title: Rakia

text: Rakija is the most popular spirit in Croatia. Travarica (herbal rakija) is usually served at the beginning of the meal, together with dried figs. The Croatian Adriatic coast is known for a great variety of herbal rakija, some typical for only one island or group of islands. The island Hvar is famous for rakija with the addition of Myrtus ("mrtina"—bitter and dark brown). Southern islands, such as Korčula, and the city of Dubrovnik are famous for rakija with anise ("aniseta"), and in central Dalmatia the most popular rakija is rakija with walnuts ("orahovica"). It's usually homemade, and served with dry cookies or dried figs. In the summer, it's very typical to see huge glass jars of rakija with nuts steeping in the liquid on every balcony, because the process requires the exposure of orahovica to the sun. In the northern Adriatic—mainly Istria—rakija is typically made of honey ("medica") or mistletoe ("biska"). Biska, which is yellow-brown and sweet, is a typical liquor of Istria. In the interior of the country a spirit called šljivovica (shlivovitza) is made from plums, and one called viljamovka (viliam-ovka) is made from Williams pears.


title: Rakia

text: Croatia has EU Protected Geographical Indication of 6 rakija products (Zadarski maraschino ,Hrvatska travarica, Hrvatski pelinkovac, Hrvatska stara šljivovica, Slavonska šljivovica and Hrvatska loza).


title: Rakia

text: Raki or rakı (, , , ) is an unsweetened, occasionally (depending on area of production) anise-flavoured, alcoholic drink that is popular in Iran, Turkic countries, and in the Balkan countries as an apéritif. It is often served with seafood or meze. It is comparable to several other alcoholic beverages available around the Mediterranean and the Middle East, such as pastis, ouzo, sambuca, arak and aguardiente. In Turkey, it is considered a national drink.


title: Rakia

text: Rakija () is one of the most popular spirits in North Macedonia, with the most common types are yellow and white grape rakija.Tikves winery makes the most famous rakija which is made in Kavadarci. A lot of people in North Macedonia make homemade white rakija with natural process from grape distillate and add anise which gives sweetness. In industrial production, the percentage of alcohol in rakija is between 40 and 45 percent, but in domestic production, this percentage can be more than 60.


title: Rakia

text: In Romania and Moldova, the related word "rachiu" or "rachie" is used to refer to a similar alcoholic beverage as these neighboring countries, often a strong fruit-based spirit, usually from grapes. However, the more commonly used terms for similar popular beverages are țuică and palincă; țuică in particular is prepared only from plums. Additionally, the regional term "vinars" (literally "burnt-wine") in Romania, and "divin" in Moldova, can refer to brandy in general as well.


title: Rakia

text: In Greece, raki (Greek: "ρακή)" ) is the most popular traditional Cretan spirit, also known as tsikoudia (Greek: "τσικουδιά"). The Greek raki is a pomace brandy made of twice-distilled grapes and is often produced at home in villages. It does not contain anise and is commonly served cold as an apéritif with seafood and meze, usually referred to as rakomezedes, or as a complimentary digestif with spoon sweets or fruit after a meal.


title: Rakia

text: The Cretan raki is an integral element of the island’s culture, identified by many as "the national drink of Crete" and linked to hospitality.


title: Rakia

text: When offered, one should never deny a glass of it. Rakomelo (Greek: "ρακόμελο") is also a popular spirit made by combining raki with honey (Greek: "μέλι") and several spices, such as cinnamon, cardamom, or other regional herbs.


title: Rakia

text: In North Macedonia it often served with pristine mountain sheep cheese, variety of salads such as shopska salad cabbage salad, yogurt and cucumber salad, root salads, olives dipped in olive oil, as well as yellow cheese kashkaval and less commonly with pork roast or dried pork meats.


title: Rakia

text: In Bulgaria, rakiya is generally served with shopska salad, yogurt salad, pickled vegetables (turshiya) or other salads, which form the first course of the meal. Muskatova rakiya is made from Muscat grapes, while the preparation method of dzhibrova rakiya is the same as for Italian grappa.


title: Rakia

text: In summer, rakiya is usually served ice cold, while in winter it's served "cooked" (Serbian: "кувана / kuvana" or "грејана / grejana", Bulgarian: "греяна" ("greyana"), Croatian: "kuhana", rakiya (also called "Šumadija tea" in Serbia). Rakiya is heated and sweetened with honey or sugar, with added spices. Heated in large kettles, it is often offered to visitors to various open-air festivities, especially in winter. It is similar to mulled wine, as weaker brands of rakiya are used (or stronger ones diluted with water).


title: Rakia

text: Although wine is the essential part of the Eucharist rite in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in the region, rakia has found uses in certain religious and related rituals across the Balkans.


title: Rakia

text: At the end of the Orthodox Christian burial service, at the exit from the cemetery, visitors are offered a piece of soda bread ("pogača") and a glass of rakia. When drinking "for the soul" of the deceased, one spills some rakia on the ground, saying "For the peaceful rest of the soul", before drinking the rest.


title: Rakia

text: During wedding ceremonies, the groom's father goes around all tables and offers a glass of rakia to all guests, sharing a toast for the happiness of the newlyweds. In general, in the Balkans, rakia is offered to guests in one's home as a welcoming gesture.


title: Rakia

text: It is also used as a sacramental element in Bektashi and Alevi Jem ceremonies, where it is not considered alcoholic and is referred to as 'dem.'


title: Hall effect sensor

text: A Hall effect sensor (or simply Hall sensor) is a type of sensor which detects the presence and magnitude of a magnetic field using the Hall effect. The output voltage of a Hall sensor is directly proportional to the strength of the field. It is named for the American physicist Edwin Hall.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall sensors are used for proximity sensing, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing applications. Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with threshold detection to act as a binary switch. Commonly seen in industrial applications such as the pictured pneumatic cylinder, they are also used in consumer equipment; for example, some computer printers use them to detect missing paper and open covers. Some 3D printers use them to measure filament thickness.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal combustion engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used in brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. In the pictured wheel with two equally spaced magnets, the voltage from the sensor peaks twice for each revolution. This arrangement is commonly used to regulate the speed of disk drives.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: In a Hall sensor, a current is applied to a thin strip of metal. In the presence of a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of the current, the charge carriers are deflected by the Lorentz force, producing a difference in electric potential (voltage) between the two sides of the strip. This voltage difference (the Hall voltage) is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall effect sensors respond to static (non-changing) magnetic fields. This is a key difference from inductive sensors, which respond only to changes in fields.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: A Hall probe is a device that uses a calibrated Hall effect sensor to directly measure the strength of a magnetic field. Since magnetic fields have a direction as well as a magnitude, the results from a Hall probe are dependent on the orientation, as well as the position, of the probe.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: The key factor determining sensitivity of Hall effect sensors is high electron mobility. As a result, the following materials are especially suitable for Hall effect sensors:


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall sensors are linear transducers. Such sensors require a linear circuit for processing the sensor output signal. This circuit provides the drive voltage for the sensor and is used to amplify the output signal. In some cases, the linear circuit may cancel the offset voltage of Hall sensors. Moreover, AC modulation of the driving current may also reduce the influence of this offset voltage.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall sensors with linear transducers are commonly integrated with digital electronics. This enables advanced corrections to the sensor characteristics (e.g. temperature-coefficient corrections) and digital interfacing to microprocessor systems. In some IC Hall sensors an integrated DSP is used, which can allow more processing techniques directly within the sensor package. The Hall sensor interfaces may include input diagnostics, fault protection for transient conditions, and short/open-circuit detection. It may also provide and monitor the current to the Hall sensor itself. There are precision IC products available to handle these features.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall sensors are capable of measuring a wide range of magnetic fields, and are sensitive to both the magnitude and orientation of the field. When used as electronic switches, they are less prone to mechanical failure, since there is no wear on physical parts. They can also be operated at higher frequencies than mechanical switches.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall effect switches cannot be used in areas with high external magnetic fields. Hall sensors can be prone to thermal drift due to changes in environmental conditions, and to time drift over the lifetime of the sensor.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: One of the most common industrial applications of Hall sensors used as binary switches is in position sensing. Hall sensors are also used in brushless DC motors to sense the position of the rotor and to switch the transistors in the right sequence. Another example of a Hall effect position sensor is the sensor used to detect whether a smartphone's cover is closed. See Galaxy S4 accessories.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall sensors may be utilized for contactless measurements of direct current in current transformers. In such a case the Hall sensor is mounted in a gap in the magnetic core around the current conductor. As a result, the DC magnetic flux can be measured, and the DC current in the conductor can be calculated.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall sensors are used in some automotive fuel-level indicators. The sensor is used to detect the position of a floating element within the fuel tank.


title: Hall effect sensor

text: Hall effect switches for computer keyboards were developed in the late 1960s by Everett A. Vorthmann and Joseph T. Maupin at Honeywell. Due to high manufacturing costs these keyboards were often reserved for high-reliability applications such as aerospace and military. As mass-production costs have declined, an increasing number of consumer models have become available.


title: Truth table

text: A truth table is a mathematical table used in logic—specifically in connection with Boolean algebra, boolean functions, and propositional calculus—which sets out the functional values of logical expressions on each of their functional arguments, that is, for each combination of values taken by their logical variables. In particular, truth tables can be used to show whether a propositional expression is true for all legitimate input values, that is, logically valid.


title: Truth table

text: A truth table has one column for each input variable (for example, P and Q), and one final column showing all of the possible results of the logical operation that the table represents (for example, P XOR Q). Each row of the truth table contains one possible configuration of the input variables (for instance, P=true Q=false), and the result of the operation for those values. See the examples below for further clarification. Ludwig Wittgenstein is generally credited with inventing and popularizing the truth table in his "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus", which was completed in 1918 and published in 1921. Such a system was also independently proposed in 1921 by Emil Leon Post. An even earlier iteration of the truth table has also been found in unpublished manuscripts by Charles Sanders Peirce from 1893, antedating both publications by nearly 30 years.


