title: Radioactive waste

text: Space disposal is attractive because it removes nuclear waste from the planet. It has significant disadvantages, such as the potential for catastrophic failure of a launch vehicle, which could spread radioactive material into the atmosphere and around the world. A high number of launches would be required because no individual rocket would be able to carry very much of the material relative to the total amount that needs to be disposed of. This makes the proposal impractical economically and increases the risk of one or more launch failures. To further complicate matters, international agreements on the regulation of such a program would need to be established. Costs and inadequate reliability of modern rocket launch systems for space disposal has been one of the motives for interest in non-rocket spacelaunch systems such as mass drivers, space elevators, and other proposals.


title: Radioactive waste

text: Sweden and Finland are furthest along in committing to a particular disposal technology, while many others reprocess spent fuel or contract with France or Great Britain to do it, taking back the resulting plutonium and high-level waste. "An increasing backlog of plutonium from reprocessing is developing in many countries... It is doubtful that reprocessing makes economic sense in the present environment of cheap uranium."


title: Radioactive waste

text: In many European countries (e.g., Britain, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland) the risk or dose limit for a member of the public exposed to radiation from a future high-level nuclear waste facility is considerably more stringent than that suggested by the International Commission on Radiation Protection or proposed in the United States. European limits are often more stringent than the standard suggested in 1990 by the International Commission on Radiation Protection by a factor of 20, and more stringent by a factor of ten than the standard proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository for the first 10,000 years after closure.


title: Radioactive waste

text: The U.S. EPA's proposed standard for greater than 10,000 years is 250 times more permissive than the European limit. The U.S. EPA proposed a legal limit of a maximum of 3.5 millisieverts (350 millirem) each annually to local individuals after 10,000 years, which would be up to several percent of the exposure currently received by some populations in the highest natural background regions on Earth, though the U.S. United States Department of Energy (DOE) predicted that received dose would be much below that limit. Over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2000 feet of rock and soil in the United States (10 million km) by approximately 1 part in 10 million over the cumulative amount of natural radioisotopes in such a volume, but the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.


title: Radioactive waste

text: After serious opposition about plans and negotiations between Mongolia with Japan and the United States of America to build nuclear-waste facilities in Mongolia, Mongolia stopped all negotiations in September 2011. These negotiations had started after U.S. Deputy Secretary of Energy Daniel Poneman visited Mongolia in September 2010. Talks took place in Washington, D.C. between officials of Japan, the United States, and Mongolia in February 2011. After this the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which wanted to buy nuclear fuel from Mongolia, joined in the negotiations. The talks were kept secret and, although the "Mainichi Daily News" reported on them in May, Mongolia officially denied the existence of these negotiations. However, alarmed by this news, Mongolian citizens protested against the plans and demanded the government withdraw the plans and disclose information. The Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj issued a presidential order on September 13 banning all negotiations with foreign governments or international organizations on nuclear-waste storage plans in Mongolia. The Mongolian government has accused the newspaper of distributing false claims around the world. After the presidential order, the Mongolian president fired the individual who was supposedly involved in these conversations.


title: Radioactive waste

text: Authorities in Italy are investigating a 'Ndrangheta mafia clan accused of trafficking and illegally dumping nuclear waste. According to a whistleblower, a manager of the Italy's state energy research agency Enea paid the clan to get rid of 600 drums of toxic and radioactive waste from Italy, Switzerland, France, Germany, and the United States, with Somalia as the destination, where the waste was buried after buying off local politicians. Former employees of Enea are suspected of paying the criminals to take waste off their hands in the 1980s and 1990s. Shipments to Somalia continued into the 1990s, while the 'Ndrangheta clan also blew up shiploads of waste, including radioactive hospital waste, sending them to the sea bed off the Calabrian coast. According to the environmental group Legambiente, former members of the 'Ndrangheta have said that they were paid to sink ships with radioactive material for the last 20 years.


title: Radioactive waste

text: A few incidents have occurred when radioactive material was disposed of improperly, shielding during transport was defective, or when it was simply abandoned or even stolen from a waste store. In the Soviet Union, waste stored in Lake Karachay was blown over the area during a dust storm after the lake had partly dried out. At Maxey Flat, a low-level radioactive waste facility located in Kentucky, containment trenches covered with dirt, instead of steel or cement, collapsed under heavy rainfall into the trenches and filled with water. The water that invaded the trenches became radioactive and had to be disposed of at the Maxey Flat facility itself. In other cases of radioactive waste accidents, lakes or ponds with radioactive waste accidentally overflowed into the rivers during exceptional storms. In Italy, several radioactive waste deposits let material flow into river water, thus contaminating water for domestic use. In France in the summer of 2008, numerous incidents happened: in one, at the Areva plant in Tricastin, it was reported that, during a draining operation, liquid containing untreated uranium overflowed out of a faulty tank and about 75 kg of the radioactive material seeped into the ground and, from there, into two rivers nearby; in another case, over 100 staff were contaminated with low doses of radiation. There are ongoing concerns around the deterioration of the nuclear waste site on the Enewetak Atoll of the Marshall Islands and a potential radioactive spill.


title: Radioactive waste

text: Scavenging of abandoned radioactive material has been the cause of several other cases of radiation exposure, mostly in developing nations, which may have less regulation of dangerous substances (and sometimes less general education about radioactivity and its hazards) and a market for scavenged goods and scrap metal. The scavengers and those who buy the material are almost always unaware that the material is radioactive and it is selected for its aesthetics or scrap value. Irresponsibility on the part of the radioactive material's owners, usually a hospital, university, or military, and the absence of regulation concerning radioactive waste, or a lack of enforcement of such regulations, have been significant factors in radiation exposures. For an example of an accident involving radioactive scrap originating from a hospital see the Goiânia accident.


title: Radioactive waste

text: Transportation accidents involving spent nuclear fuel from power plants are unlikely to have serious consequences due to the strength of the spent nuclear fuel shipping casks.


title: Radioactive waste

text: On 15 December 2011, top government spokesman Osamu Fujimura of the Japanese government admitted that nuclear substances were found in the waste of Japanese nuclear facilities. Although Japan did commit itself in 1977 to these inspections in the safeguard agreement with the IAEA, the reports were kept secret for the inspectors of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Japan did start discussions with the IAEA about the large quantities of enriched uranium and plutonium that were discovered in nuclear waste cleared away by Japanese nuclear operators. At the press conference Fujimura said: "Based on investigations so far, most nuclear substances have been properly managed as waste, and from that perspective, there is no problem in safety management," But according to him, the matter was at that moment still being investigated.


title: Private limited company

text: A private limited company is any type of business entity in "private" ownership used in many jurisdictions, in contrast to a publicly listed company, with some differences from country to country. Examples include the "LLC" in the United States, "private company limited by shares" in the United Kingdom, "GmbH" in Germany and Austria, "société à responsabilité limitée" in France, and "sociedad de responsabilidad limitada" in the Spanish-speaking world. The benefit of having a private limited company is that there is limited liability. However, shares can only be sold to shareholders in the business, which means that it can be difficult to liquidate such a company.


title: Private limited company

text: In Albania a limited liability company () is a commercial company founded by persons of physical or judicial status, who are not liable for the company and personally bear losses only up to the outstanding contribution agreements. Partners' contributions constitute the registered capital of a limited liability company. Each partner has his quota in the company in proportion to the contribution of the capital so the registered capital of the company is divided between the partners based on the proportional ratio of their contribution. In Albania a limited liability company may not have a capital of less than 100 lek.


title: Private limited company

text: Although not an exact equivalent, the Argentine variant of the LLC is called "Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada (S.R.L.)" and it limits the liability of its members up to their capital contribution in the company. The equity is divided into equal stakes (can not be called "shares"), each one of which represents a percentage of the company and that can not be traded on the stock exchange. Their by-laws are regulated by law N° 19550 and the commercial partnership is limited to a maximum of 50 partners.


title: Private limited company

text: In Bolivia, the LLC variant is called Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada (S.R.L.). These companies' legal framework consist in the Trade Code (Decree Law N° 14379 of February 25, 1977), its modifications and other supplementary laws. The members participate in it through capital stakes, and their liability is limited to the value of their contributions. The number of members must be minimum 2 and maximum 25.


title: Private limited company

text: Bosnian and Herzegovinian legislation, similarly to that in Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia contemplates LLCs as "društvo s ograničenom odgovornošću" (d.o.o.). Companies using this structure append the abbreviation d.o.o. to their company name. A shareholder or member in a d.o.o. is only personally liable up to the value of the member's investment in the company.


title: Private limited company

text: The corporate structure in Brazilian law most similar to the American LLC is the "Sociedade Limitada" (“Ltda.”), under the new Brazilian Civil Code of 2002. The "sociedade limitada" is the new name of the "sociedade por quotas de responsabilidade limitada", and it can be organized as "empresária" or "simples", under this new code, roughly corresponding to the form types of "comercial" (“commercial”) and "civil" (“non commercial”) of the Commercial Code. A new law in Brazil has made it legal to obtain an LLC by a sole-proprietor in two forms: "Empresa Individual de Responsabilidade Limitada" ("Eireli" for short), or "Sociedade Unipessoal Limitada" (“Ltda.”). The main requirement for an Eireli is a capital of 100 times the current minimum wage, R$ 78.800,00 (US$26.267.00) as of 2015; whereas for a "Sociedade Unipessoal Limitada" the same rules apply as for other "Sociedades Limitadas"


title: Private limited company

text: Bulgarian legislation corresponds LLCs (Ltd, GmbH, SARL, etc.) as "Дружество с ограничена отговорност" ("Druzhestvo s ogranichena otgovornost"; company with limited liability). Companies incorporated under this structure append the cyrillic abbreviation "ООД" (Latin script: OOD) to their name. In the case of an LLC incorporated with a sole-shareholder/member (sole-ownership), this is designated and known as "Еднолично дружество с ограничена отговорност" ("Ednolichno druzhestvo s ogranichena otgovornost"; sole-ownership company with limited liability) and abbreviated as "ЕООД" (EOOD). The EOOD specifically, is exempted from annual, general or extraordinary meetings for making decisions and may just issue written resolutions.


