title: Four-wheel drive

text: Audi also introduced a permanently all-wheel-driven road-going car, the Audi Quattro, in 1980. Audi's chassis engineer, Jörg Bensinger, had noticed in winter tests in Finland that a vehicle used by the West German Army, the Volkswagen Iltis, could beat any high-performance Audi. He proposed developing a four-wheel-drive car that would also be used for rallying to improve Audi's conservative image. The Audi quattro system became a feature on production cars.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: In 1987, Toyota also developed a car built for competition in rally campaigns. A limited number of road-going FIA Homologation Special Vehicle Celica GT-Four (known as Toyota Celica All-Trac Turbo in North America) were produced. The All-Trac system was later available on serial production Toyota Camry, Toyota Corolla, and Toyota Previa models.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Some of the earliest mid-engined four-wheel-drive cars were the various road-legal rally cars made for Group B homologation, such as the Ford RS200 made from 1984 to 1986. In 1989, niche maker Panther Westwinds created a mid-engined four-wheel drive, the Panther Solo 2.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: In the United States, as of late 2013, AWD vehicles comprised 32% of new light vehicle sales, up 5% since 2008. This is in large part due to the popularity of the crossover. Most crossovers offer the popular technology, in spite of it increasing vehicle price and fuel consumption. Car manufacturers have inundated consumers with marketing proclaiming AWD as a safety feature, although the advantage of AWD over FWD occurs in accelerating, not braking or steering. Tests have shown that though AWD gives improved acceleration in wintery conditions, it does not help with braking.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: In 2008, Nissan introduced the GT-R featuring a rear-mounted transaxle. The AWD system requires two drive shafts, one main shaft from the engine to the transaxle and differential and a second drive shaft from the transaxle to the front wheels.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Spyker is credited with building and racing the first four-wheel-drive racing car, the Spyker 60 HP in 1903.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Bugatti created a total of three four-wheel-drive racers, the Type 53, in 1932, but the cars were notorious for having poor handling.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Ferguson Research Ltd. built the front-engined P99 Formula One car that actually won a non-World Championship race with Stirling Moss in 1961. In 1968, Team Lotus raced cars in the Indy 500 and three years later in Formula 1 with the Lotus 56, that had both turbine engines and 4WD, as well as the 1969 4WD-Lotus 63 that had the standard 3-litre V8 Ford Cosworth engine. Matra also raced a similar MS84, and McLaren entered their M9A in the British Grand Prix, while engine manufacturers Ford-Cosworth produced their own version, which was tested but never raced. All these F1 cars were considered inferior to their RWD counterparts, as the advent of aerodynamic downforce meant that adequate traction could be obtained in a lighter and more mechanically efficient manner, and the idea was discontinued, though Lotus tried repeatedly.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Nissan and Audi had success with all-wheel drive in road racing with the former's advent of the Nissan Skyline GT-R in 1989. So successful was the car that it dominated the Japanese circuit for the first years of production, going on to bigger and more impressive wins in Australia before weight penalties eventually levied a" de facto "ban on the car. Most controversial was the win pulled off at the 1990 Macau Grand Prix, where the car led from start to finish. Audi's dominance in the Trans-Am Series in 1988 was equally controversial, as it led to a weight penalty midseason and to a rule revision banning all AWD cars; its dominance in Super Touring eventually led to a FIA ban on AWD system in 1998.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: New 24 Hours of Le Mans regulations may revive AWD/4WD in road racing, though such systems are only allowed in new hybrid-powered Le Mans prototypes. One example is the Audi R18 e-tron quattro (winner of race, the first hybrid/4WD to win Le Mans), using an electric motor in the front axle with the gasoline engine in the rear.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Medium-duty and heavy-duty trucks have recently adopted 4×4 drivetrains; 4×4 medium-duty trucks became common after Ford began selling Ford Super Duty trucks. These trucks shared many parts between the light-duty and medium-duty, reducing production costs. The Dana 60 front axle is used on both medium- and light-duty Super Duty trucks. Furthermore, the Big Three share/shared parts between the companies, reducing costs. The Dana S 110 is currently being used for the rear drive, under Ford and Ram's medium-duty trucks. The Dana 110 was also used on the General Motors 4×4s. Ram Trucks began selling medium-duty trucks, 4×4 and 4×2, in 2008. General Motors sold a 4×4 for model years 2005–2009.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Volvo introduced the Model 646 four-wheel-drive backhoe loader in 1977. Case Corporation followed suit in the U.S. in 1987.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: In engineering terms, "four-wheel drive" designates a vehicle with power delivered to four wheel ends spread over at least two axles. The term "4×4" (pronounced "four by four") was in use to describe North American military four-wheel-drive vehicles as early as the 1940s, with the first number indicating the number of wheel ends on a vehicle and the second indicating the number of driven wheels.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Trucks with dual tires on the rear axle and two driven axles are designated as 4×4s despite having six wheels, because the paired rear wheels behave as a single wheel for traction and classification purposes. True 6×6 vehicles, which have three powered axles, are classified as 6×6s regardless of how many wheels they have. Examples of these with two rear, one front axle are the six-wheeled Pinzgauer, which is popular with defense forces around the globe, and 10-wheeled GMC CCKW made famous by the U.S. Army in World War II.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Four-wheeler is a related term applying to all-terrain vehicles, and not to be confused with four-wheel drive. The "four" in the instance referring to the vehicle having four wheels, not necessarily all driven.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, French motor manufacturer Citroën developed the 2CV Sahara in 1958. Unlike other 4×4 vehicles, which use a conventional transfer case to drive the front and rear axles, the Sahara had two engines, each independently driving a separate axle, with the rear engine facing backwards. The two throttles, clutches, and gear-change mechanisms could be linked, so the two engines could run together, or they could be split and the car driven solely by either engine. Combined with twin fuel tanks and twin batteries (which could be set up to run either or both engines), the redundancy of two separate drive trains meant that they could make it back to civilization even after major mechanical failures. Only around 700 of these cars were built, and only 27 are known to exist today.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: BMC experimented with a twin-engined Mini Moke (dubbed the "Twini Moke") in the mid-1960s, but never put it into production. This made advantage of the Mini's 'power pack' layout, with a transverse engine and the gearbox in the engine sump. Simply by fitting a second engine/gearbox unit across the rear, a rudimentary 4×4 system could be produced. Early prototypes had separate gear levers and clutch systems for each engine. Later versions sent for evaluation by the British Army had more user-friendly linked systems.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: In 1965, A. J. M. Chadwick patented a 4WD system, GB 1113068, that used hemispherical wheels for an all-terrain vehicle. Twenty years later, B. T. E. Warne, patented, GB 2172558, an improvement on Chadwick's design that did not use differential gear assemblies. By using near-spherical wheels with the provision to tilt and turn each wheel co-ordinatively, the driven wheels maintain constant traction. Furthermore, all driven wheels steer, and as pairing of wheels is not necessary, vehicles with an odd number of wheels are possible without affecting the system's integrity. Progressive deceleration is made possible by dynamically changing the front-to-rear effective wheel diameter ratios.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Suzuki Motors introduced the Suzuki Escudo Pikes Peak Edition in 1996. Earlier Suzuki versions were twin-engined; from 1996 on, the engine is a twin-turbocharged 2.0-L V6, mated to a sequential six-speed manual transmission.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Nissan Motors has developed a system called E-4WD, designed for cars that are normally front-wheel drive; however, the rear wheels are powered by electric motors. This system was introduced in some variants of the Nissan Cube and Tiida. (This is similar to the system used on the Ford Escape Hybrid AWD.)


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Chrysler's Jeep Division debuted the twin-engined, Jeep Hurricane concept at the 2005 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. This vehicle has a unique "crab crawl" capability, which allows it to rotate 360° in place. This is accomplished by driving the left wheels as a pair and the right wheels as a pair, as opposed to driving the front and rear pairs. A central gearbox allows one side to drive in the opposite direction from the other. It also has dual Hemi V8s.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Some hybrid vehicles such as the Lexus RX400h provide power to an AWD system through a pair of electric motors, one to the front wheels and one to the rear. In the case of the AWD model version of the Lexus RX400h (and its Toyota-branded counterpart, the Harrier hybrid), the front wheels can also receive drive power directly from the vehicle's gasoline engine, as well as via the electric motors, whereas the rear wheels derive power only from the second electric motor. Transfer of power is managed automatically by internal electronics based on traction conditions and need, making this an all-wheel-drive system.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: The 4RM system used in the Ferrari FF in 2011 is unique in that it has a rear transaxle with a secondary front transaxle connected directly to the engine. The car operates primarily as a rear-wheel drive vehicle. Clutches in the front transaxle engage when the rear wheels slip. Drive to the front wheels is transmitted through two infinitely variable clutch packs that are allowed to 'slip' to give the required road wheel speeds. The front transaxle has three gears, two forward, and reverse. The two forward gears of the front transmission match the lower four forward gears of the rear transmission. It is not used in higher gears. The connection between this gearbox and each front wheel is via independent Haldex-type clutches, without a differential. Due to the difference in ratios, the clutches continually slip and only transmit, at most, 20% of the engine's torque.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: The above systems ending with "#" function by selectively using the traction control system (via ABS) to brake a slipping wheel.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Note: the above all function like 2WD when the multi-plate clutch coupling is not engaged (with exception of Subaru models), and like 4WD high-range in a part-time 4WD system when the clutch is engaged (usually by computer although some allow manual control). Some in this category have varying degrees of control in the torque distribution between front and rear by allowing some of the clutches in a multi-plate clutch coupling to engage and slip varying amounts. An example of a system like this is the BorgWarner i-Trac(TM) system.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: Note: the Haldex Traction-based car list was created from the list on Haldex Traction corporate website: Haldex Cars. A version of the BorgWarner ITM3e system is used on 2006 and up Porsche 911TT's. The Borg-Warner ITM 3e is also used in the 2006-now Hyundai Santa Fe and the Hyundai Tucson. In the Hyundais, the ITM 3e acts like a full-time AWD with 95:5 normal torque split. In extreme conditions, the system can be locked in a 50:50 split via the 4WD LOCK button.


