text: The IPCC archives its reports and electronic files on its website. They include the review comments on drafts of reports. The Environmental Science and Public Policy Archives in the Harvard Library also archives them..


title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: Between 1990 and 2022, the IPCC has published six comprehensive assessment reports reviewing the latest climate science. The IPCC has also produced 14 special reports on particular topics. Each assessment report has four parts. These are a contribution from each of the three working groups, plus a synthesis report. The synthesis report integrates the working group contributions. It also integrates any special reports produced in that assessment cycle.


text: The IPCC does not carry out its own research. It does not monitor climate-related data. The reports by IPCC assess scientific papers and independent results from other scientific bodies. The IPCC sets a deadline for publication of scientific papers that a report will cover. That report will not include new information that emerges after this deadline. However, there is a steady evolution of key findings and levels of scientific confidence from one assessment report to the next. Each IPCC report notes areas where the science has improved since the previous report. It also notes areas that would benefit from further research.


text: The IPCC Bureau or Working Group Bureau selects the authors of the reports from government nominations. Lead authors of IPCC reports assess the available information about climate change based on published sources. According to IPCC guidelines, authors should give priority to peer-reviewed sources. Authors may refer to non-peer-reviewed sources ("grey literature"), if they are of sufficient quality. These could include reports from government agencies and non-governmental organizations. Industry journals and model results are other examples of non-peer-reviewed sources.


text: Authors prepare drafts of a full report divided into chapters. They also prepare a technical summary of the report, and a summary for policymakers.


text: Each chapter has a number of authors to write and edit the material. A typical chapter has two coordinating lead authors, ten to fifteen lead authors and a larger number of contributing authors. The coordinating lead authors assemble the contributions of the other authors. They ensure that contributions meet stylistic and formatting requirements. They report to the Working Group co-chairs. Lead authors write sections of chapters. They invite contributing authors to prepare text, graphs or data for inclusion.


text: The Bureau aims for a range of views, expertise and geographical representation in its choice of authors. This ensures the author team includes experts from both developing and developed countries. The Bureau also seeks a balance between male and female authors. And it aims for a balance between those who have worked previously on IPCC reports and those new to the process.


text: Scientists who work as authors on IPCC reports do not receive any compensation for this work. They depend on the salaries they receive from their home institutions or other work. The work is labour-intensive with a big time commitment. It can disrupt participating scientists' research. This has led to concern that the IPCC process may discourage qualified scientists from participating.


text: Expert reviewers comment at different stages on the drafts. Reviewers come from member governments and IPCC observers. Also, anyone may become an IPCC reviewer by stating they have the relevant expertise.


text: There are generally three stages in the review process. First comes expert review of the first draft of the chapters. The next stage is a review by governments and experts of the revised draft of the chapters and the first draft of the Summary for Policymakers. The third stage is a government review of the revised Summary for Policymakers. Review comments and author responses remain in an open archive for at least five years. Finally government representatives together with the authors review the Summary for Policymakers. They go through the Summary for Policymakers line by line to ensure it is a good summary for the underlying report. This final review of the Summary of Policymakers takes place at sessions of the responsible working group or of the Panel.


text: The IPCC's most recent report is the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6). The first three instalments of AR6 appeared in 2021 and 2022. Its final synthesis report is due in March 2023.


text: The IPCC published the Working Group I report, "Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis", in August 2021. It confirms that the climate is already changing in every region. Many of these changes have not been seen in thousands of years. Many of them such as sea-level rise are irreversible over hundreds of thousands of years. Strong reductions in greenhouse gas emissions would limit climate change. But it could take 20-30 years for the climate to stabilize. This report attracted enormous media and public attention. U.N. Secretary-General António Guterres described it as “code red for humanity”.


text: The IPCC published the Working Group II report, "Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability", in February 2022. Climate change due to human activities is already affecting the lives of billions of people, it said. It is disrupting nature. The world faces unavoidable hazards over the next two decades even with global warming of 1.5ºC, it said.


text: The IPCC published the Working Group III report, "Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change", in April 2022. It will be impossible to limit warming to 1.5ºC without immediate and deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. It is still possible to halve emissions by 2050, it said.


text: The IPCC also publishes other types of reports. It produces Special Reports on topics proposed by governments or observer organizations. Between 1994 and 2019 the IPCC published 14 special reports. Now usually more than one working group cooperates to produce a special report. The preparation and approval process is the same as for assessment reports.


text: During the fifth assessment cycle the IPCC produced two special reports. It completed the Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN) in 2011. Working Group III prepared this report. The report examined options to use different types of renewable energy to replace fossil fuels. The report noted that the cost of most renewables technologies had fallen. It was likely to fall even more with further advances in technology. It said renewables could increase access to energy. The report reviewed 164 scenarios that examine how renewables could help stop climate change. In more than half of these scenarios, renewables would contribute more than 27% of primary energy supply in mid-century. This would be more than double the 13% share in 2008. In the scenarios with the highest shares for renewable energy, it contributes 77% by 2050.


text: Later in 2011 the IPCC released the Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX). This was a collaboration between Working Groups I and II. It was the first time two IPCC working groups worked together on a special report. The report shows how climate change has contributed to changes in extreme weather. And it show how policies to avoid and prepare for extreme weather events can reduce their impact. In the same way policies to respond to events and recover from them can make societies more resilient.


text: During the sixth assessment cycle the IPCC produced three special reports. This made it the most ambitious cycle in IPCC history. The UNFCCC set a goal of keeping global warming well below 2ºC while trying to hold it at 1.5ºC, when it reached the Paris Agreement at COP21 in 2015. But at the time there was little understanding of what warming of 15ºC meant. There was little scientific research explaining how the impacts of 1.5ºC would differ from 2ºC. And there was little understanding about how to keep warming to 1.5ºC. So the UNFCCC invited the IPCC to prepare a report on global warming of 1.5ºC. All three IPCC working groups collaborated to produce the report. The IPCC released the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) in 2018. The report showed that it was possible to keep warming below 1.5ºC during the 21st century. But this would mean deep cuts in emissions. It would also mean rapid, far-reaching changes in all aspects of society. The report showed warming of 2ºC would have much more severe impacts than 1.5ºC. In other words: every bit of warming matters. SR15 had an unprecedented impact for an IPCC report in the media and with the public. It put the 1.5ºC target at the center of climate activism.


text: In 2019 the IPCC released two more special reports that examine different parts of the climate system. The Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL) examined how the way we use land affects the climate. It looked at emissions from activities such as farming and forestry rather than from energy and transport. It also looked at how climate change is affecting land. All three IPCC working groups and its Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories collaborated on the report. The report found that climate change is adding to the pressures we are putting on our land we use to live on and grow our food. It will only be possible to keep warming well below 2ºC if we reduce emissions from all sectors including land and food, it said.


text: The Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) examined how the ocean and frozen parts of the planet interact with climate change. (The cryosphere includes frozen systems such as ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost.) IPCC Working Groups I and II prepared the report. The report highlighted the need to tackle unprecedented changes in the ocean and cryosphere. It also showed how adaptation could help sustainable development.


text: The IPCC has a National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme. It develops methodologies and software for countries to report their greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC’s Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (TFI) has managed the program since 1998. Japan’s Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) hosts the TFI’s Technical Support Unit.


text: The IPCC approves its methodology reports at sessions of the Panel. The Panel adopts the Methodology Report’s Overview Chapter by endorsing it section by section.


text: The IPCC released its first Methodology Report, the IPCC "Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories", in 1994. The "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories" updated this report. Two “good practice reports” complete these guidelines. These are the "Good Practice Guidance" "and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories" and "Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry". Parties to the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol use the 1996 guidelines and two good practice reports for their annual submissions of inventories.


text: The "2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories" further update these methodologies. They include a large number of “default emission factors”. These are factors to estimate the amount of emissions for an activity. The IPCC prepared this new version of the guidelines at the request of the UNFCCC. The UNFCCC accepted them for use at its 2013 Climate Change Conference, COP19, in Warsaw. The IPCC added further material in its "2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories".


text: The TFI has started preparations for a methodology report on short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs). It will complete this report in the next assessment cycle, the seventh.


text: IPCC reports also attract criticism. Criticisms come from both people who say the reports exaggerate the risks and people who say they understate them. The IPCC consensus approach has faced internal and external challenges.


text: Some critics have argued that IPCC reports tend to be conservative. They say the reports consistently underestimate the pace and impacts of global warming. This leads to findings that are the "lowest common denominator", they say. Stefan Rahmstorf, professor of physics and oceanography at Potsdam University, stated in 2007: "In a way, it is one of the strengths of the IPCC to be very conservative and cautious and not overstate any climate change risk". IPCC reports aim to inform policymakers about the state of knowledge on climate change. They do this by assessing the findings of the thousands of scientific papers available on the subject at a given time. Individual publications may have different conclusions to IPCC reports. This includes those appearing just after the release of an IPCC report. This can lead to criticism that the IPCC is either alarmist or conservative. New findings must wait for the next assessment for consideration.


text: A memo by ExxonMobil to the Bush administration in the United States in 2002 was an example of possible political influence on the IPCC. The memo led to strong Bush administration lobbying to oust Robert Watson, a climate scientist, as IPCC chair. They sought to replace him with Rajendra Pachauri. Many considered Pachauri at the time as more mild-mannered and industry-friendly.


