title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: In June 2021, AstraZeneca published a press release confirming undergoing Phase II/III trials of an AZD2816 COVID-19 variant vaccine candidate. The new vaccine would be based on the current "Vaxzevria" adenoviral vector platform but modified with spike proteins based on the Beta (B.1.351 lineage) variant. Phase II/III trials saw 2849 volunteers participating from UK, South Africa, Brazil and Poland with parallel dosing of both the current Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine and the variant vaccine candidate. By September 2021, AZD2816 vaccine candidate is still undergoing Phase II/III trials with intent to switch to this vaccine if approved by government regulators. Particularly the government of Thailand, with delivery of additional 60 million doses of AstraZeneca COVID-19 Vaccine agreed for 2022.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: In December 2020, a clinical trial was registered to examine a heterologous prime-boost vaccination course consisting of one dose of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine followed by Sputnik Light based on the Ad26 vector 29 days later.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: After suspensions due to rare cases of blood clots in March 2021, Canada and several European countries recommended receiving a different vaccine for the second dose. Despite the lack of clinical data on the efficacy and safety of such heterologous combinations, some experts believe that doing so may boost immunity, and several studies have begun to examine this effect.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: In June 2021, preliminary results from a study of 463 participants showed that a heterologous prime-boost vaccination course consisting of one dose of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine followed by one dose of the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine produced the strongest T cell activity and an antibody level almost as high as two doses of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. The reversal of the order resulted in T cell activity at half the potency and one-seventh the antibody levels, the latter still five times higher than two doses of Oxford–AstraZeneca. The lowest T cell activity was observed in homologous courses, when both doses were of the same vaccine.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: In July 2021, a study of 216 participants found that a heterologous prime-boost vaccination course consisting of one dose of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine followed by one dose of the Moderna vaccine produced a similar level of neutralizing antibodies and T cell responses with increased spike-specific cytotoxic T cells compared to a homologous course consisting of two doses of the Moderna vaccine.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: The Oxford University and AstraZeneca collaboration was seen as having the potential as being a low-cost vaccine with no onerous storage requirements. A series of events including a deliberate undermining of the AstraZeneca vaccine for geopolitical purposes by both the EU and EU member states including miscommunication, reports of supply difficulties (responsibility of which were due to the EU mis-handling vaccine procurement) misleading reports of inefficacy and adverse effects as well as the high-profile European Commission–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine dispute, have been a public relations disaster for both Brussels and member states, and in the opinion of one academic has led to increased vaccine hesitancy.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: The vaccine is a key component of the WHO backed COVAX (COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access) program, with the WHO, the EMA, and the MHRA continuing to state that the benefits of the vaccine outweigh any possible side effects.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: About 69million doses of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine were administered in the EU/EEA from authorization to 26 June 2022.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: Agreements for access to vaccines began being signed in May 2020, with the UK having priority for the first 100million doses if trials proved successful, with the final agreement being signed at the end of August.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: On 21 May 2020, AstraZeneca agreed to provide 300million doses to the US for , implying a cost of per dose. An AstraZeneca spokesman said the funding also covers development and clinical testing. It also reached a technology transfer agreement with the Mexican and Argentinean governments and agreed to produce at least 400million doses to be distributed throughout Latin America. The active ingredients would be produced in Argentina and sent to Mexico to be completed for distribution. In June 2020, Emergent BioSolutions signed a deal to manufacture doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine specifically for the US market. The deal was part of the Trump administration's Operation Warp Speed initiative to develop and rapidly scale production of targeted vaccines before the end of 2020. Catalent would be responsible for the finishing and packaging process.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: On 4 June 2020, the WHO's COVAX (COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access) facility made initial purchases of 300million doses from the company for low- to middle-income countries. Also, AstraZeneca and Serum Institute of India reached a licensing agreement to independently supply 1billion doses of the Oxford University vaccine to middle- and low-income countries, including India. Later in September, funded by a grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the COVAX program secured an additional 100 million doses at US$3 per dose.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: On 27 August 2020, AstraZeneca concluded an agreement with the EU, to supply up to 400million doses to all EU and select European Economic Area (EEA) member states. The European Commission took over negotiations started by the Inclusive Vaccines Alliance, a group made up of France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands, in June 2020.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: On 5 November 2020, a tripartite agreement was signed between the government of Bangladesh, the Serum Institute of India, and Beximco Pharma of Bangladesh. Under the agreement Bangladesh ordered 30million doses of Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine from Serum through Beximco for $4 per shot. On the other hand, Indian government has given 3.2 million doses to Bangladesh as a gift which were also produced by Serum. But Serum supplied only 7 million doses from the tripartite agreement in the first two months of the year. Bangladesh was supposed to receive 5 million doses per month but not received shipments in March and April. As a result, rollout of vaccine has been disrupted by supply shortfalls. The situation became complicated when the second dose of 1.3 million citizens is uncertain as India halts exports. Not getting the second dose at the right time is likely to reduce the effectiveness of the vaccination program. In addition, several citizens of Bangladesh have expressed doubts about its effectiveness and safety. Bangladesh is looking for alternative vaccine sources because India isn't supplying the vaccine according to the timeline of the deal.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: Thailand's agreement in November 2020 for 26million doses of vaccine would cover 13million people, approximately 20% of the population, with the first lot expected to be delivered at the end of May. The public health minister indicated the price paid was $5 per dose; AstraZeneca (Thailand) explained in January 2021 after a controversy that the price each country paid depended on production cost and differences in supply chain, including manufacturing capacity, labour and raw material costs. In January 2021, the Thai cabinet approved further talks on ordering another 35million doses, and the Thai FDA approved the vaccine for emergency use for 1year. Siam Bioscience, a company owned by Vajiralongkorn, will receive technological transfer and has the capacity to manufacture up to 200million doses a year for export to ASEAN.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: Also in November, the Philippines agreed to buy 2.6million doses, reportedly worth around million (approximately per dose). In December 2020, South Korea signed a contract with AstraZeneca to secure 20million doses of its vaccine, reportedly equivalent in worth to those signed by Thailand and the Philippines, with the first shipment expected as early as January 2021. , the vaccine remains under review by the South Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency. AstraZeneca signed a deal with South Korea's SK Bioscience to manufacture its vaccine products. The collaboration calls for the SK affiliate to manufacture AZD1222 for local and global markets.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: On 7 January 2021, the South African government announced that they had secured an initial 1million doses from the Serum Institute of India, to be followed by another 500,000 doses in February, however the South African government subsequently cancelled the use of the vaccine, selling its supply to other African countries, and switched its vaccination program to use the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: On 22 January 2021, AstraZeneca announced that in the event the European Union approved the COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca, initial supplies would be lower than expected due to production issues at Novasep in Belgium. Only 31million of the previously predicted 80million doses would be delivered to the EU by March 2021. In an interview with Italian newspaper "La Repubblica", AstraZeneca's CEO Pascal Soriot said the delivery schedule for the doses in the EU was two months behind schedule. He mentioned low yield from cell cultures at one large-scale European site. Analysis published in "The Guardian" also identified an apparently low yield from bioreactors in the Belgium plant and noted the difficulties in setting up this form of process, with variable yields often occurring. As a result, the EU imposed export controls on vaccine doses; controversy erupted as to whether doses were being diverted to the UK and whether deliveries to Northern Ireland would be disrupted.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: On 24 February 2021, a shipment of the vaccine to Accra, Ghana, via COVAX made it the first country in Africa to receive vaccines via the initiative.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: In early 2021, the Bureau for Investigative Journalism found that South Africa had paid double the rate for the European Commission, while Uganda paid triple.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: The vaccine is marketed under the brand name Covishield by the Serum Institute of India. The name of the vaccine was changed to Vaxzevria in the European Union on 25 March 2021. Vaxzevria, AstraZeneca COVID‐19 Vaccine, and COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca are manufactured by AstraZeneca.


title: Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

text: , the AZD1222 development team is working on adapting the vaccine to be more effective in relation to newer SARS-CoV-2 variants; redesigning the vaccine being the relatively quick process of switching the genetic sequence of the spike protein. Manufacturing set-up and a small scale trial are also required before the adapted vaccine might be available in autumn.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP ) is an open, vendor-neutral, industry standard application protocol for accessing and maintaining distributed directory information services over an Internet Protocol (IP) network. Directory services play an important role in developing intranet and Internet applications by allowing the sharing of information about users, systems, networks, services, and applications throughout the network. As examples, directory services may provide any organized set of records, often with a hierarchical structure, such as a corporate email directory. Similarly, a telephone directory is a list of subscribers with an address and a phone number.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: LDAP is specified in a series of Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Standard Track publications called Request for Comments (RFCs), using the description language ASN.1. The latest specification is Version 3, published as RFC 4511 (a road map to the technical specifications is provided by RFC4510).


