title: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: Plans for a permanent home for "Endeavour", the Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center, are planned with "Endeavour" attached to an external Space Shuttle fuel tank (the last mission-ready one in existence as all others were destroyed during launch) and the two solid rocket boosters (SRBs) and raised in an upright position, as if "Endeavour" were to make one more flight. "Endeavour" is on display at the museum, the SRBs are in storage, and the external tank ET-94 is on display: ET-94 is currently undergoing restoration after being used to analyze the foam on its sister tank, which was a factor in the failure of STS-107. Originally slated to open in 2015, construction began on June 1, 2022, on the permanent home of "Endeavour".


title: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: Following their May 30, 2020, launch on board the SpaceX Crew Dragon Demo-2 vehicle, the crew announced in orbit that they had named their spacecraft "Endeavour". Astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley said the name has a dual meaning: first, after the "incredible endeavor" put forth by SpaceX and NASA after the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet in 2011; and second, because both Hurley and Behnken each flew their first flight aboard the shuttle "Endeavour" (Behnken on STS-123, Hurley on STS-127) and wanted to name this new spacecraft after the one that took each of them into space. The shuttle appeared in the 2022 films "Moonfall" and "Beavis and Butt-Head Do the Universe".


title: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: A replica of a section of Endeavour is on exhibit outside the Discovery Science Center in Orange County, California.


title: Raoul Trujillo

text: Raoul Maximiano Trujillo de Chauvelon (born May 8, 1955) is an American actor, dancer, choreographer, and theatre director. A former soloist with the Nikolais Dance Theatre, he is the original choreographer and co-director for the American Indian Dance Theatre. Trujillo's career spans more than 30 years in film, television, and theatre, as well as hosting a series of dancing programs. He is a Critics' Choice Award nominee.


title: Raoul Trujillo

text: Trujillo is best known for playing Zero Wolf, a ruthless Mayan slave catcher and the main antagonist of Mel Gibson's "Apocalypto" (2006), and for playing the Iroquois chief Kiotseaton in the film "Black Robe." He has appeared in numerous high-profile and acclaimed films, including "The New World", "Cowboys and Aliens", "Riddick", "Blood Father", "Sicario", and its sequel "". He also starred in dozens of television programs in both supporting and starring roles, including "True Blood", "Lost Girl", "Da Vinci's Demons, Salem, The Blacklist," and "Jamestown". He currently stars on "Mayans M.C." as Che "Taza" Romero.


title: Raoul Trujillo

text: Trujillo was born in Santa Fe, New Mexico. After high school, he spent three years serving in the United States Army in Germany. After his discharge, he worked as an alpine ski instructor in Taos, New Mexico. He left the world of professional skiing after traveling extensively through Mexico, Central and South America on his way to teach in Bariloche, Argentina.


title: Raoul Trujillo

text: He started work in the theatre as a scenic painter and landed his first job in 1977 as an actor/dancer in a production of "Equus". He began dancing in Los Angeles in 1978 at the University of Southern California and saw his first modern dance and ballet productions; Pilobolus, Martha Graham and Rudolf Nureyev. The next two years, he trained extensively with the Toronto Dance Theatre and Nikolais/Louis Dance Lab in New York City on scholarships. He was asked to join Nikolais Dance Theatre under the direction of the master Alwin Nikolais, who became his mentor and he began touring the world. He also learned scenic, costume and lighting design during this time from 1980 to 1987. After leaving the company, he began his solo work as dancer and choreographer and commenced his journey into shamanic ceremonials and incorporating native myths and legends in his work.


title: Raoul Trujillo

text: After the first decade of performing as a dancer, he became the choreographer and co-director for the American Indian Dance Theatre, the first professional native dance company incorporating traditional dance with contemporary retelling of myths and legends. He choreographed, "The Shaman's Journey", for the Asia Society in New York and later was adapted into a short film for PBS on Alive from Off Center. He went on to join creative partners Alejandro Roncerria and René Highway in Toronto. This work resulted in creating successful theatre pieces for Native Earth Performing Arts. His work with Alejandro continued and he helped establish the Aboriginal Dance Project at the Banff Centre to further train Indigenous dancers from all over the world. In 2002, he received the CANCOM Ross Charles award in Canada to attend the Banff Center's screenwriters workshop for aboriginal storytellers.


title: Raoul Trujillo

text: Trujilo began his screen acting career in 1988 in Canada, and currently holds over 107 film and television credits. He choreographed the dances, ceremonies and rituals for Terrence Malick's "The New World", as well as acting in the role of Tomocomo.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Jawbreaker is a 1999 American teen black comedy crime film directed and written by Darren Stein. The film stars Rose McGowan, Rebecca Gayheart, and Julie Benz as girls in an exclusive clique in their high school. Charlotte Ayanna has a non-speaking cameo role as the murdered fourth member of the group. The film was inspired by the 1988 film "Heathers", and is often compared to it, particularly the plot involving a popular female clique, the use of bright pastels, and the ostensibly accidental killing of one of its members.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Of his concept for the film, Stein has stated, "The jawbreaker just came to represent the duality of the poppy sweetness of the girls, of high school and of youth, versus the whole idea that this thing could break your jaw". The film was released on February 19, 1999, and was a critical and financial failure, although it has come to gain a cult following. Similarities have been drawn between "Jawbreaker", "Heathers" and the 2004 film "Mean Girls".


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: On the morning of her 17th birthday, high-school senior Liz Purr, the most popular girl in Reagan High, is kidnapped in her bed by three masked assailants, one of whom stuffs a jawbreaker into her mouth as a gag before she is placed in the trunk of a car. The kidnappers turn out to be Liz's friends—Courtney, Marcie, and Julie—playing a prank on her for her birthday, which they do annually. When the girls drive up to a diner to treat Liz to breakfast, they open the trunk and discover she is dead, having choked to death on the jawbreaker Courtney had used to gag her.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Julie wants to go to the police, but Courtney forbids her. Courtney calls the school pretending to be Liz's mother and tells them Liz is ill and cannot attend school, then the three go to school as though nothing had happened. Fern Mayo, school outcast and fervent admirer of Liz Purr, is sent by the school principal, Miss Sherwood, to deliver Liz's homework at the end of the day. She stumbles upon the three girls at Liz's house trying to arrange her corpse in bed. Courtney tries to fabricate a story that Liz died at the hands of a rapist.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Fern attempts to flee the house, but the girls catch her and Courtney buys her silence by accepting her into the clique, telling her to take Liz's place, despite Julie's protests. Courtney and Marcie give Fern a total makeover. Courtney introduces Fern to the high school as a completely different person, the attractive new student "Vylette". Julie, overwhelmed with guilt at her part in Liz's death, breaks away from the clique, reviled by Courtney and Marcie. As her popularity dissolves, Julie finds solace with drama student Zack and they eventually form a romantic relationship.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Julie threatens to go to the police and tell the truth, but Courtney retorts that she, Marcie, and now Vylette will claim Julie killed Liz if she attempts to expose them. Handling the investigation on Liz's mysterious death is Detective Cruz. Courtney approaches the detective and spins a web of lies, "revealing" that Liz used to secretly bring older men into her bedroom to have sex with them, eventually being raped and murdered by one. Upon learning this information from Cruz, Julie surmises that it was Courtney who, at the night of the murder, seduced a stranger at a sleazy bar and had sex with him in Liz's bed in order to frame him for the crime.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Meanwhile, Vylette becomes intoxicated with her new-found popularity, which has eclipsed Courtney's own. Courtney orders Vylette to learn her place, but Vylette vows that if Courtney does not watch her step, then she will reveal the truth behind Liz's death. In response, Courtney and Marcie post enlarged yearbook photocopies of Fern Mayo all over the school with the message, "Who is Vylette?" written on them, exposing Vylette's true identity and humiliating her in front of all the students. Julie and Zack take pity on Fern and both girls make amends with each other.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Remorseless for the lives she has destroyed, Courtney attends the senior prom with jock Dane Sanders. Meanwhile, Julie is at home going through a bag of Liz's belongings that were given to her. She finds a recordable greeting card she was fiddling with when Courtney was faking Liz's death scene, on which Courtney's admission to the killing was inadvertently recorded: "I KILLED LIZ! I KILLED THE TEEN DREAM! DEAL WITH IT!" Armed with this evidence, Julie, Fern, and Zack hurry to the prom.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: When Dane and Courtney are announced as Prom King and Queen, Zack sneaks backstage with the greeting card and broadcasts Courtney's confession over the sound system. Shocked and disgusted, Dane abandons Courtney while Marcie hides under a table. Horrified that her crime has been exposed, Courtney races for the exit as the rest of the furious students pelt her with corsages, call her names, and use profanity. Julie snaps a picture of the now disgraced Courtney to immortalize the occasion.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Director Darren Stein brought his script to executives at Columbia Tri-Star, who agreed to finance the film if he could cast either Natalie Portman, Kate Winslet or Rose McGowan.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: The role of Julie originally went to Rachael Leigh Cook, who was eventually replaced with Rebecca Gayheart because the producers felt she did not have the right chemistry with the two other actresses. Gayheart had auditioned for the roles of Fern and Marcie before she was selected for Julie. Marilyn Manson, who was then dating McGowan, agreed to appear in a non-speaking cameo role.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: On a small budget of $3.5 million, "Jawbreaker" was filmed at locations in and around the Los Angeles area. 'Reagan High School' was actually University High School in West Los Angeles, with the cafeteria scenes filmed at Notre Dame High School in Sherman Oaks. The diner that the girls drive up to at the beginning of the film is Johnie's Broiler in Downey, California, the filming site for many film and television productions. McGowan based her performance on that of Gene Tierney's sociopathic character in "Leave Her to Heaven" (1945).