title: Four-wheel drive

text: These are vehicles that have no center differential. Since there is no center differential to allow for speed differences between the front and rear wheels when turning, a small amount of tire slippage must occur during turns. When used on slick surfaces, this is not a problem, but when turning on dry pavement, the tires grip, then are forced to slip, then grip again, and so on, until the turn is completed. This causes the vehicle to exhibit a 'hopping' or 'binding' sensation. Using an engaged part-time 4WD system on a hard surface is not recommended, as damage to the drive-line eventually occurs. Part-time transfer cases are the industry standard transfer case for the 4x4 truck market. Any other transfer case can be considered more robust, however more moving parts and complexity can, sometimes, make other transfer cases less durable.


title: Ghaznavids

text: The Ghaznavid dynasty ( "Ġaznaviyān") was a culturally Persianate, Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic "mamluk" origin, ruling, at its greatest extent, large parts of Persia, Khorasan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest Indian subcontinent from 977 to 1186. The dynasty was founded by Sabuktigin upon his succession to the rule of Ghazna after the death of his father-in-law, Alp Tigin, who was an ex-general of the Samanid Empire from Balkh, north of the Hindu Kush in Greater Khorasan.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Sabuktigin's son, Mahmud of Ghazni, expanded the Ghaznavid Empire to the Amu Darya, the Indus River and the Indian Ocean in the east and to Rey and Hamadan in the west. Under the reign of Mas'ud I, the Ghaznavid dynasty began losing control over its western territories to the Seljuk dynasty after the Battle of Dandanaqan, resulting in a restriction of its holdings to modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan (Punjab and Balochistan).


title: Ghaznavids

text: In 1151, Sultan Bahram Shah lost Ghazni to the Ghurid sultan Ala al-Din Husayn. The Ghaznavids retook Ghazni, but lost the city to the Ghuzz Turks who in turn lost it to Muhammad of Ghor. In response, the Ghaznavids fled to Lahore, their regional capital. In 1186, Lahore was conquered by the Ghurid sultan, Muhammad of Ghor, with its Ghaznavid ruler, Khusrau Malik, imprisoned and later executed.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Two military families arose from the Turkic slave-guards of the Samanid Empire, the Simjurids and Ghaznavids, who ultimately proved disastrous to the Samanids. The Simjurids received an appanage in the Kohistan region of eastern Khorasan. The Samanid generals Alp Tigin and Abu al-Hasan Simjuri competed for the governorship of Khorasan and control of the Samanid Empire by placing on the throne emirs they could dominate after the death of Abd al-Malik I in 961. His death created a succession crisis between his brothers.


title: Ghaznavids

text: A court party instigated by men of the scribal class – civilian ministers rather than Turkic generals – rejected the candidacy of Alp Tigin for the Samanid throne. Mansur I was installed instead, and Alp Tigin prudently retired to south of the Hindu Kush, where he captured Ghazna and became the ruler of the city as a Samanid authority. The Simjurids enjoyed control of Khorasan south of the Amu Darya but were hard-pressed by a third great Iranian dynasty, the Buyid dynasty, and were unable to survive the collapse of the Samanids and the subsequent rise of the Ghaznavids.


title: Ghaznavids

text: The struggles of the Turkic slave generals for mastery of the throne with the help of shifting allegiance from the court's ministerial leaders both demonstrated and accelerated the Samanid decline. Samanid weakness attracted into Transoxiana the Karluks, a Turkic people who had recently converted to Islam. They occupied Bukhara in 992, establishing in Transoxania the Kara-Khanid Khanate.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Alp Tigin's died in 963, and after two ghulam governors and three years, his slave Sabuktigin became the governor of Ghazna.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Sabuktigin lived as a mamluk, Turkic slave-soldier, during his youth and later married the daughter of his master Alptigin, who fled to Ghazna (modern Ghazni Province in Afghanistan) following a failed coup attempt. After Alptigin death, his son Abu Ishaq Ibrahim governed Ghazna for three years. His death was followed by the reign of a former ghulam of Alptigin, Bilgetigin. Bilgetigin's rule was so harsh the populace invited Abu Bakr Lawik back. It was through Sabuktigin's military ability that Lawik was removed, Bilgetigin was exiled, and Sabuktigin gained the governorship.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Once established as governor of Ghazna, Sabuktigin was asked to intervene in Khurasan, at the insistence of the Samanid emir, and after a victorious campaign received the governorships of Balkh, Tukharistan, Bamiyan, Ghur and Gharchistan. Sabuktigin inherited a governorship in turmoil. In Zabulistan, the typical military fief system("mustaghall") were being changed into permanent ownership("tamlik") which resulted in the Turkic soldiery unwilling to take up arms. Sabuktigin reformed the system making them all a "mustaghall"-type fief. In 976, he ended the conflict between two Turkic ghulams at Bust and restored the original ruler. Later that same year, Sabuktigin campaigned against Qusdar, catching the ruler(possibly Mu'tazz b. Ahmad) off guard and obtaining an annual tribute from him.


title: Ghaznavids

text: After the death of Sabuktigin, his son by Alptigin's daughter, Ismail, was given Ghazna. Another son, Abu'l-Muzaffar Nasr, was given the governorship of Bust, while in Khorasan, the eldest son Mahmud, was given command of the army. Sabuktigin's intent was to ensure governorships for his family, despite the decaying influence of the Samanid Empire, and did not consider his dynasty as independent. Ismail, upon gaining his inheritance, quickly traveled to Bust and did homage to Emir Abu'l-Harith Mansur b. Nuh. Mahmud, who had been left out of any significant inheritance, proposed a division of power, to which Ismail refused. Mahmud marched on Ghazna and subsequently Ismail was defeated and captured in 998 at the Battle of Ghazni.


title: Ghaznavids

text: In 998, Mahmud, son of Sebuktigin, succeeded to the governorship, and Ghazni and the Ghaznavid dynasty became perpetually associated with him. He emphasized his loyalty in a letter to the caliph, saying that the Samanids had only been replaced because of their treason. Mahmud received the governorship of Khurasan and titles of Yamin al-Dawla and Amin al-Milla. As a representative of caliphal authory, he championed Sunni Islam by campaigning against the Ismaili and Shi'ite Buyids. He completed the conquest of the Samanid and Shahi territories, including the Ismaili Kingdom of Multan, Sindh, as well as some Buwayhid territory.


title: Ghaznavids

text: By all accounts, the rule of Mahmud was the golden age and height of the Ghaznavid Empire. Mahmud carried out seventeen expeditions through northern India to establish his control and set up tributary states, and his raids also resulted in the looting of a great deal of plunder. He established his authority from the borders of Ray to Samarkand, from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna.


title: Ghaznavids

text: During Mahmud's reign (997–1030), the Ghaznavids settled 4,000 Turkmen families near Farana in Khorasan. By 1027, due to the Turkmen raiding neighbouring settlements, the governor of Tus, Abu l'Alarith Arslan Jadhib, led military strikes against them. The Turkmen were defeated and scattered to neighbouring lands. Still, as late as 1033, Ghaznavid governor Tash Farrash executed fifty Turkmen chiefs for raids into Khorasan.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Mahmud of Ghazni led incursions deep into India, as far as Mathura, Kannauj and Somnath. In 1004-5, he invaded the Principality of Bhatiya and in 1006 the neighbouring Emirate of Multan. In 1008-9, he vanquished the Hindu Shahis at the Battle of Chach, and established Governors in the conquered areas. In India, the Ghaznavids were called "Turushkas" ("Turks") or "Hammiras" (from the Arabic "Amir" "Commander").


title: Ghaznavids

text: In 1018, he laid waste to the city of Mathura, which was "ruthlessly sacked, ravaged, desecrated and destroyed". According to Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah, writing an "History of Hindustan" in the 16th-17th century, the city of Mathura was the richest in India. When it was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni, "all the idols" were burnt and destroyed during a period of twenty days, gold and silver was smelted for booty, and the city was burnt down. In 1018 Mahmud also captured Kanauj, the capital of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, and then confronted the Chandelas, from whom he obtained the payment of tribute. In 1026, he raided and plundered the Somnath temple, taking away a booty of 20 million dinars.


title: Ghaznavids

text: The wealth brought back from Mahmud's Indian expeditions to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians ("e.g.", Abolfazl Beyhaghi, Ferdowsi) give glowing descriptions of the magnificence of the capital and of the conqueror's munificent support of literature. Mahmud died in April 1030 and had chosen his son, Mohammed, as his successor.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Mahmud left the empire to his son Mohammed, who was mild, affectionate and soft. His brother, Mas'ud, asked for three provinces that he had won by his sword, but his brother did not consent. Mas'ud had to fight his brother, and he became king, blinding and imprisoning Mohammed as punishment. Mas'ud was unable to preserve the empire and following a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040, he lost all the Ghaznavid lands in Persia and Central Asia to the Seljuks, plunging the realm into a "time of troubles". His last act was to collect all his treasures from his forts in hope of assembling an army and ruling from India, but his own forces plundered the wealth and he proclaimed his blind brother as king again. The two brothers now exchanged positions: Mohammed was elevated from prison to the throne, while Mas'ud was consigned to a dungeon after a reign of ten years and was assassinated in 1040. Mas'ud's son, Madood, was governor of Balkh, and in 1040, after hearing of his father's death, he came to Ghazni to claim his kingdom. He fought with the sons of the blind Mohammed and was victorious. However, the empire soon disintegrated and most kings did not submit to Madood. In a span of nine years, four more kings claimed the throne of Ghazni.


title: Ghaznavids

text: In 1058, Mas'ud's son Ibrahim, a great calligrapher who wrote the Koran with his own pen, became king. Ibrahim re-established a truncated empire on a firmer basis by arriving at a peace agreement with the Seljuks and a restoration of cultural and political linkages. Under Ibrahim and his successors the empire enjoyed a period of sustained tranquility. Shorn of its western land, it was increasingly sustained by riches accrued from raids across Northern India, where it faced stiff resistance from Indian rulers such as the Paramara of Malwa and the Gahadvala of Kannauj. He ruled until 1098.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Mas'ud III became king for sixteen years, with no major event in his lifetime. Mas'ud built the Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III and one of the Ghazni Minarets. Signs of weakness in the state became apparent when he died in 1115, with internal strife between his sons ending with the ascension of Sultan Bahram Shah as a Seljuk vassal. Bahram Shah defeated his brother Arslan for the throne at the Battle of Ghazni in 1117.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Sultan Bahram Shah was the last Ghaznavid King, ruling Ghazni, the first and main Ghaznavid capital, for thirty-five years. In 1148 he was defeated in Ghazni by Sayf al-Din Suri, but he recaptured the capital the next year. Ala al-Din Husayn, a Ghorid King, conquered the city in 1151, in revenge for his brother Kutubbuddin's death, who was son-in-law of the king but was publicly punished and killed for a minor offence. Ala al-Din Husayn then razed the city, burning it for 7 days, after which he became known as ""Jahānsuz"" ("World Burner"). Ghazni was restored to the Ghaznavids by the intervention of the Seljuks, who came to the aid of Bahram. Ghaznavid struggles with the Ghurids continued in subsequent years as they nibbled away at Ghaznavid territory, and Ghazni and Zabulistan were lost to a group of Oghuz Turks before being captured by the Ghurids. Ghazni fell to the Ghurids around 1170.