title: Private limited company

text: Chilean law contemplates a certain form of LLC known as "Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada" (Limited Liability Association). Also (LLC) These companies are regulated by law N° 3.918. Among their most important characteristics we can say that:


title: Private limited company

text: Chilean law also contemplates a very special kind of individual owner LLC called "Empresa Individual de Responsabilidad Limitada" (Limited Liability Individual Company), which uses the E.I.R.L. aggregation.


title: Private limited company

text: Colombian legislation contemplates a very similar structure as mentioned above in the Chilean case. The "Ltda." abbreviation is also used in Colombia.


title: Private limited company

text: In Croatia, a private limited liability company is termed "društvo s ograničenom odgovornošću" (literal: limited liability company), abbreviated "d.o.o.". A public limited liability company is termed a "dioničko društvo" (literal: joint stock company) abbreviated "d.d.".


title: Private limited company

text: Czech legislation contemplates LLCs as "společnost s ručením omezeným" ("s.r.o." or "spol. s r.o."). An "s.r.o." is not technically comparable to an LLC because the profits are still subject to double taxation. Czech law does not offer a possibility to start up a limited company without the possibility of avoiding double taxation. As of 2014 the liability is not limited in Czech, since managing director ("jednatel", mandatory board member in Czech LLCs) bears full liability that extends to all of his/her property, including private one.


title: Private limited company

text: The Danish form of the LLC is the "kommanditselskab" (K/S). There is no minimum capital requirements. In a K/S there are two types of shareholders, the "komplementar" which is fully liable, and the "kommanditist" which liability is limited. The K/S is a tax-transparent company, which means the income "passes through" the company directly to the shareholders.


title: Private limited company

text: Dominican Republic legislation contemplates LLCs as "Sociedad de Responsabilidad Limitada", also known by their abbreviation "S.R.L.;; S.R.L.s award limited liability to their members up to their contribution in the company (i.e., contribution of capital). This type of company began after the law number 479 of the year 2008.


title: Private limited company

text: The Estonian version of private limited company (limited liability company) is called "osaühing" (OÜ). The type of entity is also required to be identified in the name.


title: Private limited company

text: Although not an exact equivalent, the Finnish version of the LLC is the Oy (osakeyhtiö) or in Swedish Ab (aktiebolag). An Oy is taxed as a corporation. Since 1 July 2019, there is no minimum capital required by law.


title: Private limited company

text: Because of its hybrid characteristics it is very difficult to determine the German equivalent. On one hand it is possible to consider it as a kind of "Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung" (GmbH) because it has aspects of a corporation; on the other hand it could be considered to be a kind of "Kommanditgesellschaft" (KG), which is the German equivalent of a limited partnership. Based on the literal translation of the word "company", an LLC should be considered to be a kind of KG without any liable partner. The German equivalent that comes closest to LLC, is GmbH & Co KG, a nested Kommanditgesellschaft (KG) where a Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH) takes the role of the fully liable partner. For the purpose of taxation, the Bundesfinanzministerium (German Federal Ministry of Finance) gives detailed guidelines of the circumstances under which an LLC is to be considered to be a "corporation" or as a "limited partnership". It is useful to note, however, that the original LLC statutes of Wyoming and other US states were more or less explicitly modeled after the GmbH.


title: Private limited company

text: A limited liability company (LLC) in Greece is synonymous to an EPE (ΕΠΕ - Εταιρεία Περιορισμένης Ευθύνης).


title: Private limited company

text: In Hong Kong, the Limited Company is the most commonly incorporated type of company and bears the characteristics of a Limited Liability Company. The core characteristics of a Hong Kong Limited Company include: i) it requires a minimum of one shareholder and one director (can be the same person), ii) a Hong Kong company requires a company secretary resident in HK, iii) foreign ownership is allowed, iv) company shareholders have limited liability and v) the company must have registered HK address.


title: Private limited company

text: Entrepreneurs who register a company in Hong Kong can choose a Hong Kong offshore company. This company structure is basically a HK Limited Company but all business is conducted outside of Hong Kong. The advantage of this structure is that all business income that is sourced outside of Hong Kong is tax exempt.


title: Private limited company

text: Hungarian legislation contemplates LLCs as "Korlátolt felelősségű társaság". Companies working under this structure append the abbreviation "Kft." to their name. Hungarian LLCs are required to have a 3 million HUF (Hungarian Forint) (approx. US$11,000) starting capital. The time of formation by the new electronic formation option has been reduced from 2 weeks to 2 hours, additional cost of formation is around 100,000 HUF (approx. US$540). Kft.s can be formed by the cooperation of lawyers.


title: Private limited company

text: The Hungarian Kft. is the most common form of doing business in Hungary. As being part of the European Union (EU), Hungarian Kft.s can now obtain an EU VAT registration number for doing business across the EU. The Hungarian EU-VAT reg. number starts with "HU". This way the existence of the subject company, VAT issues and the cross-check is available on the common EU website for companies.


title: Private limited company

text: According to Icelandic legislation, there are two main types of LLC forms, private and public held limited liability forms. Private LLC is abbreviated "Ehf." The minimum capital of 500,000 Icelandic krónas (kr.). Public LLC is abbreviated "Hf." with minimum capital of 4,000,000 kr.


title: Private limited company

text: Almost 93 percent of the companies incorporated in India are registered as Private Limited Companies.


title: Private limited company

text: The Ministry of Corporate Affairs is the governing body which regulates all Private Limited Companies in India. The main law regulating Private Limited Companies is the Companies Act 2013.


title: Private limited company

text: Prior to 2015, the shareholders (known as members) had to pay a minimum of as a subscription amount to incorporate a private limited company. A private limited company can have at most 200 members. A company with one member is referred to as a One Person Company.


title: Private limited company

text: The Companies Act, 2013 is the regulating Act along with the Rules (Delegated Legislation), Notices, Circulars and Notifications issued by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs.


title: Private limited company

text: As of 2015, there are seven types of companies which can be registered under Iran's company registration law. One of these seven types of companies and partnerships refers to LLPs. Like many other countries, two persons are required to form an LLP in Iran. Each person has his/her own shares and is responsible for business liability equivalent to his/her share percentage. LLPs in Iran are named according to the format illustrated by the following example: "Sherkat Ba Masooliyate Mahdood" translates as "Sherkat شرکت Company" + "Mahdood محدود Limited" + "Masooliyat مسئولیت Liability".


title: Private limited company

text: The , approved in 1942 and as amended by the Government Act 6/2003 and furthers modifications, mainly provides three forms of limited liability company:


title: Private limited company

text: Japan passed legislation in 1996 creating a new type of business organization, godo kaisha (J-LLC), a close variant of the American LLC. Japanese Tax authority does not consider J-LLC (Godo-Kaisha) a pass-through entity, but as a taxable entity.


title: Private limited company

text: Limited liability company in Latvia is referred to as "sabiedrība ar ierobežotu atbildību" (SIA). SIA is taxed as a corporation. The minimum share capital required by law is €2,800. But it is allowed to set up SIA with share capital €1.00, but it must be increased to minimum share capital €2,800 by increasing share capital with money or by moving at least 25% from annual profit until capital will be €2,800.


title: Private limited company

text: Mexican legislation contemplates LLCs as "Sociedades de Responsabilidad Limitada" (including "Sociedades de Responsabilidad Limitada de Capital Variable"), also known for their abbreviation "S. de R.L." (or "S de R.L. de C.V.") ("limited liability company" or "limited liability company with/of variable capital"). S. de R.L.'s award limited liability to its members up to their contribution in the company (i.e., contribution of capital) and also act as pass-through or flow-through entities whereby profits are "passed-through" to its members, avoiding double taxation. This type of company is widely used by foreign investors in Mexico because of its "pass-through" modality and its "check the box" capability under the IRC (Internal Revenue Code of the U.S.).


title: Private limited company

text: Moldovan legislation contemplates LLCs as "Societate cu Răspundere Limitată", abbreviated "S.R.L.", and are regulated member(s)-founder(s), and other non-founder members, minimum one member-founder and maximum total of 50 members, at least one of them must be the founder of the company, but all of the 50 could be also founders.


title: Private limited company

text: Macedonian legislation contemplates LLCs as "Друштво со ограничена одговорност" ("Drushtvo so ogranichena odgovornost"). Companies working under this structure append the abbreviation "д.о.о." ("d.o.o.") to their name. The minimum required starting capital for a d.o.o. is €5,000.


title: Private limited company

text: In Norway, the closest to an LLC is probably the "kommandittselskap" (KS). In a K/S there are two types of participants, one " komplementar" which is fully liable, and one or more "kommandittist", with limited liability. There are minimum capital requirements. The KS is a tax-transparent company, which means the income "passes through" the company directly to the shareholders.


title: Private limited company

text: In Pakistan, LLCs are known as private companies that end (Local Liability Company) with Pvt. Ltd. They should have at least Rs. 100,000 as their minimum paid up capital.


