title: Camden, New Jersey

text: Robberies, property crimes, nonfatal shooting incidents, violent crimes, and aggravated assaults have declined since 2012. In November 2012, Camden began the process of terminating 273 officers to later hire 400 new officers, out of the 2,000 applicants that have already submitted letters of interest to the county, to have a fresh start of a larger, non-unionized group to safeguard the nation's poorest city. The city's officers rejected a contract proposal from the county that would have allowed approximately all 260 Camden county's police officers to Camden Police Metro Division, to only 49% of them to be eligible to be rehired once the 141-year-old department becomes disbanded.


title: Camden, New Jersey

text: Although the annual homicide rate averaged 48 since 2008, in April 2013 the city reported 57 homicides in a population of 77,000 compared to 67 homicides in 2012. In mid-March 2013, Camden residents would have noticed the first changes once the first group of officers became employed and were in an eight-week field of training on the Camden streets. On May 1, 2013, Camden County's Police Department was disbanded due to a union contract that made it financially impossible to keep officers on the street. While the existing county officers were still present, Camden County's Police Department brought in 25 new officers to train in neighborhoods in hopes they can regain the communities trust. The new police force had lower salaries along with fewer benefits than they had received from the city. Because of the reorganized force in 2013, the number of cops in the streets has increased and spread throughout Camden. Camden's new police force began patrolling in tandem, speaking with residents, and driving patrol cars. Camden County Police Department hosted several Meet Your Officers events to further engage with residents.


title: Camden, New Jersey

text: In 2018, the Camden County Police Department reported that violent crime had dropped 18%, led by a 21% decline in aggravated assaults; nonviolent crimes fell by 12%, the number of arson fell by 29%, burglaries by 21%, and nonfatal "shooting hit incidents" dropped by 15%. In 2017 there were 23 homicides reported, which was a 30-year low. In 2018, 2019, and 2020 there were 22, 24, and 23 homicides respectively.


title: Camden, New Jersey

text: A "CNN" report proposed that Camden might be a model for what police abolition or "defunding the police" could look like. The report noted that Camden still had a police force, but it was being administered by a different body and had changed some of its procedures and policies. A report in "The Morning Call" noted that the county police department, which is distinct from the county sheriff's office and operates solely in Camden, had a budget of $68.5 million in 2020, compared to the city department's $55 million in 2011 prior to its dissolution, and that police funding in Camden was higher on a per capita basis than that of other NJ cities with city-run departments. There are 380 officers in the county-run department, versus 370 in the dissolved city force.


title: Camden, New Jersey

text: The fictional Camden mayor Carmine Polito in the 2013 film "American Hustle" is loosely based on 1970s Camden mayor Angelo Errichetti.


title: The Chestnut Man

text: The Chestnut Man (Danish: Kastanjemanden) is a Danish crime series released on Netflix on 29 September 2021. The series was created by Dorte Warnøe Hagh, David Sandreuter, and Mikkel Serup, is directed by Kasper Barfoed and Mikkel Serup, and is based on the book of the same name by Søren Sveistrup. The series stars Danica Curcic and Mikkel Boe Følsgaard as Naia Thulin and Mark Hess, who investigate the murders of several women involving a mysterious chestnut figurine left at the crime scenes.


title: The Chestnut Man

text: "The Chestnut Man" opens with the discovery of the murder of an entire family on an isolated farm in 1987. More than thirty years later, in present-day Copenhagen, a young woman is found murdered in a playground with one of her hands missing. Detective Naia Thulin is assigned to the case. With her reluctant new partner, Mark Hess, they notice a tiny figurine made of chestnuts lying next to the body. A mysterious piece of evidence is soon discovered on the chestnut man—the fingerprint of a missing girl, the daughter of politician Rosa Hartung.


title: The Chestnut Man

text: On 19 August 2019, Netflix announced its second Danish series at the Copenhagen TV Festival. "The Chestnut Man" is based on the debut novel by award-winning writer Søren Sveistrup ("The Killing") and the series debuted on Netflix worldwide.