title: Truth table

text: Logical negation is an operation on one logical value, typically the value of a proposition, that produces a value of "true" if its operand is false and a value of "false" if its operand is true.


title: Truth table

text: Here is an extended truth table giving definitions of all sixteen possible truth functions of two Boolean variables P and Q:


title: Truth table

text: The following table is oriented by column, rather than by row. There are four columns rather than four rows, to display the four combinations of p, q, as input.


title: Truth table

text: There are 16 rows in this key, one row for each binary function of the two binary variables, p, q. For example, in row 2 of this Key, the value of Converse nonimplication ('formula_1') is solely T, for the column denoted by the unique combination p=F, q=T; while in row 2, the value of that 'formula_1' operation is F for the three remaining columns of p, q. The output row for formula_1 is thus


title: Truth table

text: Logical conjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of "true" if both of its operands are true.


title: Truth table

text: In ordinary language terms, if both "p" and "q" are true, then the conjunction "p" ∧ "q" is true. For all other assignments of logical values to "p" and to "q" the conjunction "p" ∧ "q" is false.


title: Truth table

text: Logical disjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of "true" if at least one of its operands is true.


title: Truth table

text: Logical implication and the material conditional are both associated with an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, which produces a value of "false" if the first operand is true and the second operand is false, and a value of "true" otherwise.


title: Truth table

text: The truth table associated with the logical implication p implies q (symbolized as p ⇒ q, or more rarely Cpq) is as follows:


title: Truth table

text: The truth table associated with the material conditional if p then q (symbolized as p → q) is as follows:


title: Truth table

text: Logical equality (also known as biconditional or exclusive nor) is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of "true" if both operands are false or both operands are true.


title: Truth table

text: So p EQ q is true if p and q have the same truth value (both true or both false), and false if they have different truth values.


title: Truth table

text: Exclusive disjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of "true" if one but not both of its operands is true.


title: Truth table

text: The logical NAND is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of "false" if both of its operands are true. In other words, it produces a value of "true" if at least one of its operands is false.


title: Truth table

text: It is frequently useful to express a logical operation as a compound operation, that is, as an operation that is built up or composed from other operations. Many such compositions are possible, depending on the operations that are taken as basic or "primitive" and the operations that are taken as composite or "derivative".


title: Truth table

text: The negation of a conjunction: ¬("p" ∧ "q"), and the disjunction of negations: (¬"p") ∨ (¬"q") can be tabulated as follows:


title: Truth table

text: The logical NOR is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of "true" if both of its operands are false. In other words, it produces a value of "false" if at least one of its operands is true. ↓ is also known as the Peirce arrow after its inventor, Charles Sanders Peirce, and is a Sole sufficient operator.


title: Truth table

text: The negation of a disjunction ¬("p" ∨ "q"), and the conjunction of negations (¬"p") ∧ (¬"q") can be tabulated as follows:


title: Truth table

text: Inspection of the tabular derivations for NAND and NOR, under each assignment of logical values to the functional arguments "p" and "q", produces the identical patterns of functional values for ¬("p" ∧ "q") as for (¬"p") ∨ (¬"q"), and for ¬("p" ∨ "q") as for (¬"p") ∧ (¬"q"). Thus the first and second expressions in each pair are logically equivalent, and may be substituted for each other in all contexts that pertain solely to their logical values.


title: Truth table

text: If there are "n" input variables then there are 2 possible combinations of their truth values. A given function may produce true or false for each combination so the number of different functions of "n" variables is the double exponential 2.


title: Truth table

text: Truth tables can be used to prove many other logical equivalences. For example, consider the following truth table:


title: Truth table

text: Here is a truth table that gives definitions of the 7 most commonly used out of the 16 possible truth functions of two Boolean variables P and Q:


title: Truth table

text: For binary operators, a condensed form of truth table is also used, where the row headings and the column headings specify the operands and the table cells specify the result. For example, Boolean logic uses this condensed truth table notation:


title: Truth table

text: This notation is useful especially if the operations are commutative, although one can additionally specify that the rows are the first operand and the columns are the second operand. This condensed notation is particularly useful in discussing multi-valued extensions of logic, as it significantly cuts down on combinatoric explosion of the number of rows otherwise needed. It also provides for quickly recognizable characteristic "shape" of the distribution of the values in the table which can assist the reader in grasping the rules more quickly.


title: Truth table

text: Truth tables are also used to specify the function of hardware look-up tables (LUTs) in digital logic circuitry. For an n-input LUT, the truth table will have 2^"n" values (or rows in the above tabular format), completely specifying a boolean function for the LUT. By representing each boolean value as a bit in a binary number, truth table values can be efficiently encoded as integer values in electronic design automation (EDA) software. For example, a 32-bit integer can encode the truth table for a LUT with up to 5 inputs.


title: Truth table

text: When using an integer representation of a truth table, the output value of the LUT can be obtained by calculating a bit index "k" based on the input values of the LUT, in which case the LUT's output value is the "k"th bit of the integer. For example, to evaluate the output value of a LUT given an array of "n" boolean input values, the bit index of the truth table's output value can be computed as follows: if the "i"th input is true, let formula_7, else let formula_8. Then the "k"th bit of the binary representation of the truth table is the LUT's output value, where formula_9.


title: Truth table

text: Truth tables are a simple and straightforward way to encode boolean functions, however given the exponential growth in size as the number of inputs increase, they are not suitable for functions with a large number of inputs. Other representations which are more memory efficient are text equations and binary decision diagrams.


title: Truth table

text: In digital electronics and computer science (fields of applied logic engineering and mathematics), truth tables can be used to reduce basic boolean operations to simple correlations of inputs to outputs, without the use of logic gates or code. For example, a binary addition can be represented with the truth table:


title: Truth table

text: Note that this table does not describe the logic operations necessary to implement this operation, rather it simply specifies the function of inputs to output values.


title: Truth table

text: With respect to the result, this example may be arithmetically viewed as modulo 2 binary addition, and as logically equivalent to the exclusive-or (exclusive disjunction) binary logic operation.


title: Truth table

text: In this case it can be used for only very simple inputs and outputs, such as 1s and 0s. However, if the number of types of values one can have on the inputs increases, the size of the truth table will increase.


title: Truth table

text: For instance, in an addition operation, one needs two operands, A and B. Each can have one of two values, zero or one. The number of combinations of these two values is 2×2, or four. So the result is four possible outputs of C and R. If one were to use base 3, the size would increase to 3×3, or nine possible outputs.


title: Truth table

text: The first "addition" example above is called a half-adder. A full-adder is when the carry from the previous operation is provided as input to the next adder. Thus, a truth table of eight rows would be needed to describe a full adder's logic:


title: Truth table

text: Irving Anellis's research shows that C.S. Peirce appears to be the earliest logician (in 1893) to devise a truth table matrix. From the summary of his paper:


title: Anita Dobson

text: Anita Dobson (born 29 April 1949) is an English stage, film and television actress, and singer. She is best known for her role from 1985 to 1988 as Angie Watts in the BBC soap opera "EastEnders". In 1986, she reached number four in the UK Singles Chart with "Anyone Can Fall in Love", a song based on the theme music of "EastEnders". She is married to Queen guitarist and astrophysicist Brian May.


title: Anita Dobson

text: Dobson's other television roles include the 1989 ITV sitcom "Split Ends". In 2003, she was nominated for the Olivier Award for Best Actress for the National Theatre production of "Frozen". She has also starred in the West End as Mama Morton in the musical "Chicago" (2003) and Gertrude in "Hamlet" (2005), and made her RSC debut in the 2012 revival of "The Merry Wives of Windsor". Her film appearances include "Darkness Falls" (1999) and "London Road" (2015).


title: Anita Dobson

text: Dobson was born in Stepney, London. She trained at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art in London.


title: Anita Dobson

text: Dobson appeared in several series in the early 1980s including the Jim Davidson sitcom "Up the Elephant and Round the Castle" (1983). She is best known for playing the emotionally battered and alcoholic landlady Angie Watts in BBC1 soap opera "EastEnders", a role she played from the show's inception in 1985 until 1988.


title: Anita Dobson

text: Dobson was not the first person to be cast as Angie – another actress, Jean Fennell, had already begun recording when it was decided that her performance did not "gel" with the original idea of the character, and Dobson was substituted in the role. Whilst playing Angie Watts, alcoholic landlady of the Queen Vic, Dobson worked closely with actor Leslie Grantham, landlord of the Queen Victoria who played her adulterous husband 'Dirty Den Watts'. On Christmas Day in 1986, 30.15 million viewers tuned in to witness Den handing Angie her divorce papers, giving the soap its highest ever episode rating, which has yet to be surpassed by any other soap in the UK.


title: Anita Dobson

text: Since leaving "EastEnders" in 1988, BBC executives made numerous offers for her to return, but she did not accept any of the offers; she later commented: "Why tarnish the gorgeous creation that was Angie Watts?" Executives finally decided she could not be persuaded to return, and in 2002 the character of Angie Watts died off-screen of alcohol poisoning and was brought home to be buried by her on-screen daughter Sharon Watts (Letitia Dean), who had returned to the show the previous year.


