title: Eric Liddell

text: During his first furlough from missionary work in 1932, he was ordained a minister of the Congregational Union of Scotland. On his return to China he married Florence Mackenzie, of Canadian missionary parentage, in Tianjin in 1934. Liddell courted his future wife by taking her for lunch to the Kiesling restaurant, which is still open in Tianjin. The couple had three daughters, Patricia, Heather, and Maureen, the last of whom he would not live to see. The school where Liddell taught is still in use today. One of his daughters visited Tianjin in 1991 and presented the headmaster of the school with one of the medals that Liddell had won for athletics.


title: Eric Liddell

text: In 1941 life in China had become so dangerous because of Japanese aggression that the British government advised British nationals to leave. Florence (who was pregnant with Maureen) and the children left for Canada to stay with her family when Liddell accepted a position at a rural mission station in Xiaozhang, which served the poor. He joined his brother, Rob, who was a doctor there. The station was severely short of help and the missionaries there were exhausted. A constant stream of locals came at all hours for medical treatment. Liddell arrived at the station in time to relieve his brother, who was ill and needing to go on furlough. Liddell suffered many hardships himself at the mission.


title: Eric Liddell

text: As fighting between the Chinese Army and invading Japanese troops reached Xiaozhang, the Japanese took over the mission station and Liddell returned to Tianjin. In 1943, he was interned at the Weihsien Internment Camp (in the modern city of Weifang) with the members of the China Inland Mission, Chefoo School (in the city now known as Yantai), and many others. Liddell became a leader and organiser at the camp, but food, medicine, and other supplies were scarce. There were many cliques in the camp and when some rich businessmen managed to smuggle in some eggs, Liddell shamed them into sharing them. While fellow missionaries formed cliques, moralised, and acted selfishly, Liddell busied himself by helping the elderly, teaching Bible classes at the camp school, arranging games, and teaching science to the children, who referred to him as Uncle Eric.


title: Eric Liddell

text: It was also claimed that one Sunday Liddell refereed a hockey match to stop fighting amongst the players, as he was trusted not to take sides. One of his fellow internees, Norman Cliff, later wrote a book about his experiences in the camp called "The Courtyard of the Happy Way" (Chinese 樂道院, also translated as "The Campus of Loving Truth"), which detailed the remarkable characters in the camp. Cliff described Liddell as "the finest Christian gentleman it has been my pleasure to meet. In all the time in the camp, I never heard him say a bad word about anybody". Langdon Gilkey, who also survived the camp and became a prominent theologian in his native America, said of Liddell: "Often in an evening I would see him bent over a chessboard or a model boat, or directing some sort of square dance – absorbed, weary and interested, pouring all of himself into this effort to capture the imagination of these penned-up youths. He was overflowing with good humour and love for life, and with enthusiasm and charm. It is rare indeed that a person has the good fortune to meet a saint, but he came as close to it as anyone I have ever known."


title: Eric Liddell

text: In his last letter to his wife, written on the day he died, Liddell wrote of suffering a nervous breakdown due to overwork. He had an inoperable brain tumor; overwork and malnourishment may have hastened his death. Liddell died on 21 February 1945, five months before liberation. Langdon Gilkey later wrote, "The entire camp, especially its youth, was stunned for days, so great was the vacuum that Eric's death had left." According to a fellow missionary, Liddell's last words were, "It's complete surrender", in reference to how he had given his life to God. According to a different source, the 2007 documentary film "Eric Liddell: Champion of Conviction", Liddell had been in and out of the camp hospital due to the brain tumor. One of his students, Joyce Stranks, came to visit him in the hospital to discuss a book he had written about surrender to God's will. While discussing the book, Liddell reached a point when he was unable to complete saying the word "surrender," and instead he said "surren-...surren-" and after this his head fell back to his pillow and he died.


title: Eric Liddell

text: On 5 June 1945 the Eric Liddell Memorial Committee was set up in Glasgow, to seek donations for a fund to provide for the education and maintenance of Eric Liddell's three daughters; to fund an Eric Liddell Missionary Scholarship at the University of Edinburgh and an Eric Liddell Challenge Trophy for Amateur Athletics; and to erect a memorial in North China to commemorate Eric Liddell's work there. Only the first and third objectives were achieved. To raise funds and to widen its appeal, the committee published a pamphlet by D.P. Thomson: "Eric Liddell, The Making of an Athlete and the Training of a Missionary". The Fund was eventually wound up in 1954, having raised £3,687 15s - over £88,000 in relative purchasing power. D.P. Thomson also spoke at well-attended memorial services held in both Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1945.


title: Eric Liddell

text: In 2008, just before the Beijing Olympics, Chinese authorities claimed that Liddell had refused an opportunity to leave the camp, and instead gave his place to a pregnant woman. Apparently, the Japanese and British, with Churchill's approval, had agreed upon a prisoner exchange. However, his friends and those who had lived with him in the camp disputed the claim.


title: Eric Liddell

text: When Scotsman Allan Wells won the 100-metre sprint at the 1980 Moscow Olympics, 56 years after the 1924 Paris Olympics, he was asked if he had run the race for Harold Abrahams, the last 100-metre Olympic winner from Britain (who had died two years previously). "No", Wells replied. "I would prefer to dedicate this to Eric Liddell".


title: Eric Liddell

text: In 2002, when the first inductees were inducted into the Scottish Sports Hall of Fame, Eric Liddell topped the public vote for the most popular sporting hero Scotland had ever produced. Liddell was inducted into the Scottish Rugby Hall of Fame in January 2022, on the centenary of his first international cap.


title: Eric Liddell

text: Liddell was buried in the garden behind the Japanese officers' quarters, his grave marked by a small wooden cross. The site was forgotten until it was rediscovered in 1989, in the grounds of what is now Weifeng Middle School in Shandong Province, north-east China, about six hours' drive from Beijing. Its rediscovery was largely the result of the determination of Charles Walker, a civil engineer working in Hong Kong, who felt that one of Scotland's great heroes was in danger of being forgotten. Walker began looking for the unmarked grave in 1987, and eventually located it from a map drawn by another inmate in 1945, and the accounts of other witnesses who confirmed the location.


title: Eric Liddell

text: In 1991 the University of Edinburgh erected a memorial headstone, made from Isle of Mull granite and carved by a mason in Tobermory, at the former camp site in Weifang. The simple inscription came from the Book of Isaiah 40:31: ""They shall mount up with wings as eagles; they shall run and not be weary."" The city of Weifang commemorated Liddell during the 60th anniversary of the internment camp's liberation by laying a wreath on his grave.


title: Eric Liddell

text: The Eric Liddell Centre was set up in Edinburgh in 1980 to honour Liddell's beliefs in community service whilst he lived and studied in Edinburgh. Local residents dedicated it to inspiring, empowering, and supporting people of all ages, cultures, and abilities, as an expression of compassionate Christian values.


title: Eric Liddell

text: In 2012 the University of Edinburgh launched a high-performance sports scholarship named after Liddell. It was announced during a visit by Patricia Russell, Liddell's oldest daughter.


title: Eric Liddell

text: The 1981 film "Chariots of Fire" chronicles and contrasts the lives and viewpoints of Liddell and Harold Abrahams. One inaccuracy surrounds Liddell's refusal to race in the 100-metre event at the 1924 Paris Summer Olympics. The film portrays Liddell as finding out that one of the heats was to be held on a Sunday as he boards the boat that will take the British Olympic team across the English Channel to Paris. In reality, the schedule and Liddell's decision were both known several months in advance, though his refusal to participate remains significant. Liddell had also been selected to run as a member of the 4×100-metre and 4×400-metre relay teams at the Olympics, but he also declined these spots as the finals were to be run on a Sunday.


title: Eric Liddell

text: One scene in the film depicts Liddell falling early in a 440-yard race in a Scotland–France dual meet and making up a 20-yard deficit to win; the actual race was during a Triangular Contest meet between Scotland, England and Ireland at Stoke-on-Trent in England in July 1923. Liddell was knocked to the ground several strides into the race. He hesitated, got up and pursued his opponents, 20 yards ahead. He caught the leaders shortly before the finish line and collapsed after crossing the tape. This scene was filmed at Goldenacre stadium in Edinburgh, the playing fields of George Heriot's School in Edinburgh.


title: Eric Liddell

text: Producer David Puttnam viewed footage from a 1924 film of Liddell and Abrahams while researching the film with scriptwriter Colin Welland, and Liddell's unorthodox running style as portrayed in the film, with his head back and his mouth wide open, is also said to be accurate. At an athletics championship in Glasgow, a visitor watching the 440-yard final, in which Liddell was a long way behind the leaders at the start of the last lap (of a 220-yard track), remarked to a Glasgow native that Liddell would be hard put to win the race. The Glaswegian merely replied, "His head's no' back yet." Liddell then threw his head back and, with mouth wide open, caught and passed his opponents to win the race. In the 1945 report of his death "The Guardian" wrote, "He is remembered among lovers of athletics as probably the ugliest runner who ever won an Olympic championship. When he appeared in the heats of the 400m at Paris in 1924, his huge sprawling stride, his head thrown back and his arms clawing the air, moved the Americans and other sophisticated experts to ribald laughter." Rival Harold Abrahams said in response to criticism of Liddell's style: "People may shout their heads off about his appalling style. Well, let them. He gets there."