title: The Chestnut Man

text: "The Chestnut Man" received generally favourable views from critics and holds a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on six critic reviews. Critics have described the show as "gripping" and "gruesome", while others, like "Verdens Gang", described it as a "perfected cliche", while also giving it a four out of six on a dice roll.


title: Phobia

text: A phobia is an anxiety disorder defined by a persistent and excessive fear of an object or situation. Phobias typically result in a rapid onset of fear and are usually present for more than six months. Those affected go to great lengths to avoid the situation or object, to a degree greater than the actual danger posed. If the object or situation cannot be avoided, they experience significant distress. Other symptoms can include fainting, which may occur in blood or injury phobia, and panic attacks, often found in agoraphobia. Around 75% of those with phobias have multiple phobias.


title: Phobia

text: Phobias can be divided into specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, and agoraphobia. Specific phobias are further divided to include certain animals, natural environment, blood or injury, and particular situations. The most common are fear of spiders, fear of snakes, and fear of heights. Specific phobias may be caused by a negative experience with the object or situation in early childhood. Social phobia is when a person fears a situation due to worries about others judging them. Agoraphobia is a fear of a situation due to perceived difficulty or inability to escape.


title: Phobia

text: It is recommended that specific phobias be treated with exposure therapy, in which the person is introduced to the situation or object in question until the fear resolves. Medications are not helpful for specific phobias. Social phobia and agoraphobia may be treated with counseling, medications, or a combination of both. Medications used include antidepressants, benzodiazepines, or beta-blockers.


title: Phobia

text: Specific phobias affect about 6–8% of people in the Western world and 2–4% in Asia, Africa, and Latin America in a given year. Social phobia affects about 7% of people in the United States and 0.5–2.5% of people in the rest of the world. Agoraphobia affects about 1.7% of people. Women are affected by phobias about twice as often as men. The typical onset of a phobia is around 10–17, and rates are lower with increasing age. Those with phobias are more likely to attempt suicide.


title: Phobia

text: Fear is an emotional response to a current perceived danger. This differs from anxiety which is a response in preparation of a future threat. Fear and anxiety often can overlap but this distinction can help identify subtle differences between disorders, as well as differentiate between a response that would be expected given a person's developmental stage and culture.


title: Phobia

text: The International Classification of Diseases (11th version: ICD-11) is a globally used diagnostic tool for epidemiology, health management and clinical purposes maintained by the World Health Organization (WHO). The ICD classifies phobic disorders under the category of mental, behavioural or neurodevelopmental disorders. The ICD-10 differentiates between Phobic anxiety disorders, such as Agoraphobia, and Other anxiety disorders, such as Generalized anxiety disorder. The ICD-11 merges both groups together as Anxiety or fear-related disorders.


title: Phobia

text: Most phobias are classified into 3 categories. According to the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition" (DSM-V), such phobias are considered subtypes of anxiety disorder. The categories are:


title: Phobia

text: Phobias vary in severity among individuals. Some individuals can avoid the subject and experience relatively mild anxiety over that fear. Others experience full-fledged panic attacks with all the associated impairing symptoms. Most individuals understand that their fear is irrational but cannot override their panic response. These individuals often report dizziness, loss of bladder or bowel control, tachypnea, feelings of pain, and shortness of breath.


title: Phobia

text: There are multiple theories about how phobias develop and likely occur due to a combination of environmental and genetic factors. The degree to whether environment or genetic influences have a more significant role varies by condition, with social anxiety disorder and agoraphobia having around a 50% heritability rate.


title: Phobia

text: Rachman proposed three pathways for the development of phobias: direct or classical conditioning (exposure to phobic stimulus), vicarious acquisition (seeing others experience phobic stimulus), and informational/instructional acquisition (learning about phobic stimulus from others).