text: Governments form the membership of the IPCC. They are the prime audience for IPCC reports. IPCC rules give them a formal role in the scoping, preparation and approval of reports. For instance governments take part in the review process and work with authors to approve the Summary for Policymakers of reports. But some activists have argued that governments abuse this role to influence the outcome of reports.


text: The IPCC came under unprecedented media scrutiny in 2009 in the run-up to the Copenhagen climate conference. This "Climatic Research Unit email controversy" involved the leak of emails from climate scientists. Many of these scientists were authors of the Fourth Assessment Report which came out in 2007. The discovery of an error in this report that the Himalayan glaciers would melt by 2035 put the IPCC under further pressure. Scientific bodies upheld the general findings of the Fourth Assessment Report and the IPCC’s approach. But many people thought the IPCC should review the way it works.


text: The United Nations Secretary-General and the Chair of the IPCC asked the InterAcademy Council (IAC) in March 2010 to review the IPCC's processes for preparing its reports. The IAC panel, chaired by Harold Tafler Shapiro, released its report on 1 September 2010. The IAC panel made seven formal recommendations for improving the IPCC's assessment process. The IPCC implemented most of the review's recommendations by 2012. One of these was the introduction of a protocol to handle errors in reports. Other recommendations included strengthening the science-review process and improving communications. But the IPCC did not adopt the proposal to appoint a full-time executive secretary.


text: Michael Oppenheimer, a long-time participant in the IPCC, has said the IPCC consensus approach has some limitations. Oppenheimer, a coordinating lead author of the Fifth Assessment Report, called for concurring, smaller assessments of special problems instead of the large-scale approach of previous IPCC assessments. Others see "mixed blessings" in the drive for consensus within the IPCC. They suggest including dissenting or minority positions. Others suggest improving statements about uncertainties.


text: IPCC reports are the benchmark for climate science. There is widespread support for the IPCC in the scientific community. Publications by other scientific bodies and experts show this. Many scientific bodies have issued official statements that endorse the findings of the IPCC. For example:


text: In December 2007, the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change". It shared the award with former U.S. Vice-president Al Gore for his work on climate change and the documentary "An Inconvenient Truth".


text: In October 2022, the IPCC and IPBES shared the Gulbenkian Prize for Humanity. The two intergovernmental bodies won the prize because they "produce scientific knowledge, alert society, and inform decision-makers to make better choices for combatting climate change and the loss of biodiversity".


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The Economy of Nigeria is a middle-income, mixed economy and emerging market with expanding manufacturing, financial, service, communications, technology, and entertainment sectors. It is ranked as the 27th-largest economy in the world in terms of nominal GDP, and the 24th-largest in terms of purchasing power parity and the largest Sub Saharan Africa’s


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: economy. Nigeria has the largest economy in Africa. The country's re-emergent manufacturing sector became the largest on the continent in 2013, and it produces a large proportion of goods and services for the region of West Africa. In addition, the debt-to-GDP ratio.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigerian GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) has almost tripled from $170 billion in 2000 to $451 billion in 2012 ,though estimates of the size of the informal sector (which is not included in official figures) put the actual numbers closer to $630 billion. Subsequently, the GDP per capita doubled from $1400 per person in 2000 to an estimated $2,800 per person in 2012. Again, with the inclusion of the informal sector, it is estimated that GDP per capita hovers around $3,900 per person. The country's population increased from 120 million in 2000 to 160 million in 2010. The GDP figures were to be revised upwards by as much as 80% when metrics were to be recalculated after the rebasing of its economy in April 2014.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Although oil revenues contributed 2/3 of state revenues, oil only contributes about 9% to the GDP. Nigeria produces only about 2.7% of the world's oil supply. Although the petroleum sector is important, as government revenues still heavily rely on this sector, it remains a small part of the country's overall economy.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The largely subsistence agricultural sector has not kept up with the country's rapid population growth. Nigeria was once a large net exporter of food, but currently imports some of its food products. Mechanization has led to a resurgence in the manufacturing and exporting of food products, and there was consequently a move towards food sufficiency. In 2006, Nigeria came to an agreement with the Paris Club to buy back the bulk of its owed debts from them, in exchange for a cash payment of roughly US$12 billion.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: According to a Citigroup report published in February 2011, Nigeria would have the highest average GDP growth in the world between 2010 and 2050. Nigeria is one of two countries from Africa among the 11 Global Growth Generators countries.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2014, Nigeria changed its economic analysis to account for fast-growing contributors to its GDP, such as telecommunications, banking, and its film industry.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Human capital is underdeveloped—Nigeria ranked 161 out of 189 countries in the United Nations Development Index in 2019—and non-energy-related infrastructure is inadequate.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: A requirement for achieving many of objectives is reducing endemic corruption, which obstructs development and stains Nigeria's business environment. However, while broad-based progress has been slow, these efforts have begun to become visible in international surveys of corruption. Nigeria's ranking has mostly improved since 2001 ranking 154 out of 180 countries in Transparency International's 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The Nigerian economy suffers from an ongoing supply crisis in the power sector. Despite a rapidly growing economy, some of the world's largest deposits of coal, oil, and gas and the country's status as Africa's largest oil producer, power supply difficulties are frequently experienced by residents.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027). Inflation under 10% is in green. The annual unemployment rate from 1991 to 2009 ("in italic") is extracted from the World Bank, although the International Monetary Fund find them unreliable.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The US dollar exchange rate is an estimated average of the official rate throughout a year and does not reflect the parallel market rate at which the general population accesses foreign exchange. This rate ranged from a high of 520 in March 2017 to a low of 350 in August 2017, due to a scarcity of forex (oil earnings had dropped by half), and speculative activity as alleged by the Central Bank. All the while the official rate was pegged at 360.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Per capita income (as % of USA) is calculated using data from estimates in the PPP link above, and census estimates, based on growth rates between census periods. For instance, 2017 GDPs were 1,125 billion (Nigeria) vs. 19,417 billion (USA) and populations were estimated at 320 million vs 190 million. The ratio is, therefore (1125/19417) / (190/320), which roughly comes to 0.0975. These are estimates and are intended to get a feel for the relative wealth and standard of living, as well as the market potential of its middle class.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: This is a chart of trends of the global ranking of the Nigerian economy, in comparison with other countries of the world, derived from the historical List of countries by GDP (PPP).


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: This chart shows the variance in the parallel exchange rate at which the Dollar can be obtained with Naira in Lagos, with "Best" being cheaper for a Nigerian (i.e. stronger Naira).


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar is exchanged at US$1 to 314.27 Nigerian naira (as of 2017).


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The current GDP per capita of Nigeria expanded 132% in the sixties reaching a peak growth of 283% in the seventies. But this proved unsustainable and it consequently shrank by 66% in the 1980s. In the 1990s, diversification initiatives finally took effect and decadal growth was restored to 10%. Although GDP on a PPP basis did not increase until the 2000s.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2012, the GDP was composed of the following sectors: agriculture: 40%; services: 30%; manufacturing: 15%; oil: 14%. By 2015, the GDP was composed of the following sectors: agriculture: 18%; services: 55%; manufacturing: 16%; oil: 8%


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2005 Nigeria's inflation rate was an estimated 15.6%. Nigeria's goal under the National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) program is to reduce inflation to the single digits. By 2015, Nigeria's inflation stood at 9%. In 2005, the federal government had expenditures of US$13.54 billion but revenues of only US$12.86 billion, resulting in a budget deficit of 5%. By 2012, expenditures stood at $31.61 billion, while revenues was $54.48 billion.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The agricultural sector suffers from extremely low productivity, reflecting reliance on antiquated methods. Agriculture has failed to keep pace with Nigeria's rapid population growth, so the country, which once exported food, now imports a significant amount of food to sustain itself. However, efforts are being made towards making the country food sufficient again. Africa's most populous country has failed to grow more food for its fast-rising population who must be fed with staples ranging from rice, beans, maize etc.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria ranks sixth worldwide and first in Africa in farm output. The sector accounts for about 18% of GDP and almost one-third of employment. Though Nigeria is no longer a major exporter, due to local consumer boom, it is still a major producer of many agricultural products. Further agricultural products include palm oil and rubber.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Counting by weight, this "underground food" is the largest group of food produced in Nigeria, with 118 million tonnes in 2020. This group includes yam, cassava, potatoes and sweet potatoes. These food products are cultivated mostly in the south of Nigeria ("Roots economy").


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The group of sorghum, pear millet etc. is the second-largest group of food produced in Nigeria, with 28.6 million tonnes in 2020. 50% or 14 million tonnes of this is sorghum. The sugar cane production adds another 1.5 million tonnes to this. Cereals are mostly cultivated in the savannah zone of the country, and on the 23rd of June Nigeria's grain market report, the International Grains Council (IGC) placed Nigeria’s total 2022-23 grains production at 21.6 million tonnes, this specific figure was reviewed from the previous month’s forecast which was 21.1 million, It set the production in the year 2021-22 at 21.5 million which demonstrates and proves that there is an increase in the production of grains on the 23rd of June 2022-2023.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The third-largest group of food produced in Nigeria is rice and paddy. In 2020, 8.2 million tonnes were produced.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria produced a good 4 million tonnes of oil crops in 2020. These are e.g. soy beans, sunflower seed, canola and peanuts.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria produced close to 4 million tonnes of citrus fruit in 2020. Main Nigerian citrus fruits are tangerine, grape, lemon and lime.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Cocoa production, mostly from obsolete varieties and overage trees has increased from around 180,000 tons annually to 350,000 tons.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Beans, melons, pepper and vegetables are grown on chopping fields. Oil palms, rubber and bananas are grown for export. Palm oil plays a major role in Nigeria's burgeoning personal care products industry.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In total, about 15 million head are kept. In addition, about five million pigs are kept. Small livestock such as sheep, goats and chickens are kept mainly for subsistence.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: An estimated 42% of Nigerians own chicken. As a result, poultry and eggs represent a popular commodity within the food industry. 46% of the poultry is kept in a extensive / free-range system. 300 thousand tonnes of poultry meat and 650 thousand tonnes of eggs are produced annually in Nigeria (estimation).