title: Ghaznavids

text: After the fall of Ghazni in 1163, the Ghaznavids established themselves in Lahore, their regional capital for Indian territories since its conquest by Mahmud of Ghazni, which became the new capital of the Late Ghaznavids. Ghaznavid power in northwestern India continued until the Ghurid conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik. Both Khusrau Malik and his son were imprisoned and summarily executed in Firuzkuh in 1191, extinguishing the Ghaznavid lineage.


title: Ghaznavids

text: The core of the Ghaznavid army was primarily made up of Turks, as well as thousands of native Afghans who were trained and assembled from the area south of the Hindu Kush in what is now Afghanistan. During the rule of Sultan Mahmud, a new, larger military training center was established in Bost (now Lashkar Gah). This area was known for blacksmiths where war weapons were made. After capturing and conquering the Punjab region, the Ghaznavids began to employ Hindus in their army.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Like the other dynasties that rose out of the remains of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Ghaznavid administrative traditions and military practice came from the Abbasids. The Arabian horses, at least in the earliest campaign, were still substantial in Ghaznavid military incursions, especially in dashing raids deep into hostile territory. There is a record of '6000 Arab horse' being sent against king Anandapala in 1008, and evidence of this Arabian cavalry persists until 1118 under the Ghaznavid governor in Lahore.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Due to their access to the Indus-Ganges plains, the Ghaznavids, during the 11th and 12th centuries, developed the first Muslim army to use war elephants in battle. The elephants were protected by armour plating on their fronts. The use of these elephants was a foreign weapon in other regions that the Ghaznavids fought in, particularly in Central Asia.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Although the dynasty was of Central Asian Turkic origin, it was thoroughly Persianised in terms of language, culture, literature and habits and has been regarded as a "Persian dynasty".


title: Ghaznavids

text: Persian literary culture enjoyed a renaissance under the Ghaznavids during the 11th century. The Ghaznavid court was so renowned for its support of Persian literature that the poet Farrukhi traveled from his home province to work for them. The poet Unsuri's short collection of poetry was dedicated to Sultan Mahmud and his brothers Nasr and Yaqub. Another poet of the Ghaznavid court, Manuchehri, wrote numerous poems about the merits of drinking wine.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Sultan Mahmud, modelling the Samanid Bukhara as a cultural center, made Ghazni into a center of learning, inviting Ferdowsi and al-Biruni. He even attempted to persuade Avicenna, but was refused. Mahmud preferred that his fame and glory be publicized in Persian and hundreds of poets assembled at his court. He brought whole libraries from Rayy and Isfahan to Ghazni and even demanded that the Khwarizmshah court send its men of learning to Ghazni. Due to his invasion of Rayy and Isfahan, Persian literary production was inaugurated in Azerbaijan and Iraq.


title: Ghaznavids

text: The Ghaznavids continued to develop historical writing in Persian that had been initiated by their predecessors, the Samanid Empire. The historian Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi's "Tarikh-e Beyhaqi", written in the latter half of the 11th century, is an example.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Although the Ghaznavids were Turkic and their military leaders were generally of the same stock, as a result of the original involvement of Sebuktigin and Mahmud of Ghazni in Samanid affairs and in the Samanid cultural environment, the dynasty became thoroughly Persianized, so that in practice one cannot consider their rule over Iran one of foreign domination. They also copied their administrative system from the Samanids. In terms of cultural championship and the support of Persian poets, they were more Persian than their ethnically-Iranian rivals, the Buyid dynasty, whose support of Arabic letters in preference to Persian is well known.


title: Ghaznavids

text: The 16th century Persian historian, Firishta, records Sabuktigin's genealogy as descended from the Sasanian kings: "Subooktu-geen, the son of Jookan, the son of Kuzil-Hukum, the son of Kuzil-Arslan, the son of Ferooz, the son of Yezdijird, king of Persia." However, modern historians believe this was an attempt to connect himself with the history of old Persia.


title: Ghaznavids

text: Historian Bosworth explains: "In fact with the adoption of Persian administrative and cultural ways the Ghaznavids threw off their original Turkish steppe background and became largely integrated with the Perso-Islamic tradition." As a result, Ghazni developed into a great centre of Arabic learning.


title: Ghaznavids

text: With Sultan Mahmud's invasions of North India, Persian culture was established at Lahore, which later produced the famous poet, Masud Sa'd Salman. Lahore, under Ghaznavid rule in the 11th century, attracted Persian scholars from Khorasan, India and Central Asia and became a major Persian cultural centre. It was also during Mahmud's reign that Ghaznavid coinage began to have bilingual legends consisting of Arabic and Devanagari script. The entire range of Persianate institutions and customs that would come to characterize the political economy of most of India would be implemented by the later Ghaznavids.


title: Ghaznavids

text: The Persian culture established by the Ghaznavids in Ghazna and Eastern Afghanistan survived the Ghurid invasion in the 12th century and endured until the invasion of the Mongols.


title: Ghaznavids

text: At its height, the Ghaznavid empire grew to cover large parts of present-day Iran, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, all of Afghanistan, Pakistan and large parts of northwest India. The Ghaznavid rulers are generally credited with spreading Islam into the Indian subcontinent. In addition to the wealth accumulated through raiding Indian cities, and exacting tribute from Indian rajas, the Ghaznavids also benefited from their position as an intermediary along the trade routes between China and the Mediterranean. They were, however, unable to hold power for long and by 1040 the Seljuks had taken over their Persian domains and a century later the Ghurids took over their remaining sub-continental lands.


title: Conway's law

text: Conway's law is an adage that states organizations design systems that mirror their own communication structure. It is named after the computer programmer Melvin Conway, who introduced the idea in 1967. His original wording was:


title: Conway's law

text: The law is based on the reasoning that in order for a product to function, the authors and designers of its component parts must communicate with each other in order to ensure compatibility between the components. Therefore, the technical structure of a system will reflect the social boundaries of the organizations that produced it, across which communication is more difficult. In colloquial terms, it means complex products end up "shaped like" the organizational structure they are designed in or designed for. The law is applied primarily in the field of software architecture, though Conway directed it more broadly and its assumptions and conclusions apply to most technical fields.


title: Conway's law

text: Eric S. Raymond, an open-source advocate, restated Conway's law in "The New Hacker's Dictionary", a reference work based on the Jargon File. The organization of the software and the organization of the software team will be congruent, he said. Summarizing an example in Conway's paper, Raymond wrote:


title: Conway's law

text: Yourdon and Constantine, in their 1979 book on Structured Design, gave a more strongly stated variation of Conway's Law:


title: Conway's law

text: James O. Coplien and Neil B. Harrison stated in a 2004 book concerned with organizational patterns of Agile software development:


title: Conway's law

text: More recent commentators have noted a corollary - for software projects with a long lifetime of code reuse, such as Microsoft Windows, the structure of the code mirrors not only the communication structure of the organization which created the most recent release, but also the communication structures of every "previous" team which worked on that code.


title: Conway's law

text: The law is, in a strict sense, only about correspondence; it does "not" state that communication structure is the cause of system structure, merely describes the connection. Different commentators have taken various positions on the direction of causality; that technical design causes the organization to restructure to fit, that the organizational structure dictates the technical design, or both. Conway's law was intended originally as a sociological observation, but many other interpretations are possible. The "New Hacker's Dictionary" entry uses it in a primarily humorous context, while participants at the 1968 "National Symposium on Modular Programming" considered it sufficiently serious and universal to dub it 'Conway's Law'. Opinions also vary on the desirability of the phenomenon; some say that the mirroring pattern is a helpful feature of such systems, while other interpretations say it's an undesirable result of organizational bias. Middle positions describe it as a necessary feature of compromise, undesirable in the abstract but necessary to handle human limitations.


title: Conway's law

text: An example of the impact of Conway's Law can be found in the design of some organization websites. Nigel Bevan stated in a 1997 paper, regarding usability issues in websites: "Organizations often produce web sites with a content and structure which mirrors the internal concerns of the organization rather than the needs of the users of the site."


title: Conway's law

text: Evidence in support of Conway's law has been published by a team of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard Business School researchers who, using "the mirroring hypothesis" as an equivalent term for Conway's law, found "strong evidence to support the mirroring hypothesis", and that the "product developed by the loosely-coupled organization is significantly more modular than the product from the tightly-coupled organization". The authors highlight the impact of "organizational design decisions on the technical structure of the artifacts that these organizations subsequently develop".


title: Conway's law

text: Additional and likewise supportive case studies of Conway's law have been conducted by Nagappan, Murphy and Basili at the University of Maryland in collaboration with Microsoft, and by Syeed and Hammouda at Tampere University of Technology in Finland.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Yang Zi (, born 6 November 1992) also known as Andy Yang, is a Chinese actress and singer. She graduated from the Performance Institute of Beijing Film Academy (BFA) in 2014. In 2016, Yang was chosen by Southern Metropolis Daily as one of the Four Dan Actresses of the post-90s Generation ().