title: Phobia

text: Much of the progress in understanding the acquisition of fear responses in phobias can be attributed to classical conditioning (Pavlovian model). When an aversive stimulus and a neutral one are paired together, for instance, when an electric shock is given in a specific room, the subject can start to fear not only the shock but the room as well. In behavioral terms, the room is a conditioned stimulus (CS). When paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (UCS) "(the shock)", it creates a conditioned response (CR) "(fear for the room)" (CS+UCS=CR). For example, in case of the fear of heights (acrophobia), the CS is heights. Such as a balcony on the top floors of a high rise building. The UCS can originate from an aversive or traumatizing event in the person's life, such as almost falling from a great height. The original fear of nearly falling is associated with being high, leading to a fear of heights. In other words, the CS "(heights)" associated with the aversive UCS "(almost falling)" leads to the CR "(fear)".


title: Phobia

text: Though historically influential in the theory of fear acquisition, this direct conditioning model is not the only proposed way to acquire a phobia. This theory in fact has limitations as not everyone that has experienced a traumatic event develops a phobia and vice versa.


title: Phobia

text: Vicarious fear acquisition is learning to fear something, not by a subject's own experience of fear, but by watching others, oftentimes a parent (observational learning). For instance, when a child sees a parent reacting fearfully to an animal, the child can also become afraid of the animal. Through observational learning, humans can learn to fear potentially dangerous objects—a reaction observed in other primates. A study on non-human primates, showed that the primates learned to fear snakes at a fast rate after watching parents' fearful reactions. An increase in fearful behaviours was observed as the non-human primates observed their parents' fearful reactions. Although observational learning has proven effective in creating reactions of fear and phobias, it has also been shown that by physically experiencing an event, increases the chance of fearful and phobic behaviours. In some cases, physically experiencing an event may increase the fear and phobia more than observing a fearful reaction of another human or non-human primate.


title: Phobia

text: Informational/instructional fear acquisition is learning to fear something by getting information. For instance, fearing electrical wire after hearing that touching it causes an electric shock.


title: Phobia

text: A conditioned fear response to an object or situation is not always a phobia. There must also be symptoms of impairment and avoidance. Impairment is defined as an inability to complete routine tasks, whether occupational, academic, or social. For example, an occupational impairment can result from acrophobia, from not taking a job solely because of its location on the top floor of a building, or socially not participating in an event at a theme park. The avoidance aspect is defined as behaviour that results in the omission of an aversive event that would otherwise occur, intending to prevent anxiety.


title: Phobia

text: With the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003, much research has been completed looking at specific genes that may cause or contribute to medical conditions. Candidate genes were the focus of most of these studies until the past decade, when the cost and ability to perform genome-wide analyses became more available. The GLRB gene was identified as a possible target for agoraphobia. An area still in development is reviewing epigenetic components or the interaction of the environment on genes through methylation. A number of genes are being examined through this epigenetic lens which may be linked with social anxiety disorder, including MAOA, CRHR1, and OXTR. Each phobia related disorder has some degree of genetic susceptibility. Those with specific phobias are more likely to have first degree relatives with the same specific phobia. Similarly, social anxiety disorder is found two to six times more frequently in those with first degree relatives that have it versus those that do not. Agoraphobia is believed to have the strongest genetic association.


title: Phobia

text: Beneath the lateral fissure in the cerebral cortex, the insula, or insular cortex, of the brain has been identified as part of the limbic system, along with the cingulated gyrus, hippocampus, corpus callosum, and other nearby cortices. This system has been found to play a role in emotion processing, and the insula, in particular, may contribute to maintaining autonomic functions. Studies by Critchley et al. indicate the insula as being involved in the experience of emotion by detecting and interpreting threatening stimuli. Similar studies monitoring insula activity have shown a correlation between increased insular activation and anxiety.


title: Phobia

text: In the frontal lobes, other cortices involved with phobia and fear are the anterior cingulate cortex and the medial prefrontal cortex. In the processing of emotional stimuli, studies on phobic reactions to facial expressions have indicated that these areas are involved in the processing and responding to negative stimuli. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex has been said to influence the amygdala by monitoring its reaction to emotional stimuli or even fearful memories. Most specifically, the medial prefrontal cortex is active during the extinction of fear and is responsible for long-term extinction. Stimulation of this area decreases conditioned fear responses, so its role may be in inhibiting the amygdala and its reaction to fearful stimuli.