title: Private limited company

text: The Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP) has made it mandatory for all listed companies to file their documents, returns, accounts and applications through the commission's eServices online filing facility, earlier, this requirement was only applicable to the companies, which had been incorporated through eServices online filing facility.


title: Private limited company

text: The capital for any of the above entities is freely determined by its statutes. There is no minimum requirement except for entities with certain types of activities, mainly in the financial markets, and then irrespective of their type.


title: Private limited company

text: In Poland, a limited liability company is referred to literally as “company with limited liability” ("spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością", legally abbreviated as "sp. z o.o." (or sometimes "Sp. z o.o." in particular names). Informally, in the Polish speaking slang, it is abbreviated as "spółka zoo" (pronounced with a long "o", as in "tow."). However, "sp. z o.o." has a (separate from its owners) legal personality, which gives it the ability to do certain actions under law, and it is considered a "corporation".


title: Private limited company

text: In Portugal, LLCs are called ""Sociedades de Responsabilidade Limitada"", that is, "company of limited responsibility", usually abbreviated "Lda.". They are tax subject, and company shares cannot be sold in a public market, since 2006 the transference of them is not required to be done in the presence of a civil law notary, except if the company owns buildings, in the same way other major properties have to be sold. Nonetheless, the responsibility of the partners is limited to the capital share they hold, and the minimum capital required by law for a "Lda." of €5000.


title: Private limited company

text: The capital is not required to be deposited at the time of the registration of the company, instead the share holders have until 31 December of the year the registry was made.


title: Private limited company

text: Romania recognizes the limited liability company since 1990 under the name of "societate cu răspundere limitată" (S.R.L.), in which the owners are personally liable for the company obligations within the limit of their contribution to social capital. The minimum start capital is 200 RON which currently amounts to less than €50.


title: Private limited company

text: In Russia and certain other former Soviet countries, an entity with a somewhat similar structure is known as (Obshchestvo s ogranichennoy otvetstvennost'yu) (lit., "company with limited liability"), usually abbreviated OOO, or in some CIS countries as OcOO.


title: Private limited company

text: Although a Russian limited liability company shares the same name with an American LLC, it is different in many ways. Most importantly, a Russian LLC is not tax transparent: the company is taxed at the corporate level, and then, upon distribution of dividends, shareholders pay income tax (personal or corporate).


title: Private limited company

text: A limited liability company is the most popular form of legal undertaking in Russia for simple shareholding structures.


title: Private limited company

text: Serbia legislation contemplates limited company as but functioning it is more similar to limited partnership. For many other reasons for example as in the Czech Republic, a "d.o.o." is not technically comparable to an LLC because the profits are still subject to double taxation. The minimum capital required by law is 100 RSD, which is currently less than €1.


title: Private limited company

text: In Slovakia, the law contemplates "spoločnosť s ručením obmedzeným" (abbreviation "spol. s r. o." or "s. r. o.") or as the rough equivalent of a limited liability company. It is very popular form of business organization due to ensurance of limited liability in exchange for a relatively small investment into the registered capital. From one to 50 associates can found it through a founding agreement with minimum registered capital of €5000, minimum €750 per person, in money or other property. (§ 105–153 of Act. No 513/1991 Coll. – Commercial Code as amended.)


title: Private limited company

text: Slovenian legislation contemplates LLCs as "družba z omejeno odgovornostjo". Companies working under this structure append the abbreviation "d. o. o." to their name. The minimum required starting capital for a "d. o. o." is €7,500. Due to the high cost and complicated bookkeeping of a real corporation, this is a more widespread form.


title: Private limited company

text: In Spain, LLCs are called "Sociedad de responsabilidad limitada" (SRL), "company of limited responsibility", or "sociedad limitada" (SL), or "limited partnership". They are tax subject, and company shares cannot be sold in a public market, the transference of them having to be done compulsorily in the presence of a civil law notary, in the same way other major properties have to be sold. Nonetheless, the responsibility of the partners is limited to the capital share they hold, and the minimum capital required by law for a "S.L." is at least €3,000.


title: Private limited company

text: Sweden has no equivalent of an LLC. The closest company form is the "handelsbolag" (lit.: "trade company"). The Swedish AB ("aktiebolag"; lit.: "share company"), like the "handelsbolag", is a tax subject and is more similar to a US C Corporation than an LLC. The minimum capital required by law in a private company, "privat aktiebolag", is SEK 25,000, although this may be in the form of assets as well as capital. The AB structure requires shareholders, a Board of Directors, and regular meetings of both, together with complete accounts once per year. Depending on the size of the AB, the accounts may have to be audited. Creation or purchase "off-the-shelf" of an AB is relatively cheap and tax effective, but liquidation of a created "aktiebolag" can be an expensive and time-consuming operation. Creation of public limited liability companies, or "publikt aktiebolag", which can raise capital from the public, requires a minimum capitalization of SEK 500,000, however the overall regulation of public companies in Sweden, especially regarding accounting methods and taxes, is thorough and detailed.


title: Private limited company

text: The Swiss Code of Obligations provides for different kinds of companies with limited liability, the two most commonly used are:


title: Private limited company

text: Swiss Limited Liability Company: The terms for this kind of company used in the three official languages of the Swiss Confederation are as follows: In German "Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung" (abbreviation: "GmbH"), in French "Société à responsabilité limitée" (abbreviation: "S.à r.l." or "SARL") and in Italian "Società a Garanzia Limitata" (abbreviation: "SaGL"). A Swiss LLC is similar to an LLC with respect to various matters, including the following: Members may also be natural persons, corporations, partnerships or other LLCs, the liability of a member of a Swiss LLC to pay for the LLC's obligations is limited to its capital contribution, a Swiss LLC may be either member-managed or manager-managed, and, unless otherwise provided for in the operating agreement, the members’ right to control or manage a Swiss LLC is proportionate to their individual membership interest. The membership interests in a Swiss LLC have to be registered and, thus, they may only be issued in the name of a member but not to the bearer.


title: Private limited company

text: Swiss Corporation (in English common law context usually translated as " company limited by shares"): The terms for this kind of company used in the three official languages of the Swiss Confederation are as follows: In German "Aktiengesellschaft" (abbreviation: "AG"), in French "Société Anonyme" (abbreviation: "SA") and in Italian "Società Anonima" (abbreviation: "SA"). A Swiss corporation is with respect to various matters different from an LLC (including a Swiss LLC): Most important is that a Swiss corporation may, neither by default nor by exercising any respective option provided by the Swiss law, be member-managed like an LLC, as the respective mandatory provisions of Swiss law provide that the board of directors has certain non-transferable duties. Furthermore, the shares of a Swiss corporation may also be issued to the bearer (bearer shares) and, thus, not only in the name of a holder (registered shares), which, however, applies to the membership interests in a Swiss LLC, which may only be registered.


title: Private limited company

text: In Tajikistan, the same as in Russia, an entity with a somewhat similar structure is known as "Ҷамъияти дорои масъулияти маҳдуд", Chamiyti Doroi Masuliyti Machdud, abbreviated as "ҶДММ".


title: Private limited company

text: Most kinds of commercial organisations with an annual turnover of more than ฿1,800,000.00 are supposed to register a Limited Company with verified capital of at least ฿1,800,000.00 and pay VAT sales tax.


title: Private limited company

text: The process of incorporation is however complex and needs to be prepared by an accredited law firm or accountant. It includes the registration for VAT. The company registration number is the same as the Tax ID number which must then figure on all invoices and sales receipts with VAT breakdown shown separately. For most purposes, foreign nationals are not permitted to be share holders or declared board members although there are exceptions for very high level investors.


title: Private limited company

text: Minimum capital should be 10,000 TL. That capital could be the minimum total capital of company. Number of founding shareholders (real persons or legal entities) could be minimum 1 and maximum 50. All or some of the shareholders could be foreign nationals. There is no issued stock certificates and all shareholders liability is limited to their registered capital amount. 1/4 of capital should be blocked in a Bank until procedure of registration ends. The equivalent of LLC for Turkish is Ltd. Şti. (Which means ".)"


title: Private limited company

text: This type of entity has existed in Ukraine since the 1990s. LLC is the most common type of business entity in Ukraine. In Ukrainian, it is spelled "" (abbreviated – TОВ, TзОВ), in transliteration "Tovarystvo z Obmezhenoyu Vidpovidalnistyu," that is, "company with limited liability".


title: Private limited company

text: By Ukrainian law LLC is a legal person. Authorized capital of LLC is divided into shares (or stakes), the amount of which is determined by the charter. LLC is responsible to the creditors only with its assets. Legal entities (foreign or Ukrainian companies) individuals, regardless of their country of citizenship or residency can be the founders (participants) of LLC. Limited liability company can be formed either by one person or by several individuals or legal entities (corporations). Maximum number of participants (founders) of LLC in Ukraine is 100. Since 2014 registration procedure has been significantly simplified in Ukraine. Minimum amount of authorised capital is 1 (one) hryvnia (less than 0,04 US cents). There is no state fee for LLC formation.


title: Private limited company

text: By Ukrainian Law LLC dividend payment is possible after the declaration of company's income or profit to the fiscal/tax authorities and the approval of the income statement. Thus, regardless of the tax system, LLC can make dividend payments up to 4 times a year, or one time a quarter.


title: Private limited company

text: — as corporate/profit tax (18% rate) with or without VAT (up to 20% rate, depends on product or service) tax payer;


title: Private limited company

text: — fixed tax rate (in transliteration "yediniy podatok" or "") is a 5% rate from revenue, with or without (on request) VAT registration.