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Tall Girl 2 is a 2022 American teen romantic comedy film directed by Emily Ting from a screenplay by Sam Wolfson. The film stars Ava Michelle, Sabrina Carpenter, Griffin Gluck, and Steve Zahn. It is the sequel to the 2019 film "Tall Girl". The film was released on February 11, 2022 and received mixed reviews.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: The relationship between Jodi and Dunkleman begins on a lovely note, with the two sharing romantic moments. Jodi has become one of the popular kids at school as a result of her speech at the Homecoming dance, who high-fives other students instead of staring down the hallways.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Her newfound fame and her new desire of appearing in the Spring musical, however, prove to be huge roadblocks in her otherwise smooth relationship with Dunkleman. She finds herself fighting her own fears and dealing with anxiety attacks. After landing the lead part of Kim in the musical ‘Bye Bye Birdie’, Jodi is bewildered. Her insecurities are calling to her through a voice within her head. Tommy plays the lead opposite Jodie in Bye Bye Birdie and is a possible new love interest of her.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Jodi deals with typical adolescent issues. She carries a lot of weight on her shoulders between the boy she’s dating, her friendships, bullying, the musical, and her uncomfortable parents. She is under a great deal of stress and feels completely overwhelmed.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: By focusing on her confidence, Jodi eventually discovers a means to filter out that negative voice. She makes the decision to govern her mind rather than the other way around. Her parents go above and beyond to ensure that their children succeed.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Meanwhile, others are struggling with their own insecurities, while Jodi is battling negative thoughts in her head.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Harper, Jodi’s sister, is attempting to prove that she is capable of more than just competing in beauty pageants. Fareeda wishes for her parents to believe in her goals of becoming a fashion designer. Dunkleman’s connection with Jodi is often questioned.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Jodi has been troubled by an inner voice that tells her she’s not good enough since the beginning of rehearsals, as well as the bully Kimmy, who she beat to the lead role and is now determined to ensure Jodi flakes out.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Kimmy wants to enlist Schnipper in her plots, but he refuses since he has a crush on Jodi as a result of their kiss in the first film. Kimmy finds out that she doesn’t have to do much to upset Jodi, and her first week of rehearsals doesn’t go as planned, despite Tommy’s assurances.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: The strain eventually takes its toll on Jodi’s relationship when Jack, who, after promising her she can skip their anniversary dinner to rehearse, becomes enraged when she actually does. They part soon after, and Jodi becomes close to Tommy, with whom she shares a kiss one night.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Jodi appears to reconcile with Jack, but when she admits that she kissed someone while they were still together, Jack reacts angrily, and the two break up for good. He makes a contract with Stig’s sister Stella, who is going through her own break-up, and swears to never see her again.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Jodi participates in the pre-show practice of a “burning ceremony”, which purges the cast of any negativity before the performance. She intends to set fire to the shoes Jack gave her in the first film, but she changes her mind halfway through. Kimmy is the one who saves them from the fire, which marks the beginning of her bully redemption.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Despite the fact that he is interested in her, Jodi admits to Tommy that she is still not over Jack, and the two agree to merely be friends.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Jodi gives Fareeda her blessing to date Stig at the pre-opening night celebration, and Jack appears to give Jodi a pep talk. Stella also gives him a long-overdue scolding for his reaction to Jodi’s kiss with Tommy.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Despite her parents’ guidance on how to deal with nervousness, Jodi is still having trouble with her inner voice on the opening night of the show. Kimmy completes her redemption by declining Jodi’s offer to take her place on stage, instead telling Jodi that she will wait in the wings and provide signals if she forgets anything.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Opening night is a success, and after the show, Jodi finally silences her inner critic by reminding herself, that she is good enough to do this. When Jack arrives, he discloses that he has been photographing in the lighting booth all night.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: Jack confesses his love for Jodi, and the two reconcile and kiss, ensuring that everyone lives happily ever after.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: On December 1, 2020, Netflix selected Sam Wolfson to write a "Tall Girl" sequel, with Ava Michelle set to return as Jodi. Principal photography began on April 12, 2021, and concluded on May 21, 2021, in New Orleans, Louisiana. The film was released on February 11, 2022.


title: Tall Girl 2

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 63% based on 8 reviews, with an average rating of 5.0/10.


title: Olivia Olson

text: Olivia Rose Olson (born May 21, 1992) is an American singer-songwriter, actress, and writer, largely known for her voice roles as Vanessa Doofenshmirtz in "Phineas and Ferb" and Marceline the Vampire Queen in "Adventure Time". She also played the character of Joanna in the 2003 film "Love Actually" and its 2017 short sequel "Red Nose Day Actually".


title: Olivia Olson

text: Along with this, she is also a writer, having written the Boom! Studios graphic novel "Marcy and Simon", co-authored "Adventure Time: The Enchiridion and Marcy's Super-Secret Scrapbook," and contributed writing to the best-seller "Adventure Time Encyclopedia' for Cartoon Network.


title: Olivia Olson

text: Olson was adopted at birth and raised in Los Angeles, California. She lives with her father, Martin Olson, mother Kay Olson, and brother Casey Olson. Olson graduated from Agoura High School in 2010. She is of Afro-Jamaican descent through her biological father.


title: Olivia Olson

text: Olson has appeared as a singer and actress on television shows and in live theatre, including Comedy Central Stage, the HBO Theater, and The Fake Gallery.


title: Olivia Olson

text: Olson moved into the mainstream with her role as Joanna Anderson in the 2003 holiday film "Love Actually", singing the song "All I Want for Christmas Is You". Her singing was praised, with director Richard Curtis stating in the commentary in the music section of the "Love Actually" DVD that Olson's singing was so perfect, they were afraid the audience would not believe that a ten-year-old could really sing the way she did and would assume she was lip-synching to Mariah Carey's voice. They had to train her so her singing would sound more believable, and add the sounds of inhalations to the track. This led to guest spots on "The Ellen Show", "The Tracy Morgan Show" and singing with stars Jack Black and Kristin Chenoweth. Olson also posted original songs on her YouTube account. In 2017, Olson reprised her role as Joanna in "Red Nose Day Actually", a short film which is a sequel to "Love Actually".


title: Olivia Olson

text: From 2008 to 2015, Olson voiced the recurring character Vanessa Doofenshmirtz in the Disney animated series "Phineas and Ferb" along with actor Thomas Sangster (Ferb Fletcher), who played Joanna's love interest Sam in "Love Actually". Olson said that she and Sangster talked "about the whole Ferb-Vanessa situation ’cause it’s pretty funny."


title: Olivia Olson

text: In "Phineas and Ferb", she sings a number of songs, including the duet "Busted!" with Ashley Tisdale as well as popular solo songs, including "I'm Me", "Not So Bad a Dad", "I'm Lindana and I Wanna Have Fun", "Happy New Year" and many others, including her song in the "Phineas and Ferb Christmas Vacation" special "Got That Christmas Feeling". She has written songs for "Phineas and Ferb" and has written and recorded her own songs with renowned music producers Rick Nowels, Camara Kambon and Hollywood jazz great Rob Mullins, while Olson's father wrote "over 200 songs for the series" and various episodes. In 2011, Olson voiced Vanessa in a deleted scene of "", which included a musical number, but sang a song for the film "I Walk Away".


title: Olivia Olson

text: Her role as Vanessa led to her role as Marceline the Vampire Queen in "Adventure Time". During the show's production, the show creator, Pendleton Ward, contacted Olson's father, Martin Olson, then writing for "Phineas and Ferb", asking if he knew who played Vanessa in the show. He was not aware, at the time, that Martin was Olson's father. She would also voice Marceline in the 2012 video game, "".


title: Olivia Olson

text: In 2010, Olson got the role of Marceline the Vampire Queen on the animated Cartoon Network series "Adventure Time". Olson said she was impressed by her character's fashion design and the costuming for Marceline, saying she occasionally admired the unique designs for the character in episodes. During the audition for the role, Olson first read for Princess Bubblegum, but later read for Marceline. Reportedly when getting into character for the role she often dressed similar to Marceline when she recorded her lines In the show, her father played Hunson Abadeer, the father of Marceline. In the series, Olson also sings Marceline's songs, which were written by storyboard artists, or other people affiliated with production. As such, "The Guardian" praised Marceline as a character, noting in particular that "she's ... responsible for some of the show's best songs."


title: Olivia Olson

text: The series was a commercial and popular success and her character attracted positive critical attention from critics, and fans alike, along with the production crew of "Adventure Time". This popularity was even recognized by the company that owns "Adventure Time" with the official press release for the "Adventure Time: Marceline and the Scream Queens" companion comic book referring to Marceline as a "fan-favorite". Olson later said she was "honored" to be voicing a character in a show pushing the limits, including on "what a female character in a TV series brings to the table."


title: Olivia Olson

text: In the "Adventure Time" mini-series "Stakes", Olson performs the popular song "Everything Stays", which was revealed by Olson and Rebecca Sugar at the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con. In 2015 Olivia and her father, Martin Olson, co-authored a book adapted from the series Adventure Time, "Adventure Time: The Enchiridion & Marcy's Super Secret Scrapbook". Olivia wrote her section in first person as her character Marceline. The book was illustrated by artists including Mahendra Singh, Tony Millionaire, Renee French, Celeste Moreno and Sean Tejaratchi.


title: Olivia Olson

text: Olson also performed the song "Haven't You Noticed (I'm a Star)", which was featured on the September 17, 2015 episode of "Steven Universe" entitled "Sadie's Song". It was later featured in the "Steven Universe" mini-episode "Gem Karaoke", released on October 3, 2016. She appears at Comic-Cons and pop conventions around the world as do other Adventure Time cast members.


title: Olivia Olson

text: Olson frequently posts original music on her YouTube and TikTok account. On July 18, 2013, Olson released her debut EP "Beauty Is Chaos". By December 2015, she had over 19,000 followers on her YouTube channel.


title: Olivia Olson

text: From 2016 to 2019, Olivia voiced the fourth Powerpuff Girl Bliss on Cartoon Network's reboot of "The Powerpuff Girls", The character's initial announcement was met with negative reactions from some fans, but when rumors began to spread that the character would be black, many fans began to express a more optimistic tone. Reviewers later called the character a great step forward in terms of racial diversity and a good addition. In all, reactions to the character were mainly positive, while others argued she was a stereotype and that the inclusion of the character seemed like tokenism.


title: Olivia Olson

text: In 2019, Olson voiced Jun, PizzaRave, and another character in "". In 2020, she voiced Vanessa Doofenshmirtz in the "Phineas and Ferb" film, "", and Marceline in the "Obsidian" episode of "". In the film, Olson sang the song "The Universe Is Against Me" with Ashley Tisdale, who voiced Candace, and Laura Dickinson while in "Obsidian", she sang "Woke Up" and "Monster" with other performers.


title: Olivia Olson

text: Olson's latest album "Nowhere Land" was released on June 22, 2018. She worked with K-pop producers Kairos Music Group and producer/singer/songwriter John Defeo on the project. In October 2019, she began competing in "", being the second act to be evicted from the live shows on October 26, 2019.


title: Christine Tucci

text: Tucci, an Italian American, was born in Katonah, New York, the daughter of Joan (née Tropiano), a retired secretary and writer, and Stanley Tucci, Sr., a retired high school art teacher. Her brother is actor Stanley Tucci, and her cousin is screenwriter Joseph Tropiano.


