002) as Captain R. G. Sisk. In 2009, Jaeger landed the role of Joel Graham in NBC's television series "Parenthood", which premiered in 2010. Additionally, he wrote, directed, and starred with his wife in the 2011 film "Take Me Home."


title: Sam Jaeger

text: Jaeger's television appearances include the role of Richard on ABC's "When We Rise", the role of Tim Powell on "Tell Me a Story", and the role of Rob Stanton on "Why Women Kill". He is currently a reoccurring character, Mark Tuello, in "Hulu"'s "The Handmaid's Tale".


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: Jab Harry Met Sejal () is a 2017 Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy film written and directed by Imtiaz Ali. It stars Anushka Sharma and Shah Rukh Khan in their third collaboration after "Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi" (2008) and "Jab Tak Hai Jaan" (2012). Pre-production of the film begun in April 2015 and principal photography commenced in August 2016 in Prague, Amsterdam, Vienna, Lisbon and Budapest.


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: "Jab Harry Met Sejal" released on 4 August 2017 to mixed-to-negative reviews from critics and audience, with criticism for its direction, story, and screenplay, but praise for the soundtrack, cinematography, production design, costumes, and Khan and Sharma's performances. It was a box-office bomb in India, however, it was fairly successful overseas.


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: At the 63rd Filmfare Awards, "Jab Harry Met Sejal" received 2 nominations – Best Music Director (Pritam) and Best Female Playback Singer (Nikhita Gandhi for "Ghar").


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: Harinder "Harry" Singh Nehra (Shah Rukh Khan) is a tourist guide who works in Amsterdam. Self-described as a "cheap womaniser", he is lonely yet friendly and helpful, and often flirts with his clients, putting his job at risk.


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: After dropping a family at the airport, Harry comes across Sejal Zaveri (Anushka Sharma), a member of the same family who has lost her engagement ring and wants him to help her. Harry is reluctant, but to avoid a complaint by Sejal that might make him lose his job, he reluctantly agrees to help. In due course of time while searching for the ring, they become friendly and he tells her that he had left his village, Nurmahal and came to Canada to become a singer, which did not work out and that is how he slowly became a tour guide.


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: Both Harry and Sejal travel to places in Europe where he had initially taken the family, in search of the ring. During this, Harry ends up falling in love with Sejal, but does not reveal it to her, knowing that she is engaged to Rupen (Kavi Shastri). They soon learn that a criminal, Ghyassuddin Mohammed Qureshi "Gas" (Chandan Roy Sanyal), has stolen the ring. They go to Gas to retrieve the ring but Harry gets thrashed by Gas' men. Later, while looking for antiseptics in her bag for Harry, Sejal finds the ring and realises that the ring was in her bag all along. However, she does not tell Harry, as she wants to spend some more time with him and is falling in love with him as well.


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: The next day, Harry and Sejal fly to Frankfurt for the wedding between Harry's friend Mayank (Aru Krishansh Verma) and Irina (Evelyn Sharma), where both get questioned by them about their relationship, seeing their evident chemistry. After the wedding, Harry and Sejal get into an argument about it. Harry does not admit his feelings, as he feels he is not good enough for her and she decides to fly back home.


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: At the airport, Sejal shows Harry the ring and tells him that she found it few days ago and that it was in her bag all along. He asks her to take care and bids her goodbye.


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: She returns to India and he returns to his work, but begins to miss her and gets sad, not being able to concentrate during work. On Mayank's insistence, Harry flies to Mumbai to go to her wedding in hope to talk to her about his unrevealed feelings before she marries. On reaching the venue, he learns that Sejal's marriage was called off. He walks out to find her sitting outside. They eventually share their feelings for each other, kiss and go to Harry's village, Nurmahal in Punjab, where he reunites with his family and marries Sejal.


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: "Jab Harry Met Sejal" was initially conceived about a man trying to commit suicide. However, after Khan met Ali, the former suggested to revitalise the story by making it a more jolly film.


title: Jab Harry Met Sejal

text: Production of the film began in April 2016 and plans to filming were announced in the first part of August 2016, when the film had the working title "Production No. 52". Sharma required several months of diction training to prepare herself for her role, as her character is from Gujarat. She describes her character as "very superficial, doesn't have any depth as a person. There is no similarity with me. But her morals and values of self-respect are something that I can relate to. But otherwise, the character is quite impulsive by nature."