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: A common use of LDAP is to provide a central place to store usernames and passwords. This allows many different applications and services to connect to the LDAP server to validate users.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: LDAP is based on a simpler subset of the standards contained within the X.500 standard. Because of this relationship, LDAP is sometimes called X.500-lite.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Telecommunication companies' understanding of directory requirements were well developed after some 70 years of producing and managing telephone directories. These companies introduced the concept of directory services to information technology and computer networking, their input culminating in the comprehensive X.500 specification, a suite of protocols produced by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the 1980s.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: X.500 directory services were traditionally accessed via the X.500 Directory Access Protocol (DAP), which required the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocol stack. LDAP was originally intended to be a lightweight alternative protocol for accessing X.500 directory services through the simpler (and now widespread) TCP/IP protocol stack. This model of directory access was borrowed from the DIXIE and Directory Assistance Service protocols.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The protocol was originally created by Tim Howes of the University of Michigan, Steve Kille of Isode Limited, Colin Robbins of Nexor and Wengyik Yeong of Performance Systems International, circa 1993, as a successor to DIXIE and DAS. Mark Wahl of Critical Angle Inc., Tim Howes, and Steve Kille started work in 1996 on a new version of LDAP, LDAPv3, under the aegis of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). LDAPv3, first published in 1997, superseded LDAPv2 and added support for extensibility, integrated the Simple Authentication and Security Layer, and better aligned the protocol to the 1993 edition of X.500. Further development of the LDAPv3 specifications themselves and of numerous extensions adding features to LDAPv3 has come through the IETF.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: In the early engineering stages of LDAP, it was known as "Lightweight Directory Browsing Protocol", or "LDBP". It was renamed with the expansion of the scope of the protocol beyond directory browsing and searching, to include directory update functions. It was given its "Lightweight" name because it was not as network intensive as its DAP predecessor and thus was more easily implemented over the Internet due to its relatively modest bandwidth usage.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: LDAP has influenced subsequent Internet protocols, including later versions of X.500, XML Enabled Directory (XED), Directory Service Markup Language (DSML), Service Provisioning Markup Language (SPML), and the Service Location Protocol (SLP). It is also used as the basis for Microsoft's Active Directory.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: A client starts an LDAP session by connecting to an LDAP server, called a Directory System Agent (DSA), by default on TCP and UDP port 389, or on port 636 for LDAPS (LDAP over TLS/SSL, see below). The client then sends an operation request to the server, and a server sends responses in return. With some exceptions, the client does not need to wait for a response before sending the next request, and the server may send the responses in any order. All information is transmitted using Basic Encoding Rules (BER).


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: In addition the server may send "Unsolicited Notifications" that are not responses to any request, e.g. before the connection is timed out.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: A common alternative method of securing LDAP communication is using an SSL tunnel. The default port for LDAP over SSL is 636. The use of LDAP over SSL was common in LDAP Version 2 (LDAPv2) but it was never standardized in any formal specification. This usage has been deprecated along with LDAPv2, which was officially retired in 2003.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: A DN may change over the lifetime of the entry, for instance, when entries are moved within a tree. To reliably and unambiguously identify entries, a UUID might be provided in the set of the entry's "operational attributes".


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: An entry can look like this when represented in LDAP Data Interchange Format (LDIF), a plain text format (as opposed a binary protocol such as LDAP itself):


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: "codice_3" is the distinguished name of the entry; it is neither an attribute nor a part of the entry. "codice_4" is the entry's RDN (Relative Distinguished Name), and "codice_5" is the DN of the parent entry, where "codice_6" denotes 'Domain Component'. The other lines show the attributes in the entry. Attribute names are typically mnemonic strings, like "codice_7" for common name, "codice_6" for domain component, "codice_9" for e-mail address, and "codice_10" for surname.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: A server holds a subtree starting from a specific entry, e.g. "codice_5" and its children. Servers may also hold references to other servers, so an attempt to access "codice_12" could return a "referral" or "continuation reference" to a server that holds that part of the directory tree. The client can then contact the other server. Some servers also support "chaining", which means the server contacts the other server and returns the results to the client.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: LDAP rarely defines any ordering: The server may return the values of an attribute, the attributes in an entry, and the entries found by a search operation in any order. This follows from the formal definitions - an entry is defined as a set of attributes, and an attribute is a set of values, and sets need not be ordered.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The ADD operation inserts a new entry into the directory-server database. If the distinguished name in the add request already exists in the directory, then the server will not add a duplicate entry but will set the result code in the add result to decimal 68, "entryAlreadyExists".


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: When an LDAP session is created, that is, when an LDAP client connects to the server, the authentication state of the session


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Simple BIND and SASL PLAIN can send the user's DN and password in plaintext, so the connections utilizing either Simple or SASL PLAIN


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: should be encrypted using Transport Layer Security (TLS). The server typically checks the password against the codice_15


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: attribute in the named entry. Anonymous BIND (with empty DN and password) resets the connection to anonymous state.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: BIND also sets the LDAP protocol version by sending a version number in the form of an integer. If the client requests a version that the server does not support,


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: the server must set the result code in the BIND response to the code for a protocol error. Normally clients should use LDAPv3, which is the


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: BIND had to be the first operation in a session in LDAPv2, but is not required as of LDAPv3. In LDAPv3, each


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: successful BIND request changes the authentication state of the session and each unsuccessful BIND request resets the authentication state


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The server returns the matching entries and potentially continuation references. These may be returned in any order. The final result will include the result code.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The Compare operation takes a DN, an attribute name and an attribute value, and checks if the named entry contains that attribute with that value.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The MODIFY operation is used by LDAP clients to request that the LDAP server make changes to existing entries. Attempts to modify entries that do not exist will fail. MODIFY requests are subject to access controls as implemented by the server.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The MODIFY operation requires that the distinguished name (DN) of the entry be specified, and a sequence of changes. Each change in the sequence must be one of:


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: To replace the value of an existing attribute, use the codice_27 keyword. If the attribute is multi-valued, the client must specify the value of the attribute to update.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: To delete an attribute from an entry, use the keyword codice_28 and the changetype designator codice_29. If the attribute is multi-valued, the client must specify the value of the attribute to delete.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: There is also a Modify-Increment extension which allows an incrementable attribute value to be incremented by a specified amount. The following example using LDIF increments codice_30 by codice_31:


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: When LDAP servers are in a replicated topology, LDAP clients should consider using the post-read control to verify updates instead of a search after an update. The post-read control is designed so that applications need not issue a search request after an update – it is bad form to retrieve an entry for the sole purpose of checking that an update worked because of the replication eventual consistency model. An LDAP client should not assume that it connects to the same directory server for each request because architects may have placed load-balancers or LDAP proxies or both between LDAP clients and servers.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Modify DN (move/rename entry) takes the new RDN (Relative Distinguished Name), optionally the new parent's DN, and a flag that indicates whether to delete the value(s) in the entry that match the old RDN. The server may support renaming of entire directory subtrees.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: An update operation is atomic: Other operations will see either the new entry or the old one. On the other hand, LDAP does not define transactions of multiple operations: If you read an entry and then modify it, another client may have updated the entry in the meantime. Servers may implement extensions that support this, though.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The Extended Operation is a generic LDAP operation that can define new operations that were not part of the original protocol specification. StartTLS is one of the most significant extensions. Other examples include Cancel and Password Modify.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The StartTLS operation establishes Transport Layer Security (the descendant of SSL) on the connection. It can provide data confidentiality (to protect data from being observed by third parties) and/or data integrity protection (which protects the data from tampering). During TLS negotiation the server sends its X.509 certificate to prove its identity. The client may also send a certificate to prove its identity. After doing so, the client may then use SASL/EXTERNAL. By using the SASL/EXTERNAL, the client requests the server derive its identity from credentials provided at a lower level (such as TLS). Though technically the server may use any identity information established at any lower level, typically the server will use the identity information established by TLS.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Servers also often support the non-standard "LDAPS" ("Secure LDAP", commonly known as "LDAP over SSL") protocol on a separate port, by default 636. LDAPS differs from LDAP in two ways:


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: 1) upon connect, the client and server establish TLS before any LDAP messages are transferred (without a StartTLS operation) and


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Some "LDAPS" client libraries only encrypt communication; they do not check the host name against the name in the supplied certificate.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The Abandon operation requests that the server abort an operation named by a message ID. The server need not honor the request. Neither Abandon nor a successfully abandoned operation send a response. A similar Cancel extended operation does send responses, but not all implementations support this.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The Unbind operation abandons any outstanding operations and closes the connection. It has no response. The name is of historical origin, and is "not" the opposite of the Bind operation.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Clients can abort a session by simply closing the connection, but they should use Unbind. Unbind allows the server to gracefully close the connection and free resources that it would otherwise keep for some time until discovering the client had abandoned the connection. It also instructs the server to cancel operations that can be canceled, and to not send responses for operations that cannot be canceled.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: An LDAP uniform resource identifier (URI) scheme exists, which clients support in varying degrees, and servers return in referrals and continuation references (see RFC 4516):


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: For example, "codice_33" refers to all user attributes in John Doe's entry in codice_34, while "codice_35" searches for the entry in the default server (note the triple slash, omitting the host, and the double question mark, omitting the attributes). As in other URLs, special characters must be percent-encoded.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: There is a similar non-standard codice_36 URI scheme for LDAP over SSL. This should not be confused with LDAP with TLS, which is achieved using the StartTLS operation using the standard codice_37 scheme.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The contents of the entries in a subtree are governed by a directory schema, a set of definitions and constraints concerning the structure of the directory information tree (DIT).