title: Christine Tucci

text: Tucci had a semi-regular role on the television series "MDs" (2002) and played Amanda Cory on the soap opera "Another World" from 1993 to 1995. She was a regular cast member on , in the role of Special Agent Anne Rooney, from 1997 to 1998. She played Sergeant Welles in the movie "K-911", released direct-to-video in 1999; in 2000, she made an appearance as Dr. Kiera Behrle on "". She appeared in the 2003 TV movie Straight From the Heart as Carla Dimaggio.


title: Christine Tucci

text: Tucci is married to Vincent Angell. They have one son, who is autistic. Tucci and Angell played parents of an autistic boy on an episode of "Without a Trace".


title: Why the Hell are You Here, Teacher!?

text: High school student Ichiro Sato keeps finding himself in erotic situations with Kana Kojima, a young teacher who has a reputation of being a "demon". Later volumes introduce more male students paired with female teachers in embarrassing situations.


title: Why the Hell are You Here, Teacher!?

text: "Why the Hell are You Here, Teacher!?" is written and illustrated by Soborou. The series was initially published in Kodansha's "Weekly Young Magazine" as a series of one-shots under the title "Golden Times". It began serialization in the same magazine on April 24, 2017.


title: Why the Hell are You Here, Teacher!?

text: Kodansha has compiled its chapters into individual volumes. The first volume was published on January 6, 2017. As of November 6, 2020, eleven volumes have been released. In August 2020, it was announced that the manga would be entering on hiatus due to the author Soborou's illness starting to worsen.


title: Why the Hell are You Here, Teacher!?

text: In June 2020, it was announced that BookWalker Global partnered with Kodansha USA to release "Why the Hell are You Here, Teacher!?" in English language, and the first three volumes were released digitally on July 14, 2020.


title: Why the Hell are You Here, Teacher!?

text: An anime television series adaptation was announced in the 44th issue of "Weekly Young Magazine" on October 1, 2018. The series was directed by Toshikatsu Tokoro and animated by Tear Studio. Character designs for the series were done by Kazuhiko Tamura. Yūki Takabayashi and Yuri Fujimaru handled the series composition, while Hiraku Kaneko served as chief director and Gin composed the music. The series aired from April 8 to June 24, 2019 on Tokyo MX, BS11, and AT-X. Sumire Uesaka performed the series' opening theme song . The series' ending theme is , with Uesaka, Yūko Gotō, Shizuka Ishigami, and Nozomi Yamamoto each performing a version as their respective characters. Sentai Filmworks licensed the series for worldwide regions, excluding Asia. The series ran for 12 episodes. An unaired episode was included in the anime's Blu-ray box, which was released on December 11, 2019. On July 6, 2019, Sentai announced that they were producing a dub for the series.


title: Why the Hell are You Here, Teacher!?

text: Anime News Network reviewers had mixed reviews about the anime show. James Beckett wrote, "This isn't a 'good' show, but God help me, I chuckled a little at just how unashamed it was." Lynzee Loveridge wrote that "it's edited porn airing on a Japanese satellite station." Nick Creamer wrote that the episode "definitely knows how to set up a sexually charged scene, and even has the production values to make its characters look genuinely attractive". Theron Martin wrote "If you find suppositories and someone holding in pee to be sexy then you might like this one, but it's definitely aimed only at a certain kind of kink."


title: Why the Hell are You Here, Teacher!?

text: Allen Moody of THEM Anime Reviews gave the anime show 1 out of 5 stars, noticing the "tiresomely repetitive fanservice formula in use" and heavy censoring that "None of this is really funny- as presented, it's not sexy either-" He found the groping scenes to be endlessly repetitive, and "along with all the related humiliation and embarrassment of the women here, that finally completely wore out my patience".


title: Basa (fish)

text: Basa ("Pangasius bocourti") is a species of catfish in the family Pangasiidae. Basa are native to the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Mainland Southeast Asia. These fish are important food fish with an international market. They are often labelled in North America and Australia as "basa fish", "swai", or "bocourti". In the UK all species of "Pangasius" may legally be described as "river cobbler", "cobbler", "basa", "pangasius", "panga", or any of these with the addition of "catfish". In the rest of Europe, these fish are commonly marketed as "pangasius" or "panga". In Asian markets, names for basa include "Pacific dory" and "patin". Other related shark catfish may occasionally be incorrectly labeled as basa fish, including "P. hypophthalmus" (iridescent shark) and "P. pangasius" (yellowtail catfish).


title: Basa (fish)

text: The body of the basa is stout and heavy. The rounded head is broader than it is long, with the blunt snout having a white band on its muzzle. This species grows to a maximum length of .


title: Basa (fish)

text: Basa fish feed on plants. They spawn at the onset of flood season and the young are first seen in June, averaging about by mid-June.


title: Basa (fish)

text: In 2002, the United States accused Vietnam of dumping catfish, namely "P. bocourti" and "P. hypophthalmus", on the American market, arguing that the Vietnamese exporters, who are subsidised by Vietnam's government, constituted unfair competition.


title: Basa (fish)

text: With pressures from the U.S. catfish industry, the United States Congress passed a law in 2003 preventing the imported fish from being labelled as catfish, as well as imposing additional tariffs on the imported fish. Under the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ruling, only species from the family Ictaluridae can be sold as true catfish. As a result, the Vietnamese exporters of this fish now label their products sold in the U.S. as basa fish, striped pangasius, swai or bocourti.


title: Basa (fish)

text: At the height of the "catfish war", U.S. catfish farmers and others were describing the imported catfish as an inferior product. However, Mississippi State University researchers found imported basa were preferred three-to-one to US catfish in a small (58 testers) blind taste test.


title: Basa (fish)

text: Basa has become common in the UK as "Vietnamese river cobbler", "river cobbler", or "basa". It is mainly sold by large supermarkets, in both fresh and frozen forms, as a cheaper alternative to popular white fish such as cod or haddock. Young's uses it in some of its frozen fish products, under the name basa. The import of basa is subject to the same stringent EU regulations as other food imports, as set out in the CBI pangasius product fact sheet UK Trading Standards officers said that cobbler was being fraudulently sold as cod by some fish-and-chip retailers to take advantage of the much lower price of cobbler, which was about half that of cod. This practice was highlighted by the successful prosecution of two retailers, using DNA evidence, in 2009 and 2010. Sometimes pangasius is described, legally, simply as "fish", as in "fish and chips".


title: Basa (fish)

text: Several environmental organisations concerned with marine ecosystems have raised concerns about basa. OceanWise, an environmental organisation associated with the Vancouver Aquarium, has flagged farmed basa for its potential pollution of ecosystems and interference with wild species. It writes, "Open cage farming in Southeast Asia is associated with disease transfer to wild basa. There are also concerns about feed quality, farm operating standards and the biological impact of using wild stock for culturing." The Monterey Bay Aquarium currently lists the basa in its "red flag" or "avoid" category. Both groups cite USA farmed catfish as a more sustainable alternative.


title: Basa (fish)

text: Tests by the Asda and Tesco supermarkets in the UK have found no trace of toxic contaminants. Testing from AQIS found trace levels of malachite green, but no other contaminants.


title: Basa (fish)

text: One case has been reported of a person without a general fish allergy having an anaphylactic reaction to pangasius.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: A production–possibility frontier (PPF), production possibility curve (PPC), or production possibility boundary (PPB), or transformation curve/boundary/frontier is a curve which shows various combinations of the amounts of two goods which can be produced within the given resources and technology/a graphical representation showing all the possible options of output for two products that can be produced using all factors of production, where the given resources are fully and efficiently utilized per unit time. A PPF illustrates several economic concepts, such as allocative efficiency, economies of scale, opportunity cost (or marginal rate of transformation), productive efficiency, and scarcity of resources (the fundamental economic problem that all societies face).


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: This tradeoff is usually considered for an economy, but also applies to each individual, household, and economic organization. One good can only be produced by diverting resources from other goods, and so by producing less of them.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: Graphically bounding the production set for fixed input quantities, the PPF curve shows the maximum possible production level of one commodity for any given production level of the other, given the existing state of technology. By doing so, it defines productive efficiency in the context of that production set: a point on the frontier indicates efficient use of the available inputs (such as points B, D and C in the graph), a point beneath the curve (such as A) indicates inefficiency, and a point beyond the curve (such as X) indicates impossibility.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: PPFs are normally drawn as bulging upwards or outwards from the origin ("concave" when viewed from the origin), but they can be represented as bulging downward (inwards) or linear (straight), depending on a number of assumptions.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: An outward shift of the PPC results from growth of the availability of inputs, such as physical capital or labour, or from technological progress in knowledge of how to transform inputs into outputs. Such a shift reflects, for instance, economic growth of an economy already operating at its full productivity (on the PPF), which means that more of "both" outputs can now be produced during the specified period of time without sacrificing the output of either good. Conversely, the PPF will shift inward if the labour force shrinks, the supply of raw materials is depleted, or a natural disaster decreases the stock of physical capital.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: However, most economic contractions reflect not that less can be produced but that the economy has started operating below the frontier, as typically, both labour and physical capital are underemployed, remaining therefore idle.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: In microeconomics, the PPF shows the options open to an individual, household, or firm in a two good world. By definition, each point on the curve is productively efficient, but, given the nature of market demand, some points will be more profitable than others. Equilibrium for a firm will be the combination of outputs on the PPF that is most profitable.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: From a macroeconomic perspective, the PPF illustrates the production possibilities available to a nation or economy during a given period of time for broad categories of output. It is traditionally used to show the movement between committing all funds to consumption on the "y"-axis versus investment on the "x"-axis. However, an economy may achieve productive efficiency without necessarily being allocatively efficient. Market failure (such as imperfect competition or externalities) and some institutions of social decision-making (such as government and tradition) may lead to the wrong combination of goods being produced (hence the wrong mix of resources being allocated between producing the two goods) compared to what consumers would prefer, given what is feasible on the PPF.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: The two main determinants of the position of the PPF at any given time are the state of technology and management expertise (which are reflected in the available production functions) and the available quantities of factors of production (materials, direct labor, and factory overhead).