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Roundwood removals totaled slightly less than 70 million cubic meters, and sawn wood production was estimated at 2 million cubic meters.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Until now, Nigeria paradoxically exported unhusked rice but had to import husked rice, the country's staple food. - The rice mill in Imota, near Lagos, is expected to do the relevant processing domestically, improve the balance of trade and the labour market, and save unnecessary costs for transport and middlemen. When fully operational at the end of 2022, the plant, the largest south of the Sahara, is expected to employ 250,000 people and produce 2.5 million 50-kg bags of rice annually. The Imota mill will be opened in the first week of August, 2022.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: A multi-billion Naira coconut oil refinery, first of its kind in Africa started business in Akwa Ibom State. The "St.Gabriel Coconut Refinery" in Mkpat Enin was inaugurated in May 2022. The governor of Akwa Ibom promised to commence immediate training of indigenous hands to man the refinery, said the facility has a daily capacity to crack 1,000,000 coconuts and will employ no fewer than 3,000 direct and indirect staff. Coconut oil goes for $1,326  per barrel, according to governor Emmanuel.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria has 19 million head of cattle, the largest number in Africa. Yet the dairy sector in Nigeria is only able to supply less than 10% of the country's demand for dairy products (as of June 2021), a gap expected to grow in line with population growth.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Fan Milk, a Danone Group company, manufacturer of popular frozen dairy and ice cream brands, unveiled its newly completed model dairy in Odeda, Ogun state, in June 2022. This dairy farm is Danone's first investment in dairy farming in sub-Saharan Africa to boost local milk production in Nigeria. Fan Milk will launch a world-class dairy farm and training institute, leveraging the expertise of parent company Danone.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In Lekki's Free Trade Zone, the Dano Milk Factory (Arla) opened in 2022. - In 2021 farmer owned dairy co-operative Arla Foods started to build a dairy farm in Kaduna state with 200 hectares. It will keep 400 dairy cows and will have modern milking parlors and technology, also grass lands and living facities for 25 employees.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria’s bread sector is growing fastly, with 72 percent dominated by small- and medium-scale bakers, according to a 2016 KPMG report. The bakery market of Nigeria is a $621 million industry.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: ""Fresh bread and miscellaneous bakery"" is the bakery product group with the highest consumption (8.5M tonnes), which is 91% of total volume. ""Fresh bread and miscellaneous bakery"" exceeded the figures recorded for the second-largest product group "gingerbread, sweet biscuits and waffles" (689K tonnes), more than tenfold. The Nigerian bakery product market size is expected to show significant growth in the forecast period 2020-2026.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Primera Food in cooperation with Michael Foods starts producing noodles on a big scale in Ogun state in 2022.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Kellogg's opens a production plant for her products in the Lekki Free Trade Zone close to Lagos in 2022. It is the second factory Kellogg’s has built in Africa.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The mining of minerals in Nigeria accounts for only 0.3% of its gross domestic product, due to the influence of its vast oil resources. The domestic mining industry is underdeveloped, leading to Nigeria having to import minerals that it could produce domestically, such as salt or iron ore. Rights to ownership of mineral resources is held by the Federal government of Nigeria, which grants titles to organizations to explore, mine, and sell mineral resources.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Mining regulation is handled by the Ministry of Solid Minerals Development, which oversees the management of all mineral resources. Mining law is codified in the Federal Minerals and Mining Act of 1999.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The types of crude oil exported by Nigeria are Bonny light oil, Forcados crude oil, Qua Ibo crude oil and Brass River crude oil. The U.S. remains Nigeria's largest buyer of crude oil, accounting for 40% of the country's total oil exports; Nigeria provides about 10% of overall U.S. oil imports and ranks as the fifth-largest source of U.S. imported oil.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The United Kingdom is Nigeria's largest trading partner followed by the United States. The stock of U.S. investment is nearly $7 billion, mostly in the energy sector. ExxonMobil and Chevron are the two largest U.S. corporations in offshore oil and gas production.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The supply of natural gas to Europe, which is threatened by the Ukraine war, is pushing projects to transport Nigerian natural gas via pipelines to Morocco or Algeria. As of May 2022, however, there are still no results.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Process and Industrial Developments Ltd (P&ID) entered into a 20-year contract with the Nigerian government for natural gas supply and processing. Nigeria provided the gas, which PI&D refined so that it could be use to power the Nigerian electrical grid. PI&D could keep valuable byproducts for its own use. In 2012, PI&D demanded arbitration in London, alleging that Nigeria had not supplied the agreed quantity of gas or to construct the infrastructure it had agreed to build. The arbitral tribunal awarded damages of more than £4.8 billion. The compensation was valued £8.15 billion with interest when the case was heard in London High Court in December 2022.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Dangote and BUA are the dominating companies in the cement market of Nigeria. In May 2022 BUA opened a new, large scale cement plant in Sokoto including its own 50 MW power station.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Paradoxically, Nigeria currently exports crude oil but has to import petroleum products such as petrol or polypropylene (plastic). In the fourth quarter of 2022, the much-talked-about Dangote oil refinery will come on stream, which will produce 50 million litres of petrol per day, among other things. This would turn Nigeria from a net importer into a net exporter of petroleum products. Even before it is fully operational, the Dangote refinery claims to a number of world records, including the world's largest distillation column and, with the RFCC regenerator, both the heaviest continuous piece of steel (made by a Korean forge) and the heaviest object ever transported on a public African road.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: On 3 May 2022, after years of construction, a fertiliser production plant was commissioned near Lagos that will produce 3 million tonnes of fertiliser a year. With no more Russian fertiliser coming onto the world market in 2022 due to the Ukraine war, Nigeria is filling a gap in the market. "The fertiliser market is a seller's market," enthused company boss Dangote at the plant's opening. "People are begging for us to sell and we are choosy about who we sell to."


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: A stone's throw away from the Dangote refinery BASF opened a factory in Lekki. BASF is mostly known for fertilizers, paints and lacquers.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The Colgate factory in the Lekki Free Trade Zone close to Lagos started to produce body care products in 2022.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria hosts about 60 percent of the pharmaceutical production capacity in Africa (status 2022) and is projected to grow between $60 billion to $70 billion after COVID-19, experts say. The pharmaceutical industry in Nigeria has headroom for growth and can potentially reach $4 billion over the next 10 years. Goldstein Market Intelligence analyst forecast the Nigeria pharmaceuticals market size is set to grow at a CAGR of 9.1% over the forecast years of 2017–2030.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The pharmaceutical producer with the most employees in Nigeria appears to be "Emzor Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd". They produce more than 140 pharmaceutical products, including painkillers, vitamins, haematinics, antimalarials, tussives, antibiotics, anthelmintics, antihistamines, antacids and cardioprotectants.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: "Fidson Healthcare Plc" produces painkillers, anti-allergics, blood pressure medicines, digestive aids, sleeping pills and cough syrup. "May & Baker Nig. Plc" produces remedis against malaria, hypertension, diabetes, depressions and pain. "Swiss Pharma Nigeria" produces pharmaceutical products of BAYER.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: "Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing" is located in Nnewi. It produces buses, SUVs and since May 2022 "kekes".


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: "Nord Automobiles Ltd" has two assembly plants: one in Sangotedo, where all eight models are currently assembled; a plant in Epe is still under construction. The company currently manufactures its own plastic parts and plans to add steel stamping in the future.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: 30 km north-east of Lagos "Proforce Ltd." produces armoured vehicles. Proforce sold an unknown number of armoured vehicles to Belarus in March 2022. This is the first time that vehicles manufactured in Nigeria have been supplied to a European country.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: "Jet Motor Company" in Epe, Lagos State, is producing Nigeria's first electric-powered delivery trucks in partnership with GIG Logistics.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In Idah, Kogi State, "Electric Motor Vehicle Company" manufactures electrically powered vehicles. The company is owned by Prince Mustapha Mona Audu, a Glasgow-educated computer specialist and son of a former governor. In May 2022, Audu unveiled the four-seater "Adoja", which he claims is the most environmentally friendly vehicle in Nigeria.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: "Peugeot Automobiles Nigeria (PAN)" operates in Kaduna. In April 2022, Peugeot left the conglomerate and Aliko Dangote bought its shares. The company name was changed to DPAN. DPAN will assemble mainly the Chinese brands Chery and Higer using pre-produced parts. A new production line, Greenfield, will increase the output to 120 cars per day.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In Oshogbo, there is a modest toolmaking industry. Products are e.g. CNC turning machines and industrial drilling machines, but also stud bolts and flanges. Target market is the oil industry in the Niger delta.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The most successful manufacturer of laptops in Nigeria is, by their own admission, the indigenous Zinox Technologies in Lagos.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: According to its website, Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited produces 1.3 million tonnes of steel per year. This would be equivalent to one-sixth of the UK's steel production in 2021. Steel plants in Katsina, Jos and Osogbo no longer appear to be active.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria is the largest financial market in Africa. As of November 2018, 21 commercial banks were licensed by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN). Nigeria has a relatively well-developed banking sector by regional standards, with regionally high level of banking penetration (44.2% vs. regional average of 17.8% for West Africa) and robust use of advanced financial instruments in the local economy. The country is also well connected to international financial markets and following the 2016–17 oil crisis, the country has seen an increasing influx of foreign capital over the past 12–18 months – capital importation in Nigeria jumped to US$6.3 bln in Q1–18 (594% yoy growth) vs. $12.3 bln for full year 2017 and $5.1 bln in 2016). However, the country is weighed down by high lending rates, which limits access to credit for smaller firms, particularly in the non-oil economy.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The Nigerian Communications Commissions (NCC) said on January 14, 2022, the telecommunications sector contributed 12.45per cent to Nigeria's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The commission through its chief executive officer (CEO), Prof Umar Garba Danbatta, during his convocation lecture, titled, “Empowering the Nigeria Youth Through Information and Communications Technology (ICT)” held at Fountain University, Osogbo, made this known. Prof Garba disclosed that the ICT sector has been consistently contributing above 10% of Nigeria's GDP for over 10 years. He noted, “Nigeria is Africa’s largest ICT market with 82per cent of the continent’s telecoms subscribers and 29per cent of internet usage."