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The schema of a Directory Server defines a set of rules that govern the kinds of information that the server can hold. It has a number of elements, including:


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Attributes are the elements responsible for storing information in a directory, and the schema defines the rules for which attributes may be used in an entry, the kinds of values that those attributes may have, and how clients may interact with those values.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Clients may learn about the schema elements that the server supports by retrieving an appropriate subschema subentry.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: The schema defines "object classes". Each entry must have an objectClass attribute, containing named classes defined in the schema. The schema definition of the classes of an entry defines what kind of object the entry may represent - e.g. a person, organization or domain. The object class definitions also define the list of attributes that must contain values and the list of attributes which may contain values.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: For example, an entry representing a person might belong to the classes "top" and "person". Membership in the "person" class would require the entry to contain the "sn" and "cn" attributes, and allow the entry also to contain "userPassword", "telephoneNumber", and other attributes. Since entries may have multiple ObjectClasses values, each entry has a complex of optional and mandatory attribute sets formed from the union of the object classes it represents. ObjectClasses can be inherited, and a single entry can have multiple ObjectClasses values that define the available and required attributes of the entry itself. A parallel to the schema of an objectClass is a class definition and an instance in Object-oriented programming, representing LDAP objectClass and LDAP entry, respectively.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Directory servers may publish the directory schema controlling an entry at a base DN given by the entry's subschemaSubentry operational attribute. (An "operational attribute" describes operation of the directory rather than user information and is only returned from a search when it is explicitly requested.)


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Server administrators can add additional schema entries in addition to the provided schema elements. A schema for representing individual people within organizations is termed a white pages schema.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: A lot of the server operation is left to the implementor or administrator to decide. Accordingly, servers may be set up to support a wide variety of scenarios.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: For example, data storage in the server is not specified - the server may use flat files, databases, or just be a gateway to some other server. Access control is not standardized, though there has been work on it and there are commonly used models. Users' passwords may be stored in their entries or elsewhere. The server may refuse to perform operations when it wishes, and impose various limits.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Most parts of LDAP are extensible. Examples: One can define new operations. "Controls" may modify requests and responses, e.g. to request sorted search results. New search scopes and Bind methods can be defined. Attributes can have "options" that may modify their semantics.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: As LDAP has gained momentum, vendors have provided it as an access protocol to other services. The implementation then recasts the data to mimic the LDAP/X.500 model, but how closely this model is followed varies. For example, there is software to access SQL databases through LDAP, even though LDAP does not readily lend itself to this. X.500 servers may support LDAP as well.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Similarly, data previously held in other types of data stores are sometimes moved to LDAP directories. For example, Unix user and group information can be stored in LDAP and accessed via PAM and NSS modules. LDAP is often used by other services for authentication and/or authorization (what actions a given already-authenticated user can do on what service). For example in Active Directory Kerberos is used in the authentication step, while LDAP is used in the authorization step.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: An example of such data model is the GLUE Schema, which is used in a distributed information system based on LDAP that enable users, applications and services to discover which services exist in a Grid infrastructure and further information about their structure and state.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: An LDAP server may return referrals to other servers for requests that it cannot fulfill itself. This requires a naming structure for LDAP entries so one can find a server holding a given distinguished name (DN), a concept defined in the X.500 Directory and also used in LDAP. Another way of locating LDAP servers for an organization is a DNS server record (SRV).


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: An organization with the domain example.org may use the top level LDAP DN codice_38 (where "dc" means domain component). If the LDAP server is also named ldap.example.org, the organization's top level LDAP URL becomes codice_39.


title: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

text: Primarily two common styles of naming are used in both X.500 [2008] and LDAPv3. These are documented in the ITU specifications and IETF RFCs. The original form takes the top level object as the country object, such as codice_40, codice_41. The domain component model uses the model described above. An example of country based naming could be codice_42, or in the US: codice_43.


title: Krasnodar

text: Krasnodar (; ; ), formerly Yekaterinodar (until 1920), is the largest city and the administrative centre of Krasnodar Krai, Russia. The city stands on the Kuban River in southern Russia, with a population of 1,099,344 residents, and up to 1.2 million residents in the Urban Okrug. In the past decade Krasnodar has experienced rapid population growth, rising to become the thirteenth-largest city in Russia, and the second-largest city in southern Russia, as well as the Southern Federal District.


title: Krasnodar

text: The city originated in 1793 as a fortress built by the Cossacks, and became a trading center for southern Russia. The city sustained heavy damage in World War II but was rebuilt and renovated after the war. Krasnodar is a major economic hub in southern Russia; In 2012, "Forbes" named Krasnodar the best city for business in Russia. Krasnodar is home to numerous sights, including the Krasnodar Stadium. Its main airport is Krasnodar International Airport.


title: Krasnodar

text: Krasnodar was founded on January 12, 1794 (Gregorian calendar) as "Yekaterinodar" (). The original name meant "Catherine's Gift", recognizing both Catherine the Great's grant of land in the Kuban region to the Black Sea Cossacks (created from former Zaporozhian Cossacks) and Saint Catherine of Alexandria, who is considered to be the patron of the city. City status was granted in 1867.


title: Krasnodar

text: On December 7, 1920, as a result of the October Revolution, Yekaterinodar was renamed "Krasnodar" ("Gift of the Reds"). The new name consists of "Krasno-" (Красно- – 'red', i.e. Communist, but also archaic/poetic form of 'beautiful'); and "dar" (дар – 'gift').


title: Krasnodar

text: The city originated in 1793 as a military camp, then as a fortress built by the Cossacks to defend imperial borders and to assert Russian dominion over Circassia, a claim which Ottoman Turkey contested. In the first half of the 19th century, Yekaterinodar grew into a busy center of the Kuban Cossacks, gaining official town status in 1867. By 1888 about 45,000 people lived in the city, which had become a vital trade center for southern Russia. In 1897 an obelisk commemorating the two-hundred-year history of the Kuban Cossacks (seen as founded in 1696) was erected in Yekaterinodar. The city was the administrative center of the Yekaterinodarsky Otdel of the Kuban Oblast.


title: Krasnodar

text: During the Russian Civil War (1917-1922) the city changed hands several times, coming successively under the control of the Red Army and of the Volunteer Army. Many Kuban Cossacks, as committed anti-Bolsheviks, supported the White Movement. Lavr Kornilov, a White general, captured the city on April 10, 1918, only to be killed a week later when a Bolshevik artillery shell blew up the farmhouse where he had set up his headquarters. During the Soviet famine of 1932–1933 Krasnodar lost over 14% of its population.


title: Krasnodar

text: During World War II units of the German Army occupied Krasnodar between August 9, 1942, and February 12, 1943. The city sustained heavy damage in the fighting but was rebuilt and renovated after the war. German forces, including Gestapo and "mobile SS execution squads", killed thousands of Jews, Communists, and "supposed Communist 'partisans.'" Shooting, hanging, burning, and even gas vans were used.


title: Krasnodar

text: In the summer of 1943, the Soviets began trials, including of their own citizens, for collusion with the Nazis and for participation in war crimes. The first such trial took place at Krasnodar from July 14 to 17, 1943. The Krasnodar tribunal pronounced eight death sentences, which were summarily carried out in the city square in front of a crowd of about thirty thousand people.


title: Krasnodar

text: On June 14, 1971, a bombing occurred on a bus in the city, when a homemade suitcase bomb placed near the gas tank by a mentally ill Peter Volynsky exploded. The bomb killed 10 persons and wounded 20–90 others.


title: Krasnodar

text: Krasnodar is the largest city and capital of Krasnodar Krai by population and the second-largest by area. It is the 17th-largest city in Russia as of 2010. It is located on the right bank of the Kuban River. It is 1300 km south of the Russian capital, Moscow. The Black Sea lies 120 km to the west.


title: Krasnodar

text: Winters are cold and damp, with unstable snow cover. The average temperature in January, the area's coldest month, is . Weather conditions in winter vary greatly in the city; temperatures can exceed for a few days, but temperatures below are not uncommon for Krasnodar as the city is not protected by mountains from cold waves. Summers are typically hot, with a July average of .


title: Krasnodar

text: The city receives of precipitation annually, fairly spread throughout the year. Extreme storms are rare in the Krasnodar area. Extreme temperatures have ranged from , recorded on January 11, 1940 and July 30, 2000, respectively.


title: Krasnodar

text: In 1916, Krasnodar—then known as Yekaterinodar—had a population of 103,624, composed of 88,508 Russians (85.4%), 5,963 Europeans (5.8%), 5,900 Armenians (5.7%), and other nationalities.


title: Krasnodar

text: As of 2021 census, the population of Krasnodar is 1,099,344 people, up from 744,995 in the 2010 census.


title: Krasnodar

text: Krasnodar is the economic center of southern Russia. For several years, "Forbes" magazine named Krasnodar the best city for business in Russia. The industrial sector of the city has more than 130 large and medium-sized enterprises.


title: Krasnodar

text: Krasnodar is a highly developed commercial area, and has the largest annual turnover in the Southern Federal District of Russia. Retail trade turnover in 2010 reached 290 billion rubles. Per capita, Krasnodar has the highest number of malls in Russia. Note that in the crisis year 2009 turnover of Krasnodar continued to grow, while most of the cities showed a negative trend in the sale of goods.


title: Krasnodar

text: Krasnodar has the lowest unemployment rate among the cities of the Southern Federal District at 0.3% of the total working-age population. In addition, Krasnodar holds the first place in terms of highest average salary – 21,742 rubles per capita.


title: Krasnodar

text: Tourism comprises a large part of Krasnodar's economy. There are more than 80 hotels in Krasnodar. The Hilton Garden Inn, opened in 2013, is the first world-class hotel in the city.


title: Krasnodar

text: Krasnodar is the administrative center of the krai. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with twenty-nine rural localities, incorporated as the City of Krasnodar—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Krasnodar is incorporated as Krasnodar Urban Okrug.


title: Krasnodar

text: The oldest part of the city is Krasnodar Historic Center, which consists of many historic buildings, several from the 19th century. Buildings have been preserved, restored or reconstructed, and the district is now a substantial tourist attraction.