title: Private limited company

text: A Limited Liability Company (LLC) is the most common type of registration in the UAE and is recommended where the purpose of the entity is to make sales within the region. 100% foreign ownership of such an entity is not permitted.


title: Private limited company

text: Under the UAE Commercial Companies Law (CCL), foreign investors are permitted to hold up to 49 per cent equity ownership in UAE companies and 51 per cent of the equity must be held at all times by one or more UAE nationals. In accordance with Article (218) of the CCL a Limited Liability Company can be formed by a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 50 shareholders whose liability is limited to their shares in the capital of the company. Recent amendments to Article (217) of the CCL that came into force in June 2009 removed the requirement for minimum share capital (previously AED 300,000 in Dubai and AED 150,000 in other Emirates) allowing founders of a limited liability company the freedom to determine the company's share capital which could be less than the earlier prescribed bottom line. Shares of an LLC are not open for subscription by the public. Despite the split in shareholdings, profits may be divided in other ratios agreed upon, taking into consideration efforts of foreign partners in management, provision of technology or expertise. Responsibility for the management of a LLC can be vested in the foreign partner or UAE national partners or a third party. A LLC must appoint a minimum of one manager and up to a maximum of five managers for the business. Managers must be appointed by a Memorandum of Association or by a management contract, for a fixed term or an unlimited term. Unless the Memorandum of Association states otherwise, the manager has full powers of administration and management of the LLC.


title: Private limited company

text: LLC is not allowed to practice its activities in the UAE without a Trade License and Commercial Registration Certificate.


title: Private limited company

text: The new form of limited liability partnership (LLP), created in 2000, is similar to a US LLC in being tax neutral: member partners are taxed at the partner level, but the LLP itself pays no tax. It is treated as a body corporate for all other purposes including VAT. Otherwise, all companies, including limited companies and US LLCs, are treated as bodies corporate subject to United Kingdom corporation tax if the profits of the entity belong to the entity and not to its members.


title: Private limited company

text: In the United States, the term "privately held company" can either refer to a limited liability company or a corporation. By default, all corporations are privately held. Corporations have to get permission from the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to offer shares to the public. As a result, all newly formed corporations are automatically classified as privately owned.


title: Private limited company

text: One of the big differences between a limited liability company (LLC) and a corporation is that a corporation can issue stock and an LLC cannot.


title: Private limited company

text: A limited liability company (LLC) is a relatively new business structure authorized by state statutes. The LLC is chiefly inspired by the GmbH ("Company with limited liability"), a type of business organization in Germany, and by the , a type of business organization available in many Latin American countries.


title: Private limited company

text: In the United States, the first limited liability company act appeared in Wyoming in 1977 as special interest legislation for an oil company. In 1980, the Internal Revenue Service issued a private letter ruling to an LLC formed under the Wyoming LLC Act, indicating that the IRS would treat the LLC as a partnership for federal tax purposes. However, later that year, the IRS proposed regulations that would deny partnership classification to any business entity in which no member bore personal responsibility for the entity's liabilities. In 1982, Florida adopted an LLC act modeled on Wyoming's LLC Act. Due to uncertainty over the tax treatment of LLCs, no other states introduced LLC legislation until after 1988. In 1988, the IRS issued a revenue ruling stating that it would treat a Wyoming-style LLC as a partnership for tax purposes. By 1996, nearly every state had enacted an LLC statute. The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws adopted the Uniform Limited Liability Company Act in 1996 and revised it in 2006.


title: Private limited company

text: A potential disadvantage specific to the United States is that LLCs are not considered to be corporations for the purposes of federal civil procedure; they are instead treated as partnerships. This affects the applicability of diversity jurisdiction in cases involving LLCs, barring application of diversity jurisdiction when even one member of the LLC is a citizen of the same state as one of the opposing parties. Should one member of an LLC be a citizen of a state of which one of the opposing parties is a citizen, any case between the LLC and those parties must be heard in that state's courts; corporations enjoy a more complete legal personhood that only denies diversity jurisdiction when the opposing party is a citizen of the state in which the corporation is incorporated (most commonly Delaware for large corporations, which has a small population) or has its principal place of business.


title: Private limited company

text: AOL was set up as an LLC during its ownership by Time Warner from 2001 to 2008. There is a similar setup for BMW's American subsidiary, BMW of North America, LLC. Chrysler has been an LLC since restructuring during the auto industry bailout of 2009, owned by Fiat Chrysler Automobiles N.V.


title: Jing Tian

text: Jing Tian (, born 21 July 1988) is a Chinese actress. She graduated from the Beijing Dance Academy and Beijing Film Academy. She is known for her roles in the war epic "The Warring States" (2011) and the action films "Special ID" and "Police Story 2013" (both in 2013). She has had prominent roles in three Legendary Pictures films, "The Great Wall" (2016), "" (2017), and "Pacific Rim Uprising" (2018).


title: Jing Tian

text: She is also known for her roles in the historical dramas "Legend of Ban Shu" (2015), "The Glory of Tang Dynasty" (2017) and fantasy suspense drama "Rattan" (2021).


title: Jing Tian

text: Jing made her acting debut in the 2008 film "Anaconda Frightened". Her first television series was the period drama "The Epic of a Woman". In 2009, she was cast as the lead role in the historical drama "Biography of Sun Tsu", which aired in 2013.


title: Jing Tian

text: In 2010, Jing gained attention for her performance in the romance comedy drama "My Belle Boss". In 2011, she rose to fame for her role in the historical war film "The Warring States". A few leading roles in high-profile films followed; such as action films "Special ID" and "Police Story 2013" (both in 2013) and gambling film "From Vegas to Macau" (2014).


title: Jing Tian

text: In 2015, Jing starred in the historical romance drama "Legend of Ban Shu", playing the title role alongside Zhang Zhehan. The same year, she played the eponymous role in the historical fiction drama "The Legend of Xiao Zhuang". In 2016, Jing starred as the female lead in Zhang Yimou's war epic film "The Great Wall". Due to the recognition, Jing was cast in the Hollywood films "" (2017) and "Pacific Rim Uprising" (2018).


title: Jing Tian

text: In 2017, Jing starred in the historical fiction drama "The Glory of Tang Dynasty" alongside Ren Jialun, playing the role of Shen Zhenzhu. The drama was a hit and Jing gained positive reviews for her acting. Jing starred alongside Chen Bolin in the 2018 fantasy drama "The King of Blaze", based on the manga series of the same name. In 2019, Jing starred in the road-trip romance drama "Love Journey" alongside Chen Xiao. In 2021, she played the titular role of Si Teng in hit fantasy suspense drama "Rattan." In 2022, Jing Tian was fined the equivalent of US$1.1 million for promoting Infinite Free candy as a weight loss product.


title: Jing Tian

text: Jing Tian is the only Hollywood International Award winner in Hollywood Film Awards history. According to the press release, she won the inaugural award because her "performances have ignited the box office in her native land", and the award "was established to recognise cinematic talent from around the world and will be given every year", but the award was discontinued the following year.


title: Jing Tian

text: Jing Tian has also been nominated for "Most Disappointing Actress" at the Golden Broom Awards (China's equivalent of Golden Raspberry Awards) three times, winning twice.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl ( , , ; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938) was a German philosopher and mathematician who established the school of phenomenology.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality. In his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction. Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserl redefined phenomenology as a transcendental-idealist philosophy. Husserl's thought profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy, and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl studied mathematics, taught by Karl Weierstrass and Leo Königsberger, and philosophy taught by Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf. He taught philosophy as a "Privatdozent" at Halle from 1887, then as professor, first at Göttingen from 1901, then at Freiburg from 1916 until he retired in 1928, after which he remained highly productive. In 1933, under racial laws of the National Socialist German Workers Party, Husserl was expelled from the library of the University of Freiburg due to his Jewish family background and months later resigned from the Deutsche Akademie. Following an illness, he died in Freiburg in 1938.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl was born in 1859 in Proßnitz, a town in the Margraviate of Moravia, which was then in the Austrian Empire, and which today is Prostějov in the Czech Republic. He was born into a Jewish family, the second of four children. His father was a milliner. His childhood was spent in Prostějov, where he attended the secular elementary school. Then Husserl traveled to Vienna to study at the "Realgymnasium" there, followed next by the Staatsgymnasium in Olomouc (Ger.: Olmütz).


title: Edmund Husserl

text: At the University of Leipzig from 1876 to 1878, Husserl studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy. At Leipzig he was inspired by philosophy lectures given by Wilhelm Wundt, one of the founders of modern psychology. Then he moved to the Frederick William University of Berlin (the present-day Humboldt University of Berlin) in 1878 where he continued his study of mathematics under Leopold Kronecker and the renowned Karl Weierstrass. In Berlin he found a mentor in Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, then a former philosophy student of Franz Brentano and later the first president of Czechoslovakia. There Husserl also attended Friedrich Paulsen's philosophy lectures. In 1881 he left for the University of Vienna to complete his mathematics studies under the supervision of Leo Königsberger (a former student of Weierstrass). At Vienna in 1883 he obtained his PhD with the work "Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung" ("Contributions to the Calculus of Variations").