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria ranks 11th in the world in the absolute number of internet users and 7th in the absolute number of mobile phones.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Due to Nigeria's location in the centre of Africa, transport plays a major role in the national service sector.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The Buhari administration made improvements to the infrastructure after 2015. Extensive road repairs and new construction have been carried out gradually as states in particular spend their share of increased government allocations. Representative of these improvements is the Second Niger Bridge at Onitsha, which is nearly completed in May 2022.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Since 2009, Nigeria has been laying new railway tracks. These are operated by the state-owned Nigerian Railway Corporation. This has apparently generated a surplus since 2019, despite the covid epidemic.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Principal ports are at Lagos (Apapa and Tin Can Island), Port Harcourt (Onne), and Calabar. A deep sea port in Lekki, 50 km east of Lagos, is about to open in 2022.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Five of Nigeria's airports (Lagos, Kano, Port Harcourt, Enugu and Abuja) currently fly to international destinations. The new national airline, "Nigeria Air", is scheduled to start operations in mid-2022.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: From Nollywood, films and soaps are broadcast to the whole of Africa. Nigeria is the second largest film nation in the world after India and ahead of the US.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Perhaps Nigeria's most famous musician is the inventor of Afrobeat Fela Anikulapo Kuti, who gave legendary concerts with his band "Africa 70" at the "Shrine" in Lagos. Other characteristic musical styles include Jùjú, Apala, Fuji and Sakara. In the field of pop music, Nigerian musicians living in Europe such as Sade Adu or Dr. Alban were very successful in the 1980s and 1990s. In Europe, Nneka is one of the best-known Nigerian pop musicians. One of the very few Nigerian artists living in Nigeria who has had commercial success in Europe is D'Banj. He even reached the European singles charts in summer 2012 with Oliver Twist. Wizkid reached number 1 in 2016 alongside Drake.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigerians are passionate users of social media. In 2021 Nigerians spent 3 hours and 41 minutes on social media in average every day. This is much higher than the global average of 2 hours 22 minutes. The number of active social media users in Nigeria increased in 2021 by 22 percent, compared with a global average increase of 13 per cent. WhatsApp and Facebook are the most used social media platforms in Nigeria.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: A major source of foreign exchange earnings for Nigeria are remittances sent home by Nigerians living abroad. In 2014, 17.5 million Nigerians lived in foreign countries, with the UK and the USA having more than 2 million Nigerians each.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: According to the International Organization for Migration, Nigeria witnessed a dramatic increase in remittances sent home from overseas Nigerians, going from US$2.3 billion in 2004 to $17.9 billion in 2007, representing 6.7% of GDP. The United States accounts for the largest portion of official remittances, followed by the United Kingdom, Italy, Canada, Spain and France. On the African continent, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Chad, Libya, and South Africa are important source countries of remittance flows to Nigeria, while China is the biggest remittance-sending country in Asia.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2015, Nigeria had a labour force of 74 million. In 2003, the unemployment rate was 10.8% overall; by 2015, unemployment stood at 6.4%.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Since 1999, the Nigerian Labor Congress (NLC) a union umbrella organization, has called six general strikes to protest domestic fuel price increases. However, in March 2005 the government introduced legislation ending the NLC's monopoly over union organizing. In December 2005, the Nigerian Labour Congress (NLC) was lobbying for an increase in the minimum wage for federal workers. The existing minimum wage, which was introduced six years earlier but has not been adjusted since, has been whittled away by inflation to only US$42.80 per month.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: According to the International Organization for Migration, the number of immigrants residing in Nigeria has more than doubled in recent decades – from 477,135 in 1991 to 971,450 in 2005. The majority of immigrants in Nigeria (74%) are from neighbouring Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and that this number has increased considerably over the last decade, from 63% in 2001 to 97% in 2005.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The government has to pay a high interest rate on bonds in part because of the high fertility rate; there are many children and less savings.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: As of 2019, Nigeria's HDI (Human Development Index) is ranked 161st at 0.539. The comparative value for Sub-Saharan Africa is 0.547, 0.926 for the US, and 0.737 for the world average.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The value for the education index is 0.499, compared to the average in the US of 0.900. The expected years of schooling in Nigeria is 10.0 (16.3 in the US), while the mean years of schooling for adults over 25 years is 6.7 years (13.4 years in the US). Additionally, Nigeria is also facing a relatively high inequality, worsening the problem regarding the formation of human capital.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2016, the black market exchange rate of the Naira was about 60% above the official rate. The central bank releases about $200 million each week at the official exchange rate. However, some companies cite that budgets now include a 30% "premium" to be paid to central bank officials to get dollars.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria's inflation rate rose to 15.63 per cent in December 2021 compared to 15.40 per cent in November, the National Bureau of Statistics announced on January 17, 2022. The statistics office said the prices of goods and services, measured by the Consumer Price Index, increased by 15.63 per cent in December 2021 when compared to December 2020. According to the NBS, this rise in the food index was caused by increases in prices of bread and cereals, food products, meat, fish, potatoes, yam and other tubers, soft drinks and fruits.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Nigeria's foreign economic relations revolve around its role in supplying the world economy with oil and natural gas, even as the country seeks to diversify its exports, harmonize tariffs in line with a potential customs union sought by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and encourage inflows of foreign portfolio and direct investment. In October 2005, Nigeria implemented the ECOWAS common external tariff, which reduced the number of tariff bands.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: Prior to this revision, tariffs constituted Nigeria's second largest source of revenue after oil exports. In 2005 Nigeria achieved a major breakthrough when it reached an agreement with the Paris Club to eliminate its bilateral debt through a combination of write-downs and buybacks. Nigeria joined the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries in July 1971 and the World Trade Organization in January 1995.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: If the global transition to renewable energy is completed and international demand for Nigeria's petroleum resources ceases, Nigeria will be significantly weakened. It is ranked 149 out of 156 countries in the index of Geopolitical Gains and Losses after energy transition (GeGaLo).


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2017, Nigeria imported about US$34.2 billion of goods. In 2017 the leading sources of imports were China (28%), the Belgium-Luxembourg (8.9%), the Netherlands (8.3%), South Korea (6.4%), the United States (6.0%) and the India (4.6%). Principal imports were manufactured goods, machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, and food and live animals.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2017, Nigeria exported about US$46.68 billion of goods. In 2017, the leading destinations for exports were India (18%), the United States (14%), Spain (9.7%), France (6.0%) and the Netherlands (4.9%). In 2017 oil accounted for 83% of merchandise exports. Natural rubber and cocoa are the country's major agricultural exports.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2005, Nigeria posted a US$26 billion trade surplus, corresponding to almost 20% of gross domestic product. In 2005, Nigeria achieved a positive current account balance of US$9.6 billion. The Nigerian currency is the naira (NGN). As of June 2006, the exchange rate was about US$1=NGN128.4. As of June 2019, it stands at US$1 =NGN357. In recent years, Nigeria has expanded its trade relations with other developing countries such as India. Nigeria is the largest African crude oil supplier to India – it annually exports to India valued at US$10 billion annually.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: India is the largest purchaser of Nigeria's oil which fulfills 20% to 25% of India's domestic oil demand. Indian oil companies are also involved in oil drilling operations in Nigeria and have plans to set up refineries there.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The trade volume between Nigeria and the United Kingdom rose by 35% from USD6.3 billion in 2010 to USD8.5 billion in 2011.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2012, Nigeria's external debt was an estimated $5.9 billion and N5.6 trillion domestic, putting total debt at $44 billion.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In April 2006, Nigeria became the first African country to fully pay off its debt owed to the Paris Club. This was structured as a debt write off of approximately $18 billion and a cash payment of approximately $12 billion.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: In 2012, Nigeria received a net inflow of US$85.73 billion of foreign direct investment (FDI), much of which came from Nigerians in the diaspora. Most FDI is directed toward the energy and banking sectors. Any public designed to encourage inflow of foreign capital is capable of generating employment opportunities within the domestic economy. The Nigerian Enterprises Promotion (NEP) Decree of 1972 (revised in 1977) was intended to reduce foreign investment in the Nigerian economy.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Nigeria was valued at $97.75 billion on 15 February 2008 by the Nigerian Stock Exchange.