title: Phobia

text: The hippocampus is a horseshoe-shaped structure that plays an essential part in the brain's limbic system. This is because it forms memories and connects them with emotions and the senses. When dealing with fear, the hippocampus receives impulses from the amygdala that allow it to connect the fear with a certain sense, such as a smell or sound.


title: Phobia

text: The amygdala is an almond-shaped mass of nuclei located deep in the brain's medial temporal lobe. It processes the events associated with fear and is linked to social phobia and other anxiety disorders. The amygdala's ability to respond to fearful stimuli occurs through fear conditioning. Like classical conditioning, the amygdala learns to associate a conditioned stimulus with a negative or avoidant stimulus, creating a conditioned fear response often seen in phobic individuals. The amygdala is responsible for recognizing certain stimuli or cues as dangerous and plays a role in the storage of threatening stimuli to memory. The basolateral nuclei (or basolateral amygdala) and the hippocampus interact with the amygdala in-memory storage. This connection suggests why memories are often remembered more vividly if they have emotional significance.


title: Phobia

text: In addition to memory, the amygdala also triggers the secretion of hormones that affect fear and aggression. When the fear or aggression response is initiated, the amygdala releases hormones into the body to put the human body into an "alert" state, which prepares the individual to move, run, fight, etc. This defensive "alert" state and response are known as the fight-or-flight response.


title: Phobia

text: However, inside the brain, this stress response can be observed in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA). This circuit incorporates the process of receiving stimuli, interpreting them, and releasing certain hormones into the bloodstream. The parvocellular neurosecretory neurons of the hypothalamus release corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is sent to the anterior pituitary. Here the pituitary releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which ultimately stimulates the release of cortisol. In relation to anxiety, the amygdala activates this circuit, while the hippocampus is responsible for suppressing it. Glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus monitor the amount of cortisol in the system and through negative feedback can tell the hypothalamus to stop releasing CRH.


title: Phobia

text: Studies on mice engineered to have high concentrations of CRH showed higher levels of anxiety, while those engineered to have no or low amounts of CRH receptors were less anxious. In people with phobias, therefore, high amounts of cortisol may be present, or there may be low levels of glucocorticoid receptors or even serotonin (5-HT).


title: Phobia

text: For the areas in the brain involved in emotion—most specifically fear— the processing and response to emotional stimuli can be altered when one of these regions is damaged. Damage to the cortical areas involved in the limbic system, such as the cingulate cortex or frontal lobes, has resulted in extreme emotion changes. Other types of damage include Klüver–Bucy syndrome and Urbach–Wiethe disease. In Klüver–Bucy syndrome, a temporal lobectomy, or removal of the temporal lobes, results in changes involving fear and aggression. Specifically, the removal of these lobes results in decreased fear, confirming its role in fear recognition and response. Damage to both side (Bilateral damage) of the medial temporal lobes is known as Urbach–Wiethe disease. It presents with similar symptoms of decreased fear and aggression but with the addition of the inability to recognize emotional expressions, especially angry or fearful faces.


title: Phobia

text: The amygdala's role in learned fear includes interactions with other brain regions in the neural circuit of fear. While damage in the amygdala can inhibit its ability to recognize fearful stimuli, other areas such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the basolateral nuclei of the amygdala can affect the region's ability to not only become conditioned to fearful stimuli but to extinguish them eventually. Through receiving stimulus info, the basolateral nuclei undergo synaptic changes that allow the amygdala to develop a conditioned response to fearful stimuli. Damage to this area, therefore, have been shown to disrupt the acquisition of learned responses to fear. Likewise, damage in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (the area responsible for monitoring the amygdala) has been shown to slow down the speed of extinguishing a learned fear response and how effective the extinction is. This suggests there is a pathway or circuit among the amygdala and nearby cortical areas that process emotional stimuli and influence emotional expression, all of which can be disrupted when damage occurs.