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Evidently as a result of his becoming familiar with the New Testament during his twenties, Husserl asked to be baptized into the Lutheran Church in 1886. Husserl's father Adolf had died in 1884. Herbert Spiegelberg writes, "While outward religious practice never entered his life any more than it did that of most academic scholars of the time, his mind remained open for the religious phenomenon as for any other genuine experience." At times Husserl saw his goal as one of moral "renewal". Although a steadfast proponent of a radical and rational "autonomy" in all things, Husserl could also speak "about his vocation and even about his mission under God's will to find new ways for philosophy and science," observes Spiegelberg.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Following his PhD in mathematics, Husserl returned to Berlin to work as the assistant to Karl Weierstrass. Yet already Husserl had felt the desire to pursue philosophy. Then professor Weierstrass became very ill. Husserl became free to return to Vienna where, after serving a short military duty, he devoted his attention to philosophy. In 1884 at the University of Vienna he attended the lectures of Franz Brentano on philosophy and philosophical psychology. Brentano introduced him to the writings of Bernard Bolzano, Hermann Lotze, J. Stuart Mill, and David Hume. Husserl was so impressed by Brentano that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy; indeed, Franz Brentano is often credited as being his most important influence, e.g., with regard to intentionality. Following academic advice, two years later in 1886 Husserl followed Carl Stumpf, a former student of Brentano, to the University of Halle, seeking to obtain his habilitation which would qualify him to teach at the university level. There, under Stumpf's supervision, he wrote "Über den Begriff der Zahl" ("On the Concept of Number") in 1887, which would serve later as the basis for his first important work, "Philosophie der Arithmetik" (1891).


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In 1887 Husserl married Malvine Steinschneider, a union that would last over fifty years. In 1892 their daughter Elizabeth was born, in 1893 their son Gerhart, and in 1894 their son Wolfgang. Elizabeth would marry in 1922, and Gerhart in 1923; Wolfgang, however, became a casualty of the First World War. Gerhart would become a philosopher of law, contributing to the subject of comparative law, teaching in the United States and after the war in Austria.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Following his marriage Husserl began his long teaching career in philosophy. He started in 1887 as a "Privatdozent" at the University of Halle. In 1891 he published his "Philosophie der Arithmetik. Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen" which, drawing on his prior studies in mathematics and philosophy, proposed a psychological context as the basis of mathematics. It drew the adverse notice of Gottlob Frege, who criticized its psychologism.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In 1901 Husserl with his family moved to the University of Göttingen, where he taught as "extraordinarius professor". Just prior to this a major work of his, "Logische Untersuchungen" (Halle, 1900–1901), was published. Volume One contains seasoned reflections on "pure logic" in which he carefully refutes "psychologism". This work was well received and became the subject of a seminar given by Wilhelm Dilthey; Husserl in 1905 traveled to Berlin to visit Dilthey. Two years later in Italy he paid a visit to Franz Brentano his inspiring old teacher and to Constantin Carathéodory the mathematician. Kant and Descartes were also now influencing his thought. In 1910 he became joint editor of the journal "Logos". During this period Husserl had delivered lectures on "internal time consciousness", which several decades later his former student Heidegger edited for publication.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In 1912 at Freiburg the journal "Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung" ("Yearbook for Philosophy and Phenomenological Research") was founded by Husserl and his school, and which published articles of their phenomenological movement from 1913 to 1930. His important work "Ideen" was published in its first issue (Vol. 1, Issue 1, 1913). Before beginning "Ideen" Husserl's thought had reached the stage where "each subject is 'presented' to itself, and to each all others are 'presentiated' ("Vergegenwärtigung"), not as parts of nature but as pure consciousness." "Ideen" advanced his transition to a "transcendental interpretation" of phenomenology, a view later criticized by, among others, Jean-Paul Sartre. In "Ideen" Paul Ricœur sees the development of Husserl's thought as leading "from the psychological cogito to the transcendental cogito." As phenomenology further evolves, it leads (when viewed from another vantage point in Husserl's 'labyrinth') to "transcendental subjectivity". Also in "Ideen" Husserl explicitly elaborates the phenomenological and eidetic reductions. Ivan Ilyin and Karl Jaspers visited Husserl at Göttingen.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In October 1914 both his sons were sent to fight on the Western Front of World War I and the following year one of them, Wolfgang Husserl, was badly injured. On 8 March 1916, on the battlefield of Verdun, Wolfgang was killed in action. The next year his other son Gerhart Husserl was wounded in the war but survived. His own mother Julia died. In November 1917 one of his outstanding students and later a noted philosophy professor in his own right, Adolf Reinach, was killed in the war while serving in Flanders.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl had transferred in 1916 to the University of Freiburg (in Freiburg im Breisgau) where he continued bringing his work in philosophy to fruition, now as a full professor. Edith Stein served as his personal assistant during his first few years in Freiburg, followed later by Martin Heidegger from 1920 to 1923. The mathematician Hermann Weyl began corresponding with him in 1918. Husserl gave four lectures on Phenomenological method at University College, London in 1922. The University of Berlin in 1923 called on him to relocate there, but he declined the offer. In 1926 Heidegger dedicated his book "Sein und Zeit" ("Being and Time") to him "in grateful respect and friendship." Husserl remained in his professorship at Freiburg until he requested retirement, teaching his last class on 25 July 1928. A "Festschrift" to celebrate his seventieth birthday was presented to him on 8 April 1929.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Despite retirement, Husserl gave several notable lectures. The first, at Paris in 1929, led to "Méditations cartésiennes" (Paris 1931). Husserl here reviews the phenomenological epoché (or phenomenological reduction), presented earlier in his pivotal "Ideen" (1913), in terms of a further reduction of experience to what he calls a 'sphere of ownness.' From within this sphere, which Husserl enacts in order to show the impossibility of solipsism, the transcendental ego finds itself always already paired with the lived body of another ego, another monad. This 'a priori' interconnection of bodies, given in perception, is what founds the interconnection of consciousnesses known as transcendental intersubjectivity, which Husserl would go on to describe at length in volumes of unpublished writings. There has been a debate over whether or not Husserl's description of ownness and its movement into intersubjectivity is sufficient to reject the charge of solipsism, to which Descartes, for example, was subject. One argument against Husserl's description works this way: instead of infinity and the Deity being the ego's gateway to the Other, as in Descartes, Husserl's ego in the "Cartesian Meditations" itself becomes transcendent. It remains, however, alone (unconnected). Only the ego's grasp "by analogy" of the Other (e.g., by conjectural reciprocity) allows the possibility for an 'objective' intersubjectivity, and hence for community.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In 1933, the racial laws of the new National Socialist German Workers Party were enacted. On 6 April Husserl was banned from using the library at the University of Freiburg, or any other academic library; the following week, after a public outcry, he was reinstated. Yet his colleague Heidegger was elected Rector of the university on 21–22 April, and joined the Nazi Party. By contrast, in July Husserl resigned from the Deutsche Akademie.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Later Husserl lectured at Prague in 1935 and Vienna in 1936, which resulted in a very differently styled work that, while innovative, is no less problematic: "Die Krisis" (Belgrade 1936). Husserl describes here the cultural crisis gripping Europe, then approaches a philosophy of history, discussing Galileo, Descartes, several British philosophers, and Kant. The apolitical Husserl before had specifically avoided such historical discussions, pointedly preferring to go directly to an investigation of consciousness. Merleau-Ponty and others question whether Husserl here does not undercut his own position, in that Husserl had attacked in principle historicism, while specifically designing his phenomenology to be rigorous enough to transcend the limits of history. On the contrary, Husserl may be indicating here that historical traditions are merely features given to the pure ego's intuition, like any other. A longer section follows on the "lifeworld" ["Lebenswelt"], one not observed by the objective logic of science, but a world seen in our subjective experience. Yet a problem arises similar to that dealing with 'history' above, a chicken-and-egg problem. Does the lifeworld contextualize and thus compromise the gaze of the pure ego, or does the phenomenological method nonetheless raise the ego up transcendent? These last writings presented the fruits of his professional life. Since his university retirement Husserl had "worked at a tremendous pace, producing several major works."


title: Edmund Husserl

text: After suffering a fall the autumn of 1937, the philosopher became ill with pleurisy. Edmund Husserl died at Freiburg on 27 April 1938, having just turned 79. His wife Malvine survived him. Eugen Fink, his research assistant, delivered his eulogy. Gerhard Ritter was the only Freiburg faculty member to attend the funeral, as an anti-Nazi protest.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl was rumoured to have been denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of the anti-Jewish legislation of April 1933. However, among other disabilities Husserl was unable to publish his works in Nazi Germany [see above footnote to "Die Krisis" (1936)]. It was also rumoured that his former pupil Martin Heidegger informed Husserl that he was discharged, but it was actually the previous rector.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Apparently Husserl and Heidegger had moved apart during the 1920s, which became clearer after 1928 when Husserl retired and Heidegger succeeded to his university chair. In the summer of 1929 Husserl had studied carefully selected writings of Heidegger, coming to the conclusion that on several of their key positions they differed: e.g., Heidegger substituted "Dasein" ["Being-there"] for the pure ego, thus transforming phenomenology into an anthropology, a type of psychologism strongly disfavored by Husserl. Such observations of Heidegger, along with a critique of Max Scheler, were put into a lecture Husserl gave to various "Kant Societies" in Frankfurt, Berlin, and Halle during 1931 entitled "Phänomenologie und Anthropologie".