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: The distinctive costumes were designed by Vikki Barrett, who drew on 1980s and 1950s-era fashion trends blended with fetishistic elements like lycra skirts, all in bright, candy-like colors to evoke the jawbreaker.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Before the film could be released, the MPAA objected to a graphic sex-scene between McGowan's and Marilyn Manson's characters, which had to be cut down to give the film an R rating instead of an NC-17. To accompany the release of the film, Imperial Teen's music video for the song "Yoo Hoo" featured McGowan as Courtney Shayne harassing the band members with jawbreakers.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Critical response at the time of release was overwhelmingly negative. Many critics pointed out the film's similarities to the 1988 cult-classic "Heathers" and accused "Jawbreaker" of plagiarism. On Metacritic the film has a score of 22% based on reviews from 21 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 14% based on 64 reviews, with an average of 3.6 out of 10. The website's consensus states: "This throwaway comedy falls victim to its hip sensibilities." Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave Jawbreaker a grade D+


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film one and a half out of four, stating "The movie is a slick production of a lame script ... If anyone in the plot had the slightest intelligence, the story would implode". Francesca Dinglasan from "Boxoffice "magazine gave the film one and a half out of five, criticizing the film's humor and similarities to "Heathers".


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: James Berardinelli gave the film a more favorable two and a half out of four, calling it "palatable, and occasionally even clever", but concluding, "while the film offers more than a "Heathers" rehash, it never fully develops its own identity.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: McGowan was nominated for the MTV Movie Award for Best Villain, but lost to Matt Dillon for his role as Pat Healy "There's Something About Mary."


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: Despite the negative critical feedback, "Jawbreaker" found success through home video release and subsequent television airings; it has developed a cult following. "Vice" magazine called the film a "teen classic" when it published a retrospective in 2016 titled "Perverting the Youth of America: The Oral History of Teen Classic "Jawbreaker"". "Dazed" magazine published a similar feature, crediting the film with inspiring 2004's "Mean Girls", and praising the dark tones and performances.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: McGowan's Courtney Shayne has become something of a pop culture icon on social media, with TribecaFilm.com declaring of McGowan's performance that "...every single line-reading was a thing of Bette Davis-aspiring beauty, and with any justice, it's a performance that will only grow in esteem over time."


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: "Jawbreaker's" costumes have also been celebrated, drawing praise from the likes of "Vogue" and "Rookie" magazines. The scene where the actresses strut down the hallway in slow-motion to Imperial Teen's "Yoo Hoo" has become a signature feature of the film, drawing homage in film and television, most notably "Mean Girls", and being parodied in films like "Not Another Teen Movie" (2001).


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: In 2014, Judy Greer said in an interview: "I really didn't think it was anything special while we were shooting it, but when I saw the final product, I knew it was really good. I was so proud of it. I thought it looked beautiful. It had just the right amount of sexy, pop culture fun to it. I do think it's quite special."


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: In 2013, a musical adaptation of "Jawbreaker" was made starring Elizabeth Gillies as Courtney Shayne and had public readings, but failed to make it to major production or have a publicized stage run despite Stein's efforts.


title: Jawbreaker (film)

text: It was announced in February 2017 that the film would be reimagined as a television series for E! Darren Stein, the writer and director of the original film, was said to write and produce the series, but no further developments were made.


The 2022 Alaska's at-large congressional district special election was held on August 16, 2022. Democrat Mary Peltola won the open seat, thereby becoming the first of her party to win a U.S. House election in Alaska since 1972. Peltola, who is a Yup'ik woman, is the first Alaska Native elected to Congress, and the first woman elected to represent Alaska in the House. She defeated Republican former governor Sarah Palin in the state's first ranked-choice general election.


title: 2022 Alaska's at-large congressional district special election

text: The seat became vacant when 49-year incumbent Republican representative Don Young died on March 18, 2022. A special primary election was held on June 11, while the general election was held alongside the regular primary election on August 16. The filing deadline was on April 1. This was the first election to use the state's new voting system, approved for use with 2020 Alaska Measure 2. Under the new system, all candidates compete in a single blanket primary, with the four candidates receiving the most votes advancing to the general election, which is conducted using instant-runoff voting.


text: The special primary election took place in June 2022, and the top four vote-getters were set to advance to a general election. The third-placed candidate in the primary, Al Gross, withdrew, so only the other three names were on the ballot in the general election. This election used ranked-choice voting, with the winner being the one who accumulated a majority of the votes (or a majority of votes in play at that point in time).


text: The runoff count commenced on August 31, after all absentee and overseas ballots were counted. Peltola was declared the winner on August 31. The Democratic victory was widely considered an upset due to Alaska's strong Republican lean. Peltola became the first Democrat to win a statewide election in Alaska since Mark Begich in 2008. She was sworn in to the House of Representatives on September 13.


text: Under Alaska's top-four primary system, if a general election candidate drops out, the director of elections may replace them with the name of the fifth-place finisher. Shortly after the primary, Al Gross dropped out of the general election, but Division of Elections Director Gail Fenumiai did not advance Tara Sweeney in his place because there was less than 64 days remaining until the general election as required by law. After a lawsuit, the Alaska Supreme Court upheld Fenumiai's decision.


title: Vance Joy

text: James Gabriel Keogh (born 1 December 1987), known professionally as Vance Joy, is an Australian singer and songwriter and former Australian Rules Footballer. He signed a five-album deal with Atlantic Records in 2013. He released his debut EP "God Loves You When You're Dancing" in March 2013. His song "Riptide" was voted number 1 on the 2013 Triple J Hottest 100. Joy released his debut studio album "Dream Your Life Away" on 5 September 2014 in Australia and on 9 September 2014 elsewhere. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2015, he won Best Male Artist. His second studio album, "Nation of Two", was released in 2018. Vance Joy spent time in the Zac Brown Band as vocals.


title: Vance Joy

text: Joy attended St. Patricks Primary School, Murrumbeena, in Melbourne. He was school captain at and graduated from St Kevin's College, Toorak, in 2005. Joy later graduated from Monash University with a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws.


title: Vance Joy

text: Prior to his music career, Joy was a promising Australian rules football player. In 2008 and 2009, he played for the Coburg Football Club, then called the Coburg Tigers, as key defender in the Victorian Football League (VFL), winning best first year player award in 2008.


title: Vance Joy

text: Joy explains his choice for a music career over a football one by saying that he "[...] wasn't ever really in the mix (for the AFL)", being "good enough to go from local footy to the VFL. Out of three seasons, I had a handful of games. You always think you can do better, but I think I reached my potential as a football player." In another interview, he stated "for a period of time I was super focused on footy, I played a step below professional level. I had opportunities to play for a couple of teams but my heart wasn't completely in it. I guess I was just doing something in the meantime before writing my first songs."


title: Vance Joy

text: On 21 January 2013, Joy released his debut single "From Afar". On 22 March 2013, he released his debut EP "God Loves You When You're Dancing". The single "Riptide" became a success on Australian commercial radio, peaking at number 6 on the ARIA Singles Chart and being certified Nine times platinum by the Australian Record Industry Association (ARIA). The song featured in a GoPro TV advertising campaign in the USA. "Riptide" was a worldwide commercial success, helping to launch Joy's career, and became the longest-charting song in ARIA Charts' history. The song is also certified 5× platinum in the United States.


title: Vance Joy

text: "Riptide" was inspired by a motel Joy visited as a kid. "As a child, I used to go on family holidays down the coast of Australia", Joy told the Brand Alley blog. "While we were there, we would stay at this motel called Riptide. So that's where that part of the idea came from." In an interview with "Soundcheck" in January 2014, Joy discussed his upcoming studio album. saying "I think there’s always a bit of variety with my songwriting, so probably the EP is a good reflection of what the rest of the album will be like. It’s all different songs, I guess, but all tied together in a way." Joy said in an interview with Triple J about his stage name, "I was going through a Peter Carey phase and reading a lot of his books. There's a book called "Bliss". The main character's name is Harry Joy and his grandfather is Vance Joy. He's the storyteller and a crazy old man. Plus, I thought it was a cool name."


title: Vance Joy

text: On 15 July 2014, Joy announced the title of his debut album, "Dream Your Life Away", which was released on 5 September 2014 in Australia, 9 September 2014 in the United States, and 15 September 2014 worldwide. In July 2014, he released "Mess Is Mine" as the third overall single from the album, with the song peaking at number 37 in Australia. He gave his first live concert with songs on the album in September 2014, in Melbourne. On 7 September 2014, Joy released "First Time" as the fourth single from the album in the United Kingdom.


title: Vance Joy

text: "Georgia" was released as a single in February 2015. Speaking to "Rolling Stone", Joy revealed that he began writing "Georgia" in 2006, then sat on it until he figured out the words and melody. A deluxe edition was released on 4 September 2015, which consisted of two new tracks and five live songs. "Fire and the Flood" and "Straight into Your Arms" were also released as singles, with "Fire and the Flood" later being certified platinum by ARIA. He promoted his album on the Dream Your Life Away Tour, which began on 17 October 2013 in Dallas, Texas.


title: Vance Joy

text: Joy was announced as the support act for Taylor Swift's 1989 World Tour on 3 November 2014. Joy appeared on all the tour dates in North America, the United Kingdom and Australia. Swift performed a rendition of "Riptide" on 9 October 2014 for the BBC's 'Live Lounge' segment. In November 2015, he was picked as Elvis Duran's Artist of the Month and was featured on the American television network NBC's "Today", where he performed his hit single "Riptide".


title: Vance Joy

text: On 13 May 2015, he performed "Riptide" in a duet featuring Quentin Alexander live to a standing ovation at the Dolby Theatre during the season 14 finale of "American Idol". On 16 June 2015, Joy released "Great Summer", a single from the soundtrack for "Paper Towns". At the ARIA Music Awards of 2015 he won the Best Male Artist category for "Dream Your Life Away", with six further nominations.


title: Vance Joy

text: In 2017, Joy released two singles from his forthcoming second studio album: "Lay It All on Me" in July, which was nominated for Song of the Year at the ARIA Music Awards of 2018, and "Like Gold" in November, which peaked at number 14 on the Australian charts. The song was certified Gold by ARIA in 2019. He released "We're Going Home" on 12 January 2018, which was written while Joy was opening for the 1989 World Tour in 2015. "Saturday Sun" was released on 1 February 2018 as the fourth single, which he stated was inspired by the beaches along the Pacific Coast Highway in Los Angeles.