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: Only points on or within a PPF are actually possible to achieve in the short run. In the long run, if technology improves or if the supply of factors of production increases, the economy's capacity to produce both goods increases; if this potential is realized, economic growth occurs. That increase is shown by a shift of the production-possibility frontier to the right. Conversely, a natural, military or ecological disaster might move the PPF to the left in response to a reduction in an economy's productive capability. Thus all points on or within the curve are part of the production set: combinations of goods that the economy could potentially produce.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: If the two production goods depicted are capital investment (to increase future production possibilities) and current consumption goods, the higher the investment this year, the more the PPF would shift out in following years. Shifts of the curve can represent how technological progress that favors production possibilities of one good, say guns, more than the other shifts the PPF outwards more along the favored good's axis, "biasing" production possibilities in that direction. Similarly, if one good makes more use of say capital and if capital grows faster than other factors, growth possibilities might be biased in favor of the capital-intensive good.Also a shift in the PPF could depict that there's an improvement in technology or good use of capital goods.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: Production-Possibility Frontier delineates the maximum amount/quantities of outputs (goods/services) an economy can achieve, given fixed resources (factors of production) and fixed technological progress.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: Points that are unattainable can be achieved through external trade and economic growth. Examples include importations of resources and technology, and the increase in the production of goods and services.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: Specifically, at all points on the frontier, the economy achieves productive efficiency: no more output of any good can be achieved from the given inputs without sacrificing output of some good.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: Some productive efficient points are Pareto efficient: impossible to find any trade that will make no consumer worse off. Pareto efficiency is achieved when the marginal rate of transformation (slope of the frontier/opportunity cost of goods) is equal to all consumers' marginal rate of substitution.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: Similarly, not all Pareto efficient points on the frontier are Allocative efficient. Allocative efficient is only achieved when the economy produces at quantities that match societal preference.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: A PPF typically takes the form of the curve illustrated above. An economy that is operating on the PPF is said to be efficient, meaning that it would be impossible to produce more of one good without decreasing production of the other good. In contrast, if the economy is operating below the curve, it is said to be operating inefficiently because it could reallocate resources in order to produce more of both goods or some resources such as labor or capital are sitting idle and could be fully employed to produce more of both goods.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: For example, if one assumes that the economy's available quantities of factors of production do not change over time and that technological progress does not occur, if the economy is operating on the PPF, production of guns would need to be sacrificed to produce more butter. If production is efficient, the economy can choose between combinations (points) on the PPF: "B" if guns are of interest, "C" if more butter is needed, "D" if an equal mix of butter and guns is required.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: In the PPF, all points "on" the curve are points of maximum productive efficiency (no more output of any good can be achieved from the given inputs without sacrificing output of some good); all points inside the frontier (such as "A") can be produced but are productively "inefficient"; all points outside the curve (such as "X") cannot be produced with the given, existing resources. Not all points on the curve are Pareto efficient, however; only in the case where the marginal rate of transformation is equal to all consumers' marginal rate of substitution and hence equal to the ratio of prices will it be impossible to find any trade that will make no consumer worse off.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: Any point that lies either on the production possibilities curve or to the left of it is said to be an attainable point: it can be produced with currently available resources. Points that lie to the right of the production possibilities curve are said to be unattainable because they cannot be produced using currently available resources. Points that lie strictly to the left of the curve are said to be inefficient, because existing resources would allow for production of more of at least one good without sacrificing the production of any other good. An efficient point is one that lies on the production possibilities curve. At any such point, more of one good can be produced only by producing less of the other.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: For an extensive discussion of various types of efficiency measures (Farrell, Hyperbolic, Directional, Cost, Revenue, Profit, Additive, etc.) and their relationships, see Sickles and Zelenyuk (2019, Chapter 3).


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: The slope of the production–possibility frontier (PPF) at any given point is called the marginal rate of transformation (MRT). The slope defines the rate at which production of one good can be redirected (by reallocation of productive resources) into production of the other. It is also called the (marginal) "opportunity cost" of a commodity, that is, it is the opportunity cost of "X" in terms of "Y" at the margin. It measures how much of good Y is given up for one more unit of good "X" or vice versa. The shape of a PPF is commonly drawn as concave to the origin to represent increasing opportunity cost with increased output of a good. Thus, MRT increases in absolute size as one moves from the top left of the PPF to the bottom right of the PPF.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: The marginal rate of transformation can be expressed in terms of either commodity. The marginal opportunity costs of guns in terms of butter is simply the reciprocal of the marginal opportunity cost of butter in terms of guns. If, for example, the (absolute) slope at point "BB" in the diagram is equal to 2, to produce one more packet of butter, the production of 2 guns must be sacrificed. If at "AA", the marginal opportunity cost of butter in terms of guns is equal to 0.25, the sacrifice of one gun could produce four packets of butter, and the opportunity cost of guns in terms of butter is 4.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: The production-possibility frontier can be constructed from the contract curve in an Edgeworth production box diagram of factor intensity. The example used above (which demonstrates increasing opportunity costs, with a curve concave to the origin) is the most common form of PPF. It represents a disparity, in the factor intensities and technologies of the two production sectors. That is, as an economy specializes more and more into one product (such as moving from point "B" to point "D"), the opportunity cost of producing that product increases, because we are using more and more resources that are less efficient in producing it. With increasing production of butter, workers from the gun industry will move to it. At first, the least qualified (or most general) gun workers will be transferred into making more butter, and moving these workers has little impact on the opportunity cost of increasing butter production: the loss in gun production will be small. However, the cost of producing successive units of butter will increase as resources that are more and more specialized in gun production are moved into the butter industry.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: If opportunity costs are constant, a straight-line (linear) PPF is produced. This case reflects a situation where resources are not specialised and can be substituted for each other with no added cost. Products requiring similar resources (bread and pastry, for instance) will have an almost straight PPF and so almost constant opportunity costs. More specifically, with constant returns to scale, there are two opportunities for a linear PPF: if there was only one factor of production to consider or if the factor intensity ratios in the two sectors were constant at all points on the production-possibilities curve. With varying returns to scale, however, it may not be entirely linear in either case.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: With economies of scale, the PPF would curve inward, with the opportunity cost of one good falling as more of it is produced. Specialization in producing successive units of a good determines its opportunity cost (say from mass production methods or specialization of labor).


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: From a starting point on the frontier, if there is no increase in productive resources, increasing the production of a first good entails decreasing the production of a second, because resources must be transferred to the first and away from the second. Points along the curve describe the tradeoff between the goods. The sacrifice in the production of the second good is called the "opportunity cost" (because increasing production of the first good entails losing the opportunity to produce some amount of the second). Opportunity cost is measured in the number of units of the second good forgone for one or more units of the first good.


title: Production–possibility frontier

text: In the context of a PPF, opportunity cost is directly related to the shape of the curve (see below). If the shape of the PPF curve is a straight-line, the opportunity cost is constant as the production of different goods is changing. But, opportunity cost usually will vary depending on the start and end points. In Figure 7, producing 10 more packets of butter, at a low level of butter production, costs the loss of 5 guns (shown as a movement from "A" to "B"). At point "C", the economy is already close to its maximum potential butter output. To produce 10 more packets of butter, 50 guns must be sacrificed (as with a movement from "C" to "D"). The ratio of gains to losses is determined by the "marginal rate of transformation.'


title: Stout

text: Stout is a dark, top-fermented beer with a number of variations, including dry stout, oatmeal stout, milk stout, and imperial stout.


title: Stout

text: The first known use of the word "stout" for beer, in a document dated 1677 found in the Egerton Manuscripts, referred to its strength. The name "porter" was first used in 1721 to describe a dark brown beer. Because of the huge popularity of porters, brewers made them in a variety of strengths. The stronger beers, typically 7% or 8% alcohol by volume (ABV), were called "stout porters", so the history and development of stout and porter are intertwined, and the term "stout" has become firmly associated with dark beer, rather than just strong beer.


title: Stout

text: Porter originated in London, England in the early 1720s. The style quickly became popular in the city, especially with porters (hence its name): it had a strong flavour, took longer to spoil than other beers, was significantly cheaper than other beers, and was not easily affected by heat. Within a few decades, porter breweries in London had grown "beyond any previously known scale". Large volumes were exported to Ireland and by 1776 it was being brewed by Arthur Guinness at his St. James's Gate Brewery. In the 19th century, the beer gained its customary black colour through the use of black patent malt, and became stronger in flavour.


title: Stout

text: Originally, the adjective "stout" meant "proud" or "brave", but later, after the 14th century, it took on the connotation of "strong". The first known use of the word "stout" for beer was in a document dated 1677 found in the Egerton Manuscript, the sense being that a stout beer was a strong beer. The expression "stout porter" was applied during the 18th century to strong versions of porter. "Stout" still meant only "strong" and it could be related to any kind of beer, as long as it was strong: in the UK it was possible to find "stout pale ale", for example. Later, "stout" was eventually to be associated only with porter, becoming a synonym of dark beer.


title: Stout

text: Because of the huge popularity of porters, brewers made them in a variety of strengths. The beers with higher gravities were called "Stout Porters". There is still division and debate on whether stouts should be a separate style from porter. Usually the only deciding factor is strength.


title: Stout

text: "Nourishing" and sweet "milk" stouts became popular in Great Britain in the years following the First World War, though their popularity declined towards the end of the 20th century, apart from pockets of local interest such as in Glasgow with Sweetheart Stout.


title: Stout

text: Beer writer Michael Jackson wrote about stouts and porters in the 1970s, but in the mid 1980s a survey by "What’s Brewing" found just 29 brewers in the UK and Channel Islands still making stout, most of them milk stouts. In the 21st century, stout is making a comeback with a new generation of drinkers, thanks to new products from burgeoning craft and regional brewers.


title: Stout

text: "Milk stout" (also called "sweet stout" or "cream stout") is a stout containing lactose, a sugar derived from milk. Because lactose cannot be fermented by beer yeast, it adds sweetness and body to the finished beer. Milk stout, which was claimed to be nutritious, was given to nursing mothers, and to help increase their milk production. The classic surviving example of milk stout is Mackeson's, for which the original brewers advertised that "each pint contains the energising carbohydrates of 10 ounces [284 ml] of pure dairy milk". The style was rare until being revived by a number of craft breweries in the twenty-first century.


title: Stout

text: There were prosecutions in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1944 under the Food and Drugs Act 1938 regarding misleading labelling of milk stout.