title: Phobia

text: It is recommended that the terms "distress" and "impairment" take into account the context of the person's environment during diagnosis. The DSM-IV-TR states that if a feared stimulus, whether it be an object or a situation, is absent entirely in an environment, a diagnosis cannot be made. An example of this situation would be an individual who has a fear of mice but lives in an area without mice. Even though the concept of mice causes marked distress and impairment within the individual, because the individual does not usually encounter mice, no actual distress or impairment is ever experienced. It is recommended that proximity to, and ability to escape from, the stimulus also be considered. As the phobic person approaches a feared stimulus, anxiety levels increase, and the degree to which the person perceives they might escape from the stimulus affects the intensity of fear in instances such as riding an elevator (e.g. anxiety increases at the midway point between floors and decreases when the floor is reached and the doors open). The DSM-V has been updated to reflect that an individual may have changed their daily activities around the feared stimulus in such a way that they may avoid it altogether. The person may still meet criteria for the diagnosis if they continue to avoid or refuse to participate in activities they would involve possible exposure to the phobic stimulus.


title: Phobia

text: A specific phobia is a marked and persistent fear of an object or situation. Specific phobias may also include fear of losing control, panicking, and fainting from an encounter with the phobia. Specific phobias are defined concerning objects or situations, whereas social phobias emphasize social fear and the evaluations that might accompany them.


title: Phobia

text: The DSM breaks specific phobias into five subtypes: animal, natural environment, blood-injection-injury, situational and other. In children, blood-injection-injury phobia, animal phobias, and natural environment phobias usually develop between the ages of 7 and 9 reflective of normal development. Additionally, specific phobias are most prevalent in children between the ages 10 and 13. Situational phobias are typically found in older children and adults.


title: Phobia

text: There are various methods used to treat phobias. These methods include systematic desensitization, progressive relaxation, virtual reality, modeling, medication, and hypnotherapy. Over the past several decades, psychologists and other researchers have developed effective behavioral, pharmacological, and technological interventions for the treatment of phobia.


title: Phobia

text: Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) can be beneficial by allowing the person to challenge dysfunctional thoughts or beliefs by being mindful of their feelings to recognize that their fear is irrational. CBT may occur in a group setting. Gradual desensitization treatment and CBT are often successful, provided the person is willing to endure some discomfort. In one clinical trial, 90% of people no longer had a phobic reaction after successful CBT treatment.


title: Phobia

text: Evidence supports that eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is effective in treating some phobias. Its effectiveness in treating complex or trauma-related phobias has not been empirically established. Primarily used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder, EMDR has been demonstrated to ease phobia symptoms following a specific trauma, such as a fear of dogs following a dog bite.


title: Phobia

text: Systematic desensitization is a process in which people seeking help slowly become accustomed to their phobia, and ultimately overcome it. Traditional systematic desensitization involves a person being exposed to the object they are afraid of over time so that the fear and discomfort do not become overwhelming. This controlled exposure to the anxiety-provoking stimulus is key to the effectiveness of exposure therapy in the treatment of specific phobias. It has been shown that humor is an excellent alternative when traditional systematic desensitization is ineffective. Humor systematic desensitization involves a series of treatment activities that elicit humor with the feared object. Previously learned progressive muscle relaxation procedures can be used as the activities become more difficult. Progressive muscle relaxation helps people relax before and during exposure to the feared stimulus.


title: Phobia

text: Virtual reality therapy is another technique that helps phobic people confront a feared object. It uses virtual reality to generate scenes that may not have been possible or ethical in the physical world. It is equally as effective as traditional exposure therapy and offers additional advantages. These include controlling the scenes and having the phobic person endure more exposure than they might handle in reality.