title: Vance Joy

text: The last single before the album's release, "Call If You Need Me", was released on 11 February 2018, and appeared on the "Billboard" Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart. Joy released his second studio album "Nation of Two" on 23 February 2018. The album debuted at number 1 in Australia, was certified gold and won Best Adult Contemporary Album at the ARIA Music Awards of 2018. He released an upbeat, remastered version of "I'm With You" as a single from the album on 21 September 2018, which was certified platinum by the ARIA. In November 2018, Joy released a live album titled "Live at Red Rocks Amphitheatre", a live concert album of the Nation of Two World Tour, recorded at the Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Colorado. Joy was the opening act for P!nk on her Beautiful Trauma World Tour in 2019.


title: Vance Joy

text: On 29 January 2021, Vance released the single "You", a collaboration with Benny Blanco and Marshmello.


title: Vance Joy

text: On 20 May 2021, Joy released the single "Missing Piece". The song was featured on the episode of "Grey's Anatomy" airing that night. The song reached platinum status in Australia and won the ARIA Award for Best Video at the 2021 ARIA Music Awards.


title: Vance Joy

text: On 7 April 2022, Vance announced his third studio album, "In Our Own Sweet Time", which was released on 10 June 2022.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Jackie is a 2016 biographical drama film directed by Pablo Larraín and written by Noah Oppenheim. The film stars Natalie Portman as Jacqueline Kennedy. Peter Sarsgaard, Greta Gerwig, Billy Crudup, and John Hurt also star; it was Hurt's final film released in his lifetime before his death in January 2017. The film follows Kennedy in the days when she was First Lady in the White House and her life immediately following the assassination of her husband, United States President John F. Kennedy, in 1963. It is partly based on Theodore H. White's "Life" magazine interview with the widow at Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in November 1963.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: The film premiered on September 7, 2016 at the 73rd Venice International Film Festival, where it competed for the Golden Lion. It was theatrically released in the United States on December 2, 2016, by Fox Searchlight Pictures, to positive reviews. It received three nominations at the 89th Academy Awards: Best Actress (for Portman), Best Original Score, and Best Costume Design.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: A week after the assassination of United States president John F. Kennedy, a journalist visits his widow Jacqueline "Jackie" Kennedy for an interview at her home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts regarding her husband's legacy. After Jackie reflects upon her 1962 televised tour of the White House, the journalist turns to inquiries about John F. Kennedy's assassination and its aftermath for Jackie and her family. She talks about events shortly prior to the assassination, before describing her shock and horror in reaction. Members of the White House close to the newly sworn-in president Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife Lady Bird are seen comforting Jackie in the aftermath aboard Air Force One. United States Attorney General and Jackie's brother-in-law, Robert F. Kennedy soon appears and shares her grief, escorting her back to Washington, D.C. Jackie expresses her deep concern for the well-being of her children in adjusting to the loss of their father.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Robert continues to support Jackie whilst dealing with his own sadness and helps her in planning the funeral and looking after the family. She is seen struggling to sleep and becoming reliant on medications and alcohol. She is also seen regularly seeking spiritual counsel from a priest. Robert F. Kennedy, along with President Johnson, Lady Bird Johnson, and members of the White House witness the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald by Jack Ruby on live television. Robert insists to all that Jackie not be informed of this by anyone but himself; he will tell her when he feels the time is right. However, she finds out about it almost immediately, and condemns him for withholding it from her. After John F. Kennedy Jr.'s third birthday, Robert voices his fears to Jackie that her husband's short time as president will not be noted by future generations.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: After the state funeral of John F. Kennedy, Jackie tells the priest that she contemplated suicide in the wake of the assassination. She then admits that she vividly remembers what happened during the assassination and feels unbearable pain and guilt that she did not act in some way to protect her husband. As the interview ends, Jackie makes it clear to the journalist that she maintains the right to control which parts of the interview may come to press and which parts are to be withheld. The film concludes with Jackie having her miscarried and stillborn children's coffins being re-interred next to her husband's grave at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: A number of other historical figures are depicted in minor and non-speaking roles: Admiral George Burkley (Peter Hudson), Dr. John Walsh (John Paval), Judge Sarah T. Hughes (Vivienne Vermes), Governor John Connally (Craig Sechler), Nellie Connally (Rebecca Compton), John Metzler (David DeBoy), Charles Collingwood (Stéphane Höhn), Charles de Gaulle (Serge Onteniente), Pablo Casals (Roland Pidoux), Robert McNamara (Emmanuel Herault), Hugh Auchincloss (William Beaux d'Albenas), James C. Auchincloss (Nicolas Guigou), Jack Brooks (David Friszman), Toni Bradlee (Chloé Berthier), Benjamin Bradlee (Éric Soubelet), Ted Kennedy (Gaspard Koenig), Joan Kennedy (Mathilde Ripley), Pat Kennedy (Barbara Foliot), Peter Lawford (Albain Venzo), Eunice Kennedy (Frédérique Adler), Sargent Shriver (Patrick Hamel).


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: The film's script, written by Noah Oppenheim, was originally conceived as an HBO miniseries, covering the "four days between John F. Kennedy's assassination and his burial, showing Jackie at both her most vulnerable and her most graceful". Steven Spielberg was originally set to produce the series, but later left the project.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Pablo Larraín, not typically inclined to directing biopics, was initially hesitant to direct "Jackie" when he was offered the opportunity. He stated that although he did not have any history or knowledge about John F. Kennedy's assassination, he connected with Jacqueline Kennedy. Prior to directing "Jackie", he had only made films centering on male protagonists rather than women. Thus, "Jackie" is the first film that he could approach from a woman's perspective. He grew more interested in Kennedy after learning more about her. To him, her life after the assassination "had all the elements that you need for a movie: rage, curiosity, and love." Oppenheim said that the screenplay itself did not change much over the long development process, revealing, "When Pablo Larraín boarded the project, he had ideas. I wrote two or three more drafts with his guidance, but over a very condensed period of time. So while it took six years from first draft to completion, most of those six years were not active years."


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: In April 2010, it was announced that Rachel Weisz would star in the titular role, with Darren Aronofsky set to direct and produce the film, from Oppenheim's script. However, both Weisz and Aronofsky dropped out after they ended their romantic relationship. The same year, Steven Spielberg showed interest in helming the film. Then in September 2012, without a director, Fox Searchlight Pictures started courting Natalie Portman to star in the film as Jacqueline "Jackie" Kennedy, hoping that her participation would bring back Aronofsky, although Portman's involvement was contingent on which director signed on. At the 65th Berlin International Film Festival in February 2015, Pablo Larraín was approached by Aronofsky to direct the film, after he was impressed by the former's "The Club". Larraín was skeptical, and asked Aronofsky why he wanted a Chilean man who was not fond of biopics to helm the film. In May 2015, Portman was confirmed to star in the film. That same month, Larraín was hired to direct the film, with Aronofsky working as a producer. By the 2015 Cannes Film Festival, the film was officially a go. The rest of the cast – led by Greta Gerwig and Peter Sarsgaard – were announced between May and October of the same year.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Natalie Portman was approached to star in the film in September 2012, but her casting was not confirmed until May 2015. In preparation for the role, Portman studied Jackie Kennedy extensively by watching videos of her, repeatedly watching White House tour recordings, reading books, and listening to audiotapes of her interviews. She also read around twenty of her "pulpy" biographies, which she did not consider high literature. Her primary source was the seven-part eight-and-a-half-hour "Life" magazine interview conducted in the early part of 1964, by Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. with Kennedy. One of three interviews she gave following her husband's assassination, it was kept private throughout her life.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Portman said she was intimidated at first, and her initial knowledge of Kennedy was just a "superficial understanding of [Kennedy] as a fashion plate." But through playing her in the film, Portman gained a deeper understanding of the former first lady. While doing research, she found out that Kennedy had two personas in front of different people – a debutante in public but feisty behind closed doors. "When she was doing interviews, [her voice] was a lot more girly and soft, and then when you hear her talking to Schlesinger at home, you hear the ice in the glass clinking and the voice is a little deeper and her wit comes out more, so you get this real sense of the two sides."


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Mimicking Jackie's ranging vocals was pivotal for Portman, since Aronofsky said "conquering Kennedy's vocals was the key to the rest of the film." Portman trained with dialect coach Tanya Blumstein, and in the beginning, had difficulty with copying Kennedy's vocals, especially on the first day of set when her initial delivery was too much. She has also said that the costumes helped her to get into character.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Portman is one of many actors to have portrayed Kennedy in cinema and on television, following Divine, Jaclyn Smith, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Roma Downey, Jill Hennessy, Joanne Whalley, Kat Steffens, Jacqueline Bisset, Jeanne Tripplehorn, Parker Posey, Blair Brown, Katie Holmes, Victoria Beckham, Ginnifer Goodwin, Stephanie Romanov and Minka Kelly.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Casting director Mathilde Snodgrass had difficulty in finding an actor to play John F. Kennedy. (She chose a non-actor she saw on a French news broadcast to play Ted Kennedy.) After failing to find one in New York, Los Angeles, London, and Paris, Snodgrass began searching in northern Europe and found Danish actor Caspar Phillipson.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Principal photography on the film began in December 2015 in a Paris-area studio, where most of the interior scenes were shot. Production designer Rabasse and set decorator Melery oversaw replication of the White House rooms. In February 2016, production moved to downtown Washington, D.C., where JFK's funeral procession scenes were filmed.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the 73rd Venice International Film Festival on September 7, 2016. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2016, winning the festival's Platform Prize. Shortly after, Fox Searchlight Pictures acquired U.S distribution rights to the film, and set it for a December 9, 2016, release. It was later moved up a week to December 2.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: "Jackie" was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and digital download by Fox Searchlight Pictures on March 7, 2017.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: "Jackie" grossed $14 million in the United States and Canada and $22.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $36.6 million.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: Fox Searchlight opened "Jackie" in a limited release in five theaters across the United States on December 2, 2016. In Los Angeles, it screened at the Arclight Hollywood and the Landmark West L.A., while in New York City, it played at AMC Lincoln Square, Cinema 1,2,3, and the Landmark Sunshine. It grossed $275,000 during its opening weekend (a per-theater average of $55,000), finishing 20th at the box office.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: "Jackie" received near-unanimous praise from critics, with Portman's performance being widely acclaimed. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 87% based on 348 reviews, with an average rating of 7.91/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Jackie" offers an alluring peek into a beloved American public figure's private world — and an enthralling starring performance from Natalie Portman in the bargain." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 81 out of 100, based on 52 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: David Rooney of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave the film a highly positive review, writing that the film is "Extraordinary in its piercing intimacy and lacerating in its sorrow." Guy Lodge of "Variety" also gave the film a highly positive review, writing that "Chilean helmer Pablo Larraín makes an extraordinary English-lingo debut with this daring, many-leveled portrait of history's favorite First Lady." Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com, however, gave the film two-and-a-half out of four stars, criticizing the film's frame narrative and stating that it is "not ultimately necessary (few are, alas) because... we have already seen everything both of them might have had to say illustrated, in a more immediate and often wrenching way, by the flashbacks", which "constitute a second, far superior film, one that has the shock of revelation".