title: Stout

text: With milk or sweet stout becoming the dominant stout in the UK in the early 20th century, it was mainly in Ireland that the non-sweet or standard stout was being made. As standard stout has a drier taste than the English and American sweet stouts, they came to be called "dry stout" or "Irish stout" to differentiate them from stouts with added lactose or oatmeal. This is the style that represents a typical stout to most people. The best selling stouts worldwide are Irish stouts made by Guinness (now owned by Diageo) at St. James's Gate Brewery (also known as the Guinness Brewery) in Dublin. Guinness makes a number of different varieties of its Irish stouts. Other examples of Irish dry stout include Murphy's and Beamish, now both owned by Heineken. Native Irish stouts are brewed by independent Irish craft breweries, most of whom include a stout in their core ranges. Draught Irish stout is normally served with a nitrogen propellant in addition to the carbon dioxide most beers use, to create a creamy texture with a long-lasting head. Some canned and bottled stouts include a special device called a "widget" to nitrogenate the beer in the container to replicate the experience of the keg varieties.


title: Stout

text: There were no differences between stout and porter historically, though there had been a tendency for breweries to differentiate the strengths of their beers with the words "extra", "double" and "stout". The term "stout" was initially used to indicate a stronger porter than other porters from a brewery.


title: Stout

text: "Oatmeal stout" is a stout with a proportion of oats, normally a maximum of 30%, added during the brewing process. Even though a larger proportion of oats in beer can lead to a bitter or astringent taste, during the medieval period in Europe, oats were a common ingredient in ale, and proportions up to 35% were standard. Despite some areas of Europe, such as Norway, still clinging to the use of oats in brewing until the early part of the 20th century, the practice had largely died out by the 16th century, so much so that in 1513 Tudor sailors refused to drink oat beer offered to them because of the bitter flavour.


title: Stout

text: There was a revival of interest in using oats during the end of the 19th century, when (supposedly) restorative, nourishing and invalid beers, such as the later milk stout, were popular, because of the association of porridge with health. Maclay of Alloa produced an Original Oatmalt Stout in 1895 that used 70% "oatmalt", and a 63/- Oatmeal Stout in 1909, which used 30% "flaked (porridge) oats".


title: Stout

text: In the 20th century, many oatmeal stouts contained only a minimal amount of oats. For example, in 1936 Barclay Perkins Oatmeal Stout used only 0.5% oats. As the oatmeal stout was parti-gyled with their porter and standard stout, these two also contained the same proportion of oats. (Parti-gyle brewing involves blending the worts drawn from multiple mashes or sparges after the boil to produces beers of different gravities.) The name seems to have been a marketing device more than anything else. In the 1920s and 1930s Whitbread's London Stout and Oatmeal Stout were identical, just packaged differently. The amount of oats Whitbread used was minimal, again around 0.5%. With such a small quantity of oats used, it could only have had little impact on the flavour or texture of these beers.


title: Stout

text: Many breweries were still brewing oatmeal stouts in the 1950s, for example Brickwoods in Portsmouth, Matthew Brown in Blackburn and Ushers in Trowbridge. When Michael Jackson mentioned the defunct Eldrige Pope "Oat Malt Stout" in his 1977 book "The World Guide to Beer", oatmeal stout was no longer being made anywhere, but Charles Finkel, founder of Merchant du Vin, was curious enough to commission Samuel Smith to produce a version. Samuel Smith's Oatmeal Stout then became the template for other breweries' versions.


title: Stout

text: Oatmeal stouts do not usually taste specifically of oats. The smoothness of oatmeal stouts comes from the high content of proteins, lipids (includes fats and waxes), and gums imparted by the use of oats. The gums increase the viscosity and body adding to the sense of smoothness.


title: Stout

text: Oysters have had a long association with stout. When stouts were emerging in the 18th century, oysters were a commonplace food often served in public houses and taverns. By the 20th century, oyster beds were in decline, and stout had given way to pale ale. Ernest Barnes came up with the idea of combining oysters with stout using an oyster concentrate made by Thyrodone Development Ltd. in Bluff, New Zealand, where he was factory manager. It was first sold by the Dunedin Brewery Company in New Zealand in 1938, with the Hammerton Brewery in London, UK, beginning production using the same formula the following year. Hammerton Brewery was re-established in 2014 and is once again brewing an oyster stout.


title: Stout

text: Modern "oyster stouts" may be made with a handful of oysters in the barrel, hence the warning by one establishment, the Porterhouse Brewery in Dublin, that their award-winning Oyster Stout was not suitable for vegetarians. Others, such as Marston's Oyster Stout, use the name with the implication that the beer would be suitable for drinking with oysters.


title: Stout

text: "Chocolate stout" is a name brewers sometimes give to certain stouts having a noticeable dark chocolate flavour through the use of darker, more aromatic malt; particularly chocolate malt—a malt that has been roasted or kilned until it acquires a chocolate colour. Sometimes, as with Muskoka Brewery's Double Chocolate Cranberry Stout, Young's Double Chocolate Stout, and Rogue Brewery's Chocolate Stout, the beers are also brewed with a small amount of chocolate, chocolate flavouring, or cacao nibs.


title: Stout

text: Imperial stout, also known as "Russian Imperial stout", is a strong dark beer in the style that was brewed in the 18th century by Thrale's Anchor Brewery in London for export to the court of Catherine II of Russia. In 1781 the brewery changed hands and the beer became known as "Barclay Perkins Imperial Brown Stout". It was shipped to Russia by Albert von Le Coq who was awarded a Russian royal warrant which entitled him to use the name "Imperial". Historical analyses from the time period of 1849 to 1986 show that the beer had an original gravity between 1.100 and 1.107 and an alcohol content of around 10% ABV. This remained virtually unchanged over the whole time period. A recipe from 1856 also indicates that it was hopped at a rate of 10 pounds of hops to the barrel (). When Barclay's brewery was taken over by Courage in 1955, the beer was renamed "Courage Imperial Russian Stout" and it was brewed sporadically until 1993. The bottle cap still said "Barclay's".


title: Stout

text: In Canada, Imperial Stout was produced in Prince Albert first by Fritz Sick, and then by Molson following a 1958 takeover. Denmark's Wiibroe Brewery launched its 8.2 percent Imperial Stout in 1930. The first brewery to brew an Imperial Stout in the United States was Bert Grant's Yakima Brewing.


title: Stout

text: Imperial stouts have a high alcohol content, usually over 9% abv, and are among the darkest available beer styles. Samuel Smith's brewed a version for export to the United States in the early 1980s, and today Imperial stout is among the most popular beer styles with U.S. craft brewers. American interpretations of the style often include ingredients such as vanilla beans, chili powder, maple syrup, coffee, and marshmallows. Many are aged in bourbon barrels to add additional layers of flavour. The word "Imperial" is now commonly added to other beer styles to denote a stronger version, hence Imperial IPAs, Imperial pilsners etc.


title: Stout

text: Baltic porter is a version of Imperial stout which originated in the Baltic region in the 19th century. Imperial stouts imported from Britain were recreated locally using local ingredients and brewing traditions.


title: Stout

text: A pastry stout is a stout beer which is brewed to be intentionally sweet with the end goal that the beer mimics the flavor and sometimes the appearance of a dessert. Many breweries who produce pastry stouts will experiment with flavors such as chocolate, marshmallow, maple syrup, vanilla, and various fruit. The finished product will have the flavor and aroma of popular sweets such as blueberry pancakes, s’mores, donuts, brownies, cake, ice cream and fruit crumble just to name a few.


title: Phrygia

text: In classical antiquity, Phrygia ( ; , "Phrygía" ) was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now Asian Turkey, centered on the Sangarios River. After its conquest, it became a region of the great empires of the time.


title: Phrygia

text: According to Homer's "Iliad", the Phrygians participated in the Trojan War as close allies of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans. Phrygian power reached its peak in the late 8th century BC under another, historical, king Midas, who dominated most of western and central Anatolia and rivaled Assyria and Urartu for power in eastern Anatolia. This later Midas was, however, also the last independent king of Phrygia before Cimmerians sacked the Phrygian capital, Gordium, around 695 BC. Phrygia then became subject to Lydia, and then successively to Persia, Alexander and his Hellenistic successors, Pergamon, the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. Over this time Phrygians became Christian and Greek-speaking, assimilating into the Byzantine state; after the Turkish conquest of Byzantine Anatolia in the late Middle Ages, the name "Phrygia" passed out of usage as a territorial designation.


title: Phrygia

text: Phrygia describes an area on the western end of the high Anatolian plateau, an arid region quite unlike the forested lands to the north and west of it. Phrygia begins in the northwest where an area of dry steppe is diluted by the Sakarya and Porsuk river system and is home to the settlements of Dorylaeum near modern Eskişehir, and the Phrygian capital Gordion. The climate is harsh with hot summers and cold winters. Therefore, olives will not easily grow here so the land is mostly used for livestock grazing and barley production.


title: Phrygia

text: South of Dorylaeum an important Phrygian settlement, Midas City (Yazılıkaya, Eskişehir), is situated in an area of hills and columns of volcanic tuff. To the south again, central Phrygia includes the cities of Afyonkarahisar (ancient Akroinon) with its marble quarries at nearby Docimium (İscehisar), and the town of Synnada. At the western end of Phrygia stood the towns of Aizanoi (modern Çavdarhisar) and Acmonia. From here to the southwest lies the hilly area of Phrygia that contrasts to the bare plains of the region's heartland.


title: Phrygia

text: Southwestern Phrygia is watered by the Maeander (Büyük Menderes River) and its tributary the Lycus, and contains the towns of Laodicea on the Lycus and Hierapolis.


title: Phrygia

text: According to ancient tradition among Greek historians, the Phrygians anciently migrated to Anatolia from the Balkans. Herodotus says that the Phrygians were called Bryges when they lived in Europe. He and other Greek writers also recorded legends about King Midas that associated him with or put his origin in Macedonia; Herodotus, for example, says a wild rose garden in Macedonia was named after Midas.


title: Phrygia

text: Some classical writers also connected the Phrygians with the Mygdones, the name of two groups of people, one of which lived in northern Macedonia and another in Mysia. Likewise, the Phrygians have been identified with the Bebryces, a people said to have warred with Mysia before the Trojan War and who had a king named Mygdon at roughly the same time as the Phrygians were said to have had a king named Mygdon.