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Yang is noted for her roles in "Home with Kids" (2005), "Battle of Changsha" (2014), "Ode to Joy" (2016), "Noble Aspirations" (2016), "Ashes of Love" (2018), "Go Go Squid!" (2019), "The Oath of Love" (2022) and "Immortal Samsara" (2022). Yang ranked 73rd on Forbes China Celebrity 100 list in 2017, 24th in 2019, 13th in 2020 and 8th in 2021.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Yang was born as Yang Niao () on 6 November, 1992 in Fangshan District, Beijing, China. Her father Yang Yunfei was a firefighter who worked in emergency rescue and disaster relief and her mother Ma Haiyan was a housewife. Her father named her Yang Niao to wish China a successful bid for the Olympics. From an early age, her parents accompanied her to various audition because of her love for acting. She first starred in "Ru Chi Chu Shan" at the age of 6.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Yang studied at Beijing Fangshan District Xingcheng Primary School, and Beijing No. 55 High School. In 2010, she was accepted to Beijing Film Academy. She graduated from Beijing Film Academy on 22 May 2014, with a major in performance.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In 1999, Yang made her acting debut by playing Zhou Qiong in "Ru Ci Chu Shan". In 2002, Yang had a minor role as little Consort Donggo in "Xiaozhuang Epic". In May 2004, Yang made her big-screen debut in the youth romance film "Girl's Diary", playing Ran Dongyang, an elementary school student. She received a Best Child Actor nomination at the "Tongniu Film Awards" for her performance in the film.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In 2005, Yang rose to prominence playing Xia Xue in the popular Mainland Chinese sitcom "Home with Kids". The series reached number one in ratings when it aired in China, and won the Outstanding Television Series (for children) award at the Flying Apsaras Awards and the Golden Eagle Awards. Yang became a household name in China since then. In March, she played little Bing Yue in historical costume drama Young Kangxi. In 2006, she reprised her role as Xia Xue in the sequel "Home with Kids 2", though not in the subsequent installments.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In June 2008, Yang released her first solo album titled "Home with Snow", which is named after her character's name in "Home with Kids". In 2009, Yang voiced Ma Xiaotiao in the comedy animation series "Mo's Mischief: Teacher's Pet", adapted from Yang Hongying's children's literature series of the same name. The same year, Yang played her first leading role in the youth drama "Girl Rushes Forward".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In 2010, Yang starred in the friendship drama "Boy's Diary". Then she was admitted to the Performance Institute of Beijing Film Academy. In February 2011, she starred in the family drama "Love Comes Knocking on the Door", based on the novel "Stepmother" by Geling Yan. Her role as a rebellious teenager allowed her to successfully shed her image of a "child star".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In May 2012, Yang starred in the medical drama "Angel Heart", portraying a kindhearted nurse. In August, she starred in the horror mystery thriller film "Insisrence", and won the Best Newcomer Award at the 14th Golden Phoenix Awards. She also performed the official soundtrack, "The Quiet Rubble" for the film. In February 2013, Yang played the lead role in the period comedy drama "King Rouge". In April, she starred in the family drama "Dad Comes Home". In August, she starred in the romance drama "Flowers in Fog", written by acclaimed Taiwanese writer Chiung Yao.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In March 2014, Yang starred in her first war drama "Battle of Changsha", directed by Magnolia Award-winner Kong Sheng. The series was set against the backdrop of the "Battle of Changsha" in 1939 during World War II. Yang played the role of Hu Xiangxiang, a nurse in the field hospital with different temperaments from the bright and lively girlhood to the aftermath of being a wife and a mother. The series was a critical success and was voted Best Drama of 2014 in major streaming website Douban after being broadcast on CCTV-8 beginning mid-July 2014. In May, Yang joined the second season of youth inspirational reality show "We Are Young" as a regular cast member.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In April 2015, Yang joined Dragon TV's star travel-reality show "Sisters Over Flowers" as a regular cast member. In August, she starred in the youth romance film "Where Are All The Time". In October, Yang starred in the period drama "Yangko Dance", which is a story inspired by the Haiyang Yangge folk dance that follows a man who gets caught in the complications of family, love and revenge. Within 21 days of its broadcast, the series became the Provincial Television Prime Ratings Champion in Jiangsu Television and Tianjin TV, maintaining top 5 positions till the end of its broadcast and has reached a total of 10 billion online views. Yang's portrayal of the kindhearted and patriotic young lady received positive reviews. The same month, she co-starred in the horror mystery web series "The Ferryman".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In April 2016, Yang starred in the metropolitan romance drama "Ode to Joy", which depicts the stories of five young women who comes from different social and educational backgrounds, but share a common goal. The series received critical acclaim and commercial success, and Yang gained widespread recognition for her portrayal of Qiu Yingying, a simple-minded girl from a small town. Yang was nominated for the Best Actress award at the China TV Golden Eagle Award, and the Best Supporting Actress award at the 23rd Shanghai Television Festival for her performance. In June, she starred in urban romance drama "Perfect Wedding", where she played the role of a wedding planner. In July, she portrayed Lu Xueqi, one of the two female protagonists in Noble Aspirations, the television series adaption of the Xianxia novel "Zhu Xian". The drama was a commercial success and accumulated 23 billion views online, the highest record held by a Chinese drama at that time. Yang gained wider popularity as a result and was nominated at the 22nd Huading Awards as Best Actress in the ancient drama category for her performance. In August, she co-starred in "Crying Out in Love", a film based on the romance novel "Socrates in Love" by Japanese novelist Kyoichi Katayama. In December, she returned in the second season of Noble Aspirations as Lu Xueqi.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On 27 January 2017, Yang appeared on the stage of CCTV Spring Festival Gala for the first time and performed the opening song "Beautiful Youths of China" with her sisters from "Ode to Joy" and TFBoys. In May, she starred in the historical romance comedy drama "Legend of Dragon Pearl". Yang reprised her role as Qiu Yingying in the second installment of "Ode to Joy".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On 15 February 2018, Yang attended the CCTV Spring Festival Gala and performed a comedy skit called "At Your Service" with Lin Yongjian, Li Mingqi and Dai Chunrong. In April, she played a guest role in the urban drama "Women in Beijing". She then joined the second season of Chinese youth variety show "Give Me Five", as a regular cast member. In July, she starred in "The Destiny of White Snake", a fantasy romance drama based on the renowned Chinese folktale. Yang's portrayal of the innocent and naive snake spirit; as well as her voice-dub for the character, received positive reviews. In August, Yang starred in the fantasy romance drama "Ashes of Love", playing an innocent and lively fairy maiden. The series was a commercial success, topping both television and web ratings; and received positive reviews. Yang received acclaim for her acting and experienced a new high in popularity. On 26 November, she joined Sina Entertainment's year-end special project short film "The Most Beautiful Performance".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On 4 February 2019, Yang performed a comedy skit titled "Platform" at the CCTV Spring Festival Gala with Shang Daqing, Li Wenqi, Huang Xiaojun and Tong Dawei. On 28 May 2019, Yang unveiled her wax figure at Madame Tussauds Beijing through an unveiling ceremony. In July, she starred in the e-sport romantic comedy drama "Go Go Squid!", playing a talented computer major who is also a popular online singer. The drama topped television ratings and had been streamed more than 9.6 billion times in its timeslot and was praised for its transmitting positive and uplifting messages such as the pursuit of dreams as well as patriotism. The success of "Go Go Squid" reaffirmed Yang's popularity. She won the Best Actress award in modern drama category at the 26th Huading Awards for her performance. She also sang the ending theme song of the drama titled "Milk Bread", which reached number 2 on Billboard China Social Chart. She then joined the third season of cooking reality show "Chinese Restaurant 3" as a regular cast member. In August, Yang featured in the disaster film "The Bravest" as the wife of a firefighter, the film achieved a box office result of 1.679 billion yuan and Yang won the Most Popular Supporting Actress award at the 16th Guangzhou Student Film Festival. She was also nominated for the Best Supporting Actress award at the 35th Hundred Flowers Awards and the 11th Macau International Film Festival for her performance. The same month, she starred in the crime suspense film "Bodies at Rest" playing a forensics scientist. She then starred in the romance environmental protection drama "My Mowgli Boy" where she played a marketing executive.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On 24 January 2020, Yang performed "Meeting in 20 Years Again" alongside Angela Zhang, Xu Ziwei and Roy Wang at the CCTV Spring Festival Gala. On October 1, she featured in the segment "Last Lesson" directed by Xu Zheng as part of the nationalistic film "My People, My Homeland", and sang the promotional OST "My Homeland" for the film. In November, she starred in "Hear Her", the first monologue series in China about women's rights. "Hear Her" is based on the format of BBC Studio's short-film series "Snatches: Moments from Women's Lives", produced and directed by famous Chinese actress Zhao Wei. Her themed episode is called "Wish for Love". On 20 December, as the "Guardian of National Treasure" Yang participated in an episode of the third season of large-scale cultural exploration CCTV-1 show "National Treasure".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In February 2021, Yang played a guest role in "", the sequel to her hit drama "Go Go Squid!". In May, she participated in the iQIYI detective reality show "The Detectives' Adventures". On 1 July, Yang participated in the "Great Journey", a large-scale epic theatrical performance to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Chinese Communist Party and performed in the inaugural skit "Breaking Dawn" along with several other artists. In September, Yang was announced as one of the 6 recommendation officers for "City Personification" IP series, representing Beijing. Bigeye Comics and Weibo Animation collaborated to release comic strips of Yang and Yan Bo called Yang Zi X Yan Bo "Hutong Projector". On November 15, 2021, Yang Zi posted on social media, announcing that the six-year contract with H&R Century Pictures would not be renewed and on November 16, she established her personal studio. In November, she played the titular character psychologist He Dun, in the urban drama "Psychologist", the television series adaption of Bi Shumin's 2007 novel "Female Psychologist", directed by Malaysian director Sam Quah.