title: Krasnodar

text: Krasnodar has several major museums. The Kovalenko Krasnodar Regional Art Museum, the oldest public art museum in the North Caucasus, is one of the finest.


title: Krasnodar

text: The largest public library of the city is the Pushkin Krasnodar Regional Universal Scientific Library, founded in 1900.


title: Krasnodar

text: Krasnodar is home to the steel lattice hyperboloid tower built by the Russian engineer and scientist Vladimir Grigorievich Shukhov in 1928; it is located near Krasnodar Circus.


title: Krasnodar

text: Other attractions include St. Catherine's Cathedral, the State Arts Museum, a park and theater named after Maxim Gorky, the beautiful concert hall of the Krasnodar Philharmonic Society, which is considered to have some of the best acoustics in southern Russia, State Cossack Choir and the Krasnodar circus


title: Krasnodar

text: The most interesting place in Krasnodar is Krasnaya Street (which translates as "Red, Beautiful Street"). There are situated many sights of Krasnodar. At the beginning of the street, one can see the Central Concert Hall; at the other end, one can see the Avrora cinema center. A "Triumphal Arch" is situated in the middle of Krasnaya Street.


title: Krasnodar

text: Theater Square is home to the largest splash fountain in Europe. This fountain was officially inaugurated on September 25, 2011 along with an official ceremony to celebrate the City Day in Krasnodar.


title: Krasnodar

text: Also in the city is the famous Krasnodar Park (also called Galitsky Park) — a city park located in the northeast of the center of Krasnodar in the Shkolny microdistrict, between Vostochno-Kruglikovskaya and Hero Vladislav Posadsky streets, next to the FC Krasnodar stadium. The park was built at the expense of entrepreneur Sergey Galitsky and opened on September 28, 2017. The area is 22.7 hectares. This is twice as much as the Novorossiysk forest! More than 2.5 thousand trees are planted in the park: oak, hornbeam, alder, bonsai, poplar, pine, tulip tree, maple, thuja, decorative plum.


title: Krasnodar

text: As in many other major cities in Russia, the primary mode of local transportation in Krasnodar is the automobile, though efforts have been made to increase the availability of alternative modes of transportation, including the construction of light railways (projected), biking paths, and wide sidewalks. Public transportation within Krasnodar consists of city buses, trolleybuses, trams, and "marshrutkas" (routed taxis). Trolleybuses and trams, both powered by overhead electric wires, are the main form of public transportation in Krasnodar, which does not have a metro system.


title: Krasnodar

text: The main airline was Kuban Airlines (at Krasnodar International Airport), but it closed down in 2012 and now the main ones are Aeroflot and Rossiya Airlines. The largest hotels in the city include the Intourist, Hotel Moskva, and Hotel Platan. Krasnodar uses a 220 V/50 Hz power supply with two round-pin outlets, like most European countries.


title: Krasnodar

text: In Krasnodar there are 15 gymnasiums (academic secondary schools) 5 lyceums (colleges of higher education), 110 schools of general education and 20 specialized schools, as well as 7 non-state lyceums and schools.


title: Krasnodar

text: The city has numerous institutions of higher education, including some state universities (Kuban State University, Kuban State Technological University, Kuban State Agrarian University, Kuban State Medical University, etc.). Other universities include: Marketing and Social Technology University of Krasnodar.


title: Krasnodar

text: The coat of arms of Yekaterinodar was introduced in 1841 by the Cossack yesaul Ivan Chernik. The royal letter "E" in the middle is for Ekaterina II (Russian for Catherine II). It also depicts the date the city was founded, the Imperial double headed eagle (symbolizing Tsar's patronage of the Black Sea Cossacks), a bulawa of a Cossack ataman, Yekaterinodar fortress, and flags with letters "E", "P", "A", and "N" standing for Catherine II, Paul I, Alexander I and Nicholas I. Yellow stars around the shield symbolized 59 Black Sea stanitsas around the city.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Alexi Laiho ([LIE-ho], born Markku Uula Aleksi Laiho; 8 April 1979 – 29 December 2020) was a Finnish guitarist, composer, and vocalist. He was best known as the lead guitarist, lead vocalist and founding member of the melodic death metal band Children of Bodom, and was also the guitarist for Sinergy, the Local Band, Kylähullut, and Bodom After Midnight, which formed just prior to his death. Laiho had previously played with Thy Serpent and Impaled Nazarene on occasion, as well as Warmen and Hypocrisy.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Laiho started playing violin at the age of seven and guitar at the age of eleven. His main guitar influence was Helloween. He then became interested in more extreme, mainly black metal music. By 1999 he considered that his main influences lay with classic metal bands like Manowar, Helloween, Judas Priest and W.A.S.P.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: In 1993, after taking part in an experimental band named T.O.L.K. with friends he met while attending the Finnish Pop & Jazz Conservatory, Laiho formed Children of Bodom together with drummer Jaska Raatikainen, under the name of IneartheD.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: On 31 October 1997, prior to releasing their debut album, Children of Bodom played their first concert in Helsinki, as opening act for Norway's Dimmu Borgir.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Silenoz, Dimmu Borgir guitarist, on Laiho's first performance: “We could hear the opening band playing from backstage. We were like, ‘Holy shit, what is this?’ It sounded like Yngwie Malmsteen on speed. We ran out and watched the spectacle and stood there with our jaws open”. “There was this fucking beast on the guitar,” adds Dimmu's then-keyboardist Kimberly Goss, who would go on to form power metal band Sinergy with Alexi in 1997, and marry him in 2002. “I was looking at our guitar player like, ‘I don’t know, man, you’ve got some competition…”


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Laiho recorded three full-length albums with Sinergy. An unreleased fourth album was recorded and slated to be released in 2005, but the finishing touches were never completed due to Laiho's demanding schedule with Children of Bodom.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: In 2004, Laiho founded a side-project called Kylähullut, which was assembled together with drummer Tonmi Lillman (ex-Sinergy) and singer Vesa Jokinen 69er of Finnish punk band Klamydia. The band was created merely for the entertainment of the musicians, and takes a carefree approach to their music. Their discography includes two EP's, and two full-length albums one of which features Laiho's wife, Goss making her debut singing in the Finnish language on the band's self titled song.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Children of Bodom played at the 2008 Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards. There, Laiho also received the Dimebag Award for "Best Shredder" and performed a track off of Bodom's 2008's album, "Blooddrunk".


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Laiho appears on Canadian thrash metal outfit Annihilator's 2007 album, Metal, as a guest, performing a guitar solo on the song "Downright Dominate".


title: Alexi Laiho

text: On 3 July 2012, Children of Bodom announced on their Facebook page that they had to cancel two European shows because Laiho had been taken to the hospital because of severe stomach pain. The frontman was hospitalized once again the following year in Nashville, leading to speculation about his dangerous relationship with alcohol, which he'd later discuss in multiple interviews.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: On 15 December 2019, Children of Bodom played their last show at the Icehall in Helsinki, dubbed "A Chapter Called Children of Bodom"; in November it was announced that after this show, the group would disband after over two decades together. Due to legal reasons, Laiho would no longer be able to continue using the Children of Bodom name.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: In March 2020, Laiho would officially announce his new band together with former Children of Bodom guitarist Daniel Freyberg, Bodom After Midnight featuring drummer Waltteri Väyrynen and bassist Mitja Toivonen.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Laiho died on 29 December 2020 due to liver degeneration resulting from years of alcohol abuse, leaving behind a few songs recorded with Bodom After Midnight to be published posthumously. Several months later, Daniel Freyberg told "Loudwire" that Bodom After Midnight would disband rather than replacing Laiho.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Laiho has often been described as a visionary who brought back melody and flamboyance to metal music in a post-grunge and nu metal era. His guitar style was influenced by black metal, power metal and classical music, all cemented together by blistering solos. He was known for his guitar-keyboard solo duels with Janne Wirman, keyboardist in his band Children of Bodom.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Laiho received a Metal Hammer Golden Gods prize in the category of Dimebag Darrell Shredder Award in 2008.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Laiho received widespread acclaim for his guitar work and according to AllMusic, he is "widely celebrated as one of the genre's most accomplished players". In 2004 he was ranked No. 96 out of 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists of All Time by "Guitar World". "Guitar World" magazine has also ranked him as one of the 50 fastest guitarists in the world. In addition, Roadrunner Records ranked Laiho at No. 41 out of 50 of the greatest metal frontmen. Furthermore, "Total Guitar" conducted a public voting poll to determine the greatest metal guitarist of all time; Laiho was voted No. 1 out of 20 metal guitarists, with over 20% of the vote.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: On 1 February 2002, at a private ceremony in Finland, Laiho married long time girlfriend and Sinergy frontwoman Kimberly Goss. They shared identical tattoos of a coiled snake around their ring fingers and had each other's initials tattooed on the upper part of their left arms. According to official documents Laiho filed for divorce in November 2002, but withdrew his application, never to file it again. The couple separated in 2004, but were on good terms and had regular text and video contact until the day he died as confirmed by the Finnish press. Drama and infighting between Laiho's sister and widow resulted in a public back and forth exchange, with both parties airing their grievances to the Finnish media.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: For several years after his separation from Goss, Laiho was then linked with Kristen Mulderig, manager of Slayer until mid 2015. Later that same year he began a relationship with Kelli Wright, an Australian public relations manager who he became engaged to September 2016 and the two married in a traditional handfasting ceremony, December 2017. After Laiho's death it was reported by Finnish news outlets that he had never divorced from Goss, revealing his marriage to Wright was not legally binding.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Laiho had a history of alcohol abuse, which was the cause of his death. In an interview in 2019 he talked about how the pressures of life on the road affected him; he mentioned the song "This Road" from 2019's "Hexed" and said, "A lot of people thought it was about alcoholism, but it's more about being addicted to being on the road. Sometimes it feels like after 20 years of being on the road, everything just becomes kind of a blur and you don't know what the hell's going on." He explained how he used to drink heavily but cut back in 2013, not drinking while on tour anymore, and mentioned that "Hexed" first single, "Under Grass and Clover", documented the pain of withdrawal.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: On 4 January 2021, a post on his official Facebook page stated Laiho had died the previous week. No official cause of death was given, only stating he succumbed at his Helsinki home to "long-term health issues during his last years". The death date was later confirmed to be 29 December 2020. A private funeral service for Laiho was held on 28 January 2021.