title: Economy of Nigeria

text: The Swiss foreign ministry says it has done all it can to ensure that funds stolen by the late Nigerian dictator Sani Abacha were used properly in his homeland. The authorities were responding to allegations that $200 million (SFr240 million) of $700 million handed back by the Swiss Banks to Nigeria had been misappropriated.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The corpus callosum (Latin for "tough body"), also callosal commissure, is a wide, thick nerve tract, consisting of a flat bundle of commissural fibers, beneath the cerebral cortex in the brain. The corpus callosum is only found in placental mammals. It spans part of the longitudinal fissure, connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them. It is the largest white matter structure in the human brain, about in length and consisting of 200–300 million axonal projections.


title: Corpus callosum

text: A number of separate nerve tracts, classed as subregions of the corpus callosum, connect different parts of the hemispheres. The main ones are known as the genu, the rostrum, the trunk or body, and the splenium.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The corpus callosum forms the floor of the longitudinal fissure that separates the two cerebral hemispheres. Part of the corpus callosum forms the roof of the lateral ventricles.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The corpus callosum has four main parts – individual nerve tracts that connect different parts of the hemispheres. These are the rostrum, the genu, the trunk or body, and the splenium. A narrowed part between the trunk and the splenium is known as the isthmus. Fibres from the trunk and the splenium known together as the tapetum form the roof of each lateral ventricle.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The front part of the corpus callosum, towards the frontal lobes, is called the genu ("knee"). The genu curves downward and backward in front of the septum pellucidum, diminishing greatly in thickness. The lower, much thinner part is the rostrum and is connected below with the lamina terminalis, which stretches from the interventricular foramina to the recess at the base of the optic stalk. The rostrum is named for its resemblance to a bird's beak.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The end part of the corpus callosum, towards the cerebellum, is called the splenium. This is the thickest part, and overlaps the tela choroidea of the third ventricle and the midbrain, and ends in a thick, convex, free border. Splenium translates as "bandage" in Greek.


title: Corpus callosum

text: On either side of the corpus callosum, the fibers radiate in the white matter and pass to the various parts of the cerebral cortex; those curving forward from the genu into the frontal lobes constitute the forceps minor (also forceps anterior) and those curving backward from the splenium into the occipital lobes, the forceps major (also forceps posterior). Between these two parts is the main body of the fibers, which constitute the tapetum and extend laterally on either side into the temporal lobe, and cover in the central part of the lateral ventricle. The tapetum and anterior commissure share the function of connecting left and right temporal lobes.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The anterior cerebral arteries are in contact with the undersurface of the rostrum; they arch over the front of the genu and are carried along the trunk, supplying the front four-fifths of the corpus callosum.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The size, amount of myelination, and density of the fibers in the subregions relate to the functions of the brain regions they connect. Myelination is the process of coating neurons with myelin, which helps the transfer of information between neurons. The process is believed to occur until an individual's thirties with peak growth in the first decade of one's life. Thinner, lightly myelinated fibers are slower conducting and they connect the association and prefrontal areas. Thicker and fast-conducting fibers connect the visual and motor areas.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The tractogram pictured shows the nerve tracts from six segments of the corpus callosum, providing linking of the cortical regions between the cerebral hemispheres. Those of the genu are shown in coral, of the premotor – green, of the sensory-motor – purple, of the parietal – pink, of the temporal – yellow, and of the splenium – blue.


title: Corpus callosum

text: Thinner axons in the genu connect the prefrontal cortex between the two halves of the brain; these fibers arise from a fork-like bundle of fibers from the tapetum, the forceps minor. Thicker axons in the trunk of the corpus callosum, interconnect areas of the motor cortex, with proportionately more of the corpus callosum dedicated to supplementary motor regions including Broca's area. The splenium, communicates somatosensory information between the two halves of the parietal lobe and the visual cortex at the occipital lobe, these are the fibers of the forceps major.


title: Corpus callosum

text: A study of five- to eighteen-year-olds found a positive correlation between age and callosal thickness.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The corpus callosum and its relation to sex has been a subject of debate in the scientific and lay communities for over a century. Initial research in the early 20th century claimed the corpus to be different in size between men and women. That research was, in turn, questioned, and ultimately gave way to more advanced imaging techniques that appeared to refute earlier correlations. However, advanced analytical techniques of computational neuroanatomy developed in the 1990s showed that sex differences were clear, but confined to certain parts of the corpus callosum, and that they correlated with cognitive performance in certain tests. An MRI study found that the midsagittal corpus callosum cross-sectional area is, after controlling for brain size, on average, proportionately larger in females.


title: Corpus callosum

text: Using diffusion tensor sequences on MRI machines, the rate at which molecules diffuse in and out of a specific area of tissue, anisotropy can be measured and used as an indirect measurement of anatomical connection strength. These sequences have found consistent sex differences in human corpus callosal shape and microstructure.


title: Corpus callosum

text: Analysis by shape and size has also been used to study specific three-dimensional mathematical relationships with MRIs, and have found consistent and statistically significant differences between sexes. Specific algorithms have found significant differences between the two sexes in over 70% of cases in one review.


title: Corpus callosum

text: A 2005 study on the sizes and structures of the corpus callosum in transgender people found it to be structurally more in line with their declared gender than their assigned sex.


title: Corpus callosum

text: One study reported that the front portion of the human corpus callosum was 0.75 cm or 11% larger in left-handed and ambidextrous people than right-handed people. This difference was evident in the anterior and posterior regions of the corpus callosum, but not in the splenium. This has been challenged and others have instead suggested that the degree of handedness negatively correlates with the size of the corpus callosum, meaning that individuals who are capable of using both hands with dexterity would have the largest corpus callosum and vice versa for either left or right hand. However, a recent meta-analysis failed to confirm any substantial handedness-related differences in the corpus callosum.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The symptoms of refractory (difficult to treat) epilepsy can be reduced by cutting through the corpus callosum in an operation known as a corpus callosotomy lobotomy paralysis. This is usually reserved for cases in which complex or grand mal seizures are produced by an epileptogenic focus on one side of the brain, causing an interhemispheric electrical storm. The diagnostic work up for this procedure involves an electroencephalogram, MRI, PET scan, and evaluation by a neurologist, neurosurgeon, psychiatrist, and neuroradiologist before a partial lobotomy surgery can be considered.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The formation of the corpus callosum begins with the first midline crossing of pioneer axons around week 12 in the prenatal development of the human, or day 15 in the embryogenesis of the mouse. Agenesis of the corpus callosum (ACC) is a rare congenital disorder that is one of the most common brain malformations observed in human beings, in which the corpus callosum is partially or completely absent. ACC is usually diagnosed within the first two years of life, and may manifest as a severe syndrome in infancy or childhood, as a milder condition in young adults, or as an asymptomatic incidental finding. Initial symptoms of ACC usually include seizures, which may be followed by feeding problems and delays in holding the head erect, sitting, standing, and walking. Other possible symptoms may include impairments in mental and physical development, hand-eye coordination, and visual and auditory memory. Hydrocephaly may also occur. In mild cases, symptoms such as seizures, repetitive speech, or headaches may not appear for years. Some syndromes often associated with ACC include Aicardi syndrome, Andermann syndrome, Shapiro syndrome, and acrocallosal syndrome.


title: Corpus callosum

text: ACC is usually not fatal. Treatment usually involves management of symptoms, such as hydrocephaly and seizures, if they occur. Although many children with the disorder lead normal lives and have average intelligence, careful neuropsychological testing reveals subtle differences in higher cortical function compared to individuals of the same age and education without ACC. Children with ACC accompanied by developmental delay and/or seizure disorders should be screened for metabolic disorders.


title: Corpus callosum

text: In addition to agenesis of the corpus callosum, similar conditions are hypogenesis (partial formation), dysgenesis (malformation), and hypoplasia (underdevelopment, including too thin).


title: Corpus callosum

text: Other studies have also linked possible correlations between corpus callosum malformation and autism spectrum disorders.


title: Corpus callosum

text: Kim Peek, a savant and the inspiration behind the movie "Rain Man", was found with agenesis of the corpus callosum, as part of FG syndrome.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The first study of the corpus with relation to gender was by R. B. Bean, a Philadelphia anatomist, who suggested in 1906 that "exceptional size of the corpus callosum may mean exceptional intellectual activity" and that there were measurable differences between men and women. Perhaps reflecting the political climate of the times, he went on to claim differences in the size of the callosum across different races. His research was ultimately refuted by Franklin Mall, the director of his own laboratory.


title: Corpus callosum

text: Of more mainstream impact was a 1982 "Science" article by Holloway and Utamsing that suggested sex difference in human brain morphology, which related to differences in cognitive ability. "Time" published an article in 1992 that suggested that, because the corpus is "often wider in the brains of women than in those of men, it may allow for greater cross-talk between the hemispheres—possibly the basis for women’s intuition."


title: Corpus callosum

text: Later publications in the psychology literature have raised doubt as to whether the anatomic size of the corpus is actually different. A meta-analysis of 49 studies since 1980 found that, contrary to de Lacoste-Utamsing and Holloway, no sex difference could be found in the size of the corpus callosum, whether or not any account was taken of larger male brain size. A study in 2006 using thin slice MRI showed no difference in thickness of the corpus when accounting for the size of the subject.