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: "The Dallas Morning News" commentator Anna Parks criticized the film's negative portrayal of Jackie's relationship with Lyndon and Lady Bird Johnson. She noted that letters, as well as a taped phone conversation between President Johnson and Jackie, which occurred on December 2, 1963, showed that the former first lady and the Johnsons were cooperating well.


title: Jackie (2016 film)

text: The film depicts Jackie informing her two children, Caroline and John Jr., of their father's death. In reality, Caroline was informed of her father's death by her nanny, Maud Shaw, the evening of the assassination.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The Ford Galaxie is a full-sized car that was built in the United States by Ford for model years 1959 through to 1974. The name was used for the top models in Ford's full-size range from 1958 until 1961, in a marketing attempt to appeal to the excitement surrounding the Space Race. In 1958, a concept car was introduced called "la Galaxie" which incorporated the headlights into pods inline with the grille and a reduced front profile.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: For 1962, all full-size Fords wore the Galaxie badge, with "500" and "500/XL" denoting the higher series. The Galaxie 500/LTD was introduced for 1965 followed by the Galaxie 500 7-Litre for 1966. The Galaxie 500 prefix was dropped from the LTD in 1966, and from the XL in 1967; however the basic series structuring levels were maintained. The "regular" Galaxie 500 continued below the LTD as Ford's mid-level full-size model from 1965 until its demise at the end of the 1974 model year.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The Galaxie was the competitor to the high-volume full sized Chevrolet Impala. and the Plymouth Belvedere.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1959 Ford range was introduced in late 1958 with the Fairlane 500 as the top trim level. During the 1959 model year the Galaxie was added to the range as an additional trim level, assuming the top position from the Fairlane 500. The Galaxie was offered with the same sedan and hardtop body styles as the Fairlane 500 whilst the Sunliner and Skyliner convertibles were moved across from the Fairlane 500 range. Styling varied from the Fairlane 500 with the addition of a Ford Thunderbird-style C pillar on all but the Sunliner. Although a separate series from the Fairlane 500, 1959 Galaxie models carried both "Fairlane 500" and "Galaxie" badging.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: In keeping with the era, the 1959 Galaxie was a chrome and stainless steel-bedecked vehicle with optional two-tone paint. It was the very image of the ostentatious late-1950s American automobiles, though somewhat tamer than its Chevrolet and Plymouth competitors. Ford advertised "safety anchorage" for the front seats. The parking brake was now a pedal. Seat belts, a padded dashboard, and child-proof rear door locks were optional, while a deep-dished steering wheel and double-door locks were standard.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Among the models was the Skyliner, moved upward from the Fairlane 500 model, and featuring a retractable hardtop that folded down into the trunk space. This feature, complicated and expensive, left very little trunk room when folded down. Power retractable hardtops have since been used by luxury manufacturers such as Mercedes-Benz, Lexus, and Cadillac, but in all these cases the vehicle was a two-seater, allowing a much smaller top mechanism than the Skyliner's. Not until 2006, when the Pontiac G6 convertible, Peugeot 206 CC (in Europe) and Volkswagen Eos appeared, did another mass-market model with a rear seat appear in this category.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1960 Galaxie introduced all-new design with less ornamentation. A new body style was the "Starliner", featuring a huge, curving rear observation window on a pillarless, hardtop bodyshell. The thin, sloping rear roof pillar featured three "star" emblems that served as the Galaxie signature badge for all 1960 - 62 models. The formal roofed 2-door hardtop was not available this year, but the roofline was used for the Galaxie 2-door pillared sedan, complete with chromed window frames. It had been the most popular body style in the line for 1959, and sales dropped off sharply. Contrary to Ford's tradition of pie-plate round taillights, the 1960 featured "half-moon" lenses turned downward. The "A" pillar now swept forward instead of backward, making entering and exiting the car more convenient.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: For 1961, the bodywork was redone again, although the underpinnings were the same as for 1960. This time, the tailfins were almost gone; the small blade-like fins capped smaller versions of 1959's "pie-plate" round taillamps once again. Performance was beginning to be a selling point, and the 1961 Galaxie offered a new 390 CID (6.4 L) version of Ford's FE series pushrod V8, which was available with either a four-barrel carburetor or, for higher performance, three two-barrel carburetors. The latter was rated at 401 hp (298 kW) (gross). The 352 was downgraded in favor of the 390; it was equipped with a 2-barrel carburetor and single exhaust. The Starliner was again offered this year, and Ford promoted this model with luxury and power equipment, but it was dropped at the end of the year, as the re-introduced square-roof hardtop coupe, the Galaxie Club Victoria, took the bulk of sales.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: For 1962, the Galaxie name was applied to all of Ford's full size models, as the Fairlane name was moved to a new intermediate model and Custom was temporarily retired. New top-line Galaxie 500 (two-door sedan and hardtop, four-door sedan and hardtop, and "Sunliner" convertible) models offered plusher interiors, more chrome trim outside, and a few additional luxury items over and above what was standard on the plainer Galaxie models. Base Galaxie models were available in two- and four-door sedans as well as the plain Ranch Wagon. In an effort to stimulate midseason sales, Ford introduced a group of sporty cars along with a "Lively Ones" marketing campaign. These models featured the bucket seats and console that were popularized by the Chevrolet Corvair Monza, and included a Fairlane 500 Sports Coupe, and a Falcon Futura. The full-size line was available with new bucket-seats-and-console "Lively One," the Galaxie 500/XL (two-door hardtop and convertible). Ford stated in its sales literature that XL stood for "Xtra Lively."


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The "Mileage Maker" 6-cylinder was the base engine. The V8 was standard on the 500/XL. The XL had sportier trim inside and out. This model was Ford's response to Chevrolet's Super Sport option for the big Impala, which was introduced the previous year and saw a significant rise in sales for 1962. A engine was available in single four-barrel or triple-carbureted "six-barrel" form. Tailfins were gone, giving the 1962 models a more rounded, softer rear end look. Taillights were set lower into the rear panel and were partially sunken into the newly sculpted rear bumper. Outside, XL models got a thicker body side chrome spear, along with a new "Galaxie 500XL" emblem on each rear fender (including the convertible, where this badge replaced the "Sunliner" script). An oval version of the Galaxie "star" emblem replaced Ford crests on the roof sail panels on hardtops. Front fenders shapes were the same as 1961; a slightly modified flat-face grille featured a large "star"emblem in its center for all 500 and higher-priced Galaxie models.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1962 models were overweight by comparison to the Super Duty Pontiacs with their aluminum body panels and larger-displacement engines. Therefore, late in the production run, Ford's Experimental Garage was ordered to reduce the weight of the Galaxie. It produced 11 "lightweight Galaxies", making use of fiberglass panels, as well as aluminum bumpers, fender aprons, and brackets; the result was a Galaxie weighing in at under . The base 2-door Club Sedan was . It was an improvement.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1963 model was essentially unchanged save for some freshening and added trim; windshields were reshaped and a four-door hardtop 500/XL was added. A lower, fastback roofline was added mid-year to improve looks and make the big cars more competitive on the NASCAR tracks with less drag and reduced aerodynamic lift at high speed. This 1963½ model, the industry's first official "½ year" model, was called the "sports hardtop" or "fastback" (it shared this feature with the for 1963½ Falcon). Galaxie buyers showed their preference as the new sports hardtop models handily outsold the "boxtop" square-roof models. The sports hardtop was available in both Galaxie 500, and Galaxie 500/XL trim. Mercury also received the new roofline (under the Marauder badge) in Monterey, Montclair, and Park Lane models. This year, a no-frills big Ford, priced around $100.00 below the base Galaxie sedans, was offered, badged as the Ford 300. It was offered for 1963 only, and was replaced by the Custom series in 1964. The "Swing-away" steering wheel became optional.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The Fairlane's newly enlarged "Challenger" V8 engine of replaced the Y-block as the entry level V8. Later in the year, the 260 was replaced with an enlarged version displacing 289 cubic inches. At the beginning of the 1963 model run, the 292 Y-block V8 was replaced as the base V8 engine with the Fairlane's new small block 260. The 260 proved underpowered for the heavy full size Ford and was replaced midyear (coincident with the introduction of the 63 and 1/2 models) with the 289 V8. The 289 was then the largest of the "small block series" that was first used (221 cubic inch version) in the 1962 Fairlane. The 260 was offered on the Falcon Sprint and later, in mid 1964, in the early version of the 1965 Mustang. By 1965 model introduction (in the fall of 1964), the 260 (which had disappointing performance in all versions including the Sprint and Mustang) was replaced by the 289 in all models.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Ford continued to offer the FE series 352 in the 1963 full size, as well as 3 versions of the 390 V8 (regular, high performance, and police). Five different transmissions were offered for 1963. A 3-speed manual column shift was standard on all models except the 406 V8, which required the heavier duty Borg-Warner 4-speed manual. A three speed manual with overdrive was optional, but rarely ordered. The two-speed Ford-O-Matic was common with the 6-cylinder and small block V-8s, while the majority of big blocks (352 and 390) were ordered with the 3-speed Cruise-O-Matic automatic transmission. The availability of several different rear end ratios, along with 5 transmissions, and 8 different engines, led to a huge number of different driveline combinations for 1963. The most produced combination for the Galaxie and Galaxie 500 was the 352 V8, with Cruise-O-Matic and the 3.0 rear end ratio. Ford's "Club," "Town," and "Victoria" monikers for body styles were retired in 1963, replaced by generic labels, "2-door","4-door", and "Hardtop."