title: Alexi Laiho

text: On 5 March 2021 Kimberly Goss revealed the official cause of Laiho's death on her Instagram: "alcohol-induced degeneration of the liver and pancreas connective tissue". Additionally, a mix of painkillers, opioids and insomnia medication was found in his system. The cause of death was originally published in Finnish as "", and a more accurate English translation would be fatty liver disease and pancreatic fibrosis. Laiho's sister stated that the family wanted the details of his death to remain private, however Goss maintained that it was her right as his legal widow to disclose the information and bring closure to his fans, hoping the tragedy could inspire lives to be saved and "help others struggling with these same demons."


title: Alexi Laiho

text: Laiho's ashes were laid to rest on 8 December 2021, one day after a private memorial service was held by Goss.


title: Reims

text: Reims ( , , ; also spelled Rheims in English) is the most populous city in the French department of Marne, and the 12th most populous city in France. The city lies northeast of Paris on the Vesle river, a tributary of the Aisne.


title: Reims

text: Founded by the Gauls, Reims became a major city in the Roman Empire. Reims later played a prominent ceremonial role in French monarchical history as the traditional site of the coronation of the kings of France. The royal anointing was performed at the Cathedral of Reims, which housed the Holy Ampulla of chrism allegedly brought by a white dove at the baptism of Frankish king Clovis I in 496. For this reason, Reims is often referred to in French as ("the Coronation City").


title: Reims

text: Reims is recognized for the diversity of its heritage, ranging from Romanesque to Art-déco. Reims Cathedral, the adjacent Palace of Tau, and the Abbey of Saint-Remi were listed together as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991 because of their outstanding Romanesque and Gothic architecture and their historical importance to the French monarchy. Reims also lies on the northern edge of the Champagne wine region and is linked to its production and export.


title: Reims

text: Before the Roman conquest of northern Gaul, Reims had served as the Remi tribe's capital, founded circa 80 BC. In the course of Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul (58–51 BC), the Remi allied themselves with the Romans, and by their fidelity throughout the various Gallic insurrections secured the special favour of the imperial power. At its height in Roman times the city had a population in the range of 30,000–50,000 or perhaps up to 100,000. Reims was first called in Latin, which is hypothesized to derive from a Gaulish name meaning "Door of Cortoro-". The city later took its name from the Remi tribe ( or ). The modern French name is derived from the accusative case of the latter, .


title: Reims

text: Christianity had become established in the city by 260, at which period Saint Sixtus of Reims founded the Diocese of Reims (which would be elevated to an archdiocese around 750). The consul Jovinus, an influential supporter of the new faith, repelled the Alamanni who invaded Champagne in 336; but the Vandals captured the city in 406 and slew Bishop Nicasius; and in 451 Attila the Hun put Reims to fire and sword.


title: Reims

text: In 496—ten years after Clovis, King of the Salian Franks, won his victory at Soissons (486)—Remigius, the bishop of Reims, baptized him using the oil of the sacred phial–purportedly brought from heaven by a dove for the baptism of Clovis and subsequently preserved in the Abbey of Saint-Remi. For centuries the events at the crowning of Clovis I became a symbol used by the monarchy to claim the divine right to rule.


title: Reims

text: Meetings of Pope Stephen II (752–757) with Pepin the Short, and of Pope Leo III (795–816) with Charlemagne (died 814), took place at Reims; and here Pope Stephen IV crowned Louis the Debonnaire in 816. King Louis IV gave the city and countship of Reims to the archbishop Artaldus in 940. King Louis VII (reigned 1137–1180) gave the title of duke and peer to William of Champagne, archbishop from 1176 to 1202, and the archbishops of Reims took precedence over the other ecclesiastical peers of the realm.


title: Reims

text: By the 10th century, Reims had become a centre of intellectual culture. Archbishop Adalberon (in office 969 to 988), seconded by the monk Gerbert (afterwards (from 999 to 1003) Pope Silvester II), founded schools which taught the classical "liberal arts". (Adalberon also played a leading role in the dynastic revolution which elevated the Capetian dynasty in the place of the Carolingians.)


title: Reims

text: The archbishops held the important prerogative of the consecration of the kings of France – a privilege which they exercised (except in a few cases) from the time of Philippe II Augustus (anointed 1179, reigned 1180–1223) to that of Charles X (anointed 1825). The Palace of Tau, built between 1498 and 1509 and partly rebuilt in 1675, would later serve as the Archbishop's palace and as the residence of the kings of France on the occasion of their coronations, with royal banquets taking place in the "Salle du Tau".


title: Reims

text: Louis VII granted the city a communal charter in 1139. The Treaty of Troyes (1420) ceded it to the English, who had made a futile attempt to take it by siege in 1360; but French patriots expelled them on the approach of Joan of Arc, who in 1429 had Charles VII consecrated in the cathedral. Louis XI cruelly suppressed a revolt at Reims, caused in 1461 by the salt tax.


title: Reims

text: During the French Wars of Religion the city sided with the Catholic League (1585), but submitted to King Henri IV after the battle of Ivry (1590). At about the same time, the English College had been "at Reims for some years."


title: Reims

text: The city was stricken with plague in 1635, and again in 1668, followed by an epidemic of typhus in 1693–1694. The construction of the Hôtel de Ville dates back to the same century.


title: Reims

text: The Place Royale was built in the 18th century. Some of the 1792 September Massacres took place in Reims.


title: Reims

text: In the invasions of the War of the Sixth Coalition in 1814, anti-Napoleonic allied armies captured and re-captured Reims. "In 1852, the Eastern Railways completed the Paris-Strasbourg main line with branch lines to Reims and Metz." In 1870–1871, during the Franco-Prussian War, the victorious Germans made it the seat of a governor-general and impoverished it with heavy requisitions. In 1874 the construction of a chain of detached forts started in the vicinity, the French Army having selected Reims as one of the chief defences of the northern approaches to Paris. In the meantime, British inventor and manufacturer Isaac Holden had opened plants at Reims and Croix, which "by the 1870s [...] were producing almost 12 million kilograms of combed wool a year [...] and accounted for 27 percent of all the wool consumed by French industry."


title: Reims

text: On 30 October 1908, Henri Farman made the first cross-country flight from Châlons to Reims. In August 1909 Reims hosted the first international aviation meet, the "Grande Semaine d'Aviation de la Champagne". Major aviation personages such as Glenn Curtiss, Louis Blériot and Louis Paulhan participated.


title: Reims

text: Hostilities in World War I greatly damaged the city. German bombardment and a subsequent fire in 1914 did severe damage to the cathedral. The ruined cathedral became one of the central images of anti-German propaganda produced in France during the war, which presented it, along with the ruins of the Ypres Cloth Hall and the University Library in Louvain, as evidence that German aggression targeted cultural landmarks of European civilization. Since the end of World War I, an international effort to restore the cathedral from the ruins has continued.


title: Reims

text: During World War II, the city suffered additional damage. On the morning of 7 May 1945, at 2:41, General Eisenhower and the Allies received the unconditional surrender of the German Wehrmacht in Reims. General Alfred Jodl, German Chief-of-Staff, signed the surrender at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) as the representative for German President Karl Dönitz.


title: Reims

text: The British statesman Leslie Hore-Belisha died of a cerebral haemorrhage while making a speech at the Hôtel de Ville in February 1957.


title: Reims

text: Reims functions as a subprefecture of the department of Marne, in the administrative region of Grand Est. Although Reims is by far the largest commune in its department, Châlons-en-Champagne is the prefecture. Reims co-operates with 142 other communes in the "Communauté urbaine du Grand Reims".


title: Reims

text: Rue de Vesle is the main commercial street (continued under other names), traversing the city from southwest to northeast through the Place Royale.


title: Reims

text: The Basilica of Saint-Remi, founded in the 11th century "over the chapel of St. Christophe where St. Remi was buried", is "the largest Romanesque church in northern France, though with later additions."


title: Reims

text: The Church of Saint-Jacques dates from the 13th to the 16th centuries. A few blocks from the cathedral, it stands in a neighbourhood of shopping and restaurants. The churches of Saint-Maurice (partly rebuilt in 1867), Saint-André, and Saint-Thomas (erected from 1847 to 1853, under the patronage of Cardinal Gousset, now buried within its walls) also draw tourists.


title: Reims

text: The Protestant Church of Reims, built in 1921–1923 over designs by Charles Letrosne, is an example of flamboyant neo-Gothic architecture.


title: Reims

text: The Hôtel de Ville, erected in the 17th century and enlarged in the 19th, features a pediment with an equestrian statue of Louis XIII (reigned 1610 to 1643).


title: Reims

text: Narcisse Brunette was the architect of the city for nearly 50 years in the 19th century. He designed the Reims Manège and Circus, which "combines stone and brick in a fairly sober classical composition."