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In the war-time 1941 edition of Heidegger's primary work, "Being and Time" ("Sein und Zeit", first published in 1927), the original dedication to Husserl was removed. This was not due to a negation of the relationship between the two philosophers, however, but rather was the result of a suggested censorship by Heidegger's publisher who feared that the book might otherwise be banned by the Nazi regime. The dedication can still be found in a footnote on page 38, thanking Husserl for his guidance and generosity. Husserl, of course, had died three years earlier. In post-war editions of "Sein und Zeit" the dedication to Husserl is restored. The complex, troubled, and sundered philosophical relationship between Husserl and Heidegger has been widely discussed.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: On 4 May 1933, Professor Edmund Husserl addressed the recent regime change in Germany and its consequences:The future alone will judge which was the true Germany in 1933, and who were the true Germans—those who subscribe to the more or less materialistic-mythical racial prejudices of the day, or those Germans pure in heart and mind, heirs to the great Germans of the past whose tradition they revere and perpetuate.After his death, Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of ""Gabelsberger"" stenography and his complete research library, were in 1939 smuggled to the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium by the Franciscan priest Herman Van Breda. There they were deposited at Leuven to form the "Husserl-Archives" of the Higher Institute of Philosophy. Much of the material in his research manuscripts has since been published in the Husserliana critical edition series.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In his first works, Husserl combined mathematics, psychology, and philosophy with the goal of providing a sound foundation for mathematics. He analyzed the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then built up a theory on this analysis. He used methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass he derived the idea of generating


title: Edmund Husserl

text: the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf he took the distinction between "proper" and "improper" presenting. In an example, Husserl explained this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic, as he also calls it) one if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. Husserl's "Logical Investigations" (1900–1901) is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as mereology.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Another important element that Husserl took over from Brentano was intentionality, the notion that the main characteristic of consciousness is that it is always intentional. While often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of "mental phenomena", by which they could be distinguished from "physical phenomena". Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act, has a content, is directed at an object (the "intentional object"). Every belief, desire, etc. has an object that it is about: the believed, the wanted. Brentano used the expression "intentional inexistence" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish mental phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Some years after the 1900–1901 publication of his main work, the "Logische Untersuchungen" ("Logical Investigations"), Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that in order to study the structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the objects as intended). Knowledge of essences would only be possible by "bracketing" all assumptions about the existence of an external world. This procedure he called "epoché". These new concepts prompted the publication of the "Ideen" ("Ideas") in 1913, in which they were at first incorporated, and a plan for a second edition of the "Logische Untersuchungen".


title: Edmund Husserl

text: From the "Ideen" onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. The metaphysical problem of establishing the reality of what we perceive, as distinct from the perceiving subject, was of little interest to Husserl in spite of his being a transcendental idealist. Husserl proposed that the world of objects—and of ways in which we direct ourselves toward and perceive those objects—is normally conceived of in what he called the "natural attitude", which is characterized by a belief that objects exist distinct from the perceiving subject and exhibit properties that we see as emanating from them (this attitude is also called physicalist objectivism). Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how we, in our many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually "constitute" them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of the imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply "external" and ceases to be seen as providing indicators about what it is, and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or "type". The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but "bracketed" as a way in which we regard objectsinstead of a feature that inheres in an object's essence founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver. In order to better understand the world of appearances and objects, phenomenology attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things we perceive (or an assumption underlying how we perceive objects). The major dividing line in Husserl's thought is the turn to transcendental idealism.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity, specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity ("Cartesian Meditations", Meditation V). Husserl tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of phenomenology to scientific inquiry (and specifically to psychology) and what it means to "bracket" the natural attitude. "The Crisis of the European Sciences" is Husserl's unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues. In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of Western philosophy and science, emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly (one-sidedly) empirical and naturalistic orientation. Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis, and that a science of the mind ('') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the natural sciences have managed: "It is my conviction that intentional phenomenology has for the first time made spirit as spirit the field of systematic scientific experience, thus effecting a total transformation of the task of knowledge."


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl's thought is revolutionary in several ways, most notably in the distinction between "natural" and "phenomenological" modes of understanding. In the former, sense-perception in correspondence with the material realm constitutes the known reality, and understanding is premised on the accuracy of the perception and the objective knowability of what is called the "real world". Phenomenological understanding strives to be rigorously "presuppositionless" by means of what Husserl calls "phenomenological reduction". This reduction is not conditioned but rather transcendental: in Husserl's terms, pure consciousness of absolute Being. In Husserl's work, consciousness of any given thing calls for discerning its meaning as an "intentional object". Such an object does not simply strike the senses, to be interpreted or misinterpreted by mental reason; it has already been selected and grasped, grasping being an etymological connotation, of "percipere", the root of "perceive".


title: Edmund Husserl

text: From "Logical Investigations" (1900/1901) to "Experience and Judgment" (published in 1939), Husserl expressed clearly the difference between meaning and object. He identified several different kinds of names. For example, there are names that have the role of properties that uniquely identify an object. Each of these names expresses a meaning and designates the same object. Examples of this are "the victor in Jena" and "the loser in Waterloo", or "the equilateral triangle" and "the equiangular triangle"; in both cases, both names express different meanings, but designate the same object. There are names which have no meaning, but have the role of designating an object: "Aristotle", "Socrates", and so on. Finally, there are names which designate a variety of objects. These are called "universal names"; their meaning is a "concept" and refers to a series of objects (the extension of the concept). The way we know sensible objects is called "sensible intuition".


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl also identifies a series of "formal words" which are necessary to form sentences and have no sensible correlates. Examples of formal words are "a", "the", "more than", "over", "under", "two", "group", and so on. Every sentence must contain formal words to designate what Husserl calls "formal categories". There are two kinds of categories: meaning categories and formal-ontological categories. Meaning categories relate judgments; they include forms of conjunction, disjunction, forms of plural, among others. Formal-ontological categories relate objects and include notions such as set, cardinal number, ordinal number, part and whole, relation, and so on. The way we know these categories is through a faculty of understanding called "categorial intuition".


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Through sensible intuition our consciousness constitutes what Husserl calls a "situation of affairs" ("Sachlage"). It is a passive constitution where objects themselves are presented to us. To this situation of affairs, through categorial intuition, we are able to constitute a "state of affairs" ("Sachverhalt"). One situation of affairs through objective acts of consciousness (acts of constituting categorially) can serve as the basis for constituting multiple states of affairs. For example, suppose "a" and "b" are two sensible objects in a certain situation of affairs. We can use it as basis to say, ""a"<"b"" and ""b">"a"", two judgments which designate the same state of affairs. For Husserl a sentence has a proposition or judgment as its meaning, and refers to a state of affairs which has a situation of affairs as a reference base.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl sees ontology as a "science of essences". "Sciences of essences" are contrasted with "factual sciences": the former are knowable a priori and provide the foundation for the later, which are knowable a posteriori. Ontology as a science of essences is not interested in "actual facts", but in the essences themselves, whether they "have instances or not". Husserl distinguishes between "formal ontology", which investigates the essence of "objectivity in general", and "regional ontologies", which study "regional essences" that are shared by all entities belonging to the region. Regions correspond to the highest genera of concrete entities: material nature, personal consciousness and interpersonal spirit. Husserl's method for studying ontology and sciences of essence in general is called eidetic variation. It involves imagining an object of the kind under investigation and varying its features. The changed feature is "inessential" to this kind if the object can survive its change, otherwise it belongs to the "kind's essence". For example, a triangle remains a triangle if one of its sides is extended but it ceases to be a triangle if a fourth side is added. Regional ontology involves applying this method to the essences corresponding to the highest genera.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl believed that "truth-in-itself" has as ontological correlate "being-in-itself", just as meaning categories have formal-ontological categories as correlates. Logic is a formal theory of judgment, that studies the formal "a priori" relations among judgments using meaning categories. Mathematics, on the other hand, is formal ontology; it studies all the possible forms of being (of objects). Hence for both logic and mathematics, the different formal categories are the objects of study, not the sensible objects themselves. The problem with the psychological approach to mathematics and logic is that it fails to account for the fact that this approach is about formal categories, and not simply about abstractions from sensibility alone. The reason why we do not deal with sensible objects in mathematics is because of another faculty of understanding called "categorial abstraction." Through this faculty we are able to get rid of sensible components of judgments, and just focus on formal categories themselves.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Thanks to "eidetic reduction" (or "essential intuition"), we are able to grasp the possibility, impossibility, necessity and contingency among concepts and among formal categories. Categorial intuition, along with categorial abstraction and eidetic reduction, are the basis for logical and mathematical knowledge.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl criticized the logicians of his day for not focusing on the relation between subjective processes that give us objective knowledge of pure logic. All subjective activities of consciousness need an ideal correlate, and objective logic (constituted noematically) as it is constituted by consciousness needs a noetic correlate (the subjective activities of consciousness).