title: Corpus callosum

text: The corpus callosum is found only in placental mammals, while it is absent in monotremes and marsupials, as well as other vertebrates such as birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. (Other groups do have other brain structures that allow for communication between the two hemispheres, such as the anterior commissure, which serves as the primary mode of interhemispheric communication in marsupials, and which carries all the commissural fibers arising from the neocortex (also known as the neopallium), whereas in placental mammals, the anterior commissure carries only some of these fibers.) In primates, the speed of nerve transmission depends on its degree of myelination, or lipid coating. This is reflected by the diameter of the nerve axon. In most primates, axonal diameter increases in proportion to brain size to compensate for the increased distance to travel for neural impulse transmission. This allows the brain to coordinate sensory and motor impulses. However, the scaling of overall brain size and increased myelination have not occurred between chimpanzees and humans. This has resulted in the human corpus callosum's requiring double the time for interhemispheric communication as a macaque's. The fibrous bundle at which the corpus callosum appears, can and does increase to such an extent in humans that it encroaches upon and wedges apart the hippocampal structures.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Maximilian Schell (8 December 1930 – 1 February 2014) was an Austrian-born Swiss actor, who also wrote, directed and produced some of his own films. He won the Academy Award for Best Actor for the 1961 American film "Judgment at Nuremberg", his second acting role in Hollywood. Born in Austria, his parents were involved in the arts and he grew up surrounded by acting and literature. While he was a child, his family fled to Switzerland in 1938 when Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany, and they settled in Zurich. After World War II ended, Schell took up acting and directing full-time. He appeared in numerous German films, often anti-war, before moving on to Hollywood.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell was top billed in a number of Nazi-era themed films, as he could speak both English and German. Among those were two films for which he received Oscar nominations: "The Man in the Glass Booth" (1975; Best Actor), where he played a character with two identities, and "Julia" (1977; Best Supporting Actor), in which he helps the underground in Nazi Germany.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: His range of acting went beyond German characters, however, and during his career, he also played personalities as diverse as Venezuelan leader Simón Bolívar, Russian emperor Peter the Great, and physicist Albert Einstein. For his role as Vladimir Lenin in the television film "Stalin" (1992) he won the Golden Globe Award. On stage, Schell acted in a number of plays, including a celebrated performance as the title character in William Shakespeare's "Hamlet".


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell was an accomplished pianist and conductor, performing with Claudio Abbado and Leonard Bernstein, and with orchestras in Berlin and Vienna. His elder sister, Maria Schell, was also an internationally noted actress, about whom he produced the documentary "My Sister Maria," in 2002.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell was born in Vienna, Austria, the son of Margarethe (née Noe von Nordberg), an actress who ran an acting school, and Hermann Ferdinand Schell, a Swiss poet, novelist, playwright and pharmacy owner. His parents were Roman Catholic.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell's father was never enthusiastic about young Maximilian becoming an actor like his mother, feeling that it could not lead to "real happiness". However, Schell was surrounded by acting in his early youth:


title: Maximilian Schell

text: The Schell family fled from Vienna in 1938 to get "away from Hitler" after the Anschluss, when Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany. They resettled in Zurich, Switzerland.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: In Zurich, Schell "grew up reading the classics", and when he was ten, wrote his first play. Schell recalls that as a child, growing up surrounded by the theatre, he took acting for granted and did not want to become an actor at first: "What I wanted was to become a painter, a musician, or a playwright," like his father.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell later attended the University of Zurich for a year, where he also played soccer and was on the rowing team, along with writing for newspapers as a part-time journalist for income. Following the end of World War II, he moved to Germany where he enrolled in the University of Munich and studied philosophy and art history. During breaks, he would sometimes return home to Zurich or stay at his family's farm in the country so he could write in seclusion:


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell then returned to Zurich, where he served in the Swiss Army for a year, after which he attended the sixth form of University College School, London, for one year before re-entering the University of Zurich for another year, and later, the University of Basel for six months. During that period, he acted professionally in small parts, in both classical and modern plays, and decided that he would from then on devote his life to acting rather than pursue academic studies:


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell's late elder sister, Maria Schell, was also an actress, as were their two siblings, Carl (1927–2019) and Immaculata "Immy" Schell (1935–1992).


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell's film debut was in the German anti-war film "Kinder, Mütter und ein General" ("Children, Mothers, and a General", 1955). It was the story of five mothers who confronted a German general at the front line, after learning that their sons, some as young as 15, had been "slated to be cannon fodder on behalf of the Third Reich." The film co-starred Klaus Kinski as an officer, with Schell playing the part of an officer-deserter. The story, which according to one critic, "depicts the insanity of continuing to fight a war that is lost," would become a "trademark" for many of Schell's future roles: "Schell's sensitivity in his portrayal of a young deserter disillusioned with fighting became a trademark of his acting."


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell subsequently acted in seven more films made in Europe before going to the U.S. Among those was "The Plot to Assassinate Hitler" (also 1955). Later in the same year he had a supporting role in "Jackboot Mutiny", in which he plays "a sensitive philosopher", who uses ethics to privately debate the arguments for assassinating Hitler.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: In 1958 Schell was invited to the United States to act in the Broadway play, "Interlock" by Ira Levin, in which Schell played the role of an aspiring concert pianist. He made his Hollywood debut in the World War II film, "The Young Lions" (1958), as the commanding German officer in another anti-war story, with Marlon Brando and Montgomery Clift. German film historian Robert C. Reimer writes that the film, directed by Edward Dmytryk, again drew on Schell's German characterisation to "portray young officers disillusioned with a war that no longer made sense."


title: Maximilian Schell

text: In 1960, Schell returned to Germany and played the title role in William Shakespeare's "Hamlet" for German TV, a role that he would play on two more occasions in live theatre productions during his career. Along with Laurence Olivier, Schell is considered "one of the greatest Hamlets ever," according to one writer. Schell recalled that when he played Hamlet for the first time, "it was like falling in love with a woman. ... not until I acted the part of Hamlet did I have a moment when I knew I was in love with acting." Schell's performance of Hamlet was featured as one of the last episodes of the American comedy series "Mystery Science Theater 3000" in 1999.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: In 1959, Schell acted in the role of a defence attorney on a live TV production, "Judgment at Nuremberg", a fictionalized re-creation of the Nuremberg War Trials, in an edition of "Playhouse 90". His performance in the TV drama was considered so good that he and Werner Klemperer were among the only members of the original cast selected to play the same parts in the 1961 film version. He won the Academy Award for Best Actor, which was the first win for a German-speaking actor since World War II.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: After winning the New York Film Critics award for his role, Schell recalled the pride he felt upon receiving a letter from his older sister, Maria Schell, who was already an award-winning actress:


title: Maximilian Schell

text: According to Reimer, Schell gave a "bravura performance," where he tried to defend his clients, Nazi judges, "by arguing that all Germans share a collective guilt" for what happened. Biographer James Curtis notes that Schell prepared for his part in the movie by "reading the entire forty-volume record of the Nuremberg trials." Author Barry Monush describes the impact of Schell's acting:


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Producer-director Stanley Kramer assembled a star-studded ensemble cast which included Spencer Tracy and Burt Lancaster. They "worked for nominal wages out of a desire to see the film made and for the opportunity to appear in it," notes film historian George McManus. Actor William Shatner remembers that, prior to the actual filming, "we understood the importance of the film we were making." It was nominated for eleven Academy Awards, winning two. In 2011, Schell appeared at a 50th anniversary tribute to the film and his Oscar win, held in Los Angeles at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, where he spoke about his career and the film.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Beginning in 1968 Schell began writing, producing, directing and acting in a number of his own films: Among those were "The Castle" (1968), a German film based on the novel by Franz Kafka, about a man trapped in a bureaucratic nightmare. Soon after he made "Erste Liebe (First Love)" (1970), based on a novel by Ivan Turgenev. The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell's next film, "The Pedestrian" (1974), is about a German tycoon "haunted by his Nazi past". In this film, notes one critic, "Schell probes the conscience and guilt in terms of the individual and of society, reaching to the universal heart of responsibility and moral inertia." It was nominated for the Best Foreign Language Film Oscar and was a "great and commercial success in Germany," notes Roger Ebert.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell then produced, directed and acted as a supporting character in "End of the Game" (1975), a German crime thriller starring Jon Voight and Jacqueline Bisset. A few years later he co-wrote and directed the Austrian film "Tales from the Vienna Woods" (1979). He had previously (1977) directed a stage production of the original play of that name by Ödön von Horváth at the National Theatre in London.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: During his career, as one of the few German-speaking actors working in English-language films, Schell was top billed in a number of Nazi-era themed films, including "Counterpoint" (1968), "The Odessa File" (1974)", The Man in the Glass Booth" (1975), "A Bridge Too Far" (1977), "Cross of Iron" (1977) and "Julia" (1977). For the latter film, directed by Fred Zinnemann, Schell was again nominated for an Oscar for his supporting role as an anti-Nazi activist.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: In a number of films Schell played the role of a Jewish character: as Otto Frank, Anne Frank's father, in "The Diary of Anne Frank" (1980); as the modern Zionist father in "The Chosen" (1981); in 1996, he played an Auschwitz survivor in "Through Roses", a German film, written and directed by Jürgen Flimm; and in "Left Luggage" (1998) he played the father of a Jewish family.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: In "The Man in the Glass Booth" (1975), adapted from the stage play by Robert Shaw, Schell played both a Nazi officer and a Jewish Holocaust survivor, in a character with a double identity. Roger Ebert describes the main character, Albert Goldman, as "mad, and immensely complicated, and he is hidden in a maze of identities so thick that no one knows for sure who he really is." Schell, who at that period in his career saw himself primarily as a director, felt compelled to accept the part when it was offered to him:


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell's acting in the film has been compared favorably to his other leading roles, with film historian Annette Insdorf writing, "Maximilian Schell is even more compelling as the quick-tempered, quicksilver Goldman than in his previous Holocaust-related roles, including "Judgment at Nuremberg" and "The Condemned of Altona"". She gives a number of examples of Schell's acting intensity, including the courtroom scenes, where Schell's character, after supposedly being exposed as a German officer, "attacks Jewish meekness" in his defense, and "boasts that the Jews were sheep who didn't believe what was happening." The film eventually suggests that Schell's character is in fact a Jew, but one whose sanity has been compromised by "survivor guilt." Schell was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor for his performance.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: To avoid being typecast, Schell also played more diverse characters in numerous films throughout his career: he played a museum treasure thief in "Topkapi" (1964); a Venezuelan leader in "Simón Bolívar" (1969); a 19th-century ship captain in "Krakatoa, East of Java" (1969); a Captain Nemo-esque scientist/starship commander in the science fiction film, "The Black Hole" (1979); the Russian emperor in the television miniseries, "Peter the Great" (1986), opposite Laurence Olivier, Vanessa Redgrave and Trevor Howard, which won an Emmy Award; a comedy role with Marlon Brando in "The Freshman" (1990); Reese Witherspoon's surrogate grandfather in "A Far Off Place"; a treacherous Cardinal in "John Carpenter's Vampires" (1998); as Frederick the Great in a TV film, "Young Catherine" (1991); as Vladimir Lenin in the TV series, "Stalin" (1992), for which he won the Golden Globe Award; a Russian KGB colonel in "Candles in the Dark" (1993); the Pharaoh in "Abraham" (1994); and Tea Leoni's father in the science fiction thriller, "Deep Impact" (1998).


title: Maximilian Schell

text: From the 1990s until late in his career, Schell appeared in many German-language made-for-TV films, such as the 2003 film "Alles Glück dieser Erde" ("All the Luck in the World") opposite Uschi Glas and in the television miniseries "" (2004), which was based on Henning Mankell's novel "The Return of the Dancing Master". In 2006 he appeared in the stage play of Arthur Miller's "Resurrection Blues", directed by Robert Altman, which played in London at the Old Vic. In 2007, he played the role of Albert Einstein on the German television series "Giganten" (Giants), which enacted the lives of people important in German history.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell also served as a writer, producer and director for a variety of films, including the problematic documentary film "Marlene" (1984), with the unwilling participation of Marlene Dietrich. It was nominated for an Oscar, received the New York Film Critics Award and the German Film Award. Originally, Dietrich, then 83 years of age, had agreed to allow Schell to interview and film her in the privacy of her apartment. However, after he began filming, she changed her mind and refused to allow any actual video footage of her be shown. During a videotaped interview, Schell described the difficulties he had while making the film.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell creatively showed only silhouettes of her along with old film clips during their interview soundtrack. According to one review, "the true originality of the movie is the way it pursues the clash of temperament between interviewer and star. . . . he draws her out, taunting her into a fascinating display of egotism, lying and contentiousness."


title: Maximilian Schell

text: In 2002, Schell produced his most intimate film, "My Sister Maria", a documentary about his sister, noted actress Maria Schell. In the film, he chronicles her life, career and eventual diminished capacity due to illness. The film, made three years before her death, shows her mental and physical frailty, leading to her withdrawing from the world. In 2002, upon the completion of the film, they both received Bambi Awards, and were honored for their lifetime achievements and in recognition of the film.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: During the 1960s Schell had a three-year-long affair with Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiary, former second wife of the Reza Pahlavi, the final Shah of Iran. He also was rumored to have been engaged to the first African-American Supermodel Donyale Luna in the mid 1960s. In 1985, he met the Russian actress Natalya Andrejchenko, whom he married in June 1985; their daughter Nastassja was born in 1989. After 2002, separated from his wife (whom he divorced in 2005), Schell had a relationship with the Austrian art historian Elisabeth Michitsch. In 2008 he became romantically involved with German opera singer Iva Mihanovic, who was 48 years his junior. They eventually married on 20 August 2013.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell was a semi-professional pianist for much of his life. He had a piano when he lived in Munich and said that he would play for hours at a time for his own pleasure and to help him relax: "I find I need to rest. An actor must have pauses in between work, to renew himself, to read, to walk, to chop wood."


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Conductor Leonard Bernstein claimed that Schell was a "remarkably good pianist." In 1982 on a program filmed for the U.S. television network PBS, Schell read from Beethoven's letters to the audience before Bernstein conducted the Vienna Philharmonic playing Beethoven symphonies.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: In 1983, he and Bernstein co-hosted an 11-part TV series, "Bernstein/Beethoven", featuring nine live symphonies, along with discussions between Bernstein and Schell about Beethoven's works.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: On other occasions, Schell worked with Italian conductor Claudio Abbado and the Berlin Philharmonic, which included a performance in Chicago of Igor Stravinsky's "Oedipus Rex" and another in Jerusalem of Arnold Schoenberg's "A Survivor from Warsaw". Schell also produced and directed a number of live operas, including Richard Wagner's "Lohengrin" for the Los Angeles Opera. He worked on the film project "Beethoven's Fidelio," with Plácido Domingo and Kent Nagano.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell was a guest professor at the University of Southern California and was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from Spertus Institute for Jewish Learning and Leadership in Chicago.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: Schell died at the age of 83 on 1 February 2014, in Innsbruck, Austria, after a "sudden and serious illness". The German television news service "Tagesschau" reported that he had been receiving treatment for pneumonia.


title: Maximilian Schell

text: His funeral was attended by Waltraud Haas, Christian Wolff, Karl Spiehs, Lawrence David Foldes, Elisabeth Endriss and Peter Kaiser. His grave is in Preitenegg/Carinthia (Austria) where the family home was located and where he and his sister lived the rest of their lives.


title: Motion

text: In physics, motion is the phenomenon in which an object changes its position with respect to time. Motion is mathematically described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, speed and frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in position of the body relative to that frame with change in time. The branch of physics describing the motion of objects without reference to its cause is called kinematics, while the branch studying forces and their effect on motion is called dynamics.


title: Motion

text: If an object is not changing relative to a given frame of reference, the object is said to be "at rest", "motionless", "immobile", "stationary", or to have a constant or time-invariant position with reference to its surroundings. Modern physics holds that, as there is no absolute frame of reference, Newton's concept of "absolute motion" cannot be determined. As such, everything in the universe can be considered to be in motion.


title: Motion

text: Motion applies to various physical systems: objects, bodies, matter particles, matter fields, radiation, radiation fields, radiation particles, curvature, and space-time. One can also speak on the motion of images, shapes, and boundaries. In general, the term motion signifies a continuous change in the positions or configuration of a physical system in space. For example, one can talk about the motion of a wave or the motion of a quantum particle, where the configuration consists of probabilities of the wave or particle occupying specific positions.


title: Motion

text: In physics, the motion of bodies is described through two related sets of laws of mechanics. Classical mechanics for super atomic (larger than an atom) objects (such as cars, projectiles, planets, cells, and humans) and quantum mechanics for atomic and sub-atomic objects (such as helium, protons, and electrons). Historically, Newton and Euler formulated three laws of classical mechanics:


title: Motion

text: Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of macroscopic objects moving at speeds significantly slower than the speed of light, from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. It produces very accurate results within these domains and is one of the oldest and largest scientific descriptions in science, engineering, and technology.


title: Motion

text: Classical mechanics is fundamentally based on Newton's laws of motion. These laws describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and the motion of that body. They were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica", which was first published on July 5, 1687. Newton's three laws are:


title: Motion

text: Newton's three laws of motion were the first to accurately provide a mathematical model for understanding orbiting bodies in outer space. This explanation unified the motion of celestial bodies and the motion of objects on Earth.


title: Motion

text: Modern kinematics developed with study of electromagnetism and refers all velocities formula_9 to their ratio to speed of light formula_10. Velocity is then interpreted as rapidity, the hyperbolic angle formula_11 for which the hyperbolic tangent function formula_12. Acceleration, the change of velocity over time, then changes rapidity according to Lorentz transformations. This part of mechanics is special relativity. Efforts to incorporate gravity into relativistic mechanics were made by W. K. Clifford and Albert Einstein. The development used differential geometry to describe a curved universe with gravity; the study is called general relativity.


title: Motion

text: Quantum mechanics is a set of principles describing physical reality at the atomic level of matter (molecules and atoms) and the subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, and even smaller elementary particles such as quarks). These descriptions include the simultaneous wave-like and particle-like behavior of both matter and radiation energy as described in the wave–particle duality.


title: Motion

text: In classical mechanics, accurate measurements and predictions of the state of objects can be calculated, such as location and velocity. In quantum mechanics, due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the complete state of a subatomic particle, such as its location and velocity, cannot be simultaneously determined.