title: Phobia

text: Medications are a treatment option often utilized in combination with CBT or if CBT was not tolerated or effective. Medications can help regulate apprehension and fear of a particular fearful object or situation. There are various medication options available for both social anxiety disorder and agoraphobia. The use of medications for specific phobias, besides the limited role of benzodiazepines, do not currently have established guidelines due to minimal supporting evidence.


title: Phobia

text: Antidepressant medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), or monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) may be helpful in some cases. SSRIs / SNRIs act on serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain. Because of serotonins positive impacts mood, an antidepressant may be offered and prescribed as a treatment option. For social anxiety, the SSRIs sertraline, paroxetine, fluvoxamine, and the SNRI venlafaxine have FDA approval. Similar medications may be offered for agoraphobia.


title: Phobia

text: Sedatives such as benzodiazepines (clonazepam, alprazolam) are another therapeutic option, which can help people relax by reducing the amount of anxiety they feel. Benzodiazepines may be useful in the acute treatment of severe symptoms, but the risk-benefit ratio usually goes against their long-term use in phobic disorders. This class of medication has recently been shown as effective if used with negative behaviours such as excessive alcohol use. Despite this positive finding, benzodiazepines are used with caution due to side effects and risk of developing dependence or withdrawal symptoms. In specific phobia for example if the phobic stimulus is one that is not regularly encountered such as flying a short course may be provided.


title: Phobia

text: Beta blockers (propranolol) are another therapeutic option, particularly for those with the performance only subtype of social anxiety disorder. They may stop the stimulating effects of adrenaline, such as sweating, increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, tremors, and the feeling of a pounding heart. By taking beta-blockers before a phobic event, these symptoms are decreased, making the event less frightening. Beta-blockers are not effective for generalized social anxiety disorder.


title: Phobia

text: Hypnotherapy can be used alone and in conjunction with systematic desensitization to treat phobias. Through hypnotherapy, the underlying cause of the phobia may be uncovered. The phobia may be caused by a past event that the person does not remember, a phenomenon known as repression. The mind represses traumatic memories from the conscious mind until the person is ready to deal with them.


title: Phobia

text: Hypnotherapy may also eliminate the conditioned responses that occur during different situations. People are first placed into a hypnotic trance, an extremely relaxed state in which the unconscious can be retrieved. This state makes people more open to suggestion, which helps bring about desired change. Consciously addressing old memories helps individuals understand the event and see it less threateningly.


title: Phobia

text: Outcomes vary widely among the phobic anxiety disorders. There is a possibility that remission occurs without intervention but relapses are common. Response to treatment as well as remission and relapse rates are impacted by the severity of an individual's disorder as well as how long they have been experiencing symptoms. For example, in social anxiety disorder (social phobia) a majority of individuals will experience remission within the first couple of years of symptom onset without specific treatment. On the other hand, in Agoraphobia as few as 10% of individuals are seen to reach complete remission without treatment. A study looking at the 2 year remission rates for anxiety disorders found that those with multiple anxieties were less likely to experience remission.


title: Phobia

text: The majority of those that develop a specific phobia first experience symptoms in childhood. Often individuals will experience symptoms periodically with periods of remission before complete remission occurs. However, specific phobias that continue into adulthood are likely to experience a more chronic course. Specific phobias in older adults has been linked with a decrease in quality of life. Those with specific phobias are at an increased risk of suicide. Greater impairment is found in those that have multiple phobias. Response to treatment is relatively high but many do not seek treatment due to lack of access, ability to avoid phobia, or unwilling to face feared object for repeated CBT sessions.


title: Phobia

text: Many of those with a phobia often have more than one phobia. There are also a number of psychological and physiological disorders that tend to occur or coexist at higher rates among this population. As with all anxiety disorders the most common psychiatric condition to occur with a phobia is major depressive disorder. Additionally bipolar disorder, substance dependence disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post traumatic stress disorder have also been found to occur in those with phobias at higher rates.