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Partway through this year and in limited quantities, a new 427 replaced the 406 for racing applications. It was intended to meet NHRA and NASCAR 7-liter maximum engine size rules. This engine was rated at a (gross horsepower) with 2 x 4 barrel Holley carburetors and a solid lifter camshaft. Ford also made available aluminum cylinder heads as a dealer option.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1963½ was still overweight, however. To be competitive in drag racing Ford produced 212 (around 170 from Ford Norfolk, about 20 from Ford Los Angeles) lightweight versions of the "R" code 427, in the Galaxie 500 Sport Special Tudor Fastback. Available only in Corinthian White with red vinyl interior, and with a list price of about US$4,200 (when a base Ford 300 went for US$2,324, and XL Fastback was US$3,268), these cars came stock with Borg-Warner T-10 four-speed, 4.11:1 rear axle, heavy-duty suspension and brakes, and were fitted with a fiberglass hood (a flat piece at first, late in 1963 the popular blister hood also used on the Thunderbolt), trunk, front fenders, and fender aprons, as well as aluminum bumpers and mounting brackets, transmission cases, and bellhousing. Hood springs, heater, trunk lining and mat, spare wheel and tire (and mounting bracket), trunk lid torsion bar, jack, lug wrench, one horn (of the stock two), armrests, rear ashtrays, courtesy lights, and dome light were removed to reduce weight. The first 20 cars had functional fiberglass doors, which shaved ; these were deleted because of Ford's concern for safety if used on the highway. The cars had all sound-deadening material removed, lightweight seats and floormats, and no options. They were not factory equipped with cold-air induction, as the Thunderbolt would be. In addition, they were built on the -lighter Ford 300 chassis, originally intended for a smaller-displacement V8. In all, the 427s were lighter than before ( with the fiberglass doors).


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The first two lightweight Galaxies, using bodies, were assembled at Wayne, Michigan, late in January 1963, to be tested at the 1963 Winternats. They were delivered to Tasca Ford (East Providence, Rhode Island) and Bob Ford (Dearborn, Michigan). Bill Lawton's Tasca Galaxie turned the best performance, with a 12.50 pass at . It was not enough against the 1963 Chevrolet Impala Z-11s in Limited Production/Stock, however.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Three more were assembled from parts and tested at Ford's Experimental Garage in Dearborn. One of the next two, the last Winternationals test cars, was prepared by Bill Stroppe in Long Beach, California, for Les Ritchey; it was featured in the July 1963 issue of "Hot Rod". For all their efforts, Ford discovered the Galaxies were still too heavy, and the project was abandoned. Some of these cars competed in England, Australia and South Africa after being modified by Holman and Moody who fitted them with disc brakes and other circuit racing components. Jack Sears won the 1963 British Saloon Car Championship driving Galaxies and Cortinas and the racing Galaxies were also driven by Sir Jack Brabham, Graham Hill and other notable drivers of the period. The heavy Galaxies suffered from persistent brake failure that led to a number of crashes, and in late 1963 started using the 12-inch disc brakes from the Ford GT40 program. By this time the Lotus Cortinas were being developed and the big Galaxie became uncompetitive.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Model year 1964 was the fourth and final year of this body style. Interior trim was altered, and the exterior featured a more sculpted look which was actually designed to make the car more aerodynamic for NASCAR. The formal-roof "boxtop" style was no longer available, all non-wagon models now featuring the "fastback" roof design that was the runaway best-seller in 1963. The base 300 was replaced by a line of Custom and Custom 500 models. The 289 continued as the base V8 and was standard in the XL series. XL models got new thin-shell bucket seats with chrome trim. Federal regulations now required lap-style safety belts for both front outboard occupants. The ignition switch was moved from the left side of the steering column, to the right, but otherwise the attractive instrument panel remained unchanged from '63. The 1964 XL two-door hardtop became the best seller of any XL produced in any year.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The engine was used in 50 lightweight fiberglass-equipped cars for drag racing. These competed in North America but were still too heavy and Ford introduced the lightweight Fairlane Thunderbolt.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The Ford Country Squire station wagon, while wearing "Country Squire" badging, was actually part of the Galaxie 500 line. Some Country Squires had "Galaxie 500" badging on the glovebox indicating the series name. These station wagons featured the same trims as Galaxie 500s, and were a step up from the base-model Country Sedan.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1965 Galaxie was an all-new design, featuring vertically stacked dual headlights. The cars were taller and bulkier than the previous year's. The new top-of-the-line designation was the "Galaxie 500 LTD" and "Galaxie 500 XL". The LTD and the XL trim package were accessory upgrades from the base Galaxie model. Engine choices were the same as 1964, except for an all-new six-cylinder engine replacing the 1950s-era 223 "Mileage-Maker" six and the 352 was now equipped with dual exhausts and a four-barrel carburetor.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Suspension on the 1965 models was redesigned. Replacing the former leaf-spring rear suspension was a new three-link system, with coil springs. Interiors featured a new instrument panel, as well as two-way key vehicle access: the introduction of two keys was for valet parking, where the rounded head key would only open the trunk or locked glove compartment, while the squared head key would only unlock the doors and the ignition.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: A new model was introduced for 1966; the "Galaxie 500 7 Litre", fitted with a new engine, the 345 hp Thunderbird V8. This engine was also available on the Ford Thunderbird and the Mercury S-55. The police versions received a 360 hp version of the 428 known as the 'Police Interceptor' as police cars. Safety regulations for 1966 required seat belts front and rear on all new cars sold domestically. The Galaxie 500 would be the #3-selling convertible in the U.S. in 1966, with 27,454 sold; it was beaten by the Mustang (at 72,119, by nearly 2.5:1) and by the Impala at 38,000. A parking brake light on the dashboard and an AM/FM radio was optional. The 1966 LTD dropped the Galaxie name.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1966 body style was introduced in Brazil (Ford do Brasil) as a 1967 model; it used the same platform and body throughout its lifetime until Brazilian production ended in 1983. A vehicle of this model was used by Queen Elizabeth during her visit to Chile in 1968, and has since been preserved by the Chilean government as a ceremonial state car.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: For 1967, the "7 Litre" model no longer carried the Galaxie name; it was to be the last year of it being separately identified. That identification was mainly trim such as horn ring and dashboard markings as well as the "Q" in the Vehicle Identification Number. The 7 Litre for 1967 was a trim and performance option on the Ford XL, which was now a separate model as well. Little else changed, except for trim and the styling; the same engines were available, from the 240 cu. inch six-cylinder to the 428 cu. inch V8. Modifications to the styling included adding a major bend in the center of the grille and making the model less "boxy" than the 1966 model. An 8-track tape cartridge player became an option. Back-up lights were standard.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: For 1967 all Fords featured a large, padded hub in the center of the plastic steering wheel, along with an energy-absorbing steering column (introduced late into the 1967 model year), padded interior surfaces, recessed controls on the instrument panel, and front outboard shoulder belt anchors. Another safety related change was the introduction of the dual brake master cylinder used on all subsequent Galaxies (and other Ford models).


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1968 model had a new grille with headlights arranged horizontally, although the body was essentially the same car from the windshield back. The 'long hood, short deck' style with a more upright roofline and a notchback rear was followed too, as was the new trend for concealed headlights on the "XL" and "LTD". One other change for 1968 was that the base V8 engine increased from 289 to . Standard equipment included courtesy lights, a cigarette lighter, a suspended gas pedal, and padded front seat backs.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1968 models featured additional safety features, including side marker lights and shoulder belts on cars built after December 1, 1967. The 1967 model's large steering wheel hub was replaced by a soft "bar" spoke that ran through the diameter of the wheel (and like the 1967 style, was used throughout the Ford Motor Company line). A plastic horn ring was also featured.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1969 model was built on a new platform with a wheelbase. It was the end for the 427 and 428 engines, save for only the police package versions which continued to use the 360 hp 428 P Code 'Police Interceptor' as their top motor for 1969-70. Replacing the FE series-based 427 and 428 engines was the new "ThunderJet" that was introduced in the 1968 Ford Thunderbird; it was part of the new Ford 385 engine series. Power, at for the dual-exhaust 4-barrel version, was higher than the 428's and lower than the racing-bred 427's final rating of ; there was also a single-exhaust 2-barrel version with available. The dashboard was built as a pod around the driver rather than traditionally extending across both sides. The "XL" and "Galaxie 500 Sportsroof" had rear sail panels to simulate a fastback roofline. The rear trim panel below the tail lights was used to distinguish the different trim levels. The "Country Squire" was, perhaps, the pinnacle of design for that wagon with the concealed headlights.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Headrests were featured on 1969 model cars built after January 1, 1969. It was not until 1968 that a station wagon was actually marketed under the "Galaxie" name. From 1955 to 1968 full-size Ford wagons were treated as a separate model series and were listed as "Ranch Wagon", "Country Sedan", and "Country Squire". For the 1969 model year a higher-trim "Ranch Wagon" was offered as the "Custom 500 Ranch Wagon", the "Country Sedan" the "Galaxie Country Sedan" and the "Country Squire" was marketed as the "LTD Country Squire".