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On 4 January 2022, Yang participated in an episode of People's Daily's "Dream Radio" Season 4: "Chinese Youth" as a guest host to promote Beijing Winter Olympic with Olympic gold medalist athlete Li Jianrou. On 15 February, she joined Tencent's "Olympic Report Star Radio" for the 2022 Winter Olympics and 2022 Winter Paralympics. In March, she starred in the romance drama "The Oath of Love", playing a cellist. The series was a commercial success and was streamed over 3.8 billion times during its broadcast and won the "Tencent Business Breakthrough Award", one of the highest platform-level award. In July, she starred in the xianxia drama "Immortal Samsara", playing a lotus fairy. The series was a commercial success and topped various web drama ratings and was praised for its rich depiction of the Xianxia world and traditional Chinese culture both domestically and internationally.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Her upcoming works includes the crime thriller film "Drug Hunting", in which she stars as an anti drug policewoman and the historical fantasy drama "Lost You Forever".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Yang has been a WildAid Ambassador in China since 2019. On 20 December 2019, Yang participated in "Green Lifestyle" charity project jointly created by China Youth Daily, China Youth Online and WildAid and served as the Green Lifestyle Public Welfare Promotion Ambassador. In November 2020, Yang was announced as the Promotional Charity Ambassador of WildAid, advocating to protect wildlife. On 30 April 2021, WildAid and the China Wildlife Conservation Association co-launched a new PSA and billboard entitled "Bring Home Memories, Not Regrets" in China. The new campaign, led by Yang, calls on families not to purchase ivory and other wildlife products as souvenirs, ahead of May Day, a peak vacation and travel period in China.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: She also lends her voice to WildAid's elephant program by starring in the "Be Their Role Model" campaign which asks parents to use their actions to set good examples for the next generation by not consuming ivory and other wildlife products. As the Convention on Biological Diversity Conference of Parties (CoP15) opened on 11 October in Kunming, China, WildAid, China Environmental News, and the China Wildlife Conservation Association launched a new billboard campaign series featuring Yang and 3 other WildAid ambassador. She led the COP15 Conservation Biodiversity Campaign, helping to educate the public on the serious consequences of biodiversity loss and calling on the public to take action to protect biodiversity by saying no to illegal wildlife trade.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In March 2011, she served as the Love Ambassador of the "Girl's Heart" charity event, which aims to care for the growth of adolescent girls in millions of families in China. She then participated in "We Share a Blue Sky" charity project. On 22 April 2012, She participated in the 8th Beijing Youth Charity Film Festival as its Image Ambassador. In July 2013, Yang served as the Image Ambassador of "Chinese Campus Health Action" Student Vision Health Guidance Program and encouraged the students to do eye exercise.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In April 2017, She was announced as the Smart Action Ambassador for the China Children and Teenager's Fund. She then participated in a project sponsored by the China Foundation for Poverty Alleviation and the China Environmental Protection Foundation titled "Towards Ecological Civilization, Salute to Environmental Protection Pioneers" as its Public Welfare Envoy. On 9 September 2017, Yang joined BAZAAR Stars' Charity Night to raise money for Bazaar's "Accelerating for Love" ambulance project.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In January 2018, Yang participated in China Women's Development Foundation's "Mother's Postal Package" project as its Charity Ambassador to help mothers and families in poor areas. The same month, she participated in "Our New Era", a public music service advert produced by National Radio and Television Administration to promote youths and Chinese films and recorded a song titled "Thumbs Up For The New Era" and took part in its MV filming along with 20 other artists. In 6 August, she participated in the "For Hope+1" project organized by China Women's Development Foundation to help children with sJIA. She then joined the "My Hometown and Me" campaign jointly initiated by the Central Committee of the Communist Youth League of China and Weibo to help fight poverty.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In October 2018, Yang was announced as the National Mental Health Advocate. She participated in the "Watch Hunger Stop" charity project through Instagram. In November, she joined the People's Daily to mark the 40th anniversary of the reform and opening up of the "China has me" activity. Then on 16 November, she participated in the celebration of the reform and opening up jointly produced by the Beijing Committee of the Communist Youth League of China and China Youth Daily, recorded the song "The Future Me" and took part in its MV filming.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In March 2019, Yang joined "China Science Popularization Month" event and served as the China Popular Science Month Health Ambassador. On 5 September, She joined Public Welfare Fund for the "Philharmonic Listening Program" as the Ambassador of Love. She then participated in the "Beautiful China" education support project that focused on rural education. On 1 November, China Fire and Rescue announced Yang as the National Fire Prevention Public Welfare Messenger. On 17 November 2019, She participated in BAZAAR Stars' Charity Night and performed a song titled "Mercury" to support an aesthetic education charity project.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In January 2020, National Anti-fraud Center announced Yang as their Guardian Ambassador. On 9 March, Yang participated in "China Science Popularization Month" event and was named as the China Popular Science Month Anti-epidemic Science Ambassador. In April, she participated in World Health Organization's anti-epidemic welfare activities. On 17 October, the 7th National Poverty Alleviation Day, she was invited to work as an Advocate for the China Foundation for Poverty Alleviation to help alleviate poverty. On 28 August 28, the Supreme People's Court and the People's Court released a mini-video on the popularity of the Public Welfare Act of the Civil Code and invited Yang to participate in the mini-video to explain the rules as China's first "Civil Code Ambassador".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In January 2021, Yang joined hands with Han Hong Love Charity Foundation along with more than 40 celebrity volunteers to support the advocate and practice of public welfare everywhere. In February, she was invited to participate in a video series event as one of the Observer of Law for the Supreme People's Court. On 11 March, she was announced as the first "Campus Charity Ambassador" of the 11th National Youth Green Plant Adoption. On 12 April, Yang was announced as the Cybersecurity Education Promoter for the 6th National Security Education Day.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Then American cosmetics brand Origins and their brand spokesperson Yang have jointly launched Earth Month environment protection welfare activities in China. On 1 December, Yang and Psychologist joined hands with UNAID for an AIDS Awareness campaign for World AIDS Day 2021. On 4 January 2022, Yang joined hands with China Social Welfare Foundation as one of the public welfare ambassador of "Warm Heart Plan - Love for Farmers" project.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On 16 September 2017, Yang appeared as a special guest at Vision Wei's 10th Anniversary Concert in Beijing, performing "Looking for Someone" and "Our Little World" with the singer. On 31 December, Yang participated in the Hunan TV New Year Eve Concert and performed a song titled "Unsullied" which is the opening theme song of her drama Ashes of Love. On 5 February 2019, Yang appeared on the Beijing Television Spring Festival Gala and sang the song "Childhood" with 3 other artist. On 31 December, she participated in the Hunan TV New Year Eve Concert and performed the song "Possible Night".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On 25 January 2020, Yang participated in the "Beijing Television Spring Festival Gala 2020" together with her co-stars from Home with Kids and performed a song titled "Beijing, My Love". On 30 September, she participated in the 2020 CCTV National Day Gala and sang the song "Upward Light". On 17 October, Yang attended the 70th Anniversary Celebration of Beijing Film Academy and presented the opening speech of the ceremony. On 31 December, she participated in the Dragon TV New Year Eve Concert, performing "Unsullied", "One person Likes One Person", "Milk Bread" and "Us", the OST of her drama Ashes of Love , The Oath of Love , Go Go Squid! and Ode to Joy respectively.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On May 4th, she participated in CCTV's "Fight for Youth - 2021 May 4th Youth Day Special Program" and performed the song "Landscape Painting". On 31 December 2021, Yang participated in the Hunan TV New Year Eve Concert and performed the song "The Guardian of Princess Wendy". On May 3rd, 2022, she participated in Henan TV "Long Live Youth" - 2022 May 4th Youth Day Special Program.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In September 2016, Yang was picked as one of the "Four Dan Actresses of the post-90s generation" along with Zhou Dongyu, Guan Xiaotong and Zheng Shuang by a survey conducted by Southern Metropolis Daily among 173 million netizens and 110 professional media and industry insiders. Yang ranked 73rd on "Forbes China Celebrity 100" list in 2017. "Forbes China" listed Yang under their "30 Under 30" Asia 2017 list which consisted of 30 influential people under 30 years old who have had a substantial effect in their fields. In July 2019, after Go Go Squid! became a massive hit, iQiyi awarded Yang a "KPI锦鲤" pennant. On 6 December, Yang was awarded the "iQiyi Scream Goddess" at the "8th iQiyi All-Star Carnival". She ranked 24th on "Forbes China Celebrity 100" in 2019 and 13th in 2020.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On 3 January, 2020, The Beijing News selected Yang as the "2019 Entertainment Person of the Year". On 11 January, she was awarded "Weibo Queen" at the "Weibo Awards Ceremony" for the first time. On 7 May, she was awarded the "Most Influential Actress of 2019" by Powerstar China. Yang has appeared on the "Forbes Asia's 100 Digital Star" list, comprising 100 artists from across the Asia-Pacific region who have been able to stay active, raise awareness and inspire optimism despite the cancellation of physical events during the COVID-19 pandemic. Weibo Entertainment announced Yang as the "Most Commercially Valuable Star" of 2020. In 2021, she ranked 8th on "Forbes China Celebrity 100". Yang was awarded "Weibo Queen" for the second time at the "Weibo Awards Ceremony".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: As of September 2022, Yang has more than 60 million followers on Chinese microblogging platform Weibo. Her topic on Douyin has exceeded 90 billion views making her the first actress and only post-90s actress to do so.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Due to Yang's nationwide popularity, she has become one of the most in demand brand ambassadors in China. She endorses various kind of products such ase food and beverages, daily necessities and hygiene, mobile application and games etc. She also endorses many international brands including Chopard. In December 2019, Yang was named the promotional ambassador for the "Beijing Television Spring Festival Gala 2020".