title: Phrygia

text: The classical historian Strabo groups Phrygians, Mygdones, Mysians, Bebryces and Bithynians together as peoples that migrated to Anatolia from the Balkans. This image of Phrygians as part of a related group of northwest Anatolian cultures seems the most likely explanation for the confusion over whether Phrygians, Bebryces and Anatolian Mygdones were or were not the same people.


title: Phrygia

text: Phrygian continued to be spoken until the 6th century AD, though its distinctive alphabet was lost earlier than those of most Anatolian cultures. One of the Homeric Hymns describes the Phrygian language as not mutually intelligible with that of Troy, and inscriptions found at Gordium make clear that Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language with at least some vocabulary similar to Greek. Phrygian clearly did not belong to the family of Anatolian languages spoken in most of the adjacent countries, such as Hittite. The apparent similarity of the Phrygian language to Greek and its dissimilarity with the Anatolian languages spoken by most of their neighbors is also taken as support for a European origin of the Phrygians.


title: Phrygia

text: From what is available, it is evident that Phrygian shares important features with Greek and Armenian. Phrygian is part of the centum group of Indo-European languages. However, between the 19th and the first half of the 20th century Phrygian was mostly considered a satəm language, and thus closer to Armenian and Thracian, while today it is commonly considered to be a centum language and thus closer to Greek. The reason that in the past Phrygian had the guise of a satəm language was due to two secondary processes that affected it. Namely, Phrygian merged the old labiovelar with the plain velar, and secondly, when in contact with palatal vowels /e/ and /i/, especially in initial position, some consonants became palatalized. Furthermore, Kortlandt (1988) presented common sound changes of Thracian and Armenian and their separation from Phrygian and the rest of the palaeo-Balkan languages from an early stage.


title: Phrygia

text: Modern consensus regards Greek as the closest relative of Phrygian, a position that is supported by Brixhe, Neumann, Matzinger, Woodhouse, Ligorio, Lubotsky, and Obrador-Cursach. Furthermore, 34 out of the 36 Phrygian isoglosses that are recorded are shared with Greek, with 22 being exclusive between them. The last 50 years of Phrygian scholarship developed a hypothesis that proposes a proto-Graeco-Phrygian stage out of which Greek and Phrygian originated, and if Phrygian was more sufficiently attested, that stage could perhaps be reconstructed.


title: Phrygia

text: Some scholars dismiss the claim of a Phrygian migration as a mere legend, likely arising from the coincidental similarity of their name to the Bryges, and have theorized that migration into Phrygia could have occurred more recently than classical sources suggest. They have sought to fit the Phrygian arrival into a narrative explaining the downfall of the Hittite Empire and the end of the high Bronze Age in Anatolia.


title: Phrygia

text: According to the "recent migration" theory, the Phrygians invaded just before or after the collapse of the Hittite Empire at the beginning of the 12th century BC, filling the political vacuum in central-western Anatolia, and may have been counted among the "Sea Peoples" that Egyptian records credit with bringing about the Hittite collapse. The so-called Handmade Knobbed Ware found in Western Anatolia during this period has been tentatively identified as an import connected to this invasion.


title: Phrygia

text: Some scholars accept as factual the "Iliad"'s account that the Phrygians were established on the Sakarya River before the Trojan War, and thus must have been there during the later stages of the Hittite Empire, and probably earlier, and consequently dismiss proposals of recent immigration to Phrygia. These scholars seek instead to trace the Phrygians' origins among the many nations of western Anatolia who were subject to the Hittites. This interpretation also gets support from Greek legends about the founding of Phrygia's main city Gordium by Gordias and of Ancyra by Midas, which suggest that Gordium and Ancyra were believed to date from the distant past before the Trojan War.


title: Phrygia

text: No one has conclusively identified which of the many subjects of the Hittites might have represented early Phrygians. According to a classical tradition, popularized by Josephus, Phrygia can be equated with the country called Togarmah by the ancient Hebrews, which has in turn been identified as the Tegarama of Hittite texts and Til-Garimmu of Assyrian records. Josephus called Togarmah "the Thrugrammeans, who, as the Greeks resolved, were named Phrygians". However, the Greek source cited by Josephus is unknown, and it is unclear if there was any basis for the identification other than name similarity.


title: Phrygia

text: Scholars of the Hittites believe Tegarama was in eastern Anatolia – some locate it at Gurun – far to the east of Phrygia. Some scholars have identified Phrygia with the Assuwa league, and noted that the "Iliad" mentions a Phrygian (Queen Hecuba's brother) named Asios. Another possible early name of Phrygia could be Hapalla, the name of the easternmost province that emerged from the splintering of the Bronze Age western Anatolian empire Arzawa. However, scholars are unsure if Hapalla corresponds to Phrygia or to Pisidia, further south.


title: Phrygia

text: Ancient Greek historian Herodotus (writing circa 440 BCE), suggested that Armenians migrated from Phrygia, which at the time encompassed much of western and central Anatolia: "the Armenians were equipped like Phrygians, being Phrygian colonists" (7.73) ("") According to Herotodus, the Phrygians had originated in the Balkans, in an area adjoining Macedonia, from where they had emigrated to Anatolia during the Bronze Age collapse. This led later scholars, such as Igor Diakonoff, to theorize that Armenians also originated in the Balkans and moved east with the Phrygians. However, an Armenian origin in the Balkans, although once widely accepted, has been facing increased scrutiny in recent years due to discrepancies in the timeline and lack of genetic and archeological evidence. In fact, some scholars have suggested that the Phrygians and/or the apparently related Mushki people were originally from Armenia and moved westward.


title: Phrygia

text: A number of linguists have rejected a close relationship between Armenian and Phrygian, despite saying that the two languages do share some features. Phrygian is now classified as a centum language more closely related to Greek than Armenian, whereas Armenian is mostly satem.


title: Phrygia

text: According to the Iliad, the homeland of the Phrygians was on the Sangarius River, which would remain the centre of Phrygia throughout its history. Phrygia was famous for its wine and had "brave and expert" horsemen.


title: Phrygia

text: According to the Iliad, before the Trojan War, a young king Priam of Troy had taken an army to Phrygia to support it in a war against the Amazons. Homer calls the Phrygians "the people of Otreus and godlike Mygdon". According to Euripides, Quintus Smyrnaeus and others, this Mygdon's son, Coroebus, fought and died in the Trojan War; he had sued for the hand of the Trojan princess Cassandra in marriage. The name "Otreus" could be an eponym for Otroea, a place on Lake Ascania in the vicinity of the later Nicaea, and the name "Mygdon" is clearly an eponym for the Mygdones, a people said by Strabo to live in northwest Asia Minor, and who appear to have sometimes been considered distinct from the Phrygians. However, Pausanias believed that Mygdon's tomb was located at Stectorium in the southern Phrygian highlands, near modern Sandikli.


title: Phrygia

text: According to the "Bibliotheca", the Greek hero Heracles slew a king Mygdon of the Bebryces in a battle in northwest Anatolia that if historical would have taken place about a generation before the Trojan War. According to the story, while traveling from Minoa to the Amazons, Heracles stopped in Mysia and supported the Mysians in a battle with the Bebryces. According to some interpretations, Bebryces is an alternate name for Phrygians and this Mygdon is the same person mentioned in the Iliad.


title: Phrygia

text: King Priam married the Phrygian princess Hecabe (or Hecuba) and maintained a close alliance with the Phrygians, who repaid him by fighting "ardently" in the Trojan War against the Greeks. Hecabe was a daughter of the Phrygian king Dymas, son of Eioneus, son of Proteus. According to the Iliad, Hecabe's younger brother Asius also fought at Troy (see above); and Quintus Smyrnaeus mentions two grandsons of Dymas that fell at the hands of Neoptolemus at the end of the Trojan War: "Two sons he slew of Meges rich in gold, Scion of Dymas – sons of high renown, cunning to hurl the dart, to drive the steed in war, and deftly cast the lance afar, born at one birth beside Sangarius' banks of Periboea to him, Celtus one, and Eubius the other." Teleutas, father of the maiden Tecmessa, is mentioned as another mythical Phrygian king.


title: Phrygia

text: There are indications in the Iliad that the heart of the Phrygian country was further north and downriver than it would be in later history. The Phrygian contingent arrives to aid Troy coming from Lake Ascania in northwest Anatolia, and is led by Phorcys and Ascanius, both sons of Aretaon.


title: Phrygia

text: In one of the so-called Homeric Hymns, Phrygia is said to be "rich in fortresses" and ruled by "famous Otreus".


title: Phrygia

text: During the 8th century BC, the Phrygian kingdom with its capital at Gordium in the upper Sakarya River valley expanded into an empire dominating most of central and western Anatolia and encroaching upon the larger Assyrian Empire to its southeast and the kingdom of Urartu to the northeast.


title: Phrygia

text: According to the classical historians Strabo, Eusebius and Julius Africanus, the king of Phrygia during this time was another Midas. This historical Midas is believed to be the same person named as Mita in Assyrian texts from the period and identified as king of the Mushki. Scholars figure that Assyrians called Phrygians "Mushki" because the Phrygians and Mushki, an eastern Anatolian people, were at that time campaigning in a joint army. This Midas is thought to have reigned Phrygia at the peak of its power from about 720 BC to about 695 BC (according to Eusebius) or 676 BC (according to Julius Africanus). An Assyrian inscription mentioning "Mita", dated to 709 BC, during the reign of Sargon of Assyria, suggests Phrygia and Assyria had struck a truce by that time. This Midas appears to have had good relations and close trade ties with the Greeks, and reputedly married an Aeolian Greek princess.


title: Phrygia

text: A system of writing in the Phrygian language developed and flourished in Gordium during this period, using a Phoenician-derived alphabet similar to the Greek one. A distinctive Phrygian pottery called Polished Ware appears during this period.


title: Phrygia

text: However, the Phrygian Kingdom was then overwhelmed by Cimmerian invaders, and Gordium was sacked and destroyed. According to Strabo and others, Midas committed suicide by drinking bulls' blood.