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Galaxies for model year 1970 received minor trim changes. A new ignition lock was located on the right side of the steering column. Model year 1970 was the last year for the XL, but Galaxie 500 hardtop coupes were also available in both formal-roof and SportsRoof body styles. The optional 4-speed manual transmission, which was available on the 429 the year prior, was dropped for 1970.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: A complete redesign was offered for 1971. This included a horizontal wrap around front bumper with a massive vertical center section much in the vein of concurrent Pontiacs. Taillights lost the traditional "rocket" exhaust theme in favor of horizontal lights and trimmed center section. Rooflines were squared off and had a "formal" air. The "XL" was dropped, as were concealed headlight covers for the "LTD". The convertible was moved to the "LTD" series in 1970 (1971 model year) and lasted through 1972. The engine line-up saw some changes for '71. The 351 2v V8 was now standard equipment on all full-sized Fords save for the lower-line Custom & Custom 500 versions where the 240 straight six was still the base power plant with a 302 2v V8 and up still offered as options. The optional 390 2v FE V8 was replaced mid-year by a new 335 series 400 2v V8. The 429 4v was still the top engine, while the police-only versions received a new 370 hp 429 'Police Interceptor' as their new top offering. A column-shifted 3-speed manual was still the base transmission on the 240,302 & 351 engines with Select-Shift automatic being optional but mandatory on all of the larger engines.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Models for 1972 were similar but the vertical center grille section was now not so prominent as the front bumper now continued across it and the rear bumper was enlarged with inset taillamps. This was also the final year for the six-cylinder engine and three-speed manual transmission (which was available only with the six-cylinder engine); all V8-powered Galaxies had SelectShift automatic transmission as standard equipment.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1973 model was marginally shorter than previous models, but had a heavier, bulker appearance. Three towing packages were optional, each with increasing towing capacity. For law men, there were multiple Police package versions available with engines ranging from the 351 2v to the powerful 460 Police Interceptor. Taxi packages continued to be offered as well. All 1973 full-sized Fords now came with a 351 2v V8-engine and SelectShift automatic transmission as their base driveline. Four-door sedans with metal door frames were replaced with a new "Pillared Hardtop" model which featured a thin "B" post and frameless door glass. This body style was offered together with the traditional pillarless four-door hardtop.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1974 model year was essentially a repeat of 1973, but it was the last year for the "Galaxie 500" name. Ford elected to consolidate most of its full-size models under the popular "LTD" name for 1975, while reserving the base-model Custom 500 (which was below the Galaxie 500) nameplate for fleet buyers and private customers who insisted on the lowest-priced full-sized model possible. Power front disc brakes were standard.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The "LTD" stayed on as the top full-size model. Although a top seller and high-end model for many years, the Galaxie was slowly phased out and de-emphasized by Ford Motor Co. in an effort to push the posher LTD as a mainstream full size car.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Approximately 7,850,000 full-size Fords and Mercurys were sold over 1968–1978. This makes it the second best selling Ford automobile platform after the Ford Model T.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Total Series Production includes Custom, Custom 500, Seven Litre, Station Wagon, LTD, and all Galaxie models. Galaxie Production includes Galaxie, Galaxie 500, Galaxie 500XL, XL, and Galaxie 500 LTD when LTD was not a separate model (until 1967).


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The Ford Galaxie was also produced in Australia from late 1964 to 1968. The 1965 model, which was designated as the Galaxie GE series by Ford Australia, was assembled at Ford's Homebush West plant in Sydney, and was offered as a 4-door sedan with a choice of or cid V8 engines. 1966, 1967 and 1968 models were also assembled at Homebush prior to a change to full importation from 1969, with conversion from left to right hand drive being undertaken at Ford's Broadmeadows facility in Melbourne. The 1969 model was marketed as the Galaxie LTD, as were subsequent models through to the introduction of the locally developed Ford LTD in 1973.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Prior to local assembly which began in late 1964, small numbers of RHD full imports were sourced through select Australian Ford dealers, and also by Ford of Australia for executive use. RHD wagons, convertibles and fastbacks, 2- and 4-door hardtops, XLs and LTDs were generally sourced as full imports from Ford of Canada until approx 1968. The fully imported 1959 to early 1963 models used a 1959 U.S. Fairlane dashboard and instruments. In late 1963, a 1959 Edsel Corsair-based dashboard was used, and for 1964, a 1959 Edsel Ranger-based dashboard was used. However, some RHD 1963s and 1964s have been photographed with the more attractive U.S.-style 1964 cluster. Australian assembled 1965–1968 models were sourced in CKD form from Ford of Canada. The 1965–1967 model Galaxies adopted the RHD dashboard based on the 1963 Lincoln Continental. The 1967 models got the U.S.-market safety steering wheel with its thickly padded center hub. This wheel was retained for 1968, and the 1968 Torino cluster replaced the Continental version. Some right hand drive 1967 models have been seen with a mirror image of the US-style instrument panel for that year.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Australian assembled cars 1965–1968 received a woodgrain dashboard fascia, and accessories as standard, such as:


title: Ford Galaxie

text: For the 1968 model year the 289 CID engine was dropped as the base option in favor of the new 302 CID (Windsor) V8.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Australian assembly of 1965 to 1968 model Galaxies from CKD kits totalled 3,124 vehicles with 1,766 of the 1969 to 1972 models converted to right-hand-drive in Australia.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1966 four-door sedan version of the Galaxie was also produced in Brazil under the names Galaxie, Galaxie 500, LTD and Landau from 1967 to 1983.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Two units were used as the presidential car until 1990. Some of these ran neat ethanol (E100), and had 28 gallons fuel tanks.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The Brazilian production started in 1967, and finished in 1983. The 4 door sedan was the only body version available for that market.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The 1967 Brazilian Ford Galaxie was visually identical to its 1966 American counterpart. For that year model the only available engine was the 272” V8 Y-block, with a two barrel carburettor.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: During the production, the 1967 body (or 1966 for the American market) remained - and received face-lifts through the years.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: The main face-lift was in 1976, when the headlights became horizontally oriented, and the front end resembled the 1965 Lincoln Continental.


title: Ford Galaxie

text: Also from 1976 - the 302” V8 Windsor engine with a two barrel carburettor replaced the Y-block and became the only available option until the end of the Brazilian production in 1983.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor (), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, senator, and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was the first to write history in Latin with his "Origines", a now fragmentary work on the history of Rome. His work "De agri cultura", a rambling work on agriculture, farming, rituals, and recipes, is the oldest extant prose written in the Latin language. His epithet "Elder" distinguishes him from his great-grandson Cato the Younger, who opposed Julius Caesar.


title: Cato the Elder

text: He came from an ancient Plebeian family who were noted for their military service. Like his forefathers, Cato was devoted to agriculture when not serving in the army. Having attracted the attention of Lucius Valerius Flaccus, he was brought to Rome and began to follow the "cursus honorum": he was successively military tribune (214 BC), quaestor (204), aedile (199), praetor (198), consul (195) together with Flaccus, and censor (184). As praetor, he expelled usurers from Sardinia. As censor, he tried to save Rome's ancestral customs and combat Hellenistic influences.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Cato the Elder was born in the municipal town of Tusculum, like some generations of his ancestors. His father had earned a reputation as a brave soldier, and his great-grandfather had received a reward from the state for having had five horses killed under him in battle. However, the Tusculan Porcii had never obtained the privileges of the Roman magistracy. Cato the Elder, their famous descendant, at the beginning of his career in Rome, was regarded as a "novus homo" (new man), and the feeling of his unsatisfactory position, working along with the belief of his inherent superiority, aggravated and drove his ambition. Early in life, he so far exceeded the previous deeds of his predecessors that he is frequently spoken of not only as the leader, but as the founder of the Porcia gens.


title: Cato the Elder

text: His ancestors for three generations had been named Marcus Porcius, and it was said by Plutarch that at first he was known by the additional cognomen "Priscus", but was afterwards called Cato—a word (from Latin "catus") indicating 'common sense that is the result of natural wisdom combined with experience'. Priscus, like "Major", may have been merely an epithet used to distinguish him from the later Cato the Younger. There is no precise information as to when he first received the title of Cato, which may have been given in childhood as a symbol of distinction. The qualities implied in the word Cato were acknowledged by the plainer and less outdated title of "Sapiens", by which he was so well known in his old age, that Cicero says, it became his virtual "cognomen". From the number and eloquence of his speeches, he was a gifted orator, but Cato the Censor ("Cato Censorius"), and Cato the Elder are now his most common, as well as his most characteristic names, since he carried out the office of Censor with extraordinary standing and was the only Cato who ever held it.


title: Cato the Elder

text: The date of Cato's birth has to be deduced from conflicting reports of his age at the time of his death, which is known to have happened in 149 BC. According to the chronology of Cicero, Cato was born in 234 BC, in the year before the first Consulship of Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, and died at the age of 85, in the consulship of Lucius Marcius Censorinus and Manius Manilius. Pliny agrees with Cicero. Other authors exaggerate the age of Cato. According to Valerius Maximus he survived his 86th year, according to Livy and Plutarch he was 90 years old when he died. These exaggerated ages, however, are inconsistent with a statement of Cato himself that is recorded by Plutarch.


title: Cato the Elder

text: When Cato was very young, after his father's death, he inherited a small property in Sabine territory, at a distance from his native town. There, he spent most of his childhood overseeing the operations of the farm, learning business and the rural economy. Near this land was a small hut owned by Manius Curius Dentatus, whose military feats and rigidly simple character were remembered and admired in the neighborhood. Cato was inspired to imitate that character, hoping to match the glory of Dentatus.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Soon an opportunity came for a military campaign, in 218 BC Hannibal Barca attacked one of Rome's allies starting the Second Punic War. Experts express some disagreement about Cato's early military life. In 214, he served at Capua, and the historian Wilhelm Drumann imagines that already, at the age of 20, he was a military tribune. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus had the command in this area, Campania, during the year of his fourth consulship. At the siege of Tarentum, in 209, Cato was again at the side of Fabius. Two years later, Cato was one of the men who went with the consul Claudius Nero on his northern march from Lucania to check the progress of Hasdrubal Barca. It is recorded that the services of Cato contributed to the decisive and important victory of Sena at the Battle of the Metaurus, where Hasdrubal was slain. He later gave several vehement speeches which he often ended by saying ""Carthago delenda est"", or "Carthage must be destroyed."