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: On 6 February 2021, she was announced as one of the VIP spokesperson for Tencent Video. On 8 December 2021, she was announced as the Credit card spokesperson of China CITIC Bank. On 26 August 2022, Yang was announced as the global brand spokesperson of Chery Automobile.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: In 2008, at the age of 15, Yang went to help children affected by the 2008 Sichuan earthquake with her father as a volunteer. In July 2009, she participated in a child star charity project, withdrew part of the project's fund and donated it to the China Youth Care Foundation and Western China Eagle Education Network to assist young students.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Her costume pink gauze skirt in Ashes of Love was sold for ￥12,800 and the money was used in the Amity Foundation's "National Culture Companion Child Growth" project. In February 2020, Yang donated ￥500 thousand to help people affected by COVID-19 pandemic. In July 2021, Yang donated ￥1.3 million to relieve the damages done in 2021 Henan floods.


title: Yang Zi (actress)

text: Following the outbreak of COVID-19 in Shanghai, China, which began on February 28, 2022, a grant assistance from the China Film Foundation funded by Yang and 3 other actor started in April. Yang donated more than 16 tons of food supplies and other daily necessities to help people affected by the outbreak together with Huang Xuan, Wan Qian and Wen Qi. In September, she donated ￥1 million to relieve the damages done in 2022 Luding earthquake. On the official website of China Foundation for Poverty Alleviation, their 2021 Rural Development Annual Report revealed that Yang Zi Studio has become one of their donation partner.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The Samsung Galaxy S8 and Samsung Galaxy S8+ are Android smartphones produced by Samsung Electronics as the eighth generation of the Samsung Galaxy S series. The S8 and S8+ were unveiled on 29 March 2017 and directly succeeded the Samsung Galaxy S7 and S7 Edge, with a North American release on 21 April 2017 and international rollout throughout April and May. The Samsung Galaxy S8 Active was announced on 8 August 2017 and is exclusive to certain U.S. cellular carriers.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The S8 and S8+ contain upgraded hardware and major design changes over the S7 line, including larger screens with a taller aspect ratio and curved sides on both the smaller and larger models, iris and face recognition, a new suite of virtual assistant features known as Bixby (along with a new dedicated physical button for launching the assistant), a shift from Micro-USB to USB-C charging, and Samsung DeX, a docking station accessory that allows the phones to be used with a desktop interface with keyboard and mouse input support. The S8 Active features tougher materials designed for protection against shock, shatter, water, and dust, with a metal frame and a tough texture for improved grip that makes the S8 Active have a rugged design. The Active's screen measures the same size as the standard S8 model but loses the curved edges in favor of a metal frame.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The S8 and S8+ received positive reviews. Their design, screen quality, and form factor received praise, while critics also liked the updated software and camera optimizations. They received criticism for duplicate software apps, lackluster Bixby features at launch, and for the placement of the fingerprint sensor on the rear next to the camera. A video published after the phones' release proved that the devices' facial and iris scanners can be fooled by suitable photographs of the user.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The S8 and S8+ were in high demand at release. During the pre-order period, a record of one million units were booked in South Korea, and overall sales numbers were 30% higher than the Galaxy S7. However, subsequent reports in May announced sales of over five million units, a notably lower first-month sales number than previous Galaxy S series models.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Prior to its official announcement, media outlets reported on rumors and information from industry insiders. In December 2016, "SamMobile" reported that the Galaxy S8 would not feature a 3.5 mm headphone jack, later reported to be a false rumor. In January 2017, "The Guardian" reported on bigger screens for both of the two phone sizes, with edge-to-edge "infinity" displays and very limited bezels, and an iris scanner. Additionally, "The Guardian" stated that the phones would come with 64 gigabytes of storage and support microSD cards, use USB-C connectors, and feature a "Bixby" intelligent personal assistant. Soon after, "VentureBeat" revealed photos of the phones and additional details, including the lack of physical navigation and home buttons, in which the fingerprint sensor was moved to the back of the phone. Evan Blass tweeted in mid-March about color options for the phones.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ were officially unveiled on 29 March 2017, with pre-orders beginning 30 March and official U.S. release on 21 April 2017. Following Best Buy retail listings in March, Samsung opened pre-orders for unlocked U.S. handsets on 9 May 2017, with availability starting 31 May.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The devices have also been released internationally. On 21 April 2017, they were made available in South Korea, Canada, and Taiwan. On 28 April, they were made available in the United Kingdom, Australia, Ireland, and Russia. followed by Singapore one day later. On 5 May, they were made available in Malaysia. New Zealand, Pakistan, India, the Philippines, and Thailand. followed by Brazil on 12 May. On 25 May, they were made available in China, and Hong Kong. On 8 June, they were made available in Japan.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: In July 2017, pictures of the Galaxy S8 Active were leaked on Reddit, and the following month, AT&T "accidentally" confirmed its existence through a document in a promotional campaign. It officially became available for pre-order, exclusively through AT&T, on 8 August 2017, with in-store purchase available 11 August. "VentureBeat" reported in late September that the device would also become available through T-Mobile in November, and Samsung subsequently confirmed both T-Mobile and Sprint availability in early November.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The Galaxy S8 and S8+ both feature 1440p OLED displays, with an 18.5:9 (37:18) aspect ratio taller than the ratio used by the majority of smartphones released until then. The S8 has a 5.8-inch panel, while the S8+ uses a larger 6.2-inch panel. The displays on both devices curve along the side bezels of the device, with minimal bezels that Samsung markets as an "infinity display", and the display panel itself has rounded edges. They use DCI-P3, offering what screen-testing website "DisplayMate" describes as the largest native color gamut, highest peak brightness, highest contrast rating in ambient light, highest screen resolution, lowest reflectance, and highest contrast ratio.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The S8 features an octa-core Exynos 8895 system-on-chip and 4 GB of RAM; models in North American and East Asian markets utilize the Qualcomm Snapdragon 835 instead. Both chips are manufactured by Samsung with a 10 nm process. They contain 64 GB of internal storage, expandable via microSD card.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: In the United States, the S8 and S8+ are available in Midnight Black, Orchid Gray, and Arctic Silver color options, whereas gold and blue are available internationally. The blue option was made available in the U.S. in July 2017.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Unlike past Galaxy S series models, the S8 line does not feature physical navigation keys, electing to use on-screen keys instead. However, unlike other implementations, the home button can still be activated if it is hidden or the screen is off. The S8's display features pressure sensitivity limited to the home button. To prevent the home button from burn-in damage, its position moves slightly.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The Galaxy S8 Active features a rugged design and significantly tougher materials to make it shock, shatter, water, and dust resistant. It has a larger battery than either of the regular S8s, at 4000 mAh. Unlike the previous phones in the Active line, the S8 Active does not have tactile buttons, instead using onscreen keys like the regular variants of the S8. It also no longer has the dedicated action button of previous versions which could be reprogrammed to be a shortcut to favorite apps, with the action button being replaced with the Bixby button. The "infinity" edge display of the standard models is removed, replaced with a metal frame and bumpers in the corners to protect from shocks, while the back is fitted with a "rugged, tough texture for a secure grip". Its screen also measures 5.8 inches, the size of the regular S8, and has quad HD Super AMOLED in 18.5:9 aspect ratio. The S8 Active is sold in Meteor Gray, but AT&T also has a Titanium Gold color.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: While "The Verge" claims that the S8 uses exactly the same 12-megapixel rear camera as the S7, though with software improvements, a report from "PhoneArena" claims that the phones carry new, custom camera modules. In addition, the S8 has a Pro Mode, which functions similarly to a DSLR camera, and has custom options for shutter speed, ISO, and colour balance. It also supports the raw imagery format Digital Negative. The front-facing camera was upgraded to an 8-megapixel sensor with autofocus. The S8 features fingerprint and iris scanners; the fingerprint reader is relocated to the rear of the device, to the left of the camera, due to the removal of the physical home button. In addition to an iris scanner, the S8 also features face-scanning as an option to unlock the phone. Face recognition technology had previously been implemented in earlier models since the Galaxy S III.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The S8 and S8+ use non-removable 3000 and 3500 mAh Lithium-Ion batteries respectively, as compared to 3000 and 3600 mAh on the Samsung Galaxy S7 and S7 Edge respectively. Samsung stated that it had engineered the batteries to retain their capacity for a longer period of time than previous models.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The S8 supports AirFuel Inductive (formerly PMA) and Qi wireless charging standards. Due to the recalls of the Samsung Galaxy Note 7, Samsung said in a press conference it is committed to stricter quality control and safety testing procedures on all of the company's future products.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The device can charge at 9 watts (5V 1.8A) through an ordinary USB and 12.5 watts through USB-C power delivery (5V 2.5A). Charging speeds upwards of 15 watts (9V 1.67A) are attainable through Qualcomm Quick Charge 2.0, however fast charging is disabled during operation of the device (while the screen is turned on), throttling charging speed down to less than half, regardless of temperature.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Samsung also launched a Galaxy S8+ with 128 GB of storage and 6 GB of RAM exclusively in China and South Korea, and a bundle offer in the countries provides both the exclusive model and the Samsung DeX docking station. The unique variant was also released in India in June 2017.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The T-Mobile US version of the S8 Active also supports the company's 600 MHz LTE network that was starting to be rolled out at the time the device was announced.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The Samsung Galaxy S8 Keyboard Cover is an accessory for the 2017 smartphone Samsung Galaxy S8 and S8+. It released in early 2017 priced at $59.99, The biggest criticism of the Keyboard Cover was the navigation buttons switching to default everytime you use the case. The keyboard is also default to QWERTY Keyboard.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The Keyboard Cover does not use Bluetooth, meaning it doesn't drain Battery Life. When you equip the Keyboard Cover, the screen shrinks, but the word prediction is still available from the screen. In March 2017, the Samsung DeX station, official Samsung QI wireless charger, and the Keyboard cover got leaked.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The S8 and S8+ were one of the very few phone models on the market that offered built-in support for a physical keyboard, thus competing for a market held almost exclusively by BlackBerry at the time. For these models, Samsung offered a specialty plastic case which featured a clip-on QWERTY keyboard that could be removed or added by the user at-will. While not in use, the keyboard could be clipped to the back of the case. When in-use, the OS detected the keyboard and adjusted the screen size and proportions accordingly, so that other software could be used normally. The keyboard model was EJ-CG950BBEGWW for the S8 and EJ-CG955BBEGWW for the S8+.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The Galaxy S8 is one of the first smartphones to support Bluetooth 5, supporting new capabilities such as connecting two wireless headphones to the device at once. It is also bundled with Harman AKG earbuds. Both smartphones have improved satellite navigation over the predecessors by including Galileo receivers.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The Galaxy S8 launched with the Android 7.0 "Nougat" operating system with the proprietary Samsung Experience (formerly TouchWiz) user interface and software suite. The software features a suite of assistant functions known as "Bixby", which is designed primarily to interact with Samsung's bundled applications and other supported services. The feature allows the use of voice commands to perform phone functions, can generate cards shown on a home screen page (replacing the Flipboard integration formerly featured) based on a user's interactions, and perform searches utilizing object recognition via the camera.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Bixby supports third-party integration via an SDK. The S8 supports the use of a docking station known as Samsung DeX to access a PC-like desktop environment on an external display, with support for mouse and keyboard input. On 21 April 2017, coinciding with the phone's official retail date, reports surfaced that the default music player on the Galaxy S8 would be Google Play Music, continuing a trend that started with the S7 in 2016. However, for the S8, Samsung partnered with Google to incorporate additional exclusive features into the app, including the ability to upload up to 100,000 tracks to the service's cloud storage, an increase from the 50,000 tracks users are normally allowed to upload. Additionally, new users get a three-month free trial to the service, the same as given to users who purchase Google's own Pixel smartphone. Furthermore, Google stated that more Samsung-exclusive features will be added to the app in the future, and that the Bixby assistant will also be supported by the app. Bixby replaces S Voice, the voice recognition technology previously found in Samsung Galaxy models.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: In May 2017, Google announced that the Galaxy S8 and S8+ will support the company's Daydream virtual reality platform after Samsung rolls out a software update scheduled for mid-2017. In July 2017, Verizon began rolling out an update for its devices, with support for Daydream. The Galaxy S8 was one of the first Android phones to support ARCore, Google's augmented reality engine.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: In February 2018, the official Android 8.0.0 "Oreo" update began rolling out to all versions of the Samsung Galaxy S8.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Dan Seifert of "The Verge" praised the design of the Galaxy S8, describing it as a "stunning device to look at and hold" that was "refined and polished to a literal shine", and adding that it "truly doesn't look like any other phone you might have used before". The hardware of the device was described as "practically flawless". Seifert also liked the new software, writing that "Samsung is known less for polish and more for clumsiness. In a refreshing change of pace, the software on the S8 is, dare I say, ". However, he criticized the Bixby assistant, writing that "in its current state, it doesn’t do much at all", and also criticized the number of duplicate apps. Regarding performance, he wrote that the S8 was "fast and responsive, but so is virtually every other premium phone you can buy, and the S8 isn’t noticeably faster or quicker than a Google Pixel, LG G6, or iPhone 7". Fellow "Verge" reporter Vlad Savov felt that the placement of the fingerprint sensor was "a perplexing decision if we consider it as a deliberate design choice", but noted reports from Korea claiming that Samsung had originally intended for the fingerprint reader to be built directly into the screen, but was unable to reach a desirable implementation in time for release. "The Verge" wrote that "Samsung’s six-month-old S8 has cutting edge features and design with fewer issues than other Android phones" like the Google Pixel 2 and LG V30, and that the "OLED screen stretches to the edges of the device and curves on its sides in an almost liquid fashion. It makes the S8 look just as fresh today as it did when it debuted", and pointing out that the S8's popularity and carrier support guaranteed plenty of third-party accessories.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Chris Velazco of "Engadget" similarly praised the design, stating that "from their rounded edges to their precisely formed metal-and-glass bodies, they feel like smaller, sleeker versions of the Galaxy Note 7", and also praised the display as being simply "awesome". Velazco also praised the software, calling Samsung's added interface "subtle and thoughtful in its design choices". While noting that the Bixby assistant wasn't ready yet, he did compliment the promised voice features as being more granular than those offered through Siri or Google Assistant, and wrote that "With that kind of complexity involved, maybe it's no surprise this stuff isn't done yet". Also praising performance and the camera, though noting that "The 12-megapixel sensors on the back haven't changed much since last year. That's not a bad thing since they were great cameras to start with", Velazco summarized his review by writing that the devices "aren't perfect, but they're as close as Samsung has ever gotten". Brandon Russell of "TechnoBuffalo" claimed that the camera could not beat Google's Pixel smartphone.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Ron Amadeo of "Ars Technica" noted that the device's unusual aspect ratio resulted in pillarboxing when watching video without zooming or stretching it. He complimented the feel of the S8, calling it "perfected", but criticized the glass back for being "more fragile" and that "Glossy, slippery glass doesn't feel as good in your hand as metal does, either. For the top-tier premium price tag, we'd prefer Samsung to put in the extra work and use a metal back". He criticized the biometric options for unlocking the phones, writing that "There's an iris scanner, a fingerprint reader, and face unlock. The problem is none of them are any good", and also criticized duplicate apps, writing that "most of which can't be removed and aren't very compelling". Additionally, he criticized Bixby, calling it "an odd addition" due to the phone's Google Assistant functionality already present.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Prior to the phone's official announcement, reports suggested that Bixby would support "7-8 languages" at launch. Later reports after the phone's announcement clarified that Bixby would only support Korean and American English languages at its release, though noting that more languages would be coming "in the following months". In mid-April, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that Bixby would be launched without support for American English. On 19 July 2017, Samsung announced that Bixby had begun rolling out to Galaxy S8 users in the United States.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: The Samsung Galaxy S8 and Galaxy S8+ broke pre-order records in South Korea, with more than 720,000 units booked in one week, a notable increase from the 100,000 units of the Galaxy S7 and 200,000 units of the Note 7. By mid-April, the number had increased to one million pre-orders. On 24 April 2017, Samsung announced that sales of the Galaxy S8 was its "best ever". Although it did not release specific sales numbers, it announced that sales of the S8 were 30% higher year-over-year than the Galaxy S7. Subsequent reports in May announced that Samsung had sold over five million units. Jon Fingas of "Engadget" wrote that, although Samsung advertised its pre-order records, sales comparisons to other models on the market were difficult due to unannounced sales figures.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Prior to the official release, it was reported that some Galaxy S8 displays had a bad white balance, causing them to exhibit a reddish tint. Samsung stated that the Galaxy S8 was "built with an adaptive display that optimizes the color range, saturation, and sharpness depending on the environment", but noted that the device's operating system provides settings for manually adjusting the display's appearance and white balance. On 21 April, Samsung stated that the red tinting was purely a software issue, and would be patched in a future update. "The Investor" reported that Samsung would replace the affected devices if a software update did not fix the issue. Updates in various regions started rolling out in early May, fixing the issue.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Reports surfaced at the end of April 2017 that some Galaxy S8 devices were "restarting by themselves". Samsung has not yet commented on the issue.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: Shortly after the phone's unveiling, bloggers produced a video showing that the Galaxy S8's facial recognition scanner could be tricked to unlock the phone by showing it a photo of the user. In a statement to "Business Insider", a Samsung spokesperson stated that "Facial recognition is a convenient action to open your phone – similar to the 'swipe to unlock' action. We offer the highest level of biometric authentication – fingerprint and iris – to lock your phone and authenticate access to Samsung Pay or Secure Folder".