title: Reims

text: The Foujita Chapel, built in 1965–1966 over designs and with frescos by Japanese–French artist Tsuguharu Foujita, has been listed as a "monument historique" since 1992.


title: Reims

text: The Palace of Tau contains such exhibits as statues formerly displayed by the cathedral, treasures of the cathedral from past centuries, and royal attire from coronations of French kings.


title: Reims

text: The Musée Saint-Remi, formerly the Abbey of Saint-Remi, contains tapestries from the 16th century donated by the archbishop Robert de Lenoncourt (uncle of the cardinal of the same name), marble capitals from the fourth century AD, furniture, jewellery, pottery, weapons and glasswork from the sixth to eighth centuries, medieval sculpture, the façade of the 13th-century musicians' House, remnants from an earlier abbey building, and also exhibits of Gallo-Roman arts and crafts and a room of pottery, jewellery and weapons from Gallic civilization, as well as an exhibit of items from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic periods. Another section of the museum features a permanent military exhibition.


title: Reims

text: The Automobile Museum Reims-Champagne, established in 1985 by Philippe Charbonneaux, houses a collection of automobiles dating from 1903 to the present day. The museum has five collections: automobiles, motorcycles and two-wheelers, pedal cars, miniature toys, and enamel plaques.


title: Reims

text: The Museum of Fine Arts is housed in the former Abbey of Saint-Denis. The former Collège des Jésuites has also become a museum.


title: Reims

text: The Museum of the Surrender is the building in which on 7 May 1945, General Eisenhower and the Allies received the unconditional surrender of the German Wehrmacht.


title: Reims

text: Venues include the Reims Opera House, built in 1873 and renovated in 1931–1932, and the Reims Manège and Circus, dating from 1865 and 1867.


title: Reims

text: Every year in June, the "Fêtes Johanniques" commemorate the entrance of Joan of Arc into Reims in 1429 and the coronation of Charles VII of France in the cathedral.


title: Reims

text: Reims, along with Épernay and Ay, functions as one of the centres of champagne production. Many of the largest champagne-producing houses, known as "les grandes marques", have their headquarters in Reims, and most open for tasting and tours. Champagne ages in the many caves and tunnels under Reims, which form a sort of maze below the city. Carved from chalk, some of these passages date back to Roman times.


title: Reims

text: The "biscuit rose de Reims" is a biscuit frequently associated with Champagne wine. Reims was long renown for its "pain d'épices" and "nonnette".


title: Reims

text: Between 1925 and 1969, Reims hosted the "Grand Prix de la Marne" automobile race at the circuit of Reims-Gueux. The French Grand Prix took place here 14 times between 1938 and 1966.


title: Reims

text: , the football club "Stade Reims", based in the city, competed in the Ligue 1, the highest tier of French football. "Stade Reims" became the outstanding team of France in the 1950s and early 1960s and reached the final of the European Cup of Champions twice in that era.


title: Reims

text: Reims is served by two main railway stations: Gare de Reims in the city centre, the hub for regional transport, and the new Gare de Champagne-Ardenne TGV southwest of the city with high-speed rail connections to Paris, Metz, Nancy and Strasbourg. There are two other railway stations for local services in the southern suburbs: Franchet d'Esperey and Reims-Maison-Blanche. The motorways A4 (Paris-Strasbourg), A26 (Calais-Langres) and A34 intersect near Reims.Public transport within the city consists of buses and a tramway, the latter opened in 2011.


title: Reims

text: The Canal de l'Aisne à la Marne is a waterway. There is also an airport, Reims – Prunay Aerodrome, but it had, as of 2020, no commercial airline flights.


title: Reims

text: Among the parks and gardens of Reims are the Parc de Champagne, where a Monument to the Heroes of the Black Army is located, and the Promenades.


title: Reims

text: The URCA (Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne) was founded in 1548. This multidisciplinary university develops innovative, fundamental, and applied research. It provides more than 18,000 students in Reims (22,000 in Champagne-Ardenne) with a wide initial undergraduate studies program which corresponds to society's needs in all domains of the knowledge. The university also accompanies independent or company-backed students in continuing professional development training.


title: Reims

text: The Institut d'Etudes politiques de Paris, the leading French university in social and political sciences, also known as Sciences Po, opened a new campus in the in 2010. It hosts both the Europe-Africa and Europe-America Program with more than 1,500 students in the respective programs. In 2012 the first Reims Model United Nations was launched, which gathered 200 international students from all the Sciences Po campuses. Daniel Rondeau, the ambassador of France to UNESCO and a French writer, is the patron of the event. NEOMA Business School (former Reims Management School) is also one of the main schools in Reims.


title: Reims

text: Reims has an oceanic climate (Köppen "Cfb"), influenced by its inland position. This renders that although the maritime influence moderates averages, it nevertheless is prone to hot and cold extremes in certain instances. Reims has a relatively gloomy climate due to the said maritime influence and the dominance of low-pressure systems for much of the year. In spite of this, the amount of precipitation is fairly limited.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: Richard Cromwell (4 October 162612 July 1712) was an English statesman who was the second and last Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland and son of the first Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: On his father's death in 1658 Richard became Lord Protector, but lacked authority. He tried to mediate between the army and civil society and allowed a Parliament containing many disaffected Presbyterians and Royalists to sit. Suspicions that civilian councillors were intent on supplanting the army were brought to a head by an attempt to prosecute a major-general for actions against a Royalist. The army made a threatening show of force against Richard and may have had him in detention. He formally renounced power nine months after succeeding.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: Although a Royalist revolt was crushed by the recalled civil war figure General John Lambert, who then prevented the Rump Parliament from reconvening and created a Committee of Safety, Lambert found his troops melted away in the face of General George Monck's advance from Scotland. Monck then presided over the Restoration of 1660. Cromwell went into exile on the Continent, and lived in relative obscurity for the remainder of his life. He eventually returned to his English estate and died in his eighties. He has no living descendants.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 4 October 1626, the third son of Oliver Cromwell and his wife Elizabeth. Little is known of his childhood. He and his three brothers were educated at Felsted School in Essex close to their mother's family home. There is no record of his attending university. In May 1647, he became a member of Lincoln's Inn, however he was not called to the bar subsequently. Instead, in 1647 Cromwell joined the New Model Army as a captain in Viscount Lisle's lifeguard, and later that year was appointed captain in Thomas Fairfax's lifeguard.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: In 1649 Cromwell married Dorothy Maijor, daughter of Richard Maijor, a member of the Hampshire gentry. He and his wife then moved to Maijor's estate at Hursley in Hampshire. During the 1650s they had nine children, five of whom survived to adulthood. Cromwell was named a Justice of the Peace for Hampshire and sat on various county committees. During this period Richard seems to have been a source of concern for his father, who wrote to Richard Maijor saying, "I would have him mind and understand business, read a little history, study the mathematics and cosmography: these are good, with subordination to the things of God. Better than idleness, or mere outward worldly contents. These fit for public services, for which a man is born".


title: Richard Cromwell

text: Oliver Cromwell had risen from being an unknown member of Parliament in his forties to being a commander of the New Model Army, which emerged victorious from the English Civil War. When he returned from a final campaign in Ireland, Oliver Cromwell became disillusioned at inconclusive debates in the Rump Parliament between Presbyterians and other schools of thought within Protestantism. Parliamentarian suspicion of anything smacking of Catholicism, which was strongly associated with the Royalist side in the war, led to enforcement of religious precepts that left moderate Anglicans barely tolerated.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: A Puritan regime strictly enforced the Sabbath, and banned almost all form of public celebration, even at Christmas. Cromwell attempted to reform the government through an army-nominated assembly known as Barebone's Parliament, but the proposals were so unworkably radical that he was forced to end the experiment after a few months. Thereafter, a written constitution created the position of Lord Protector for Cromwell and from 1653 until his death in 1658, he ruled with all the powers of a monarch, while Richard took on the role of heir.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: In 1653, Richard Cromwell was passed over as a member of Barebone's Parliament, although his younger brother Henry was a member of it. Neither was he given any public role when his father was made Lord Protector in the same year; however, he was elected to the First Protectorate Parliament as M.P. for Huntingdon and the Second Protectorate Parliament as M.P. for Cambridge University.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: Under the Protectorate's constitution, Oliver Cromwell was required to nominate a successor, and from 1657 he involved Richard much more heavily in the politics of the regime. He was present at the second installation of his father as Lord Protector in June, having played no part in the first installation. In July he was appointed chancellor of Oxford University, and in December was made a member of the Council of State.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: Oliver Cromwell died on 3 September 1658, and Richard was informed on the same day that he was to succeed him. Some controversy surrounds the succession. A letter by John Thurloe suggests that Cromwell nominated his son orally on 30 August, but other theories claim either that he nominated no successor, or that he put forward Charles Fleetwood, his son-in-law.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: Richard was faced by two immediate problems. The first was the army, which questioned his position as commander given his lack of military experience. The second was the financial position of the regime, with a debt estimated at £2 million. As a result, Cromwell's Privy council decided to call a parliament in order to redress these financial problems on 29 November 1658 (a decision which was formally confirmed on 3 December 1658). Under the terms of the Humble Petition and Advice, this Parliament was called using the traditional franchise (thus moving away from the system under the Instrument of Government whereby representation of rotten boroughs was cut in favour of county towns). This meant that the government was less able to control elections and therefore unable to manage the parliament effectively. As a result, when this Third Protectorate Parliament first sat on 27 January 1659 it was dominated by moderate Presbyterians, crypto-royalists and a small number of vociferous Commonwealthsmen (or Republicans).