title: Anita Dobson

text: Since leaving "EastEnders" Dobson has appeared in many television, film and theatre roles, including the BBC sitcoms "Red Dwarf", "Rab C. Nesbitt" and her own sitcom series "Split Ends" (1989), which lasted for only one series. She has also made guest appearances in the BBC dramas "Dangerfield" (1995), "Ghosts" (1995), "Sunburn" (1999) and "Hotel Babylon" (2007), and the ITV detective series "The Last Detective" (2004) among others, along with the films "Sweet Revenge" (1998) and "Darkness Falls" (1999). She has also been reunited with fellow EastEnder Leslie Grantham in the Sky production called "The Stretch" and Five's Horror series "Urban Gothic" (2000).


title: Anita Dobson

text: Dobson worked on the ITV1 police drama "The Bill" in 2005 and appeared in the radio "Doctor Who" serial "Blood of the Daleks". Dobson has also played five different guest characters in the BBC1 medical drama "Casualty", appearing in episodes in October 2000, July 2009, July 2011, March 2013 and October 2017; she also had two guest roles in "Casualty"s sister series, "Holby City", in September 2003 and December 2014 respectively. Dobson featured in the film "London Road" in 2015 and appeared alongside Simon Callow in the Gold comedy series "The Rebel" in 2016.


title: Anita Dobson

text: Dobson has also performed as a singer, with varying degrees of chart success. In August 1986 she reached No. 4 in the UK Singles Chart with "Anyone Can Fall in Love", a song based on the theme music of "EastEnders", which was written by Simon May. The song was produced by Queen guitarist Brian May, who later became her husband. She has also released several other singles and albums with minor chart success.


title: Anita Dobson

text: On stage Dobson has starred in repertory at Salisbury Playhouse in Shaw's "Pygmalion" in 1980; the 1981 Ray Davies/Barrie Keeffe musical "Chorus Girls" and as Hazel Fletcher in the short-lived musical "Budgie" with Adam Faith. She also appeared in the revived Tom Stoppard musical "Rough Crossing" and played a holocaust survivor in "My Lovely Shayna Maidel". She also appeared as Mama Morton in the West End musical "Chicago".


title: Anita Dobson

text: Dobson played the role of Gertrude in the English Touring Theatre production of "Hamlet", at the New Ambassadors Theatre in London's West End, following a UK tour in autumn 2005.


title: Anita Dobson

text: In 2012, Dobson played the role of Mistress Quickly in the Royal Shakespeare Company production of "The Merry Wives of Windsor".


title: Anita Dobson

text: From September 2016 to January 2017 Dobson appeared as Madame Morrible in the musical "Wicked" at the Apollo Victoria Theatre in London.


title: Anita Dobson

text: In June 2019, Anita joined Trevor Nunn's West End revival of Fiddler On The Roof at the Playhouse Theatre playing the role of Yente, alongside Maria Freidman taking on the role of Golde, until the production's closure on the 2nd November 2019.


title: Anita Dobson

text: On 6 September 2011, it was announced that Dobson would take part in the 2011 series of "Strictly Come Dancing". In the launch show of ninth series on 10 September 2011, it was revealed that she would be partnered by Latin specialist Robin Windsor. She was eliminated on 27 November 2011 after Robin Windsor had been unable to dance for a week due to an injury. Anita Dobson therefore rehearsed and danced the Cha Cha Cha and the Swingathon with Brendan Cole.


title: Anita Dobson

text: For her time on "EastEnders" as Angie Watts, Dobson received the Pye Award for Outstanding Female Personality.


title: Anita Dobson

text: Dobson was nominated for a 2003 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress for her performance in Frozen at the Royal National Theatre: Cottesloe.


title: Anita Dobson

text: Dobson is a great-granddaughter of Sarah Chapman. She married Brian May on 18 November 2000. They had first met in 1986. She is a patron of the theatre charity the Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America.


title: Anita Dobson

text: In December 2021, her husband said both of them had tested positive for COVID-19, but were recovering.


title: Cent (currency)

text: The cent sign is commonly a simple minuscule (lower case) letter . In North America, the c is crossed by a diagonal stroke or a vertical line (depending on typeface), yielding the character .


title: Cent (currency)

text: The United States one cent coin is generally known by the nickname "penny", alluding to the British coin and unit of that name. Australia ended production of their 1¢ coin in 1992, as did Canada in 2012. Some Eurozone countries ended production of the 1 euro cent coin, most recently Italy in 2018.


title: Cent (currency)

text: The cent may be represented by the cent sign, written in various ways according to the national convention and font choice. Most commonly seen forms are a minuscule letter "c" crossed by a diagonal stroke or a vertical line or by a simple "c", depending on the currency ("see below"). Cent amounts from 1 to 99 can be represented as one or two digits followed by the appropriate abbreviation (2¢, 5c, 75¢, 99c), or as a subdivision of the base unit ($0.75, €0.99) In some countries, longer abbreviations like "ct." are used. Languages that use other alphabets have their own abbreviations and conventions.


title: Cent (currency)

text: The use of the cent symbol has largely fallen into disuse since the mid-20th century as inflation has resulted in very few things being priced in cents in any currency. It was included on US typewriter keyboards, but has not been adopted on computers.


title: Cent (currency)

text: The cent sign appeared as the shift of the 6 key on American manual typewriters, but that position has been taken over by the freestanding circumflex on computer keyboards. The character (offset 162) can still be created in most common code pages, including Unicode and Windows-1252:


title: Cent (currency)

text: When written in English and Mexican Spanish, the cent sign (¢ or c) follows the amount (with no space between)for example, 2¢ and $0.02, or 2c and €0.02. Conventions in other languages may vary.


title: Cent (currency)

text: Examples of currencies around the world featuring centesimal () units called "cent", or related words from the same root such as "céntimo", "centésimo", "centavo" or "sen", are:


title: Cent (currency)

text: Examples of currencies which formerly featured centesimal () units but now have no fractional denomination in circulation:


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: "Hit 'Em Up" is a diss track by hip hop artist 2Pac, featuring the Outlawz. It is the B-side to the single "How Do U Want It", released on June 4, 1996. The song's lyrics contain vicious insults to several East Coast rappers, chiefly Shakur's former friend turned rival, the Notorious B.I.G. (also referred to colloquially as Biggie Smalls). The song was recorded at Can Am Studios in 1996. A previous version of the song was recorded in October 1995.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: Reporter Chuck Philips, who interviewed Shakur at Can Am, described the song as "a caustic anti–East Coast jihad in which the rapper threatens to eliminate Biggie, Puff, and a slew of Bad Boy artists and other New York acts." The song was produced by long-time collaborator Johnny "J". The video, itself described as infamous, includes impersonations of Biggie, Puffy and M.A.F.I.A. member Lil' Kim.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: "Hit 'Em Up" had a large role in exacerbating the East Coast–West Coast hip hop rivalry. Following its release, the East Coast rappers insulted in the song responded through tracks of their own. The controversy surrounding the song is due in part to Shakur's murder in a drive-by-shooting only three months after its release.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: "Hit 'Em Up" was written and recorded at Can-Am studios in 1996. For the song, Tupac Shakur recruited the members of the former group Dramacydal whom he had worked with previously, and was eager to work with again. Together, the rappers (along with other associates) formed the original lineup of the Outlawz. The first and third verses are performed by Shakur, while the second verse is performed by Hussein Fatal, the fourth by Yaki Kadafi and the fifth by E.D.I. Mean. The bassline of the soundtrack is a sample from a song called 'Don't Look Any Further', by ex-Temptation Dennis Edwards.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: The ferocity of Shakur's raging vocals, as said by long-time collaborator and producer of "Hit 'Em Up" Johnny J, was entirely authentic. He explained that Shakur was initially fueled by his anger against Biggie and Bad Boy Records for the belief that they had a role in the November 30, 1994, ambush and attack on Shakur. He claimed that Biggie and his crew knew of his shooting and wanted him dead. Shakur used this fury, which Johnny "J" described as "superhuman", to attack Biggie and other East Coast rappers. Johnny "J" also stated that he had never seen Shakur so angry and that the words he rapped were in no way an act, describing the recording process as the most "hard-core he had ever done." Although he was very happy with the work he had put into it and the resulting song, Johnny "J" went on to say that he had no desire to work on anything of that magnitude again.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: Shakur was also enraged by Biggie's release of "Who Shot Ya?" provocatively only months after the shooting incident, and although it did not directly involve Shakur's name, he believed it was directed towards him. Shakur admitted to releasing "Hit 'Em Up" as a response to "Who Shot Ya?" In a "Vibe" interview, the rapper called out Sean "Puffy" Combs and Biggie Smalls and accused both of them of setting him up, or of having knowledge of the attack and not warning him. He also singled out businessmen James Rosemond ("Jimmy Henchman"), and Jacques Agnant ("Haitian Jack") of orchestrating the assault. Shakur announced the names of his ostensible conspirators to Kevin Powell, a journalist for "Vibe" however, to mask their true identities, "Vibe" referred to Henchman as "Booker," and Jack as "Nigel" in the published interview. Persons familiar with the interview say they used different names after the magazine received threats from Henchman. A former "Vibe" editor denied receiving threats, but neglected to explain why the magazine substituted aliases for Henchman and Haitian Jack.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: The lyrics in "Hit 'Em Up" were aimed primarily at Biggie and Puffy. Shakur viciously insults Biggie throughout – the first line by Shakur is "That's why I fucked your bitch, you fat motherfucker" – and threatens retaliation in the songs hook, saying "Who shot me?/But you punks didn't finish/Now you're about to feel the wrath of a menace." He also used the song as a platform to express his belief that Biggie was guilty of stealing his style of rapping, and was merely imitating his lifestyle. This notion is addressed in the verse in "Now it's all about Versace, you copied my style." He also touches topically on their early friendship with the line "Biggie, remember when I used to let you sleep on the couch?" and their subsequent fallout. Towards the end of the song Tupac disses Mobb Deep, saying "Don't one of you niggas got sickle cell or something? You fucking with me, nigga you fuck around and get a seizure or a heart attack", referring to Prodigy, a member of Mobb Deep who suffered from sickle cell disease (and would in fact later die of complications related to the disease). Mobb Deep responded by releasing "Drop a Gem on 'em", which was released shortly before Tupac's death (but pulled from airplay rotation after). "Hit 'Em Up" features much profanity, using the words "fuck" or "motherfucker" at least 35 times in the song, and was issued a Parental Advisory label.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: The chorus of "Hit 'Em Up" is a play on the chorus of Junior M.A.F.I.A's "Player's Anthem." The phrase "take money" is repeated throughout the song, which is a play on Junior M.A.F.I.A's recent release "Get Money", the remix of which (called "Gettin' Money") is also the beat used in "Hit 'Em Up". Faith Evans, who at the time was Biggie's estranged wife, was reportedly seen with Shakur after a public breakup with Biggie. Journalist Chuck Philips spotted Faith Evans at Can Am when he interviewed Shakur a year earlier in 1995. People at the studio told the reporter that Faith Evans also contributed – that the R&B chanteuse recorded one or more "Take Money" background vocals that would appear on "Hit Em Up." Regarding his October 1995 interview of the rapper, Philips remembered in 2012; According to Shakur she had given him gifts of clothing, which he offered as proof of a relationship in an interview. Using this against Biggie in "Hit 'Em Up", Shakur continued to fuel the rumors of a sexual relationship with Evans in the song's line "You claim to be a player, but I fucked your wife." Claims of an affair with Evans appear three times in the song.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: Shakur also attacked many other people associated with Bad Boy Records and with Biggie, such as Lil' Kim and Junior M.A.F.I.A. He exclaimed that their lifestyle and what they rapped about were fraudulent, and that they were not from the streets. He believed that they were only perpetuating the drama and did not understand the situation they were getting into. Bronx rapper Chino XL was also insulted for vulgar comments he made about Shakur on his song "Riiiot!". In the original recording, Shakur also insulted Jay-Z at the ending segment, but removed it after being convinced by Outlawz members that Jay-Z had nothing to do with the conflict between Death Row and Bad Boy.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: The music video for "Hit 'Em Up" was filmed in a warehouse off Slauson Avenue near the Fox Hills Mall in Los Angeles on June 3, 1996. It was filmed by the production company Look Hear Productions. Shakur raps in a white room with The Outlawz, as well as in purple-caged room and a black room with bullet holes in the background. TV monitors in the background show clips of Shakur, Puffy, and Biggie Smalls, and even clips from the video "Made Niggaz." The video featured actors who were recalled from their prior roles in the music video for "2 of Amerikaz Most Wanted" to impersonate some of those who were attacked in "Hit 'Em Up." This included Biggie, whose stand-in stares dully into the camera and sports a Kangol and jacket, similar to one Biggie would wear. During the moments where Shakur raps about his claimed affair with Evans, the Biggie impersonator crouches near the camera while Shakur yells in his face. Puffy is also impersonated, appearing with a high-top fade and leaning towards the camera, lowering and raising his sunglasses.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: Like the song, the video for "Hit 'Em Up" has also been called "infamous". The pro-West Coast track's music video featured the members crushing buildings in Manhattan, which was already done in another pro-West Coast music video for "New York, New York" by Tha Dogg Pound earlier. The music video for "Hit 'Em Up" can be found on "Tupac: Live at the House of Blues" DVD.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: Finishing the recording of the song, Shakur felt very positively about the track, saying; "Hit 'Em Up" appeared first as a B-side, on the single "How Do U Want It", by Shakur featuring The Outlawz. On June 4, 1996, under the label Death Row Records, "Hit 'Em Up" was released on compact disc, 12-inch, and a 45 RPM. The original cover for the single had Puffy's head on a snake's body, and Biggie's head on a pig's. It also appeared posthumously on several compilations, including the 2005 release of Shakur's last recorded live performance, "". "Hit 'Em Up" was also remixed on Nu-Mixx Klazzics. Upon its release, "Hit 'Em Up" received frequent radio airplay, which was attributed to the public interest in the ongoing feud and radio stations' desire to garner high ratings. However, some radio stations, such as the Los Angeles-based KPWR, refused to play it. The follow-up to "Hit 'Em Up" was the song .


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: "Hit 'Em Up" has been called "controversial," "infamous," "disturbing," and "brutal." Shakur's insults against virtually the entire East Coast scene of rappers were said to be ferocious. The song, along with "Dear Mama," has been viewed as one of Shakur's songs that resonated with and was spoken of the most by young people. Among associates of Shakur, it was called a "bad-luck song." Los Angeles radio director Bruce St. James called the song "the be-all, end-all, curse-word, dirty-lyric, violent song of all time." Documentary filmmaker Carl Weston believed that "most people in Biggie's shoes would have wanted to at least "hurt" Tupac" in a "Spin" magazine interview.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: Among musicians, the song drew criticism from singer Dionne Warwick, and disapproval from fellow rappers Kool Moe Dee and Chuck D, as written in their book "There's a God on the Mic: The True 50 Greatest MCs". They felt that although Shakur was one of the most substantive rappers of that period, he had gone too far with "Hit 'Em Up," causing some of Shakur's fans to turn on him, according to the two rappers.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: The song has been viewed as the turning point in the feud between Tupac and Biggie, where things were said and rapped which could never be taken back during the remainder of Shakur's life. This has led to its being dubbed as the beginning of the war between the East Coast and the West Coast, and the centerpiece in what became the most venomous battle in the history of hip hop.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: "Hit 'Em Up" has been studied by and with academics, and it has been used as a part of a series of lessons for building the means to communicate with younger people. Its main role in these lessons is to define anger in rap music. Biggie was shot and killed six months after Shakur's death.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: After hearing "Hit 'Em Up", Biggie continued proclaiming his innocence in the shooting incident. He also remarked that the song "Who Shot Ya?" was written before Shakur was shot and thus, was not about him.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: Regarding the lyrics aimed at his wife Faith, Biggie expressed an inability to find merit in what Shakur had claimed. He believed that Shakur intended to attack him through Faith, although he remained unsure of whether an encounter between them had occurred. Ultimately, he thought that if something had occurred it was none of his business, and that Shakur should not have publicly disclosed this information in a song. Biggie responded to this matter in a similar fashion to "Hit 'Em Up", rapping in a joint release by himself and Jay-Z in the song "Brooklyn's Finest", where he says ""If Faye have twins, she'd probably have two Pacs. Get it? Tupac's?"" Shortly after the release of "Hit 'Em Up", Evans went on the radio and admitted that she had been with Shakur, but continued to deny their relationship was sexual.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: Puffy had trouble understanding the sheer rage Shakur had expressed for Biggie in "Hit 'Em Up". He also responded by reinforcing his and Biggie's innocence regarding the shooting and went on to say that prior to the incident they "were friends", and that they "would have never done nothing to hurt him." In an interview with "Vibe Magazine" concerning Shakur's allegations of Biggie and Puffy having prior knowledge of the ambush, Puffy stated:


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: Lil' Kim responded on the original version of her song "Big Momma Thang", which was aimed at Biggie's wife, Faith Evans, and Shakur. Junior M.A.F.I.A. recorded a music video for the song "Get Money", which has been regarded as a diss to Shakur. Biggie denies these claims, stating: "It's just a video; ain't nobody got no time to make no diss on nobody." Lil' Cease said after the release that Biggie still had love for Shakur, and even respected him. The attack on Mobb Deep came as a response for their involvement on the song "L.A L.A" by Capone-N-Noreaga, which was a retaliation to Snoop Dogg and Tha Dogg Pound's song "New York, New York" music video in which members of Tha Dogg Pound and Death Row are seen knocking down buildings in New York City. Mobb Deep responded to Shakur with the track "Drop a Gem on 'em". It was first released as a promotional single, and later appeared on their album "Hell on Earth". Lyrically, it did not specifically name Shakur, but it did allude to the shooting incident. It has also been noted for erroneously stating the cost of the assets Shakur had taken from him during the shooting incident. Bronx rapper King Sun also responded to Shakur with "New York Love (All Eyez On Sun)".


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: "Hit 'Em Up" was originally featured as a B-side on Shakur's single "How Do U Want It". In 1998, it was released on Shakur's first compilation album, "Greatest Hits." A remix of the song was featured on "Nu-Mixx Klazzics" (2003), where the intro lyrics from the originally explicit version and the main lyrics from the edited radio version. A live version of the song was included on the 2005 release of "". "Hit 'Em Up" was first released on "Death Row Greatest Hits", and was again released as a live recording on the 2004 album "2Pac Live".