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: There is a high possibility that this issue does not exist at all, and the video in question is actually faked.


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: In May 2017, researchers from the Chaos Computer Club posted a video showing that the S8's iris recognition system can be fooled with a contact lens and a suitable photograph of an eye. Samsung told "BBC News" that it was "aware of the issue", and stated that "If there is a potential vulnerability or the advent of a new method that challenges our efforts to ensure security at any time, we will respond as quickly as possible to resolve the issue".


title: Samsung Galaxy S8

text: In October 2017, Galaxy S8 users reported on Reddit that they were unable to receive SMS messages, with no fix available and without any comment from Samsung.


title: Adam Ondra

text: Adam Ondra (born February 5, 1993) is a Czech professional rock climber, specializing in lead climbing and bouldering. In 2013, "Rock & Ice" described Ondra as a prodigy and the leading climber of his generation. Ondra is the only male athlete to have won World Championship titles in both disciplines in the same year (2014) and is also the only male athlete to have won the World Cup series in both disciplines (lead climbing in 2009, 2015, and 2019 and bouldering in 2010).


title: Adam Ondra

text: At age 13, Ondra had climbed his first route graded . "Rock & Ice" reported that by 2011, Ondra was "onsighting 5.14c's by the handful" and, by 2013, had "more or less repeated every hard route in the world—easily". As of November 2018, Ondra had climbed 1,550 routes between grades and , of which one was a , three were , and three were onsights of .


title: Adam Ondra

text: Ondra is the first climber to redpoint a route with a proposed grade of ("Silence", 2017), the first-ever climber to redpoint a route ("Change", 2012), the first-ever to flash a route ("Supercrackinette", 2018), and the second ever to onsight a route ("Cabane au Canada", 2013). According to "The Economist," Ondra is "regarded as possibly the best climber ever to fondle rock".


title: Adam Ondra

text: Ondra started climbing at the age of six; his parents are climbers, and they shared their passion with him. In 1999, at age six, in Rovinj, Croatia, Ondra climbed a route with bolts every half meter. He quickly rose to fame, appearing in climbing magazines as his accomplishments became both more impressive and frequent:


title: Adam Ondra

text: In 2007 and 2008, he won the IFSC World Youth Championship, category Youth B. In 2009, at age sixteen, Ondra competed for the first time in the Lead Climbing World Cup, finishing ahead of Spanish Patxi Usobiaga and Japanese Sachi Amma. In 2010, he won the Bouldering World Cup, beating Austrian climber Kilian Fischhuber and Tsukuru Hori from Japan, becoming the first athlete in history to win the World Cup in both disciplines (lead and bouldering).


title: Adam Ondra

text: Ondra failed to qualify for the 2020 Summer Olympics at the 2019 IFSC Climbing World Championships, as he was disqualified for accidentally toeing a bolt during the lead climbing portion of the combined event. However, at the Olympic qualifying event in Toulouse later that year, he managed to secure a place in the Olympic Games, despite falling ill after reaching the finals of the event.


title: Adam Ondra

text: In April 2021 Ondra won gold in the bouldering discipline at the IFSC World Cup in Meiringen, Switzerland. This marked his 20th World Cup gold medal. In August 2021, Ondra finished in sixth place at the 2020 Summer Olympics.


title: Adam Ondra

text: During a March 2011 trip to Spain, Ondra became the second-ever person to onsight a route, after Patxi Usobiaga. On October 4, 2012, Ondra redpointed "Change" in the Hanshelleren Cave, Flatanger, Norway, the world's first-ever route to receive a grade of .


title: Adam Ondra

text: On February 7, 2013, Ondra ascended "La Dura Dura" in Oliana, Catalonia, Spain, his second after "Change". He worked on this project with American climber Chris Sharma, and the first ascent took Ondra nine weeks. On February 9, 2013, two days after "La Dura Dura", Ondra succeeded in the second ascent of the route, "Fight or flight", first climbed by Sharma in 2011. On July 9, 2013, Ondra realized the second-ever onsight of a route in history, after Alexander Megos, with the ascent of "Cabane au Canada" in Rawyl, Switzerland.