title: Motion

text: In addition to describing the motion of atomic level phenomena, quantum mechanics is useful in understanding some large-scale phenomena such as superfluidity, superconductivity, and biological systems, including the function of smell receptors and the structures of protein.


title: Motion

text: Humans, like all known things in the universe, are in constant motion; however, aside from obvious movements of the various external body parts and locomotion, humans are in motion in a variety of ways which are more difficult to perceive. Many of these "imperceptible motions" are only perceivable with the help of special tools and careful observation. The larger scales of imperceptible motions are difficult for humans to perceive for two reasons: Newton's laws of motion (particularly the third) which prevents the feeling of motion on a mass to which the observer is connected, and the lack of an obvious frame of reference which would allow individuals to easily see that they are moving. The smaller scales of these motions are too small to be detected conventionally with human senses.


title: Motion

text: Spacetime (the fabric of the universe) is expanding, meaning everything in the universe is stretching, like a rubber band. This motion is the most obscure as it is not physical motion, but rather a change in the very nature of the universe. The primary source of verification of this expansion was provided by Edwin Hubble who demonstrated that all galaxies and distant astronomical objects were moving away from Earth, known as Hubble's law, predicted by a universal expansion.


title: Motion

text: The Milky Way Galaxy is moving through space and many astronomers believe the velocity of this motion to be approximately relative to the observed locations of other nearby galaxies. Another reference frame is provided by the Cosmic microwave background. This frame of reference indicates that the Milky Way is moving at around .


title: Motion

text: The Milky Way is rotating around its dense Galactic Center, thus the Sun is moving in a circle within the galaxy's gravity. Away from the central bulge, or outer rim, the typical stellar velocity is between . All planets and their moons move with the Sun. Thus, the Solar System is in motion.


title: Motion

text: The Earth is rotating or spinning around its axis. This is evidenced by day and night, at the equator the earth has an eastward velocity of . The Earth is also orbiting around the Sun in an orbital revolution. A complete orbit around the sun takes one year, or about 365 days; it averages a speed of about .


title: Motion

text: The Theory of Plate tectonics tells us that the continents are drifting on convection currents within the mantle, causing them to move across the surface of the planet at the slow speed of approximately per year. However, the velocities of plates range widely. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of per year and the Pacific Plate moving per year. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of about per year.


title: Motion

text: The human heart is constantly contracting to move blood throughout the body. Through larger veins and arteries in the body, blood has been found to travel at approximately 0.33 m/s. Though considerable variation exists, and peak flows in the venae cavae have been found between . additionally, the smooth muscles of hollow internal organs are moving. The most familiar would be the occurrence of peristalsis which is where digested food is forced throughout the digestive tract. Though different foods travel through the body at different rates, an average speed through the human small intestine is . The human lymphatic system is also constantly causing movements of excess fluids, lipids, and immune system related products around the body. The lymph fluid has been found to move through a lymph capillary of the skin at approximately 0.0000097 m/s.


title: Motion

text: The cells of the human body have many structures and organelles which move throughout them. Cytoplasmic streaming is a way in which cells move molecular substances throughout the cytoplasm, various motor proteins work as molecular motors within a cell and move along the surface of various cellular substrates such as microtubules, and motor proteins are typically powered by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and convert chemical energy into mechanical work. Vesicles propelled by motor proteins have been found to have a velocity of approximately 0.00000152 m/s.


title: Motion

text: According to the laws of thermodynamics, all particles of matter are in constant random motion as long as the temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperature; higher temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans who sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when lower temperature objects are touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as a feeling of cold.


title: Motion

text: Within the standard atomic orbital model, electrons exist in a region around the nucleus of each atom. This region is called the electron cloud. According to Bohr's model of the atom, electrons have a high velocity, and the larger the nucleus they are orbiting the faster they would need to move. If electrons were to move about the electron cloud in strict paths the same way planets orbit the sun, then electrons would be required to do so at speeds which would far exceed the speed of light. However, there is no reason that one must confine oneself to this strict conceptualization (that electrons move in paths the same way macroscopic objects do), rather one can conceptualize electrons to be 'particles' that capriciously exist within the bounds of the electron cloud. Inside the atomic nucleus, the protons and neutrons are also probably moving around due to the electrical repulsion of the protons and the presence of angular momentum of both particles.


title: Motion

text: Light moves at a speed of 299,792,458 m/s, or , in a vacuum. The speed of light in vacuum (or formula_10) is also the speed of all massless particles and associated fields in a vacuum, and it is the upper limit on the speed at which energy, matter, information or causation can travel. The speed of light in vacuum is thus the upper limit for speed for all physical systems.


title: Motion

text: In addition, the speed of light is an invariant quantity: it has the same value, irrespective of the position or speed of the observer. This property makes the speed of light "c" a natural measurement unit for speed and a fundamental constant of nature.


title: Motion

text: In 2011, the speed of light was redefined alongside all seven SI base units using what it calls "the explicit-constant formulation", where each "unit is defined indirectly by specifying explicitly an exact value for a well-recognized fundamental constant", as was done for the speed of light. A new, but completely equivalent, wording of the metre's definition was proposed: "The metre, symbol m, is the unit of length; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum to be equal to exactly when it is expressed in the SI unit ." This implicit change to the speed of light was one of the changes that was incorporated in the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, also termed the "New SI".


title: Motion

text: Some motion appears to an observer to exceed the speed of light. Bursts of energy moving out along the relativistic jets emitted from these objects can have a proper motion that appears greater than the speed of light. All of these sources are thought to contain a black hole, responsible for the ejection of mass at high velocities. Light echoes can also produce apparent superluminal motion. This occurs owing to how motion is often calculated at long distances; oftentimes calculations fail to account for the fact that the speed of light is finite. When measuring the movement of distant objects across the sky, there is a large time delay between what has been observed and what has occurred, due to the large distance the light from the distant object has to travel to reach us. The error in the above naive calculation comes from the fact that when an object has a component of velocity directed towards the Earth, as the object moves closer to the Earth that time delay becomes smaller. This means that the apparent speed as calculated above is "greater" than the actual speed. Correspondingly, if the object is moving away from the Earth, the above calculation underestimates the actual speed.


title: Tennessee Whiskey (song)

text: "Tennessee Whiskey" is a country song written by Dean Dillon and Linda Hargrove. It was originally recorded by American country music artist David Allan Coe for his album of the same name "Tennessee Whiskey", whose version peaked at number 77 on the "Billboard" Hot Country Singles chart in 1981. George Jones' 1983 version of the song was included on his album "Shine On", and reached number two on the Hot Country Singles chart.


title: Tennessee Whiskey (song)

text: The song has been covered by several artists, including Chris Stapleton, whose breakout performance of the song at the Country Music Association (CMA) Awards with Justin Timberlake propelled the song to a greater level of popularity. Stapleton's version of the song has been certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


title: Tennessee Whiskey (song)

text: "Tennessee Whiskey" was written in 1981 by Dean Dillon and Linda Hargrove. The pair decided to write a song together after meeting each other at the Bluebird Cafe in Nashville. He had an idea for it for some time and they went back to Hargrove's house to write the song at four o'clock in the morning.


title: Tennessee Whiskey (song)

text: After completion, the song was first offered to George Strait but he turned it down. It was first recorded by American country music artist David Allan Coe for his album of the same name "Tennessee Whiskey" released in 1981. His version is recorded in more of a traditional country style. Commercially, it peaked at number 77 on the US "Billboard" Hot Country Singles chart.


title: Tennessee Whiskey (song)

text: The song was later covered by fellow American country music artist George Jones, whose version was released in August 1983 as the third single from his album "Shine On". Jones' version reached a new peak commercially, reaching number two on the "Billboard" Hot Country Singles chart in November 1983 and number one on the "RPM" Country Tracks chart in Canada.


title: Tennessee Whiskey (song)

text: The song remained a mainstay in Jones' live set, with the singer often substituting the name of whatever city or town he was in for "Tennessee" in the second chorus. In 1985, he performed the song at the inaugural Farm Aid, and Coe joined Jones onstage to sing a chorus.


title: Tennessee Whiskey (song)

text: American singer-songwriter Chris Stapleton recorded an R&B-influenced cover of the song for his debut studio album "Traveller" released in 2015. Stapleton first sang his version on the spur of the moment while the band were playing during a soundcheck before a show in Charlottesville, Virginia. Stapleton and the band enjoyed playing the song, and he decided to sing the song every show. The song's melody is an almost note-for-note rendition of Etta James' song "I'd Rather Go Blind." His producer Dave Cobb heard the song and suggested that he should record the song for his album. His cover was never officially released to radio as a single, but it was released as a promotional CD single.


title: Tennessee Whiskey (song)

text: On November 4, 2015, Stapleton performed it at the Country Music Association (CMA) Awards as a duet with Justin Timberlake. The performance was described as the best moment of the night by music writers. Based solely on two days' sales after the broadcast, it reached number one on the Hot Country Songs chart, and number 23 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, selling 131,000 copies. It peaked at number 20 on the Hot 100 the following week, selling a further 118,000 copies. It was certified Platinum by the RIAA on May 4, 2016, and reached over a million in sales in the US by January 2017. It was certified 6× Platinum on July 31, 2019, for 6 million units in combined streams and sales. It has sold 1.98 million copies in the US as of March 2020.