title: Phobia

text: Phobias are a common form of anxiety disorder, and distributions are heterogeneous by age and gender. An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) found that between 8.7 percent and 18.1 percent of Americans have phobias, making it the most common mental illness among women in all age groups and the second most common illness among men older than 25. Between 4 percent and 10 percent of all children experience specific phobias during their lives, and social phobias occur in one percent to three percent of children.


title: Phobia

text: A Swedish study found that females have a higher number of cases per year than males (26.5 percent for females and 12.4 percent for males). Among adults, 21.2 percent of women and 10.9 percent of men have a single specific phobia, while multiple phobias occur in 5.4 percent of females and 1.5 percent of males. Women are nearly four times as likely as men to have a fear of animals (12.1 percent in women and 3.3 percent in men) — a higher dimorphic than with all specific or generalized phobias or social phobias. Social phobias are more common in girls than boys, while situational phobia occurs in 17.4 percent of women and 8.5 percent of men.


title: Phobia

text: The word "phobia" comes from the ("phóbos"), meaning "aversion", "fear" or "morbid fear". The regular system for naming specific phobias uses prefixes based on a Greek word for the object of the fear, plus the suffix "-phobia". Benjamin Rush's 1786 satyrical text, 'On the different Species of Phobia', established the term's dictionary sense of specific morbid fears. However, many phobias are irregularly named with Latin prefixes, such as apiphobia instead of melissaphobia (fear of bees) or aviphobia instead of ornithophobia (fear of birds). Creating these terms is something of a word game. Such fears are psychological rather than physiological in origin, and few of these terms are found in medical literature. In ancient Greek mythology Phobos was the twin brother of Deimos (terror).


title: Phobia

text: The word "phobia" may also refer to conditions other than true phobias. For example, the term "hydrophobia" is an old name for rabies, since an aversion to water is one of that disease's symptoms. A specific phobia to water is called aquaphobia instead. A hydrophobe is a chemical compound that repels water. Similarly, photophobia usually refers to a physical complaint (aversion to light due to inflamed eyes or excessively dilated pupils), rather than an irrational fear of light.


title: Phobia

text: Several terms with the suffix -phobia are used non-clinically to imply irrational fear or hatred. Examples include:


title: Phobia

text: Usually, these kinds of "phobias" are described as fear, dislike, disapproval, prejudice, hatred, discrimination, or hostility towards the object of the "phobia". It is a form of hyperbole.