title: Cato the Elder

text: In the pauses between campaigns Cato returned to his Sabine farm, where he dressed simply, working and behaving like his laborers. Young as he was, the neighboring farmers liked his tough mode of living, enjoyed his old-fashioned and concise proverbs, and had a high regard for his abilities. His own active personality made him willing and eager to make himself available in the service of his neighbors. He was selected to act, sometimes as an arbitrator of disputes, and sometimes as a supporter in local causes, which were probably tried in front of "recuperatores" (the judges for causes of great public interest). Consequently, he was enabled to strengthen by practice his oratorical abilities, to gain self-confidence, to observe the manners of men, to analyze the diversity of human nature, to apply the rules of law, and to practically investigate the principles of justice.


title: Cato the Elder

text: In the area surrounding Cato's Sabine farm were the lands of Lucius Valerius Flaccus, a young nobleman of significant influence and high patrician family. Flaccus could not help remarking on Cato's energy, his military talent, his eloquence, his frugal and simple life, and his traditional principles. Flaccus himself was a member of that purist patrician faction which displayed its adherence to the stricter virtues of the Roman character. Within Roman society a transition was in progress—from Samnite rusticity to Grecian civilization and oriental luxuriance. The chief magistracies of the state had become almost hereditary for a few wealthy and upper-class families. They were popular by acts of generosity and charming manners, and they collected material wealth from their clients and followers, as well as intellectual prowess provided by their education, taste in the fine arts, and knowledge of literature. Nonetheless, the less fortunate nobles, envious of this exclusive oligarchy and critical of the decadence and luxury, formed a party with a more conservative and ascetic ideology. In their eyes, rusticity and austerity were the marks of Sabine character, and of the old Roman inflexible integrity and love of order. Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Scipio Africanus and his family, and Titus Quinctius Flamininus may be taken as representative of the new culture; Cato's friends, Fabius and Flaccus, were the leading men in the faction defending the old plainness.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Flaccus was a perceptive politician, who looked for young and emergent men to support him. He had observed Cato's martial spirit and heard his eloquent tongue. He knew how much courage and persuasiveness were valued at Rome. He also knew that distinction achieved on the battlefield opened the way to achievements in the higher civil offices. Finally, Flaccus knew too that for a stranger like Cato, the only way to the magisterial honours was success in the Roman Forum. For that reason, he suggested to Cato that he shift his ambition to the field of Roman politics. The advice was followed. Invited to the townhouse of Flaccus, and ratified by his support, Cato began to distinguish himself in the forum, and became a candidate for assuming a post in the magistracy.


title: Cato the Elder

text: In 205 BC, Cato was appointed quaestor, and in the next year (204) he entered upon the duties of his place of work, following Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major to Sicily. When Scipio, after much opposition, obtained from the Senate permission to transport armed forces from Sicily to Africa, Cato and Gaius Laelius were appointed to escort the baggage ships. Yet there proved not to be the friendliness of cooperation between Cato and Scipio which ought to have existed between a quaestor and his proconsul.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Fabius had opposed the permission given to Scipio to carry the attack to the enemy's home, and Cato, whose appointment was intended to monitor Scipio's behavior, adopted the views of his friend. Plutarch reports that the lenient discipline of the troops under Scipio's command and the exaggerated expenses incurred by the general provoked Cato's protests, such that Scipio, immediately afterward, replied angrily, saying he would give an account of victories, not of money. Cato left his place of duty after the dispute with Scipio about the latter's alleged extravagance, and returning to Rome, condemned the uneconomical activities of his general to the senate. Plutarch went on to say that at the joint request of Cato and Fabius, a commission of tribunes was sent to Sicily to examine Scipio's activity. Upon their review of his extensive and careful arrangements for the transport of the troops, they determined he was not guilty of Cato's charges. Plutarch's version, which would seem to attribute to Cato the wrongdoing of quitting his post before his time, is barely consistent with Livy's narrative. If Livy is correct, the commission was sent because of the complaints of the inhabitants of Locri, who had been harshly oppressed by Quintus Pleminius, Scipio's legate. Livy says nothing of Cato's interference in this matter, but mentions the bitterness with which Fabius blamed Scipio for corrupting military discipline and for having illegally left his province to take the town of Locri.


title: Cato the Elder

text: The author of the abridged life of Cato, commonly considered the work of Cornelius Nepos, asserts that Cato, after his return from Africa, put in at Sardinia, and brought the poet Quintus Ennius in his own ship from the island to Italy. But because Sardinia is rather out of the line of the trip to Rome, it is more likely that the first contact between Ennius and Cato happened at a later date, when the latter was praetor in Sardinia.


title: Cato the Elder

text: In 199 BC Cato was elected aedile, and with his colleague Helvius, restored the Plebeian Games, and gave upon that occasion a banquet in honour of Jupiter. In 198 BC he was elected praetor, and obtained Sardinia as his province, with the command of 3,000 infantry and 200 cavalry. Here he took the earliest opportunity to demonstrate his main beliefs by practicing his strict public morality. He reduced official operating costs, walked his trips with a single assistant, and placed his own frugality in contrast with the opulence of provincial magistrates. The rites of religion were celebrated with thrift, justice was administered with strict impartiality, and usury was severely punished. According to Aurelius Victor, a revolt in Sardinia was subdued by Cato during his praetorship.


title: Cato the Elder

text: In 195, when he was only 39 years old, Cato was elected junior consul to his old friend and patron Flaccus. During his consulship, he enacted the first two of the Porcian Laws, which expanded the protections of Roman citizens against degrading or capricious punishment under the Republic's Valerian Law.


title: Cato the Elder

text: In 215, at the height of the Second Punic War and at the request of the tribune of the plebs Gaius Oppius, the Oppian Law ("Lex Oppia"), intended to restrict the luxury and extravagance of women in order to save money for the public treasury, was passed. The law specified that no woman could own more than half an ounce of gold, nor wear a garment of several colours, nor drive a carriage with horses closer than a mile to the city, except to attend public celebrations of religious rites.


title: Cato the Elder

text: After Hannibal was defeated and Rome was resplendent with Carthaginian wealth, tribunes Marcus Fundanius and Lucius Valerius proposed to abolish the Oppian law, but tribunes Marcus Junius Brutus and Titus Junius Brutus opposed doing so. This conflict spawned far more interest than the most important state affairs. Middle-aged married Roman women crowded the streets, blocked access to the forum, and intercepted their approaching husbands, demanding to restore the traditional ornaments of Roman matrons. They even begged the praetors, consuls and other magistrates. Even Flaccus hesitated, but his colleague Cato was inflexible, and made a characteristically impolite speech, which was later retold by Livy. Finally, the dissenting tribunes withdrew their opposition and the Oppian law was repealed by vote of all tribes. Women went in procession through the streets and the forum, dressed up with their now legitimate finery.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Just after this controversy had been settled, Cato, who had maintained a severe and determined firm opposition, seems to have suffered no very real damage to his popularity. He soon set sail for his appointed province, Hispania Citerior.


title: Cato the Elder

text: In his campaign in Hispania, Cato behaved in keeping with his reputation of untiring hard work and alertness. He lived soberly, sharing the food and the labours of the common soldier. Wherever it was possible, he personally superintended the execution of his orders. His movements were reported as bold and rapid, and he always pushed for victory.


title: Cato the Elder

text: His operations appear to have been carefully designed, and were coordinated with the plans of other generals in other parts of Hispania. His manoeuvres were considered original and successful. He managed to benefit by setting tribe against tribe, and took native mercenaries into his pay.


title: Cato the Elder

text: The details of the campaign, as related by Livy, and illustrated by incidental anecdotes by Plutarch, are full of horror and they make clear that Cato reduced Hispania Citerior to subjection with great speed and little mercy. We read of multitudes who put themselves to death because of the dishonour after they had been stripped of all their arms, of extensive massacres of surrendered troops, and the frequent harsh plunders. The phrase bellum se ipsum alet —the war feeds itself— was coined by Cato during this period. His conduct in Hispania were not contradictory with the traditional ideals of a Roman soldier, or with his own firm and over-assertive temper. He claimed to have destroyed more towns in Hispania than he had spent days in that country.


title: Cato the Elder

text: After he reduced the area between the River Iberus and the Pyrenees to a resentful and, as it turned out, temporary obedience, Cato turned his attention to administrative reforms, and increased the revenues of the province by improvements in the working of the iron and silver mines.


title: Cato the Elder

text: For his achievements in Hispania, the senate decreed a thanksgiving ceremony of three days. In the course of the year 194 BC, he returned to Rome and was rewarded with the honour of a Roman triumph, at which he exhibited an extraordinary quantity of captured brass, silver, and gold, both coin and ingots. Cato distributed the monetary prize to his soldiery, and was more liberal than might have been expected from his vigorous parsimony.


title: Cato the Elder

text: The return of Cato seems to have accelerated the enmity of Scipio Africanus, who was Consul in 194 BC and is said to have desired the command of the province in which Cato was harvesting notoriety. There is some disagreement between Nepos (or the pseudo-Nepos), and Plutarch, in their accounts of this topic. Nepos claims that Scipio failed to obtain the province, and, offended by the rejection, remained after his consulship in a private capacity at Rome. Plutarch claims that Scipio, who was disgusted by Cato's severity, was appointed to succeed him but could not convince the senate to censure Cato's administration, and passed his consulship in inactivity. Plutarch was probably mistaken, judging by the statement in Livy, that in 194 BC, Sextus Digitius was appointed to the province of Hispania Citerior. The notion that Scipio was appointed successor to Cato in Hispania may have arisen from a double confusion of name and place, since Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica was chosen in 194 BC to the province of Hispania Ulterior.


title: Cato the Elder

text: However true this account, Cato used his eloquence and produced detailed financial accounts to successfully defend against criticism of his consulship. The known fragments of the speeches (or one speech under different names) made after his return attest to the strength of his arguments.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Plutarch states that, after his Consulship, Cato accompanied Tiberius Sempronius Longus as legatus to Thrace, but this seems incorrect because, although Scipio Africanus believed that one Consul should have Macedonia, Sempronius was soon in Cisalpine Gaul, and in 193 BC Cato was in Rome dedicating a small temple to Victoria Virgo.