title: Adam Ondra

text: On November 21, 2016, Ondra completed the second free ascent of the 1,000-metre granite route, "The Dawn Wall", a 32-pitch grade big wall climbing route at "El Capitan" in the Yosemite Valley. The route was widely regarded as the hardest big wall climbing route in the world. Ondra lead every pitch and completed the project in 8 days (the first ascenders, Tommy Caldwell and Kevin Jorgeson alternated leads, and spent 19 days on the wall).


title: Adam Ondra

text: On April 23, 2017, Ondra set a new highpoint for Black Diamond's "The Project" indoor sport route in Stockholm, Sweden, which is believed to be the hardest in the world.


title: Adam Ondra

text: On September 3, 2017, after about 4 years of dedicated work and training, Ondra climbed "Silence", in the Hanshelleren Cave in Flatanger, Norway. "Silence" was the world's first-ever route to have a proposed grade of . On February 10, 2018, Ondra completed the world's first-ever flash of a confirmed route with his ascent of "Super Crackinette" in Saint-Léger du Ventoux, France.


title: Adam Ondra

text: The table below shows the large number of routes graded or more ascended by Adam Ondra in about 16 years, from August 2, 2002 (when he redpointed his first 8a) to November 10, 2018. The total number is 1554, of which one was at and 725 were onsighted, including three onsights at and one flash at .


title: Hispania

text: Hispania ( , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. During the Principate, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Baetica and Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Hispania Tarraconensis. Subsequently, the western part of Tarraconensis was split off, first as Hispania Nova, later renamed "Callaecia" (or Gallaecia, whence modern Galicia). From Diocletian's Tetrarchy (AD 284) onwards, the south of the remainder of Tarraconensis was again split off as Carthaginensis, and all of the mainland Hispanic provinces, along with the Balearic Islands and the North African province of Mauretania Tingitana, were later grouped into a civil diocese headed by a "vicarius". The name Hispania was also used in the period of Visigothic rule.


title: Hispania

text: The origin of the word "Hispania" is much disputed. The evidence for the various speculations is based merely upon what are at best mere resemblances, likely to be accidental, and suspect supporting evidence. The most commonly held theory holds it to be of Punic origin, from the Phoenician language of colonizing Carthage. Specifically, it may derive from a Punic cognate () of Hebrew () meaning 'island of the hyrax', referring to the European rabbit (Phoenician-Punic and Hebrew are both Canaanite languages and therefore closely related to each other). Some Roman coins of the Emperor Hadrian, born in Hispania, depict Hispania and a rabbit. Others derive the word from Phoenician , meaning 'hidden', and make it indicate "a hidden", that is, "a remote", or "far-distant land".


title: Hispania

text: Other far-fetched theories have been proposed. Isidore of Sevilla considered "Hispania" of Iberian origin and derived it from the pre-Roman name for Seville, "Hispalis". This was revived for instance by the etymologist Eric Partridge (in his work "Origins") who felt that this might strongly hint at an ancient name for the country of "*Hispa", presumably an Iberian or Celtic root whose meaning is now lost. "Hispalis" may alternatively derive from "Heliopolis" (Greek for 'city of the sun'). However, according to modern research by Manuel Pellicer Catalán, the name derives from Phoenician 'lowland', rendering the above explanations of "Hispania" highly unlikely. Occasionally Hispania was called 'farthest western land' by Roman writers since the name "Hesperia" 'western land' had already been used by the Greeks to refer to the Italian peninsula.


title: Hispania

text: During the 18th and 19th centuries, Jesuits scholars like Larramendi and José Francisco de Isla tied the name to the Basque word 'lip', but also 'border, edge', thus meaning the farthest area or place.


title: Hispania

text: During Antiquity and Middle Ages, the literary texts derive the term "Hispania" from an eponymous hero named Hispan, who is mentioned for the first time in the work of the Roman historian Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, in the 1st century BC.


title: Hispania

text: Although is the Latin root for the modern name "Spain", the words "Spanish" for or "Hispanic", or "Spain" for , are not easily interchangeable, depending on context. The ('The History of Spain') written on the initiative of Alfonso X of Castile ('the Wise'), between 1260 and 1274, during the "Reconquista" ('reconquest') of Spain, is believed to be the first extended history of Spain in Old Spanish using the words ('Spain') and ('Spaniards') to refer to Medieval Hispania. The use of Latin , Castilian , Catalan and Old French , among others, to refer to Roman Hispania or Visigothic Hispania was common throughout all the Late Middle Ages. A document dated 1292 mentions the names of foreigners from Medieval Spain as . Latin expressions using or (e.g. ) were often used in the Middle Ages, while the Spain Romance languages of the "Reconquista" use the Romance version interchangeably. In the James Ist Chronicle "Llibre dels fets", written between 1208 and 1276, there are many instances of this. The borders of modern Spain do not coincide with those of the Roman province of Hispania or of the Visigothic Kingdom, and thus medieval Spain and modern Spain exist in separate contexts. The Latin term , often used during Antiquity and the Low Middle Ages, like with Roman Hispania, as a geographical and political name, continued to be used geographically and politically in the Visigothic Spania, as shown in the expression , 'Praise to Hispania', to describe the history of the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula of Isidore of Seville's "Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum":


title: Hispania

text: You are, O Spain, holy and always happy mother of princes and peoples, the most beautiful of all the lands that extend far from the West to India. You, by right, are now the queen of all provinces, from whom the lights are given not only the sunset, but also the East. You are the honor and ornament of the orb and the most illustrious portion of the Earth ... And for this reason, long ago, the golden Rome desired you


title: Hispania

text: In modern history, "Spain" and "Spanish" have become increasingly associated with the Kingdom of Spain alone, although this process took several centuries. After the union of the central peninsular Kingdom of Castile with the eastern peninsular Kingdom of Aragon in the 15th century under the Catholic Monarchs in 1492, only Navarra and Portugal were left to complete the whole peninsula under one monarchy. Navarre followed soon after in 1512, and Portugal, after over 400 years as an independent and sovereign nation, in 1580. During this time, the concept of Spain was still unchanged. It was after the restoration of Portugal's independence in 1640 when the concept of Spain started to shift and be applied to all the Peninsula except Portugal.


title: Hispania

text: The Iberian peninsula has long been inhabited, first by early hominids such as "Homo erectus", "Homo heidelbergensis" and "Homo antecessor". In the Paleolithic period, the Neanderthals entered Iberia and eventually took refuge from the advancing migrations of modern humans. In the 40th millennium BC, during the Upper Paleolithic and the last ice age, the first large settlement of Europe by modern humans occurred. These were nomadic hunter-gatherers originating on the steppes of Central Asia. When the last ice age reached its maximum extent, during the 30th millennium BC, these modern humans took refuge in Southern Europe, namely in Iberia, after retreating through Southern France. In the millennia that followed, the Neanderthals became extinct and local modern human cultures thrived, producing pre-historic art such as that found in L'Arbreda Cave and in the Côa Valley.


title: Hispania

text: In the Mesolithic period, beginning in the 10th millennium BC, the Allerød Oscillation occurred. This was an interstadial deglaciation that lessened the harsh conditions of the Ice Age. The populations sheltered in Iberian Peninsula (descendants of the Cro-Magnon) migrated and recolonized all of Western Europe. In this period one finds the Azilian culture in Southern France and Northern Iberia (to the mouth of the Douro river), as well as the Muge Culture in the Tagus valley.


title: Hispania

text: The Neolithic brought changes to the human landscape of Iberia (from the 5th millennium BC onwards), with the development of agriculture and the beginning of the European Megalith Culture. This spread to most of Europe and had one of its oldest and main centres in the territory of modern Portugal, as well as the Chalcolithic and Beaker cultures.


title: Hispania

text: During the 1st millennium BC, in the Bronze Age, the first wave of migrations into Iberia of speakers of Indo-European languages occurred. These were later (7th and 5th centuries BC) followed by others that can be identified as Celts. Eventually urban cultures developed in southern Iberia, such as Tartessos, influenced by the Phoenician colonization of coastal Mediterranean Iberia, with strong competition from the Greek colonization. These two processes defined Iberia's cultural landscape – Mediterranean towards the southeast and Continental in the northwest.


title: Hispania

text: Latin was the official language of Hispania during the Roman Empire's rule, which exceeded 600 years. By the empire's end in Hispania around 460 AD, all the original Iberian languages, except the ancestor of modern Basque, were extinct. Even after the fall of Rome and the invasion of the Germanic Visigoths and Suebi, Latin was spoken by nearly all of the population, but in its common form known as Vulgar Latin, and the regional changes which led to the modern Iberian Romance languages had already begun.


title: Hispania

text: After its defeat by the Romans in the First Punic War (264 BC–241 BC), Carthage compensated for its loss of Sicily by rebuilding a commercial empire in Hispania.


title: Hispania

text: The major part of the Punic Wars, fought between the Punic Carthaginians and the Romans, was fought on the Iberian Peninsula. Carthage gave control of the Iberian Peninsula and much of its empire to Rome in 201 BC as part of the peace treaty after its defeat in the Second Punic War, and Rome completed its replacement of Carthage as the dominant power in the Mediterranean area. By then the Romans had adopted the Carthaginian name, romanized first as "Ispania". The term later received an "H", much like what happened with "Hibernia", and was pluralized as "Hispaniae", as had been done with the Three Gauls.


title: Hispania

text: Roman armies invaded the Iberian peninsula in 218 BC and used it as a training ground for officers and as a proving ground for tactics during campaigns against the Carthaginians, the Iberians, the Lusitanians, the Gallaecians and other Celts. It was not until 19 BC that the Roman emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14) was able to complete the conquest (see Cantabrian Wars). Until then, much of Hispania remained autonomous.


title: Hispania

text: Romanization proceeded quickly in some regions where there are references to the togati, and very slowly in others, after the time of Augustus, and Hispania was divided into three separately governed provinces, and nine provinces by the 4th century. More importantly, Hispania was for 500 years part of a cosmopolitan world empire bound together by law, language, and the Roman road. But the impact of Hispania in the newcomers was also substantial. Caesar wrote on the Civil Wars that the soldiers from the Second Legion had become Hispanicized and regarded themselves as "hispanici".


title: Hispania

text: Some of the peninsula's population were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class and they participated in governing Hispania and the Roman Empire, although there was a native aristocracy class who ruled each local tribe. The "latifundia" (sing., "latifundium"), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.