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: In the second half of Eminem's song "Quitter", the rapper attempts to remake "Hit 'Em Up" and in itself is a diss track aimed towards Everlast. Eminem has support from D12 on his version like the Outlawz supported Shakur on the original. "What I Think About You" by Bow Wow uses a reinterpolation of "Hit 'Em Up" and is a diss song to fellow rapper Soulja Boy Tell 'em.


title: Hit 'Em Up

text: The song appears in 2Pac's Biopic, "All Eyez On Me" (2017), in which 2Pac performs the song during his 1996 House Of Blues Concert in the film as a message to Biggie, talking about having relations with Faith Evans, Biggie's wife.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: Reginald Quincy Arvizu (born November 2, 1969), also known as "Fieldy", is an American musician, best known as the bassist for nu metal band Korn. He is also the guitarist/bassist for rock band StillWell.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: Prior to Arvizu's time in Korn, he and Brian Welch, who would later become one of Korn's two guitarists (alongside James Shaffer), had played together in a number of bands, having become friends while still at school. Upon their graduation from high school, Arvizu, Welch, Shaffer, and drummer David Silveria relocated from Bakersfield to Los Angeles and Arvizu, Shaffer, and Silveria formed L.A.P.D. (the name first stood for "Love and Peace, Dude", but this abbreviation was later changed to "Laughing As People Die"). Although L.A.P.D. did succeed in signing a record deal, their success was limited until the band hired singer Jonathan Davis and changed their name to Korn.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: The name "Fieldy" is said to have come about as an inside joke. Originally, his bandmates called him "Gopher", due to his large cheeks. Gopher quickly became "Gar", Gar became "Garfield" (based on the comic strip character of the same name), and eventually "Gar" was dropped and a "y" was added to "Field", which became Fieldy.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: His playing style consists of bass-slapping, standard finger-style plucking, left-hand muting, and an ultra-scooped tone. His standard tuning is: A, D, G, C, F. He states Flea of the Red Hot Chili Peppers as being one of the main influences towards his playing style. He has also stated to have been influenced by Billy Gould from Faith No More, Cliff Burton from Metallica and Les Claypool of Primus.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: Fieldy is also one of the main songwriters in Korn. The majority of his bass riffs are hip-hop inspired. He says he gets inspiration from anything hip-hop. On the business side of Korn, Fieldy is responsible for all Korn merchandise, its buying and selling. He comes up with a number of designs, shows them to the band and they either approve or disapprove.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: In August 2012 it was reported that Fieldy would be taking a brief break from Korn as his wife Dena was expecting a child. Korn began touring through Eastern Europe, Russia and India throughout August and September 2012 with fill-in bassist Ryan Martinie from Mudvayne. On June 21, 2021, Fieldy announced that he would not be accompanying Korn on their upcoming tour. In a Facebook post to fans, he stated:


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: In addition to Korn, he has a rap side project called Fieldy's Dreams. Fieldy's Dreams has released one album titled "Rock'n Roll Gangster". Like Head, Fieldy is a Christian.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: Fieldy has been married three times. He married his current wife, Dena Beber, on May 13, 2006. Fieldy has five children: two daughters, Sarina Rae (Born September 30, 1997) and Olivia Ann Marie Arvizu (Born December 9, 1998), from his second marriage to Shela Colton, and three children from his current marriage to Dena: sons Israel (Born February 9, 2007) and Noa (Born August 13, 2012), and daughter Harmony Rose Arvizu (Born November 27, 2009). Following the death of his father, Fieldy became a born again Christian.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: Fieldy has stated that his second album, "Bassically", was originally intended to be a hardcore rap album, but scrapped the original idea in favor of a jazz fusion style.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: Fieldy worked with independent rap artist Q-Unique on a side project called StillWell. The song "Killing Myself to Live" can be heard on their MySpace page. Stillwell's debut album, Dirtbag, released in 2011.


title: Reginald Arvizu

text: Fieldy was also working on his own clothing line 'Immanuel one twenty three'; when asked about it while backstage at the West Palm Beach stop of the Mayhem Festival in 2010, he stated that it was "much harder than he had previously expected" to start a clothing line, and has moved on to the side project that he can "be more proud of, opposed to his first solo CD under Fieldy's Dreams titled "Rock'n Roll Gangster"". "Got The Life: My Journey of Addiction, Faith, Recovery and Korn" is a memoir Fieldy penned, which hit shelves March 10, 2009. His autobiography tells the story of how he found God, quit drugs, and found the better part of himself.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: Adriano Celentano (; born 6 January 1938) is an Italian musician, singer, composer, actor, and filmmaker. He is dubbed ""il Molleggiato"" (the flexible one) because of his dancing.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: Celentano's many albums frequently enjoyed both commercial and critical success. Often credited as the author of both the music and lyrics of his songs, according to his wife Claudia Mori, some were written in collaboration with others. Due to his prolific career, both in Italy and abroad, he is considered one of the pillars of Italian music.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: Celentano is recognized for being particularly perceptive of changes in the music business, and is credited for having introduced rock and roll to Italy. As an actor, Celentano has appeared in 39 films, mostly comedies.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: Celentano was born in Milan at 14 Via Cristoforo Gluck, and this address later became the subject of the famous song "Il ragazzo della via Gluck" ("The boy from Gluck Street"). His parents were from Foggia, in Apulia, and had moved north for work. His career as a singer started in 1959. Before his debut as an artist he was working as a watchmaker.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: Heavily influenced by Elvis Presley and the 1950s rock 'n' roll scene as well as by American actor Jerry Lewis, Celentano started playing in a rock and roll band with Giorgio Gaber and Enzo Jannacci. Along with Gaber and Jannacci, he was discovered by Jolly Records A&R Executive Ezio Leoni, who signed him to his first recording contract and co-authored with Celentano some of his greatest early hits, including "24.000 Baci", "Il Tuo Bacio e' Come un Rock", and "Si e' Spento il Sole".


title: Adriano Celentano

text: He first appeared on screen in "Ragazzi del Juke-Box", a 1959 Italian musical film directed by Lucio Fulci with music by Ezio Leoni. In 1960, Federico Fellini cast him as a rock and roll singer in his film "La Dolce Vita".


title: Adriano Celentano

text: In 1962, Celentano founded the Italian record label Clan Celentano (which is still active) with many performers such as Don Backy, Ola & the Janglers, Ricky Gianco, Katty Line, Gino Santercole, Fred Bongusto and his wife Claudia Mori.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: As a film director, Celentano frequently cast Ornella Muti, Eleonora Giorgi and his wife Claudia Mori. He and Mori have three children, Rosita, Giacomo and Rosalinda Celentano. Rosalinda is most notable to worldwide audiences for playing Satan in Mel Gibson's "The Passion of the Christ". Celentano has also hosted several Italian television shows.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: Celentano has retained his popularity in Italy for over 50 years, selling millions of records and appearing in numerous TV shows and movies. As part of his TV and movie work, he created a comic genre, with a characteristic walk and facial expressions. For the most part, his films were commercially successful; indeed, in the 1970s and part of the 1980s, his low-budget movies were top of Italian box office rankings. As an actor, critics point to "Serafino" (1968), directed by Pietro Germi, as his best performance.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: He has released 40 albums, consisting of 29 studio albums, three live albums, and eight compilations. His most popular songs are "La coppia piu' bella del mondo", which sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc; "Azzurro" (1968), written by Paolo Conte; "Svalutation" (1976), and "Prisencolinensinainciusol" (1972), which was written to mimic the way English sounds to non-English speakers despite being almost entirely nonsense.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: Celentano was referenced in the 1979 Ian Dury and the Blockheads song and single, "Reasons to be Cheerful, Part 3", as one of the aforementioned "reasons to be cheerful", and in Fellini's 1986 film "Ginger and Fred".


title: Adriano Celentano

text: After 18 years without live performances, Celentano's 2012 live concert was broadcast on Mediaset channel Canale 5, attracting over 9 million viewers.


title: Adriano Celentano

text: Celentano has been a vegetarian since 2005 and is a strenuous defender of animal rights. A football fan, Celentano is a well-known Inter Milan supporter.


title: Raini Rodriguez

text: Raini-Alena Rodriguez (born July 1, 1993) is an American actress and singer. She is known for her roles as Trish in the Disney Channel original series "Austin & Ally", Maya Blart in "" (2009) and "" (2015), and Tess in "Prom" (2011). She won Best Young Television Actress at the 2013 Imagen Awards.


title: Raini Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez was born in Bryan, Texas. She is the older sister of actor Rico Rodriguez. She has two other brothers, Ray and Roy Jr. Her parents, Diane and Roy Rodriguez, own a business called Rodriguez Tire Service. She is of Mexican descent.