title: Cato the Elder

text: The military career of Cato had not yet ended. In 191, he, along with his old associate Lucius Valerius Flaccus, were appointed as lieutenant-generals (legatus) under the consul Manius Acilius Glabrio, who had been dispatched to Greece to oppose the invasion of Antiochus III the Great, King of the Seleucid Empire. In the decisive Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC), which led to the downfall of Antiochus, Cato behaved with his usual valor, and enjoyed good fortune. By a daring and difficult advance, he surprised and defeated a body of the enemy's Aetolian auxiliaries, who were posted upon the Callidromus, the highest peak of the range of Mount Oeta. Then, coming to the aid of forces under Flaccus's command, he began a sudden descent from the hills above the royal camp, and the panic caused by this unexpected movement promptly turned the day in favor of the Romans, and signaled the end of the Seleucid invasion of Greece. After the action, the consul hugged Cato with the greatest warmth and attributed to him the whole credit of the victory. This fact rests on the authority of Cato himself, who, like Cicero, often indulged in the habit, offensive to modern taste, of sounding his own praises. After an interval spent in the pursuit of Antiochus and the pacification of Greece, Cato was sent to Rome by Glabrio to announce the successful outcome of the campaign, and he performed his journey with such celerity that he had started his report in the senate before the return of Lucius Cornelius Scipio, the later conqueror of Antiochus, who had been sent off from Greece a few days before him.


title: Cato the Elder

text: During the campaign in Greece under Glabrio, Plutarch's account (albeit rejected by historian Wilhelm Drumann) suggests that before the Battle of Thermopylae, Cato was chosen to prevent Corinth, Patrae, and Aegium from siding with Antiochus. During this period, Cato visited Athens where, in trying to prevent the Athenians from listening to the propositions of the Seleucid king, Cato addressed them in a Latin speech, which required an interpreter to be understood by the audience. Whether this was out of necessity or merely a choice by Cato remains unclear, however, since the assertion that he might very well have already known Greek at the time can be made from anecdotal evidence. For example, Plutarch said that while at Tarentum in his youth he had developed a close friendship with Nearchus, who was himself a Greek philosopher. Similarly, Aurelius Victor stated he had received instruction in Greek from Ennius while praetor in Sardinia. Nevertheless, because his speech was an affair of state, it is probable that he complied with the Roman norms of the day in using the Latin language while practicing diplomacy, which was considered as a mark of Roman dignity.


title: Cato the Elder

text: His reputation as a soldier was now established; henceforth he preferred to serve the state at home, scrutinizing the conduct of the candidates for public honours and of generals in the field. If he was not personally engaged in the prosecution of the Scipiones (Africanus and Asiaticus) for corruption, it was his spirit that animated the attack upon them. Even Scipio Africanus—who refused to reply to the charge, saying only, "Romans, this is the day on which I conquered Hannibal" and was absolved by acclamation—found it necessary to retire, self-banished, to his villa at Liternum. Cato's enmity dated from the African campaign when he quarreled with Scipio for his lavish distribution of the spoil among the troops, and his general luxury and extravagance.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Cato was also opposed to the spread of Hellenic culture, which he believed threatened to destroy the rugged simplicity of the conventional Roman type. It was during this censorship that his determination to oppose Hellenism was most strongly exhibited, and hence, the behavior from which was derived the title (censor) by which he is most generally distinguished. He revised with unsparing severity the lists of senators and knights, ejecting from either order the men whom he judged unworthy of membership, either on moral grounds or on the basis of their lack of the prescribed means. The expulsion of L. Quinctius Flamininus for wanton cruelty was an example of his rigid justice.


title: Cato the Elder

text: His regulations against luxury were very stringent. He imposed a heavy tax upon dress and personal adornment, especially of women, and upon young slaves purchased as favourites. In 181 BC he supported the "lex Orchia" (according to others, he first opposed its introduction, and subsequently its repeal), which prescribed a limit to the number of guests at an entertainment, and in 169 BC the "lex Voconia", one of the provisions of which was intended to limit the accumulation of what Cato considered an undue amount of wealth in the hands of women.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Among other things he repaired the aqueducts, cleansed the sewers, and prevented private persons drawing off public water for their own use. The Aqua Appia was the first aqueduct of Rome. It was constructed in 312 BC by Appius Claudius Caecus, the same Roman censor who also built the important Via Appia. Unauthorised plumbing into Rome's aqueducts had always been a problem, as Frontinus records much later. Cato also ordered the demolition of houses which encroached on the public way, and built the first basilica in the Forum near the Curia (Livy, "History", 39.44; Plutarch, "Marcus Cato", 19). He raised the amount paid by the publicani for the right to collect taxes and, at the same time, reduced the contract prices for the construction of public works.


title: Cato the Elder

text: From the date of his censorship (184) to his death in 149, Cato held no public office, but continued to distinguish himself in the Senate as the persistent opponent of the new ideas. He was struck with horror, along with many other Romans, at the licence of the Bacchanalian mysteries, which he attributed to the influence of Greek manners, and he vehemently urged the dismissal of the philosophers Carneades, Diogenes, and Critolaus, who had come as ambassadors from Athens, on account of what he believed was the dangerous nature of their ideas. He also uttered warnings against the influence of Chaldean astrologers who had entered Italy along with Greek culture.


title: Cato the Elder

text: He had a horror of physicians, who were chiefly Greeks. He obtained the release of Polybius, the historian, and his fellow prisoners, contemptuously asking whether the Senate had nothing more important to do than discuss whether a few Greeks should die at Rome or in their own land. It was not until his eightieth year that he made his first acquaintance with Greek literature, though some think after examining his writings that he may have had a knowledge of Greek works for much of his life.


title: Cato the Elder

text: In his last years, he was known for strenuously urging his countrymen to prosecute the Third Punic War and to destroy Carthage. In 157, he was one of the deputies sent to Carthage to arbitrate between the Carthaginians and Massinissa, king of Numidia. The mission was unsuccessful and the commissioners returned home, but Cato was so struck by Carthage's growing prosperity that he was convinced that the security of Rome depended on its annihilation. From then on, he began concluding his speeches in the Senate —on any topic whatsoever— with the cry, "Carthage must be destroyed" ('). Other times, his phrase is fully quoted as "Moreover, I advise that Carthage must be destroyed" ('). Cicero's dialogue "Cato the Elder on Old Age" also depicted Cato's antipathy to Carthage. According to Ben Kiernan, Cato may have made the first recorded incitement to genocide.


title: Cato the Elder

text: To Cato the individual life was a continual discipline, and public life was the discipline of the many. He regarded the individual householder as the germ of the family, the family as the germ of the state. By strict economy of time he accomplished an immense amount of work; he demanded his dependents practice a similar dedication, and proved himself a hard husband, a strict father, and a severe and cruel master. There was little difference, apparently, in the esteem in which he held his wife and his slaves, although perhaps his pride caused him to take a warmer interest in his sons, Marcus Porcius Cato Licinianus and Marcus Porcius Cato Salonianus.


title: Cato the Elder

text: To the Romans themselves little in this behavior seemed worthy of censure, it was respected rather as a traditional example of the old Roman manners. In the remarkable passage in which Livy describes the character of Cato, there is no word of blame for the rigid discipline of his household.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Cato was and remains famous as an author as well. He was a historian, the first Latin prose writer of any importance, and the first author of a history of Italy in Latin. Some have argued that if it were not for the impact of Cato's writing, Latin might have been supplanted by Greek as the literary language of Rome. He was also one of the very few early Latin authors who could claim Latin as a native language.


title: Cato the Elder

text: The two surviving collections of proverbs known as the "Distichs of Cato" and the "Monosticha Catonis" probably belong to the 4th century AD and are not works of Cato the Elder.


title: Cato the Elder

text: The comune of Monte Porzio Catone, one of the Castelli Romani and close to the ruins of Tusculum, is named in honour of the Porcius Cato family.


title: Cato the Elder

text: Cato is portrayed by Vittorio Gassman in "Scipione detto anche l'Africano", a 1971 Italian film starring Marcello Mastroianni as Scipio Africanus.


title: Pen name

text: A pen name, also called a nom de plume or a literary double, is a pseudonym (or, in some cases, a variant form of a real name) adopted by an author and printed on the title page or by-line of their works in place of their real name.


title: Pen name

text: A pen name may be used to make the author's name more distinctive, to disguise the author's gender, to distance the author from their other works, to protect the author from retribution for their writings, to merge multiple persons into a single identifiable author, or for any of a number of reasons related to the marketing or aesthetic presentation of the work.


title: Pen name

text: The French-language phrase is occasionally still seen as a synonym for the English term "pen name", which is a "back-translation" and originated in England rather than France. H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler, in "The King's English" state that the term "nom de plume" evolved in Britain where people wanting a literary phrase failed to understand the term "nom de guerre", which already existed in French. Since means "war" in French, did not make sense to the British, who did not understand the French metaphor. See also French phrases used by English speakers.


title: Pen name

text: An author may use a pen name if their real name is likely to be confused with that of another author or other significant individual. For instance, in 1899 the British politician Winston Churchill wrote under the name Winston S. Churchill to distinguish his writings from those of the American novelist of the same name.


title: Pen name

text: An author may use a pen name implying a rank or title which they have never actually held. William Earl Johns wrote under the name "Capt. W. E. Johns" although the highest army rank he held was acting lieutenant and his highest air force rank was flying officer.


title: Pen name

text: Authors who regularly write in more than one genre may use different pen names for each, either with no attempt to conceal a true identity or even after their identity is known. Romance writer Nora Roberts writes erotic thrillers under the pen name J. D. Robb (such books were originally listed as by "J. D. Robb" and are now titled "Nora Roberts writing as J. D. Robb"); Scots writer Iain Banks wrote mainstream or literary fiction under his own name and science fiction under Iain M. Banks; Samuel Langhorne Clemens used the aliases Mark Twain and Sieur Louis de Conte for different works. Similarly, an author who writes both fiction and non-fiction (such as the mathematician and fantasy writer Charles Dodgson, who wrote as Lewis Carroll) may use a pseudonym for fiction writing. Science fiction author Harry Turtledove has used the name H. N. Turtletaub for a number of historical novels he has written because he and his publisher felt that the presumed lower sales of those novels might hurt book store orders for the novels he writes under his own name.