title: Phrygia

text: A series of digs have opened Gordium as one of Turkey's most revealing archeological sites. Excavations confirm a violent destruction of Gordium around 675 BC. A tomb from the period, popularly identified as the "Tomb of Midas", revealed a wooden structure deeply buried under a vast tumulus, containing grave goods, a coffin, furniture, and food offerings (Archaeological Museum, Ankara).


title: Phrygia

text: After their destruction of Gordium, the Cimmerians remained in western Anatolia and warred with Lydia, which eventually expelled them by around 620 BC, and then expanded to incorporate Phrygia, which became the Lydian empire's eastern frontier. The Gordium site reveals a considerable building program during the 6th century BC, under the domination of Lydian kings including the proverbially rich King Croesus. Meanwhile, Phrygia's former eastern subjects fell to Assyria and later to the Medes.


title: Phrygia

text: There may be an echo of strife with Lydia and perhaps a veiled reference to royal hostages, in the legend of the twice-unlucky Phrygian prince Adrastus, who accidentally killed his brother and exiled himself to Lydia, where King Croesus welcomed him. Once again, Adrastus accidentally killed Croesus' son and then committed suicide.


title: Phrygia

text: Some time in the 540s BC, Phrygia passed to the Achaemenid (Great Persian) Empire when Cyrus the Great conquered Lydia.


title: Phrygia

text: After Darius the Great became Persian Emperor in 521 BC, he remade the ancient trade route into the Persian "Royal Road" and instituted administrative reforms that included setting up satrapies. The Phrygian satrapy (province) lay west of the Halys River (now Kızıl River) and east of Mysia and Lydia. Its capital was established at Dascylium, modern Ergili.


title: Phrygia

text: In the course of the 5th century, the region was divided in two administrative satrapies: Hellespontine Phrygia and Greater Phrygia.


title: Phrygia

text: The Macedonian Greek conqueror Alexander the Great passed through Gordium in 333 BC and severed the Gordian Knot in the temple of Sabazios ("Zeus"). According to a legend, possibly promulgated by Alexander's publicists, whoever untied the knot would be master of Asia. With Gordium sited on the Persian Royal Road that led through the heart of Anatolia, the prophecy had some geographical plausibility. With Alexander, Phrygia became part of the wider Hellenistic world. Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Battle of Ipsus took place in 301 BC.


title: Phrygia

text: In the chaotic period after Alexander's death, northern Phrygia was overrun by Celts, eventually to become the province of Galatia. The former capital of Gordium was captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon afterwards and disappeared from history.


title: Phrygia

text: In 188 BC, the southern remnant of Phrygia came under the control of the Attalids of Pergamon. However, the Phrygian language survived, although now written in the Greek alphabet.


title: Phrygia

text: In 133 BC, the remnants of Phrygia passed to Rome. For purposes of provincial administration, the Romans maintained a divided Phrygia, attaching the northeastern part to the province of Galatia and the western portion to the province of Asia. There is some evidence that western Phrygia and Caria were separated from Asia in 254–259 to become the new province of Phrygia and Caria. During the reforms of Diocletian, Phrygia was divided anew into two provinces: "Phrygia I", or Phrygia Salutaris (meaning "healthy" in Latin), and Phrygia II, or Pacatiana (Greek Πακατιανή, "peaceful"), both under the Diocese of Asia. Salutaris with Synnada as its capital comprised the eastern portion of the region and Pacatiana with Laodicea on the Lycus as capital of the western portion. The provinces survived up to the end of the 7th century, when they were replaced by the Theme system. In the Late Roman, early "Byzantine" period, most of Phrygia belonged to the Anatolic theme. It was overrun by the Turks in the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert (1071). The Turks had taken complete control in the 13th century, but the ancient name of "Phrygia" remained in use until the last remnant of the Byzantine Empire was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453.


title: Phrygia

text: The ruins of Gordion and Midas City prove that Phrygia had developed an advanced Bronze Age culture. This Phrygian culture interacted in a number of ways with Greek culture in various periods of history.


title: Phrygia

text: The "Great Mother", Cybele, as the Greeks and Romans knew her, was originally worshiped in the mountains of Phrygia, where she was known as "Mountain Mother". In her typical Phrygian form, she wears a long belted dress, a "polos" (a high cylindrical headdress), and a veil covering the whole body. The later version of Cybele was established by a pupil of Phidias, the sculptor Agoracritus, and became the image most widely adopted by Cybele's expanding following, both in the Aegean world and at Rome. It shows her humanized though still enthroned, her hand resting on an attendant lion and the other holding the "tympanon", a circular frame drum, similar to a tambourine.


title: Phrygia

text: The Phrygians also venerated Sabazios, the sky and father-god depicted on horseback. Although the Greeks associated Sabazios with Zeus, representations of him, even in Roman times, show him as a horseman god. His conflicts with the indigenous Mother Goddess, whose creature was the Lunar Bull, may be surmised in the way that Sabazios' horse places a hoof on the head of a bull, in a Roman relief at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.


title: Phrygia

text: The earliest traditions of Greek music derived from Phrygia, transmitted through the Greek colonies in Anatolia, and included the Phrygian mode, which was considered to be the warlike mode in ancient Greek music. Phrygian Midas, the king of the "golden touch", was tutored in music by Orpheus himself, according to the myth. Another musical invention that came from Phrygia was the aulos, a reed instrument with two pipes.


title: Phrygia

text: Marsyas, the satyr who first formed the instrument using the hollowed antler of a stag, was a Phrygian follower of Cybele. He unwisely competed in music with the Olympian Apollo and inevitably lost, whereupon Apollo flayed Marsyas alive and provocatively hung his skin on Cybele's own sacred tree, a pine. Phrygia was also the scene of another musical contest, between Apollo and Pan. Midas was either a judge or spectator, and said he preferred Pan's pipes to Apollo's lyre, and was given donkey's ears as a punishment. The two stories were often confused or conflated, as by Titian.


title: Phrygia

text: Classical Greek iconography identifies the Trojan Paris as non-Greek by his Phrygian cap, which was worn by Mithras and survived into modern imagery as the "Liberty cap" of the American and French revolutionaries.


title: Phrygia

text: The Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language. ("See Phrygian language.") Although the Phrygians adopted the alphabet originated by the Phoenicians, only a few dozen inscriptions in the Phrygian language have been found, primarily funereal, and so much of what is thought to be known of Phrygia is second-hand information from Greek sources.


title: Phrygia

text: The name of the earliest known mythical king was Nannacus (aka Annacus). This king resided at Iconium, the most eastern city of the kingdom of Phrygia at that time; and after his death, at the age of 300 years, a great flood overwhelmed the country, as had been foretold by an ancient oracle. The next king mentioned in extant classical sources was called Manis or Masdes. According to Plutarch, because of his splendid exploits, great things were called "manic" in Phrygia. Thereafter, the kingdom of Phrygia seems to have become fragmented among various kings. One of the kings was Tantalus, who ruled over the north western region of Phrygia around Mount Sipylus. Tantalus was endlessly punished in Tartarus, because he allegedly killed his son Pelops and sacrificially offered him to the Olympians, a reference to the suppression of human sacrifice. Tantalus was also falsely accused of stealing from the lotteries he had invented. In the mythic age before the Trojan war, during a time of an interregnum, Gordius (or Gordias), a Phrygian farmer, became king, fulfilling an oracular prophecy. The kingless Phrygians had turned for guidance to the oracle of Sabazios ("Zeus" to the Greeks) at Telmissus, in the part of Phrygia that later became part of Galatia. They had been instructed by the oracle to acclaim as their king the first man who rode up to the god's temple in a cart. That man was Gordias (Gordios, Gordius), a farmer, who dedicated the ox-cart in question, tied to its shaft with the "Gordian Knot". Gordias refounded a capital at Gordium in west central Anatolia, situated on the old trackway through the heart of Anatolia that became Darius's Persian "Royal Road" from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the River Sangarius.


title: Phrygia

text: The Phrygians are associated in Greek mythology with the Dactyls, minor gods credited with the invention of iron smelting, who in most versions of the legend lived at Mount Ida in Phrygia.


title: Phrygia

text: Gordias's son (adopted in some versions) was Midas. A large body of myths and legends surround this first king Midas. connecting him with a mythological tale concerning Attis. This shadowy figure resided at Pessinus and attempted to marry his daughter to the young Attis in spite of the opposition of his lover Agdestis and his mother, the goddess Cybele. When Agdestis and/or Cybele appear and cast madness upon the members of the wedding feast. Midas is said to have died in the ensuing chaos.


title: Phrygia

text: King Midas is said to have associated himself with Silenus and other satyrs and with Dionysus, who granted him a "golden touch".


title: Phrygia

text: In one version of his story, Midas travels from Thrace accompanied by a band of his people to Asia Minor to wash away the taint of his unwelcome "golden touch" in the river Pactolus. Leaving the gold in the river's sands, Midas found himself in Phrygia, where he was adopted by the childless king Gordias and taken under the protection of Cybele. Acting as the visible representative of Cybele, and under her authority, it would seem, a Phrygian king could designate his successor.


title: Phrygia

text: According to Herodotus, the Egyptian pharaoh Psammetichus II had two children raised in isolation in order to find the original language. The children were reported to have uttered "bekos", which is Phrygian for "bread", so Psammetichus admitted that the Phrygians were a nation older than the Egyptians.


title: Phrygia

text: Visitors from Phrygia were reported to have been among the crowds present in Jerusalem on the occasion of Pentecost as recorded in . In the Apostle Paul and his companion Silas travelled through Phrygia and the region of Galatia proclaiming the Christian gospel. Their plans appear to have been to go to Asia but circumstances or guidance, "in ways which we are not told, by inner promptings, or by visions of the night, or by the inspired utterances of those among their converts who had received the gift of prophecy" prevented them from doing so and instead they travelled westwards towards the coast.


title: Phrygia

text: The Christian heresy known as Montanism, and still known in Orthodoxy as "the Phrygian heresy", arose in the unidentified village of Ardabau in the 2nd century AD, and was distinguished by ecstatic spirituality and women priests. Originally described as a rural movement, it is now thought to have been of urban origin like other Christian developments. The new Jerusalem its adherents founded in the village of Pepouza has now been identified in a remote valley that later held a monastery.