title: Raini Rodriguez

text: Raini was discovered at an IMTA showcase, by Susan Osser, a California talent agent. After viewing Raini's performance, Osser suggested to Raini's mother that Osser should become Raini's manager and come to California to give Raini a year for career opportunities. At the time, Raini was 11 years old. Her mother agreed. Raini and her brother Rico moved to Los Angeles with their mother, while their father stayed in Texas to run the tire shop. Their mother home-schooled them to support their careers.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: With 23 percent of the United States' population , the Catholic Church is the country's second largest religious grouping, after Protestantism, and the country's largest single church or Christian denomination where Protestantism is divided into separate denominations. In a 2020 Gallup poll, 25% of Americans said they were Catholic. The United States has the fourth largest Catholic population in the world, after Brazil, Mexico, and the Philippines.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Catholicism first arrived in North America during the Age of Discovery. In the colonial era, Spain and later Mexico established missions (1769-1833) that had permanent results in New Mexico and California (Spanish missions in California). Likewise, France founded settlements with missions attached to them in the Mississippi River region, notably, St. Louis (1764) and New Orleans (1718). English Catholics, on the other hand, "harassed in England by the Protestant majority," settled in Maryland (1634) and founded the first state capitol, St. Mary's City, Maryland. In 1789, the Archdiocese of Baltimore was the first diocese in the newly independent nation. John Carroll became the first American bishop. His brother Daniel Carroll was the leading Catholic among the Founding Fathers of the United States. George Washington in the army and as president set a standard for religious toleration. No religious test was allowed for holding national office, and colonial legal restrictions on Catholics holding office were gradually abolished by the States. However, in the mid-19th century there was political anti-Catholicism in the United States, sponsored by pietistic Protestants fearful of the pope and rising Catholic immigration. Tensions between Protestants and Catholics continued in the 20th century, especially when a Catholic was running for president as in 1928 and 1960.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The number of Catholics grew rapidly in the 19th and 20th centuries through high fertility and immigration, especially from Ireland and Germany, and after 1880, Eastern Europe and Italy. Large scale Catholic immigration from Mexico began after 1910 and in 2019 Latinos comprised 37 percent of American Catholics. Parishes set up parochial schools, and hundreds of colleges and universities were established by Catholic religious orders, notably by the Jesuits, who founded 28 such schools of higher education. Nuns were very active in teaching and hospital work. Since 1960, the percentage of Americans who are Catholic has fallen from about 25% to 22%. In a 2021 Pew Research study, "21% of US adults described themselves as Catholic, identical to the Catholic share of the population in 2014." In absolute numbers, Catholics have increased from 45 million to 72 million. , 39% of American Catholics attend church weekly, compared to 45% of American Protestants.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: About 10% of the United States' population are former Catholics or non-practicing, almost 30 million people. People have left for a number of reasons, factors which have also affected other denominations: loss of belief, disenchantment, indifference, or disaffiliation for another religious group or for none. Though Catholic adherents are present throughout the country, Catholics are generally more concentrated in the Northeast and urban Midwest. However, the continuing growth of the American Hispanic community as a share of the U.S. population is gradually shifting the geographic center of U.S. Catholicism from the Northeast and urban Midwest to the South and the West. Regional distribution of U.S. Catholics (as a percentage of the total U.S. Catholic population) is as follows: Northeast, 24%; Midwest, 19%; South, 32% (a percentage that has increased in recent years due to a growing number of Catholics mainly in Texas, Louisiana, and Florida, with the rest of the Southern states remaining overwhelmingly Protestant); and West, 25%. While the wealthiest and most educated Americans tend to belong to Protestant American groupings as a whole, more Catholics, owing to their numbers, reside in households with a yearly income of $100,000 or more than any other individual religious group, and more Catholics hold college degrees (over 19 million) than do members of any other faith community in the United States when Protestants are divided into separate groupings.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Catholics gather as local communities called parishes, headed by a priest, and typically meet at a permanent church building for liturgies every Sunday, weekdays and on holy days. Within the 196 geographical dioceses and archdioceses (excluding the Archdiocese for the Military Services), there were 17,007 local Catholic parishes in the United States in 2018. The Catholic Church has the third highest total number of local congregations in the US behind Southern Baptists and United Methodists. However, the average Catholic parish is significantly larger than the average Baptist or Methodist congregation; there are more than four times as many Catholics as Southern Baptists and more than eight times as many Catholics as United Methodists.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Eastern Catholic Churches are churches with origins in Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa that have their own distinctive liturgical, legal and organizational systems and are identified by the national or ethnic character of their region of origin. Each is considered fully equal to the Latin tradition within the Catholic Church. In the United States, there are 15 Eastern Church dioceses (called eparchies) and two Eastern Church archdioceses (or archeparchies), the Byzantine Catholic Archeparchy of Pittsburgh and the Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of Philadelphia.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The apostolic exarchate for the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church in the United States is headed by a bishop who is a member of the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops. An apostolic exarchate is the Eastern Catholic Church equivalent of an apostolic vicariate. It is not a full-fledged diocese/eparchy, but is established by the Holy See for the pastoral care of Eastern Catholics in an area outside the territory of the Eastern Catholic Church to which they belong. It is headed by a bishop or a priest with the title of exarch.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter was established January 1, 2012, to serve former Anglican groups and clergy in the United States who sought to become Catholic. Similar to a diocese though national in scope, the ordinariate is based in Houston, Texas, and includes parishes and communities across the United States that are fully Catholic, while retaining elements of their Anglican heritage and traditions.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: , 8 dioceses out of 195 are vacant ("sede vacante"). None of the current bishops or archbishops are past the retirement age of 75.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The central leadership body of the Catholic Church in the United States is the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops, made up of the hierarchy of bishops (including archbishops) of the United States and the U.S. Virgin Islands, although each bishop is independent in his own diocese, answerable only to the Holy See. The USCCB elects a president to serve as their administrative head, but he is in no way the "head" of the church or of Catholics in the United States. In addition to the 195 dioceses and one exarchate represented in the USCCB, there are several dioceses in the nation's other four overseas dependencies. In the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the bishops in the six dioceses (one metropolitan archdiocese and five suffragan dioceses) form their own episcopal conference, the Puerto Rican Episcopal Conference ("Conferencia Episcopal Puertorriqueña"). The bishops in US insular areas in the Pacific Ocean—the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Territory of American Samoa, and the Territory of Guam—are members of the Episcopal Conference of the Pacific.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: No primate exists for Catholics in the United States. In the 1850s, the Archdiocese of Baltimore was acknowledged a "Prerogative of Place", which confers to its archbishop some of the leadership responsibilities granted to primates in other countries. The Archdiocese of Baltimore was the first diocese established in the United States, in 1789, with John Carroll (1735–1815) as its first bishop. It was, for many years, the most influential diocese in the fledgling nation. Now, however, the United States has several large archdioceses and a number of cardinal-archbishops.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: By far, most Catholics in the United States belong to the Latin or Western Church and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Rite generally refers to the form of worship ("liturgical rite") in a church community owing to cultural and historical differences as well as differences in practice. However, the Vatican II document, "Orientalium Ecclesiarum" ("Of the Eastern Churches"), acknowledges that these Eastern Catholic communities are "true Churches" and not just rites within the Catholic Church. There are 14 other churches in the United States (23 within the global Catholic Church) which are in communion with Rome, fully recognized and valid in the eyes of the Catholic Church. They have their own bishops and eparchies. The largest of these communities in the U.S. is the Chaldean Catholic Church. Most of these churches are of Eastern European and Middle Eastern origin. Eastern Catholic Churches are distinguished from Eastern Orthodox, identifiable by their usage of the term Catholic.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: In recent years, particularly following the issuing of the apostolic letter Summorum Pontificum by Pope Benedict XVI in 2007, the United States has emerged as a stronghold for the small but growing Traditionalist Catholic movement, along with France, England and a few other Anglophone countries. There are over 600 locations throughout the country where the Traditional Latin Mass is offered.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The church employs people in a variety of leadership and service roles. Its ministers include ordained clergy (bishops, priests. and deacons) and non-ordained lay ecclesial ministers, theologians, and catechists.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Some Catholics, both lay and clergy, live in a form of consecrated life, rather than in marriage. This includes a wide range of relationships, from monastic (monks and nuns), to mendicant (friars and sisters), apostolic (priests, brothers, and sisters), and secular and lay institutes. While many of these also serve in some form of ministry, above, others are in secular careers, within or without the church. Consecrated life – in and of itself – does not make a person a part of the clergy or a minister of the church.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Additionally, many lay people are employed in "secular" careers in support of church institutions, including educators, health care professionals, finance and human resources experts, lawyers, and others.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Leadership of the Catholic Church in the United States is provided by the bishops, individually for their own dioceses and collectively through the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. There are some mid-level groupings of bishops, such as ecclesiastical provinces (often covering a state) and the fourteen geographic regions of the USCCB, but these have little significance for most purposes.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The ordinary office for a bishop is to be the bishop of a particular diocese, its chief pastor and minister, usually geographically defined and incorporating, on average, about 350,000 Catholic Christians. In canon law, the bishop leading a particular diocese, or similar office, is called an "ordinary" (i.e., he has complete jurisdiction in this territory or grouping of Christians).


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: There are two non-geographic dioceses, called "ordinariates", one for military personnel and one for former Anglicans who are in full communion with the Catholic Church.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Dioceses are grouped together geographically into provinces, usually within a state, part of a state, or multiple states together (see map below). A province comprises several dioceses which look to one ordinary bishop (usually of the most populous or historically influential diocese/city) for guidance and leadership. This lead bishop is their archbishop and his diocese is the archdiocese. The archbishop is called the "metropolitan" bishop who strives to achieve some unanimity of practice with his brother "suffragan" bishops.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Some larger dioceses have additional bishops assisting the diocesan bishop, and these are called "auxiliary" bishops or, if a "coadjutor" bishop, with right of succession.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Additionally, some bishops are called to advise and assist the bishop of Rome, the pope, in a particular way, either as an additional responsibility on top of their diocesan office or sometimes as a full-time position in the Roman Curia or related institution serving the universal church. These are called cardinals, because they are "incardinated" onto a second diocese (Rome). All cardinals under the age of 80 participate in the election of a new pope when the office of the papacy becomes vacant.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: In 2018, there were approximately 100,000 clergy and ministers employed by the church in the United States, including:


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The 630 Catholic hospitals in the U.S. have a combined budget of $101.7 billion, and employ 641,030 full-time equivalent staff.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The 6,525 Catholic primary and secondary schools in the U.S. employ 151,101 full-time equivalent staff, 97.2% of whom are lay and 2.3% are consecrated, and 0.5% are ordained.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The 261 Catholic institutions of higher (tertiary) education in the U.S. employ approximately 250,000 full-time equivalent staff, including faculty, administrators, and support staff.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Overall, the Catholic Church employs more than one million employees with an operating budget of nearly $100 billion to run parishes, diocesan primary and secondary schools, nursing homes, retreat centers, hospitals, and other charitable institutions.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: By the middle of the 19th century, the Catholics in larger cities started building their own parochial school system. The main impetus was fear that exposure to Protestant teachers in the public schools, and Protestant fellow students, would lead to a loss of faith. Protestants reacted by strong opposition to any public funding of parochial schools. The Catholics nevertheless built their elementary schools, parish by parish, using very low-paid sisters as teachers.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: In the classrooms, the highest priorities were piety, orthodoxy, and strict discipline. Knowledge of the subject matter was a minor concern, and in the late 19th century few of the teachers in parochial (or secular) schools had gone beyond the 8th grade themselves. The sisters came from numerous denominations, and there was no effort to provide joint teachers training programs. The bishops were indifferent. Finally around 1911, led by the Catholic University of America in Washington, Catholic colleges began summer institutes to train the sisters in pedagogical techniques. Long past World War II, the Catholic schools were noted for inferior plants compared to the public schools, and less well-trained teachers. The teachers were selected for religiosity, not teaching skills; the outcome was pious children and a reduced risk of marriage to Protestants. However, by the later half the 20th century Catholic schools began to perform significantly better than their public counterparts.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: According to the Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities in 2011, there are approximately 230 Catholic universities and colleges in the United States with nearly 1 million students and some 65,000 professors. In 2016, the number of tertiary schools fell to 227, while the number of students also fell to 798,006. The national university of the church, founded by the nation's bishops in 1887, is The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. The first Catholic college/university of higher learning established in the United States is Georgetown University, founded in 1789. The richest U.S. Catholic university is the University of Notre Dame (founded in 1842) with an endowment of over 20 billion in 2022. In the 2021 edition of "U.S. News & World Report" rankings, 10 of the top 100 national universities in the US were Catholic.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: According to the "2016 Official Catholic Directory", there were 243 seminaries with 4,785 students in the United States; 3,629 diocesan seminarians and 1,456 religious seminarians. By the official 2017 statistics, there are 5,050 seminarians (3,694 diocesan and 1,356 religious) in the United States. In addition, the American Catholic bishops oversee the Pontifical North American College for American seminarians and priests studying at one of the Pontifical Universities in Rome.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: In 2002, Catholic health care system, overseeing 625 hospitals with a combined revenue of 30 billion dollars, was the nation's largest group of nonprofit systems. In 2008, the cost of running these hospitals had risen to $84.6 billion, including the $5.7 billion they donate. According to the Catholic Health Association of the United States, 60 health care systems, on average, admit one in six patients nationwide each year. According to Merger Watch (2018), Catholic facilities make up about 10% of all "sole community providers" in the US (49 out of 514). In some states, the percentage is much greater: in Wisconsin and South Dakota, for example, "Catholic hospitals account for at least 50% of sole community providers."


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Catholic Charities is active as the largest voluntary social service networks in the United States. In 2009, it welcomed in New Jersey the 50,000th refugee to come to the United States from Burma. Likewise, the US Bishops' Migration and Refugee Services has resettled 14,846 refugees from Burma since 2006. In 2010 Catholic Charities USA was one of only four charities among the top 400 charitable organizations to witness an increase in donations in 2009, according to a survey conducted by "The Chronicle of Philanthropy."


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The church had a role in shaping the U.S. labor movement, due to the involvement of priests like Charles Owen Rice and John P. Boland. The activism of Geno Baroni was instrumental in creating the Catholic Campaign for Human Development. The Catholic Worker Movement was founded in 1933 by Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. It campaigns on various social justice issues and aims to "live in accordance with the justice and charity of Jesus Christ".


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: There were 70,412,021 registered Catholics in the United States (22% of the US population) in 2017, according to the American bishops' count in their "Official Catholic Directory 2016". This count primarily rests on the parish assessment tax which priests evaluate yearly according to the number of registered members and contributors. In July, 2021, the Public Religion Research Institute issued its own report based on a new census of 500,000 people. It also noted that 22% of 330 million Americans identified as Catholic: 12%, white; 8%, Latino; and 2%, other (Black, Asian, etc.). Estimates of the overall American Catholic population from recent years generally range around 20% to 28%. According to Albert J. Menedez, research director of "Americans for Religious Liberty," many Americans continue to call themselves Catholic but "do not register at local parishes for a variety of reasons." According to a survey of 35,556 American residents (released in 2008 by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life), 23.9% of Americans identify themselves as Catholic (approximately 72 million of a national population of 306 million residents). The study notes that 10% of those people who identify themselves as Protestant in the interview are former Catholics and 8% of those who identity themselves as Catholic are former Protestants. In recent years, more parishes have opened than closed.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The northeastern quadrant of the US (i.e., New England, Mid-Atlantic, East North Central, and West North Central) has seen a decline in the number of parishes since 1970, but parish numbers are up in the other five regions (i.e., South Atlantic, East South Central, West South Central, Pacific, and Mountain regions) and are growing steadily. Catholics in the US are about 6% of the church's total worldwide 1.3 billion membership.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: A poll by The Barna Group in 2004 found Catholic ethnicity to be 60% non-Hispanic white (includes Americans with historically Catholic ethnicities such as Irish, Italian, German, Polish, or French), 31% Hispanic of any nationality (mostly Mexicans but also many Cubans, Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, Salvadorans, Colombians, Guatemalans and Hondurans among others), 4% Black (including Africans, Haitians, black Latino and Caribbean), and 5% other ethnicity (mostly Filipinos, Vietnamese and other Asian Americans, Americans who are multiracial and have mixed ethnicities, and American Indians). Among the non-Hispanic whites, about 16 million Catholics identify as being of Irish descent, about 13 million as German, about 12 million as Italian, about 7 million as Polish, and about 5 million as French (note that many identify with more than one ethnicity). The roughly 7.8 million Catholics who are converts (mainly from Protestantism, with a smaller number from irreligion or other religions) are also mostly non-Hispanic white, including many people of British, Dutch, and Scandinavian ancestry.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Between 1990 and 2008, there were 11 million additional Catholics. The growth in the Latino population accounted for 9 million of these. They accounted for 32% of all American Catholics in 2008 as opposed to 20% in 1990. The percentage of Hispanics who identified as Catholic dropped from 67% in 2010 to 55% in 2013.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: According to a more recent Pew Forum report which examined American religiosity in 2014 and compared it to 2007, there were 50.9 million adult Catholics (excluding children under 18), forming about 20.8% of the U.S. population, down from 54.3 million and 23.9% in 2007. Pew also found that the Catholic population is aging, forming a higher percentage of the elderly population than the young, and retention rates are also worse among the young. About 41% of those "young" raised Catholic have left the faith (as opposed to 32% overall), about half of these to the unaffiliated population and the rest to evangelical, other Protestant faith communities, and non-Christian faith. Conversions to Catholicism are rare, with 89% of current Catholics being raised in the religion; 8% of current Catholics are ex-Protestants, 2% were raised unaffiliated, and 1% in other religions (Orthodox Christian, Mormon or other nontrinitarian, Buddhist, Muslim, etc.), with Jews and Hindus least likely to become Catholic of all the religious groups surveyed. Overall, Catholicism has by far the worst net conversion balance of any major religious group, with a high conversion rate out of the faith and a low rate into it; by contrast, most other religions have in- and out-conversion rates that roughly balance, whether high or low. This is credited to the more liberal stance of the church since Vatican II, where conversion to Catholicism is no longer encouraged, and the de-emphasizing of basic Catholic religious beliefs in Catholic education. Still, according to the 2015 Pew Research Center, "the Catholic share of the population has been relatively stable over the long term, according to a variety of other surveys. By race, 59% of Catholics are non-Hispanic white, 34% Hispanic, 3% black, 3% Asian, and 2% mixed or Native American. Conversely, 19% of non-Hispanic whites were Catholic in 2014 (down from 22% in 2007), whereas 55% of Hispanics were (versus 58% in 2007). In 2015, Hispanics were 38%, while blacks and Asians were at 3% each. Because conversion away from Catholicism as well as dropping out of religion completely is presently occurring much more quickly among Hispanics than among Euro-American whites, Black (2.9% of US Catholic population) and Asian-American Catholics, it is doubtful they will outnumber the latter three categories of Catholics in the foreseeable future. Pew Research Center predicts that by 2050 (when the Hispanic population will be 128 million), only 40% of "third generation Latinos" will be Catholic, with 22% becoming Protestant, 24% becoming unaffiliated, and the remainder, other. This corresponds to a sharp decline in the Catholic percentage among self-identified Democrats, who are more likely to be nonwhite than Republicans. In one study, three authors found that around 10% of US Catholics are "Secularists," "meaning that their religious identification is purely nominal."


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: perhaps the most multi-ethnic organization of any kind, and so is a major laboratory for cross-cultural cooperation and