title: Richard Cromwell

text: The "Other House" of Parliament – a body which had been set up under the Humble Petition and Advice to act as a balance on the Commons – was also revived. It was this second parliamentary chamber and its resemblance to the House of Lords (which had been abolished in 1649) that dominated this Parliamentary session. Republican malcontents gave filibustering speeches about the inadequacy of the membership of this upper chamber (especially its military contingent) and also questioned whether it was indicative of the backsliding of the Protectorate regime in general and its divergence from the "Good Old Cause" for which parliamentarians had originally engaged in civil war. Reviving this House of Lords in all but name, they argued, was but a short step to returning to the Ancient Constitution of King, Lords and Commons.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: At the same time, the officers of the New Model Army became increasingly wary about the government's commitment to the military cause. The fact that Cromwell lacked military credentials grated with men who had fought on the battlefields of the English Civil War to secure their nation's liberties. Moreover, the new Parliament seemed to show a lack of respect for the army which many military men found alarming. In particular, there were fears that Parliament would make military cuts to reduce costs, and by April 1659 the army's general council of officers had met to demand higher taxation to fund the regime's costs.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: Their grievances were expressed in a petition to Cromwell on 6 April 1659 which he forwarded to the Parliament two days later. Yet Parliament did not act on the army's suggestions; instead they shelved this petition and increased the suspicion of the military by bringing articles of impeachment against William Boteler on 12 April 1659, who was alleged to have mistreated a royalist prisoner while acting as a major-general under Oliver Cromwell in 1655. This was followed by two resolutions in the Commons on 18 April 1659 which stated that no more meetings of army officers should take place without the express permission of both the Lord Protector and Parliament, and that all officers should swear an oath that they would not subvert the sitting of Parliament by force.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: These direct affronts to military prestige were too much for the army grandees to bear and set in motion the final split between the civilian-dominated Parliament and the army, which would culminate in the dissolution of Parliament and Cromwell's ultimate fall from power. When Cromwell refused a demand by the army to dissolve Parliament, troops were assembled at St. James's Palace. Cromwell eventually gave in to their demands and on 22 April, Parliament was dissolved and the Rump Parliament recalled on 7 May 1659.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: In the subsequent month, Cromwell did not resist and refused an offer of armed assistance from the French ambassador, although it is possible he was being kept under house arrest by the army. On 25 May, after the Rump agreed to pay his debts and provide a pension, Cromwell delivered a formal letter resigning the position of Lord Protector. "Richard was never formally deposed or arrested, but allowed to fade away. The Protectorate was treated as having been from the first a mere usurpation."


title: Richard Cromwell

text: He continued to live in the Palace of Whitehall until July, when he was forced by the Rump to return to Hursley. Royalists rejoiced at Cromwell's fall, and many satirical attacks surfaced, in which he was given the unflattering nicknames "Tumbledown Dick" and "Queen Dick".


title: Richard Cromwell

text: During the political difficulties of the winter of 1659, there were rumours that Cromwell was to be recalled as Protector, but these came to nothing. In July 1660, Cromwell left for France, never to see his wife again. While there, he went by a variety of pseudonyms, including John Clarke. He later travelled around Europe, visiting various European courts. As a visiting Englishman, he was once invited to dine with Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, who was unaware of who he was. At dinner, the prince questioned Cromwell about affairs in England and observed, "Well, that Oliver, tho' he was a traitor and a villain, was a brave man, had great parts, great courage, and was worthy to command; but that Richard, that coxcomb and poltroon, was surely the basest fellow alive; what is become of that fool?" Cromwell replied, "He was betrayed by those he most trusted, and who had been most obliged by his father". Cromwell departed from the town the following morning. During this period of voluntary exile, he wrote many letters to his family back in England; these letters are now held by Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies at the County Record Office in Huntingdon.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: In 1680 or 1681, he returned to England and lodged with the merchant Thomas Pengelly in Cheshunt in Hertfordshire, living off the income from his estate in Hursley. He died on 12 July 1712 at the age of 85. His body was returned to Hursley and interred in a vault beneath All Saints' Parish Church, where a memorial tablet to him has been placed in recent years. He was the longest-lived British head of state for three centuries, exceeding even the long-lived and far longer reigning George III and Queen Victoria, until Elizabeth II displaced him at 85 years, 9 months and 9 days in January 2012.


title: Richard Cromwell

text: Cromwell has been depicted in historical films. They include "Cromwell" (1970), where he was portrayed by Anthony May, and "To Kill a King" (2003), where he was played by John-Paul Macleod.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Mauthausen was a Nazi concentration camp on a hill above the market town of Mauthausen (roughly east of Linz), Upper Austria. It was the main camp of a group with nearly 100 further subcamps located throughout Austria and southern Germany. The three Gusen concentration camps in and around the village of St Georgen/Gusen, just a few kilometres from Mauthausen, held a significant proportion of prisoners within the camp complex, at times exceeding the number of prisoners at the Mauthausen main camp.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: The Mauthausen main camp operated from 8 August 1938, several months after the German annexation of Austria, to 5 May 1945, when it was liberated by the United States Army. Starting with the camp at Mauthausen, the number of subcamps expanded over time. In January 1945, the camps contained roughly 85,000 inmates.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: As at other Nazi concentration camps, the inmates at Mauthausen and its subcamps were forced to work as slave labour, under conditions that caused many deaths. Mauthausen and its subcamps included quarries, munitions factories, mines, arms factories and plants assembling Me 262 fighter aircraft. The conditions at Mauthausen were even more severe than at most other Nazi concentration camps. Half of the 190,000 deportees died at Mauthausen or its subcamps.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Mauthausen was one of the first massive concentration camp complexes in Nazi Germany, and the last to be liberated by the Allies. The Mauthausen main camp is now a museum.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: On 9 August 1938, prisoners from Dachau concentration camp near Munich were sent to the town of Mauthausen in Austria, to begin the construction of a new slave labour camp. The site was chosen because of the nearby granite quarry, and its proximity to Linz. Although the camp was controlled by the German state from the beginning, it was founded by a private company as an economic enterprise.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: The owner of the Wiener-Graben quarry (the Marbacher-Bruch and Bettelberg quarries) was a DEST Company: an acronym for "Deutsche Erd– und Steinwerke GmbH". The company was led by Oswald Pohl, who was a high-ranking official of the "Schutzstaffel" (SS). It rented the quarries from the City of Vienna in 1938 and started the construction of the Mauthausen camp. A year later, the company ordered the construction of the first camp at Gusen.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: The granite mined in the quarries had previously been used to pave the streets of Vienna, but the Nazi authorities envisioned a complete reconstruction of major German towns in accordance with plans of Albert Speer and other proponents of Nazi architecture, for which large quantities of granite were needed. The money to fund the construction of the Mauthausen camp was gathered from a variety of sources, including commercial loans from Dresdner Bank and Prague-based Böhmische Escompte-Bank; the so-called Reinhardt's fund (meaning money stolen from the inmates of the concentration camps themselves); and from the German Red Cross.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Mauthausen initially served as a strictly-run prison camp for common criminals, prostitutes and other categories of "Incorrigible Law Offenders". On 8 May 1939 it was converted to a labour camp which was mainly used for the incarceration of political prisoners.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: The three Gusen concentration camps held a significant proportion of prisoners within the Mauthausen-Gusen complex. For most of its history, this exceeded the number of prisoners at the Mauthausen main camp itself.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: DEST began purchasing land at St Georgen/Gusen in May 1938. During 1938 and 1939, inmates of the nearby Mauthausen makeshift camp marched daily to the granite quarries at St Georgen/Gusen, which were more productive and more important for DEST than the Wienergraben Quarry. After Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, the as-yet unfinished Mauthausen camp was already overcrowded with prisoners. The numbers of inmates rose from 1,080 in late 1938 to over 3,000 a year later. At about that time, the construction of a new camp "for the Poles" began in Gusen about away after an order by the SS(Schutzstaffel) in December 1939. The new camp (later named Gusen I) became operational in May 1940. The first inmates were put in the first two huts (No. 7 and 8) on 17 April 1940, while the first transport of prisoners – mostly from the camps in Dachau and Sachsenhausen – arrived just over a month later, on 25 May.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Like nearby Mauthausen, the Gusen camps also rented inmates out to various local businesses as slave labour. In October 1941, several huts were separated from the Gusen subcamp by barbed wire and turned into a separate "Prisoner of War Labour Camp" (). This camp had many prisoners of war, mostly Soviet officers. By 1942 the production capacity of Mauthausen and the Gusen camps had reached its peak. The Gusen site was expanded to include the central depot of the SS, where various goods, which had been seized from occupied territories, were sorted and then dispatched to Germany. Local quarries and businesses were in constant need of a new source of labour as more and more Austrians were drafted into the Wehrmacht.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: In March 1944, the former SS depot was converted to a new subcamp, named Gusen II, which served as an improvised concentration camp until the end of the war. Gusen II contained about 12,000 to 17,000 inmates, who were deprived of even the most basic facilities. In December 1944, Gusen III was opened in nearby Lungitz. Here, parts of a factory infrastructure were converted into the third Gusen camp. The rise in the number of subcamps could not catch up with the rising number of inmates, which led to overcrowding of the huts in Mauthausen and its subcamps. From late 1940 to 1944, the number of inmates per bed rose from two to four.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: As the production in Mauthausen and its subcamps was constantly increasing, so were the numbers of detainees and subcamps themselves. Although initially the camps of Gusen and Mauthausen mostly served the local quarries, from 1942 onwards they began to be included in the German war machine. To accommodate the ever-growing number of slave workers, additional subcamps () of Mauthausen were built.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: By the end of the war, the list included 101 camps (including 49 major subcamps) which covered most of modern Austria, from Mittersill south of Salzburg to Schwechat east of Vienna and from Passau on the prewar Austro-German border to the Loibl Pass on the border with Yugoslavia. The subcamps were divided into several categories, depending on their main function: "Produktionslager" for factory workers, "Baulager" for construction, "Aufräumlager" for cleaning the rubble in Allied-bombed towns, and "Kleinlager" (small camps) where the inmates were working specifically for the SS.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: The production output of Mauthausen and its subcamps exceeded that of each of the five other large slave labour centres: Auschwitz-Birkenau, Flossenbürg, Gross-Rosen, Marburg and Natzweiler-Struthof, in terms of both production quota and profits. The list of companies using slave labour from Mauthausen and its subcamps was long, and included both national corporations and small, local firms and communities. Some parts of the quarries were converted into a Mauser machine pistol assembly plant.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: In 1943, an underground factory for the Steyr-Daimler-Puch company was built in Gusen. Altogether, 45 larger companies took part in making Mauthausen and its subcamps one of the most profitable concentration camps of Nazi Germany, with more than in profits in 1944 alone (EUR in 2022). The companies using slave labourers from Mauthausen included:


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Prisoners were also rented out as slave labour to work on local farms, road construction, reinforcing and repairing the banks of the Danube, and the construction of large residential areas in Sankt Georgen as well as being forced to excavate archaeological sites in Spielberg.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: When the Allied strategic bombing campaign started to target the German war industry, German planners decided to move production to underground facilities that were impenetrable to enemy aerial bombardment. In Gusen I, the prisoners were ordered to build several large tunnels beneath the hills surrounding the camp (code-named "Kellerbau"). By the end of World War II the prisoners had dug to house a small-arms factory.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: In January 1944, similar tunnels were also built beneath the village of Sankt Georgen by the inmates of Gusen II subcamp (code-named "Bergkristall"). They dug roughly so the Messerschmitt company could build an assembly plant to produce the Messerschmitt Me 262 and V-2 rockets. In addition to planes, some of Gusen II tunnels served as factories for various war materials. In late 1944, roughly 11,000 of the Gusen I and II inmates were working in underground facilities. An additional 6,500 worked on expanding the underground network of tunnels and halls.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: In 1945, the Me 262 works was already finished and the Germans were able to assemble 1,250 planes a month. This was the second largest plane factory in Germany after the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp, which was also underground.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: In January 2015, a "panel of archaeologists, historians and other experts" ruled out the earlier claims of an Austrian filmmaker that a bunker underneath the camp was connected to the German nuclear weapon project. The panel indicated that stairs uncovered during an excavation prompted by the allegations led to an SS shooting range.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: The political function of the camp continued in parallel with its economic role. Until at least 1942, it was used for the imprisonment and murder of the Nazis' political and ideological enemies, real and imagined. Initially, the camp did not have a gas chamber of its own and the so-called Muselmänner, or prisoners who were too sick to work, after being maltreated, under-nourished or exhausted, were then transferred to other concentration camps for extermination (mostly to the Hartheim Euthanasia Centre, which was away), or killed by lethal injection and cremated in the local crematorium. The growing number of prisoners made this system too expensive and from 1940, Mauthausen was one of the few camps in the West to use a gas chamber on a regular basis. In the beginning, an improvised mobile gas chamber – a van with the exhaust pipe connected to the inside – shuttled between Mauthausen and Gusen. It was capable of killing about 120 prisoners at a time when it was completed.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Until early 1940, the largest group of inmates consisted of German, Austrian and Czechoslovak socialists, communists, homosexuals, anarchists and people of Romani origin. Other groups of people to be persecuted solely on religious grounds were the "Sectarians", as they were dubbed by the Nazi regime, meaning Bible Students, or as they are called today, Jehovah's Witnesses. The reason for their imprisonment was their rejection of giving the loyalty oath to Hitler and their refusal to participate in any kind of military service.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: In early 1940, many Poles were transferred to the Mauthausen–Gusen complex. The first groups were mostly composed of artists, scientists, Boy Scouts, teachers, and university professors, who were arrested during "Intelligenzaktion" and the course of the AB Action. Camp Gusen II was called by Germans "Vernichtungslager für die polnische Intelligenz" ("Extermination camp for the Polish intelligentsia").


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Later in the war, new arrivals were from every category of the "unwanted", but educated people and so-called political prisoners constituted the largest part of all inmates until the end of the war. During World War II, large groups of Spanish Republicans were also transferred to Mauthausen and its subcamps. Most of them were former Republican soldiers or activists who had fled to France after Franco's victory and then were captured by German forces after the defeat of France in 1940 or handed over to the Germans by the Vichy authorities. The largest of these groups arrived at Gusen in January 1941.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: In early 1941, almost all the Poles and Spaniards, except for a small group of specialists working in the quarry's stone mill, were transferred from Mauthausen to Gusen. Following the outbreak of the Soviet-German War in 1941, the camps started to receive a large number of Soviet POWs. Most of them were kept in huts separated from the rest of the camp. The Soviet prisoners of war were a major part of the first groups to be gassed in the newly built gas chamber in early 1942. In 1944, a large group of Hungarian and Dutch Jews, about 8,000 people altogether, was also transferred to the camp. Much like all the other large groups of prisoners that were transferred to Mauthausen and its subcamps, most of them either died as a result of the hard labour and poor conditions, or were deliberately killed.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: After the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 and the outbreak of the partisan resistance in summer of the same year, many people suspected of aiding the Yugoslav resistance were sent to the Mauthausen camp, mostly from areas under direct German occupation, namely northern Slovenia and Serbia. An estimated 1,500 Slovenes died in Mauthausen.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Throughout the years of World War II, the Mauthausen and its subcamps received new prisoners in smaller transports daily, mostly from other concentration camps in German-occupied Europe. Most of the prisoners at the subcamps of Mauthausen had been kept in a number of different detention sites before they arrived. The most notable of such centres for Mauthausen and its subcamps were the camps at Dachau and Auschwitz. The first transports from Auschwitz arrived in February 1942. The second transport in June of that year was much larger and numbered some 1,200 prisoners. Similar groups were sent from Auschwitz to Gusen and Mauthausen in April and November 1943, and then in January and February 1944. Finally, after Adolf Eichmann visited Mauthausen in May of that year, Mauthausen received the first group of roughly 8,000 Hungarian Jews from Auschwitz; the first group to be evacuated from that camp before the Soviet advance. Initially, the groups evacuated from Auschwitz consisted of qualified workers for the ever-growing industry of Mauthausen and its subcamps, but as the evacuation proceeded other categories of people were also transported to Mauthausen, Gusen, Vienna or Melk.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Over time, Auschwitz had to almost stop accepting new prisoners and most were directed to Mauthausen instead. The last group – roughly 10,000 prisoners – was evacuated in the last wave in January 1945, only a few weeks before the Soviet liberation of the Auschwitz-Birkenau complex. Among them was a large group of civilians arrested by the Germans after the failure of the Warsaw uprising, but by the liberation not more than 500 of them were still alive. Altogether, during the final months of the war, 23,364 prisoners from other concentration camps arrived at the camp complex. Many more perished from exhaustion during death marches, or in railway wagons, where the prisoners were confined at sub-zero temperatures for several days before their arrival, without adequate food or water. Prisoner transports were considered less important than other important services, and could be kept on sidings for days as other trains passed.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Many of those who survived the journey died before they could be registered, whilst others were given the camp numbers of prisoners who had already been killed. Most were then accommodated in the camps or in the newly established tent camp () just outside the Mauthausen subcamp, where roughly 2,000 people were forced into tents intended for not more than 800 inmates, and then starved to death.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: As in all other Nazi concentration camps, not all the prisoners were equal. Their treatment depended largely on the category assigned to each inmate, as well as their nationality and rank within the system. The so-called kapos, or prisoners who had been recruited by their captors to police their fellow prisoners, were given more food and higher pay in the form of concentration camp coupons which could be exchanged for cigarettes in the canteen, as well as a separate room inside most barracks. On Himmler's order of June 1941, a brothel was opened in the Mauthausen and Gusen I camps in 1942. The Kapos formed the main part of the so-called "Prominents" (), or prisoners who were given a much better treatment than the average inmate.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Although the Mauthausen camp complex was mostly a labour camp for men, a women's camp was opened in Mauthausen, in September 1944, with the first transport of female prisoners from Auschwitz. Eventually, more women and children came to Mauthausen from Ravensbrück, Bergen-Belsen, Gross-Rosen, and Buchenwald. Along with the female prisoners came some female guards; twenty are known to have served in the Mauthausen camp, and sixty in the whole camp complex.


title: Mauthausen concentration camp

text: Female guards also staffed the Mauthausen subcamps at Hirtenberg, Lenzing (the main women's subcamp in Austria), and Sankt Lambrecht. The Chief Overseers at Mauthausen were firstly Margarete Freinberger, and then Jane Bernigau. Almost all the female Overseers who served in Mauthausen were recruited from Austrian cities and towns between September and November 1944. In early April 1945, at least 2,500 more female prisoners came from the female subcamps at Amstetten, St. Lambrecht, Hirtenberg, and the Flossenbürg subcamp at Freiberg. According to Daniel Patrick Brown, Hildegard Lächert also served at Mauthausen.