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl stated that logic has three strata, each further away from consciousness and psychology than those that precede it.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: The ontological correlate to the third stratum is the "theory of manifolds". In formal ontology, it is a free investigation where a mathematician can assign several meanings to several symbols, and all their possible valid deductions in a general and indeterminate manner. It is, properly speaking, the most universal mathematics of all. Through the posit of certain indeterminate objects (formal-ontological categories) as well as any combination of mathematical axioms, mathematicians can explore the apodeictic connections between them, as long as consistency is preserved.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: According to Husserl, this view of logic and mathematics accounted for the objectivity of a series of mathematical developments of his time, such as "n"-dimensional manifolds (both Euclidean and non-Euclidean), Hermann Grassmann's theory of extensions, William Rowan Hamilton's Hamiltonians, Sophus Lie's theory of transformation groups, and Cantor's set theory.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Jacob Klein was one student of Husserl who pursued this line of inquiry, seeking to "desedimentize" mathematics and the mathematical sciences.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: After obtaining his PhD in mathematics, Husserl began analyzing the foundations of mathematics from a psychological point of view. In his habilitation thesis, "On the Concept of Number" (1886) and in his "Philosophy of Arithmetic" (1891), Husserl sought, by employing Brentano's descriptive psychology, to define the natural numbers in a way that advanced the methods and techniques of Karl Weierstrass, Richard Dedekind, Georg Cantor, Gottlob Frege, and other contemporary mathematicians. Later, in the first volume of his "Logical Investigations", the "Prolegomena of Pure Logic", Husserl, while attacking the psychologistic point of view in logic and mathematics, also appears to reject much of his early work, although the forms of psychologism analysed and refuted in the "Prolegomena" did not apply directly to his "Philosophy of Arithmetic". Some scholars question whether Frege's negative review of the "Philosophy of Arithmetic" helped turn Husserl towards modern Platonism, but he had already discovered the work of Bernard Bolzano independently around 1890/91. In his "Logical Investigations", Husserl explicitly mentioned Bolzano, G. W. Leibniz and Hermann Lotze as inspirations for his newer position.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder, published before Frege's landmark 1892 article, clearly distinguishes sense from reference; thus Husserl's notions of noema and object also arose independently. Likewise, in his criticism of Frege in the "Philosophy of Arithmetic", Husserl remarks on the distinction between the content and the extension of a concept. Moreover, the distinction between the subjective mental act, namely the content of a concept, and the (external) object, was developed independently by Brentano and his school, and may have surfaced as early as Brentano's 1870s lectures on logic.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Scholars such as J. N. Mohanty, Claire Ortiz Hill, and Guillermo E. Rosado Haddock, among others, have argued that Husserl's so-called change from psychologism to Platonism came about independently of Frege's review.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: For example, the review falsely accuses Husserl of subjectivizing everything, so that no objectivity is possible, and falsely attributes to him a notion of abstraction whereby objects disappear until we are left with numbers as mere ghosts. Contrary to what Frege states, in Husserl's "Philosophy of Arithmetic" we already find two different kinds of representations: subjective and objective. Moreover, objectivity is clearly defined in that work. Frege's attack seems to be directed at certain foundational doctrines then current in Weierstrass's Berlin School, of which Husserl and Cantor cannot be said to be orthodox representatives.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Furthermore, various sources indicate that Husserl changed his mind about psychologism as early as 1890, a year before he published the "Philosophy of Arithmetic". Husserl stated that by the time he published that book, he had already changed his mind—that he had doubts about psychologism from the very outset. He attributed this change of mind to his reading of Leibniz, Bolzano, Lotze, and David Hume. Husserl makes no mention of Frege as a decisive factor in this change. In his "Logical Investigations", Husserl mentions Frege only twice, once in a footnote to point out that he had retracted three pages of his criticism of Frege's "The Foundations of Arithmetic", and again to question Frege's use of the word "Bedeutung" to designate "reference" rather than "meaning" (sense).


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In a letter dated 24 May 1891, Frege thanked Husserl for sending him a copy of the "Philosophy of Arithmetic" and Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder's "Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik". In the same letter, Frege used the review of Schröder's book to analyze Husserl's notion of the sense of reference of concept words. Hence Frege recognized, as early as 1891, that Husserl distinguished between sense and reference. Consequently, Frege and Husserl independently elaborated a theory of sense and reference before 1891.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Commentators argue that Husserl's notion of noema has nothing to do with Frege's notion of sense, because "noemata" are necessarily fused with noeses which are the conscious activities of consciousness. "Noemata" have three different levels:


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Consequently, in intentional activities, even non-existent objects can be constituted, and form part of the whole noema. Frege, however, did not conceive of objects as forming parts of senses: If a proper name denotes a non-existent object, it does not have a reference, hence concepts with no objects have no truth value in arguments. Moreover, Husserl did not maintain that predicates of sentences designate concepts. According to Frege the reference of a sentence is a truth value; for Husserl it is a "state of affairs." Frege's notion of "sense" is unrelated to Husserl's noema, while the latter's notions of "meaning" and "object" differ from those of Frege.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: In detail, Husserl's conception of logic and mathematics differs from that of Frege, who held that arithmetic could be derived from logic. For Husserl this is not the case: mathematics (with the exception of geometry) is the ontological correlate of logic, and while both fields are related, neither one is strictly reducible to the other.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Reacting against authors such as J. S. Mill, Christoph von Sigwart and his own former teacher Brentano, Husserl criticised their psychologism in mathematics and logic, i.e. their conception of these abstract and "a priori" sciences as having an essentially empirical foundation and a prescriptive or descriptive nature. According to psychologism, logic would not be an autonomous discipline, but a branch of psychology, either proposing a prescriptive and practical "art" of correct judgement (as Brentano and some of his more orthodox students did) or a description of the factual processes of human thought. Husserl pointed out that the failure of anti-psychologists to defeat psychologism was a result of being unable to distinguish between the foundational, theoretical side of logic, and the applied, practical side. Pure logic does not deal at all with "thoughts" or "judgings" as mental episodes but about "a priori" laws and conditions for any theory and any judgments whatsoever, conceived as propositions in themselves.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Since "truth-in-itself" has "being-in-itself" as ontological correlate, and since psychologists reduce truth (and hence logic) to empirical psychology, the inevitable consequence is scepticism. Psychologists have also not been successful in showing how from induction or psychological processes we can justify the absolute certainty of logical principles, such as the principles of identity and non-contradiction. It is therefore futile to base certain logical laws and principles on uncertain processes of the mind.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: This confusion made by psychologism (and related disciplines such as biologism and anthropologism) can be due to three specific prejudices:


title: Edmund Husserl

text: 1. The first prejudice is the supposition that logic is somehow normative in nature. Husserl argues that logic is theoretical, i.e., that logic itself proposes "a priori" laws which are themselves the basis of the normative side of logic. Since mathematics is related to logic, he cites an example from mathematics: If we have a formula like "(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²" it does not tell us how to think mathematically. It just expresses a truth. A proposition that says: "The product of the sum and the difference of a and b "should" give us the difference of the squares of a and b" does express a normative proposition, but this normative statement "is based on" the theoretical statement "(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²".


title: Edmund Husserl

text: 2. For psychologists, the acts of judging, reasoning, deriving, and so on, are all psychological processes. Therefore, it is the role of psychology to provide the foundation of these processes. Husserl states that this effort made by psychologists is a "metábasis eis állo génos" (Gr. μετάβασις εἰς ἄλλο γένος, "a transgression to another field"). It is a metábasis because psychology cannot provide any foundations for "a priori" laws which themselves are the basis for all the ways we should think correctly. Psychologists have the problem of confusing intentional activities with the object of these activities. It is important to distinguish between the act of judging and the judgment itself, the act of counting and the number itself, and so on. Counting five objects is undeniably a psychological process, but the number 5 is not.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: 3. Judgments can be true or not true. Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become "evidently" true to us. This evidence, a psychological process that "guarantees" truth, is indeed a psychological process. Husserl responds by saying that truth itself, as well as logical laws, always remain valid regardless of psychological "evidence" that they are true. No psychological process can explain the "a priori" objectivity of these logical truths.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: From this criticism to psychologism, the distinction between psychological acts and their intentional objects, and the difference between the normative side of logic and the theoretical side, derives from a Platonist conception of logic. This means that we should regard logical and mathematical laws as being independent of the human mind, and also as an autonomy of meanings. It is essentially the difference between the real (everything subject to time) and the ideal or irreal (everything that is atemporal), such as logical truths, mathematical entities, mathematical truths and meanings in general.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: David Carr commented on Husserl's following in his 1970 dissertation at Yale: "It is well known that Husserl was always disappointed at the tendency of his students to go their own way, to embark upon fundamental revisions of phenomenology rather than engage in the communal task" as originally intended by the radical new science. Notwithstanding, he did attract philosophers to phenomenology.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Martin Heidegger is the best known of Husserl's students, the one whom Husserl chose as his successor at Freiburg. Heidegger's magnum opus "Being and Time" was dedicated to Husserl. They shared their thoughts and worked alongside each other for over a decade at the University of Freiburg, Heidegger being Husserl's assistant during 1920–1923. Heidegger's early work followed his teacher, but with time he began to develop new insights distinctively variant. Husserl became increasingly critical of Heidegger's work, especially in 1929, and included pointed criticism of Heidegger in lectures he gave during 1931. Heidegger, while acknowledging his debt to Husserl, followed a political position offensive and harmful to Husserl after the Nazis came to power in 1933, Husserl being of Jewish origin and Heidegger infamously being then a Nazi proponent. Academic discussion of Husserl and Heidegger is extensive.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: At Göttingen in 1913 Adolf Reinach (1884–1917) "was now Husserl's right hand. He was above all the mediator between Husserl and the students, for he understood extremely well how to deal with other persons, whereas Husserl was pretty much helpless in this respect." He was an original editor of Husserl's new journal, "Jahrbuch"; one of his works (giving a phenomenological analysis of the law of obligations) appeared in its first issue. Reinach was widely admired and a remarkable teacher. Husserl, in his 1917 obituary, wrote, "He wanted to draw only from the deepest sources, he wanted to produce only work of enduring value. And through his wise restraint he succeeded in this."