title: Bai Ling

text: Bai Ling (, born October 10, 1966) is a Chinese-American actress known for her work in the films "The Crow", "Nixon", "Red Corner", "", "Dumplings", "Wild Wild West", "Anna and the King", "Southland Tales", and "Maximum Impact", as well as TV shows "Entourage" and "Lost". Notably, she won the Best Supporting Actress awards at the 2004 Hong Kong Film Awards and the 2004 Golden Horse Awards in Taiwan for her role in "Dumplings".


title: Bai Ling

text: Bai was born in Chengdu. Her father, Bai Yuxiang (), was a musician in the People's Liberation Army, and later a music teacher. Her mother, Chen Binbin (), was a dancer, stage actress, and literature teacher at Sichuan University; Bai's maternal grandfather was a military officer of the Kuomintang army, thus was persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. In the early 1980s, Bai Ling's parents divorced, and her mother married renowned writer Xu Chi. Bai Ling has one older sister, Bai Jie (), who works for the Chinese tax bureau, and a younger brother, Bai Chen (), who emigrated to Japan and works for an American company.


title: Bai Ling

text: Bai has described herself as a very shy child who found that she best expressed herself through acting and performing. During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), she learned how to perform by participating in eight model plays, at her elementary school shows. After her graduation from middle school, Bai was sent to do labor work at Shuangliu, on the outskirts of Chengdu.


title: Bai Ling

text: In 1978, after graduating from high school, she passed the People's Liberation Army's exams, and became an artist soldier in Nyingchi Prefecture, Tibet. Her main activity there was entertaining in the musical theater. She also served briefly as an Army nurse. Ling later stated that during her time in Tibet, other female performers and she were regularly plied with alcohol and sexually abused by older male officers, including one instance of rape that led to a pregnancy she aborted. She cites this period of sexual abuse for her subsequent struggles with alcohol addiction. Subsequently, Bai spent some time in a mental hospital.


title: Bai Ling

text: Soon after her release from the hospital, in 1981, Bai joined People's Art Theater of Chengdu, and became a professional actress. Her performance as a young man in the stage play "Yueqin and Little Tiger" drew the attention of movie director Teng Wenji (滕文骥), which gained her first movie role in "On the Beach" (1985), as a village girl who becomes a factory worker and struggled against her father's will for her to marry her cousin.


title: Bai Ling

text: In later years, she appeared in several movies. She temporarily moved to New York in 1991 to attend New York University's film department as a visiting scholar, but later obtained a special visa that allowed her to remain in the United States until she became a U.S. citizen in 1999.


title: Bai Ling

text: Bai began her acting career in China, appearing in several Chinese feature films. In 1984, she made her film debut as a fishing village girl in the movie "On the Beach" (海滩). Later, she filmed several other movies, including "Suspended Sentence" (缓期执行), "Yueyue" (月月), and "Tears in Suzhou" (泪洒姑苏) without much attention. She became famous after playing a girl with a psychological disorder who has an affair with her doctor, in the film "The Shining Arc" (弧光), directed by Zhang Junzhao (张军钊), her most highly acclaimed role in the Chinese film industry. In 1991, Bai moved to the United States, where she appeared in a number of American films and television shows.


title: Bai Ling

text: Bai's first major American film role was in "The Crow" (1994), where she played the half sister/lover of the main villain, Top Dollar. In 1997, she played the lead female role, opposite Richard Gere, in the American film "Red Corner". "The New York Times" praised Bai Ling's performance, saying that she gave the film "not only grace, but also substantial gravity". For her role in "Red Corner", she received the National Board of Review Freedom for Breakthrough Female Performance and the San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Actress. The film was critical of human rights abuse in China, and as a result, Bai Ling's Chinese citizenship was revoked. She later became a U.S. citizen.


title: Bai Ling

text: Bai was named one of "People"s 50 Most Beautiful People in the World in 1998. She shaved off her hair, which was longer than 36 in (90 cm) for her role in "Anna and the King", and is widely known in Thailand as "Tuptim", her character's name from the film, though the film is officially banned because of its depiction of the King of Siam. She filmed scenes for "" (2005) as Senator Bana Breemu, but her role was cut during editing. She claimed that this was because she posed naked in the June 2005 issue of "Playboy" magazine, whose appearance on newsstands coincided with the movie's May 2005 release, but director George Lucas denied this, stating that the cut had been made more than a year earlier. Her scenes were included in the deleted scenes feature of the DVD release.


title: Bai Ling

text: In 2004, Bai made a comeback to Chinese cinema, co-starring with Hong Kong actress Miriam Yeung in independent filmmaker Fruit Chan's horror thriller "Dumplings". Her portrayal of the villainous local chef Aunt Mei in the film earned her the 2005 Hong Kong Film Award for Best Supporting Actress, and led to her renewed popularity among the Chinese film audience. In the same year, she also received critical acclaim for her performance in another independent movie, "The Beautiful Country", co-starring Nick Nolte, and directed by Hans Petter Moland.


title: Bai Ling

text: Later in 2005, Bai was a member of the official jury at the 55th Berlin International Film Festival. On television, she was a cast member on the VH1 program called "But Can They Sing?". Also in 2005, Bai guest-starred in season two of "Entourage" in which she played a love interest of Vincent Chase (Adrian Grenier).


title: Bai Ling

text: In 2007, she starred as Coco in the film adaptation of the controversial Chinese contemporary novel "Shanghai Baby", which premiered at Cannes Film Festival, and also guest-starred in one episode ("Stranger in a Strange Land") of the show "Lost". Since 2007, she has appeared in a number of films, including "Love Ranch", "", and "A Beautiful Life", although she became more well known for her red-carpet appearances and outrageous fashions.


title: Bai Ling

text: In 2013, Bai enjoyed a career resurgence with the movie "The Gauntlet" (a.k.a. "Game of Assassins"), which earned her the Best Actress award at the Los Angeles Cinema Festival of Hollywood, and at the 2014 Asians on Film Festival. Also, for "Speed Dragon", she received the Best Feature Film Award at the New York International Independent Film and Video Festival. In late 2014, Bai starred alongside David Arquette in "The Key", Jefery Levy's adaptation of the novel by Nobel Prize laureate Jun'ichirō Tanizaki. In October 2014, Bai was a member of the jury in the "India Gold 2014" section of the Mumbai Film Festival.


title: Bai Ling

text: On February 14, 2008, Bai was arrested at Los Angeles International Airport for shoplifting. Bai stated it was an "emotionally crazy" day due to the breakup of a relationship, and was ordered to pay a fine and penalties after pleading guilty in March 2008 to disturbing the peace.


title: Bai Ling

text: In a 2009 interview, Bai claimed that she is from the Moon, where her grandmother lives. "I'm not really in reality. I'm in my own universe and my mind is a million miles somewhere else", she stated, further explaining: "Why I feel like I come from the Moon is because my mother told me I was found somewhere". She believes that when she looks up at the Moon, she can often spot her grandmother there, still living in her childhood home.


title: Bai Ling

text: In 2011, she appeared in the fifth season of the VH1 reality television series "Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew", which documented her recovery from alcohol addiction. Bai is openly bisexual.


title: Federico Marchetti (businessman)

text: Federico Marchetti (born 21 February 1969) is an Italian businessman who founded and, until July 2021, was chairman and CEO of YOOX NET-A-PORTER Group.


title: Federico Marchetti (businessman)

text: Federico Marchetti was born in 1969 and raised in Ravenna, Italy. His father worked in an automobile factory and his mother was a telephone operator. Marchetti graduated from Bocconi University in 1993 with a degree in Economics. His first job was at the Lehman Brothers branch officer in Milan, where he worked in investment banking for three years. In 1998 he moved to New York City to pursue graduate studies, and received an MBA from Columbia University and following a brief career in finance and consulting, he created the Internet retailing company in 2000 in Zola Predosa. in 1999. While at Columbia, he made the decision to leave the banking industry and become an entrepreneur, however, after receiving his degree, he took a job with Bain & Company in Milan after attempting to find a position in the American entertainment industry.


title: Federico Marchetti (businessman)

text: He came upon the idea of combining the “exclusive” nature of luxury fashion with the full “accessibility” of the Internet. In 1999 he developed a business plan for Yoox, whose name comes from the Y and X chromosomes, combined with the 00 from the binary of computer code. He then quit his consulting job, and after cold-calling venture capitalist Elserino Piol, who gave Marchetti 4.5 million euros in funding in March 2000 in exchange for 35% of the company, he created the Internet retailing company YOOX. In 2010, YOOX Group opened its first offices in China in the city of Shanghai, opening its first mono-brand site there, www.emporioarmani.cn. In 2012, YOOX Group partnered with Kering Group and the two established a joint venture that manages the mono-brand online stores of Kering’s luxury brands: Bottega Veneta, Saint Laurent, Alexander McQueen, Balenciaga, Sergio Rossi, Stella McCartney and Brioni. In 2015 his company acquired Net-A-Porter, changing the name of the firm to YOOX Net-A-Porter Group, becoming the largest e-commerce fashion company in the world, and in 2018 the company was acquired by Richemont. In 2016, YOOX Net-A-Porter Group and Symphony, an entity controlled by Mohamed Alabbar’s family, established a joint venture  to create a platform for online luxury retail for the Middle East.


title: Federico Marchetti (businessman)

text: Marchetti is an art collector, with paintings from artists including Ettore Sottsass, Franz West, Yoshitomo Nara, Mark Kostabi, Andy Warhol, Lucian Freud, and Francesco Vezzoli. He began his collection in the early 1990s soon after he graduated. He is specifically interested in works revolving around Dracula and the literature of Bram Stoker, and has travelled to research the subject.


title: Federico Marchetti (businessman)

text: Since 2014 Yoox has been selling works by artists such as Damien Hirst, Marc Quinn and Peter Blake and designs from companies like Cappellini, Alessi, and Kartell, which it took on as one of its mono-brand clients.[13]


title: Federico Marchetti (businessman)

text: In 2011, Marchetti was given an award for Innovation and Internet by the Italy-based Chi è Chi (Who's Who) organization. On 25 January 2012, Marchetti and YOOX Group were awarded the Comitato Leonardo's Premio Leonardo award for innovation by Giorgio Napolitano, President of Italy. In 2016 Marchetti was recognized as Italy's Entrepreneur of the Year by Ernst & Young, for founding and successfully leading the Yoox Net-a-Porter Group. He received the "America Award" of the Italy–USA Foundation in 2018.