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: There has never been a Catholic religious party in the United States, either local, state or national, similar to Christian democratic parties in Europe. The American Solidarity Party, however, is a minor third party with ideas based on Catholic social teaching.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Historically, a majority of the Catholics in the United States supported the Democratic Party before 1968. Since the election of the Catholic John F. Kennedy as President in 1960, Catholics have split about 50-50 between the two major parties, but the Democrats have a slight lead due to the growing population of Hispanic Americans.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: On social issues, the Catholic Church takes strong positions against abortion, which was partly legalized in 1973 by the Supreme Court until it was overturned in 2022 with the Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization case, and same-sex marriage, which was fully legalized in June 2015. The church also condemns embryo-destroying research and In vitro fertilization as immoral. The church is allied with conservative evangelicals and other Protestants on these issues.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: However, the Catholic Church throughout its history has taken special concern for numerous vulnerable groups. This has led to progressive alliances, as well, with the church championing causes such as a strong welfare state, unionization, immigration for those fleeing economic or political hardship, opposition to capital punishment, environmental stewardship, opposition and critical evaluation of modern warfare.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The Catholic Church's teachings, coming from the perspective of a global church, do not conform easily to the American political binary of "liberals" and "conservatives." A majority of Catholics who favor abortion rights support the Democrats, while most anti-abortion Catholics support the Republicans. In August 2012 the "New York Times," reviewed the religion of the nine top national leaders: the presidential and vice-presidential nominees, the Supreme Court justices, the House Speaker, and the Senate majority leader. There were nine Catholics (six justices, both vice-presidential candidates, and the Speaker), three Jews (all from the Supreme Court), two Mormons (including the Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney) and one African-American Protestant (incumbent President Barack Obama). There were no white Protestants.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The Catholic Church's involvement in social or political movements was not very prominent until bishops in the United States addressed problems on racism in 1958 in a written piece called "Discrimination and Christian Conscience". In the 1960s, the Catholic Church showed support in the Selma to Montgomery marches, which involved the attendance of Dutch priest Henri Nouwen.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: One of the colonies of British America, the Province of Maryland, "a Catholic Proprietary," was founded with an explicitly English Catholic identity in the 17th century, contrasting itself with the neighbouring Protestant-dominated Massachusetts Bay Colony and Colony of Virginia. It was named after the Catholic Queen Henrietta Maria, the wife of Charles I of England. Politically, it was under the influence of Catholic colonial families of Maryland such as the Calvert Baron Baltimore and the Carroll family, the latter of Irish origin. Much of the religious situation in the Thirteen Colonies reflected the sectarian divisions of the English Civil War and in a larger sense the aftermath of the English Reformation. Furthermore, radical Puritans, who were viewed as outsiders in England for their opposition to the establishment Laudian-leaning Anglican Church, saw settlement in the American Colonies, particularly with the Plymouth Colony, as a way to escape religious restrictions against them in "the motherland" and were often theologically even more hostile to Catholics than the situation in England itself. The Province of Pennsylvania, which was given to the Quaker, William Penn by the last Catholic King of England, James II, advocated religious toleration as a principle and thus some Catholics lived there. There were also some Catholics in the Province of New York (named after the aforementioned James II). In 1785, the estimated number of Catholics was at 25,000; 15,800 in Maryland, 7,000 in Pennsylvania and 1,500 in New York. There were only 25 priests serving the faithful. This was less than 2% of the total population in the Thirteen Colonies.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Following the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776, the United States came to incorporate into itself territories with a pre-existing Catholic history under their previous governance by New France and New Spain; the two premier European Catholic powers active in North America. The territorial evolution of the United States since 1776 has meant that today more areas that are now part of the United States were Catholic in colonial times before they were Protestant. In 1803, the Louisiana Purchase saw vast territories in French Louisiana transferred over from the Catholic Kingdom of France, areas that would become the following states; Arkansas, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Minnesota, Louisiana, South Dakota, Wyoming and Montana, half of Colorado and North Dakota, parts of New Mexico, Texas and North Dakota. The French named a number of their settlements after Catholic saints, such as St. Louis, Sault Ste. Marie, St. Ignace, St. Charles and others. The Catholic, culturally French population of Americans, descended from this colony are today known as the Louisiana Creole and Cajun people.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: During the 19th century, territories previously belonging to the Catholic Spanish Empire became part of the United States, starting with Florida in the 1820s. Most of the Spanish American territories with a Catholic heritage became independent during the early 19th century, this included Mexico on the border of the United States. The United States subsequently annexed parts of Mexico, starting with Texas in the 1840s and after the end of the Mexican–American War an area known as the Mexican Cession, including what would become the states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, the rest of New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming. To an even greater extent than the French, the Spanish had named many settlements in the colonial period after Catholic saints or in reference to Catholic religious symbolism, names that they would retain after becoming part of the United States, especially in California (Los Angeles, San Francisco, San Diego, Sacramento, San Bernardino, Santa Barbara, Santa Monica, Santa Clarita, San Juan Capistrano, San Luis Obispo and numerous others), as well as Texas (San Antonio, San Juan, San Marcos and San Angelo), New Mexico (Santa Fe) and Florida (St. Augustine). As late as 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States took control of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, as well as Cuba for a time, all of which had several centuries of Spanish Catholic colonial history (though they were not made into states).


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Anti-Catholicism was official government policy for the English who settled the colonies along the Atlantic seaboard. Maryland was founded by a Catholic, Lord Baltimore, as the first 'non-denominational' colony and was the first to accommodate Catholics. A charter was issued to him in 1632. In 1650, the Puritans in the colony rebelled and repealed the Act of Toleration. Catholicism was outlawed and Catholic priests were hunted and exiled. By 1658, the Act of Toleration was reinstated and Maryland became the center of Catholicism into the mid-19th century. In 1689 Puritans rebelled and again repealed the Maryland Toleration Act. These rebels cooperated with the colonial assembly "dominated by Anglicans to endow the Church of England with tax support and to bar Catholics (and Quakers) from holding public office." New York, interestingly enough, proved more tolerant with its Catholic governor, Thomas Dongan, and other Catholic officials. Freedom of religion returned with the American Revolution. In 1756, a Maryland Catholic official estimated seven thousand practicing Catholics in Maryland and three thousand in Pennsylvania. The Williamsburg Foundation estimates in 1765 Maryland Catholics at 20,000 and 6,000 in Pennsylvania. The population of these colonies at the time was approximately 180,000 and 200,000, respectively. By the time the American War for Independence started in 1776, Catholics formed 1.6%, or 40,000 persons of the 2.5 million population of the 13 colonies. Another estimate is 35,000 in 1789, 60% in Maryland with not many more than 30 priests. John Carroll, first Catholic Bishop, in 1785, two years after the Treaty of Paris (1783), reported 24,000 registered communicants in the new country, of whom 90% were in Maryland and Pennsylvania.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: After the Revolution, Rome made entirely new arrangements for the creation of an American diocese under American bishops. Numerous Catholics served in the American army and the new nation had very close ties with Catholic France. General George Washington insisted on toleration; for example, he issued strict orders in 1775 that "Pope's Day," the colonial equivalent of Guy Fawkes Night, was not to be celebrated. European Catholics played major military roles, especially Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing, Casimir Pulaski and Tadeusz Kościuszko. Irish-born Commodore John Barry from Co Wexford, Ireland, often credited as "the Father of the American Navy," also played an important military role. In a letter to Bishop Carroll, Washington acknowledged this unique contribution of French Catholics as well as the patriotic contribution of Carroll himself: "And I promise that your fellow-citizens will not forget the patriotic part which you took in the accomplishments of their Revolution, and the establishment of their government; nor the important assistance which they received from a nation in which the Roman Catholic religion is professed."


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Beginning in approximately 1780 there was a struggle between lay trustees and bishops over the ownership of church property, with the trustees losing control following the 1852 Plenary Councils of Baltimore.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: In 1787 two Catholics, Daniel Carroll of the Irish O'Carrolls and Irish born Thomas Fitzsimons, helped draft the new United States Constitution. John Carroll was appointed by the Vatican as Prefect Apostolic, making him superior of the missionary church in the thirteen states. He formulated the first plans for Georgetown University and became the first American bishop in 1789.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The number of Catholics surged starting in the 1840s as German, Irish, and other European Catholics came in large numbers. After 1890, Italians and Poles formed the largest numbers of new Catholics, but many countries in Europe contributed, as did Quebec. By 1850, Catholics had become the country's largest single denomination. Between 1860 and 1890, their population tripled to seven million.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Some anti-Catholic political movements appeared: the Know Nothings in the 1840s. American Protective Association in the 1890s, and the second Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s, were active in the United States. But even as early as 1884, in the face of outbreaks of anti-Catholicism, Catholic leaders like James Cardinal Gibbons were filled with admiration for their country: "The oftener I go to Europe," Gibbons said, "the longer I remain there, and the more I study the political condition of its people, I return home filled with greater admiration for our own country and [am] more profoundly grateful that I am an American citizen." Animosity by Protestants waned as Catholics demonstrated their patriotism in World War I, their commitment to charity, and their dedication to democratic values.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: The bishops began standardizing discipline in the American Church with the convocation of the Plenary Councils of Baltimore in 1852, 1866 and 1884. These councils resulted in the promulgation of the Baltimore Catechism and the establishment of The Catholic University of America.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Jesuit priests who had been expelled from Europe found a new base in the U.S. They founded numerous secondary schools and 28 colleges and universities, such as Georgetown University (1789), St. Louis University (1818), Boston College, the College of Holy Cross, the University of Santa Clara, and several Loyola Colleges. Many other religious communities like the Dominicans, Congregation of Holy Cross, and Franciscans followed suit.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: In the 1890s the "Americanism" controversy roiled senior officials. The Vatican suspected there was too much liberalism in the American Church, and the result was a turn to conservative theology as the Irish bishops increasingly demonstrated their total loyalty to the Pope, and traces of liberal thought in the Catholic colleges were suppressed. As part of this controversy, the founder of the Paulist Fathers, Isaac Hecker, was accused by the French cleric (article in French) of subjectivism and crypto-Protestantism. Additionally some who sympathized with Hecker in France were accused of Americanism.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Nuns and sisters played a major role in American religion, education, nursing and social work since the early 19th century. In Catholic Europe, convents were heavily endowed over the centuries, and were sponsored by the aristocracy. But there were very few rich American Catholics, and no aristocrats. Religious orders were founded by entrepreneurial women who saw a need and an opportunity, and were staffed by devout women from poor families. The numbers grew rapidly, from 900 sisters in 15 communities in 1840, 50,000 in 170 congregations in 1900, and 135,000 in 300 different congregations by 1930. Starting in 1820, the sisters always outnumbered the priests and brothers. Their numbers peaked in 1965 at 180,000 then plunged to 56,000 in 2010. Many women left their orders, and few new members were added.


title: Catholic Church in the United States

text: On April 8, 2008, Cardinal William Levada, prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under Pope Benedict XVI, met with the Leadership Conference of Women Religious leaders in Rome and communicated that the CDF would conduct a doctrinal assessment of the LCWR, expressing concern that the nuns were expressing radical feminist views. According to Laurie Goodstein, the investigation, which was viewed by many U.S. Catholics as a "vexing and unjust inquisition of the sisters who ran the church's schools, hospitals and charities", was ultimately closed in 2015 by Pope Francis.