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Edith Stein was Husserl's student at Göttingen and Freiburg while she wrote her doctoral thesis "The Empathy Problem as it Developed Historically and Considered Phenomenologically" (1916). She then became his assistant at Freiburg in 1916–18. She later adapted her phenomenology to the modern school of modern Thomism.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Ludwig Landgrebe became assistant to Husserl in 1923. From 1939 he collaborated with Eugen Fink at the Husserl-Archives in Leuven. In 1954 he became leader of the Husserl-Archives. Landgrebe is known as one of Husserl's closest associates, but also for his independent views relating to history, religion and politics as seen from the viewpoints of existentialist philosophy and metaphysics.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Eugen Fink was a close associate of Husserl during the 1920s and 1930s. He wrote the "Sixth Cartesian Meditation" which Husserl said was the truest expression and continuation of his own work. Fink delivered the eulogy for Husserl in 1938.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Roman Ingarden, an early student of Husserl at Freiburg, corresponded with Husserl into the mid-1930s. Ingarden did not accept, however, the later transcendental idealism of Husserl which he thought would lead to relativism. Ingarden has written his work in German and Polish. In his "Spór o istnienie świata" (Ger.: "Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt", Eng.: "Dispute about existence of the world") he created his own realistic position, which also helped to spread phenomenology in Poland.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Max Scheler met Husserl in Halle in 1901 and found in his phenomenology a methodological breakthrough for his own philosophy. Scheler, who was at Göttingen when Husserl taught there, was one of the original few editors of the journal "Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung" (1913). Scheler's work "Formalism in Ethics and Nonformal Ethics of Value" appeared in the new journal (1913 and 1916) and drew acclaim. The personal relationship between the two men, however, became strained, due to Scheler's legal troubles, and Scheler returned to Munich. Although Scheler later criticised Husserl's idealistic logical approach and proposed instead a "phenomenology of love", he states that he remained "deeply indebted" to Husserl throughout his work.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Nicolai Hartmann was once thought to be at the center of phenomenology, but perhaps no longer. In 1921 the prestige of Hartmann the Neo-Kantian, who was Professor of Philosophy at Marburg, was added to the Movement; he "publicly declared his solidarity with the actual work of "die Phänomenologie"." Yet Hartmann's connections were with Max Scheler and the Munich circle; Husserl himself evidently did not consider him as a phenomenologist. His philosophy, however, is said to include an innovative use of the method.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Emmanuel Levinas in 1929 gave a presentation at one of Husserl's last seminars in Freiburg. Also that year he wrote on Husserl's "Ideen" (1913) a long review published by a French journal. With Gabrielle Peiffer, Levinas translated into French Husserl's "Méditations cartésiennes" (1931). He was at first impressed with Heidegger and began a book on him, but broke off the project when Heidegger became involved with the Nazis. After the war he wrote on Jewish spirituality; most of his family had been murdered by the Nazis in Lithuania. Levinas then began to write works that would become widely known and admired.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Alfred Schutz's "Phenomenology of the Social World" seeks to rigorously ground Max Weber's interpretive sociology in Husserl's phenomenology. Husserl was impressed by this work and asked Schutz to be his assistant.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Jean-Paul Sartre was also largely influenced by Husserl, although he later came to disagree with key points in his analyses. Sartre rejected Husserl's transcendental interpretations begun in his "Ideen" (1913) and instead followed Heidegger's ontology.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Maurice Merleau-Ponty's "Phenomenology of Perception" is influenced by Edmund Husserl's work on perception, intersubjectivity, intentionality, space, and temporality, including Husserl's theory of retention and protention. Merleau-Ponty's description of 'motor intentionality' and sexuality, for example, retain the important structure of the noetic/noematic correlation of "Ideen I", yet further concretize what it means for Husserl when consciousness particularizes itself into modes of intuition. Merleau-Ponty's most clearly Husserlian work is, perhaps, "the Philosopher and His Shadow." Depending on the interpretation of Husserl's accounts of eidetic intuition, given in Husserl's "Phenomenological Psychology" and "Experience and Judgment", it may be that Merleau-Ponty did not accept the "eidetic reduction" nor the "pure essence" said to result. Merleau-Ponty was the first student to study at the Husserl-archives in Leuven.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Gabriel Marcel explicitly rejected existentialism, due to Sartre, but not phenomenology, which has enjoyed a wide following among French Catholics. He appreciated Husserl, Scheler, and (but with apprehension) Heidegger. His expressions like "ontology of sensability" when referring to the body, indicate influence by phenomenological thought.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Kurt Gödel is known to have read "Cartesian Meditations". He expressed very strong appreciation for Husserl's work, especially with regard to "bracketing" or "epoché".


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Hermann Weyl's interest in intuitionistic logic and impredicativity appears to have resulted from his reading of Husserl. He was introduced to Husserl's work through his wife, Helene Joseph, herself a student of Husserl at Göttingen.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Colin Wilson has used Husserl's ideas extensively in developing his "New Existentialism," particularly in regards to his "intentionality of consciousness," which he mentions in a number of his books.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Rudolf Carnap was also influenced by Husserl, not only concerning Husserl's notion of essential insight that Carnap used in his "Der Raum", but also his notion of "formation rules" and "transformation rules" is founded on Husserl's philosophy of logic.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Karol Wojtyla, who would later become Pope John Paul II, was influenced by Husserl. Phenomenology appears in his major work, "The Acting Person" (1969). Originally published in Polish, it was translated by Andrzej Potocki and edited by Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka in the "Analecta Husserliana". "The Acting Person" combines phenomenological work with Thomistic ethics.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Paul Ricœur has translated many works of Husserl into French and has also written many of his own studies of the philosopher. Among other works, Ricœur employed phenomenology in his "Freud and Philosophy" (1965).


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Jacques Derrida wrote several critical studies of Husserl early in his academic career. These included his dissertation, "The Problem of Genesis in Husserl's Philosophy," and also his introduction to "The Origin of Geometry". Derrida continued to make reference to Husserl in works such as "Of Grammatology".


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Stanisław Leśniewski and Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz were inspired by Husserl's formal analysis of language. Accordingly, they employed phenomenology in the development of categorial grammar.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: José Ortega y Gasset visited Husserl at Freiburg in 1934. He credited phenomenology for having 'liberated him' from a narrow neo-Kantian thought. While perhaps not a phenomenologist himself, he introduced the philosophy to Iberia and Latin America.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Wilfrid Sellars, an influential figure in the so-called "Pittsburgh School" (Robert Brandom, John McDowell) had been a student of Marvin Farber, a pupil of Husserl, and was influenced by phenomenology through him:


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Hans Blumenberg received his habilitation in 1950, with a dissertation on ontological distance, an inquiry into the crisis of Husserl's phenomenology.


title: Edmund Husserl

text: Roger Scruton, despite some disagreements with Husserl, drew upon his work in "Sexual Desire" (1986).


title: Edmund Husserl

text: The influence of the Husserlian phenomenological tradition in the 21st century extends beyond the confines of the European and North American legacies. It has already started to impact (indirectly) scholarship in Eastern and Oriental thought, including research on the impetus of philosophical thinking in the history of ideas in Islam.


title: Tetris effect

text: The Tetris" effect (also known as Tetris" syndrome) occurs when people devote so much time and attention to an activity that it begins to pattern their thoughts, mental images, and dreams. It takes its name from the video game "Tetris".


title: Tetris effect

text: People who have played "Tetris" for a prolonged amount of time can find themselves thinking about ways different shapes in the real world can fit together, such as the boxes on a supermarket shelf or the buildings on a street. They may see colored images of pieces falling into place on an invisible layout at the edges of their visual fields or when they close their eyes. They may see such colored, moving images when they are falling asleep, a form of hypnagogic imagery.


title: Tetris effect

text: Those experiencing the effect may feel they are unable to prevent the thoughts, images, or dreams from happening.


title: Tetris effect

text: A more comprehensive understanding of the lingering effects of playing video games has been investigated empirically as game transfer phenomena (GTP).


title: Tetris effect

text: The "Tetris" effect can occur with other video games. It has also been known to occur with non-video games, such as the illusion of curved lines after doing a jigsaw puzzle, the checker pattern of a chess board (or imagining chess pieces in unrelated objects or phenomena), or the involuntary mental visualisation of Rubik's Cube algorithms common among speedcubers.


title: Tetris effect

text: The earliest example that relates to a computer game was created by the game Spacewar! As documented in Steven Levy's book "": "Peter Samson, second only to Saunders in Spacewarring, realized this one night when he went home to Lowell. As he stepped out of the train, he stared upward into the crisp, clear sky. A meteor flew overhead. "Where's the spaceship?" Samson thought as he instantly swiveled back and grabbed the air for a control box that wasn’t there." (p. 52.)


title: Tetris effect

text: Robert Stickgold reported on his own experiences of proprioceptive imagery from rock climbing. Another example, sea legs, are a kind of Tetris effect. A person newly on land after spending long periods at sea may sense illusory rocking motion, having become accustomed to the constant work of adjusting to the boat making such movements (see "Illusions of self-motion" and "Mal de debarquement"). The poem "Boots" by Rudyard Kipling describes the effect, resulting from repetitive visual experience during a route march:


title: Tetris effect

text: Mathematicians have reported dreaming of numbers or equations; for example Srinivasa Ramanujan, or Friedrich Engel, who remarked "last week in a dream I gave a chap my shirt-buttons to differentiate, and he ran off with them".


title: Tetris effect

text: Stickgold et al. (2000) have proposed that "Tetris-effect" imagery is a separate form of memory, likely related to procedural memory. This is from their research in which they showed that people with anterograde amnesia, unable to form new declarative memories, reported dreaming of falling shapes after playing "Tetris" during the day, despite not being able to remember playing the game at all.