title: Phobia

text: Before the development of pharmacotherapy, the treatment of phobias and mental health disorders relied solely on therapy such as CBT. Although therapy can be incredibly effective for many, it does not always achieve the desired effect. Interventional psychiatry is an additional branch in medicine that has expanded treatment options, and further research continues to explore effectiveness and applications. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) are two examples of device-based interventions widely utilized. In terms of use in treating phobias and anxiety disorders as a whole, TMS is being explored as an augmentation option for those who do not have the desired response to other therapeutic options or side effects from medications. A majority of research has been conducted exploring the use of TMS in PTSD and generalized anxiety disorder. A meta‐analysis conducted in 2019 found only two clinical trials for the use of TMS in specific phobias, one of which explored anxiety and avoidance rates in individuals with acrophobia. Although the study found decreased rates in both anxiety and avoidance after two TMS sessions because of the limited number of studies and small sample size, few conclusions can be made. D-cycloserine (DCS), a partial N-methyl-D-aspartate agonist, is an additional investigational approach to augmentation specific phobias that a meta-analysis suggested had better outcomes and less symptom severity when utilized before initiating CBT.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: Early legislative elections were held on 30 January 2022 in Portugal to elect members of the Assembly of the Republic to the 15th Legislature of the Third Portuguese Republic. All 230 seats to the Assembly of the Republic were up for election.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: On 27 October 2021, the budget proposed by the Socialist minority government was rejected by the Assembly of the Republic. The Left Bloc (BE) and the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP), both of whom had previously supported the government, joined the centre-right to right-wing opposition parties and rejected the budget. On 4 November 2021, Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, the president of Portugal, announced a snap election to be held on 30 January 2022. This election was the third held in Portugal during the COVID-19 pandemic, as the country held a presidential election (January) and local elections (September) in 2021. The ruling government led the local elections but suffered losses, especially in Lisbon.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The Socialist Party (PS) of incumbent prime minister António Costa won an unexpected majority government in the Assembly of the Republic, the second in the party's history. The PS received 41.4% of the vote and 120 seats, four seats above the minimum required for a majority. The PS won the most votes in all districts in mainland Portugal, only failing to win the Autonomous Region of Madeira. Political analysts considered the PS to have benefited from voters of the BE and the Unitary Democratic Coalition (CDU) casting their votes for the PS instead.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The Social Democratic Party (PSD) remained stable but underperformed opinion polls that had predicted a close race with the PS. The PSD won 29.1% of the vote, a slightly higher share than in 2019, and received 77 seats, two seats less than the previous election. The PSD was surpassed by the PS in districts like Leiria and Viseu, and lost Bragança by only 15 votes to the PS. In the aftermath of the election, party leader Rui Rio announced he would resign from the leadership.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: CHEGA finished in third place, winning 12 seats and 7.2% of the vote. The Liberal Initiative (IL) finished in fourth place, winning 8 seats and 4.9% of the vote. Both parties experienced a surge of voters and made gains this election, though CHEGA received more than 100,000 less votes than its leader had received in the previous year's presidential election, an election in which turnout was lower.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The BE and CDU both suffered significant losses, being surpassed by the IL and CHEGA. Their rejection of the 2022 budget was considered to be a factor in losing votes and seats, along with tactical voting. The BE won 5 seats and 4.4% of the vote. CDU won 6 seats and 4.3% of the vote, while losing seats in Évora and Santarém districts. The Ecologist Party "The Greens" (PEV) lost all their seats for the first time.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The CDS – People's Party (CDS–PP) lost all their seats for the first time, receiving 1.6% of the vote. Party leader Francisco Rodrigues dos Santos announced his resignation. People Animals Nature (PAN) suffered losses as well, winning 1 seat and 1.6% of the vote, 3 fewer seats than in the previous election. LIVRE won 1 seat and received 1.3% of the vote, holding on to the single seat they won in the previous election, with party leader Rui Tavares being elected in Lisbon.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The voter turnout grew, compared with the previous election, with 51.5% of registered voters casting a ballot, despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: After controversies and accusations because of the counting of overseas ballots, the Constitutional Court forced the repetition of the election in the Europe constituency, which elects two MPs. Therefore, the swearing in of the new Parliament and Government was delayed by a month and a half. The rerun of the election in the overseas constituency of Europe occurred, for in person voting, on 12 and 13 March 2022, and postal ballots were received until 23 March 2022. The final, certified results of the election were published in the official journal, "Diário da República", on 26 March 2022.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The proposed budget for 2022 was rejected on October 27, 2021 by all Opposition parties, with the expection of PAN and two Independent MPs, and with the then PS minority being the only one voting in favour. After this vote, President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa decided to dissolve Parliament and call a snap election.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: Early in December 2019, the Liberal Initiative (IL) elected a new leader after their previous leader, Carlos Guimarães Pinto, stepped down. Their sole MP, João Cotrim de Figueiredo, was elected as leader with 96% of the votes in the party's convention. The results were the following:


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The Social Democrats (PSD), the largest opposition party, held a two-round leadership election on 11 January and 18 January 2020. Three candidates were in the race: incumbent PSD leader Rui Rio, former PSD parliamentary caucus leader Luís Montenegro and current Deputy Mayor of Cascais Miguel Pinto Luz. Around 40,000 party members, out of almost 110,000, were registered to vote. In the first round, on 11 January, Rui Rio polled ahead with 49% of the votes against the 41.4% of Luís Montenegro and 9.6% of Miguel Pinto Luz, with both Rio and Montenegro qualifying for a second round. A week later, on 18 January, Rui Rio was re-elected as PSD leader with 53.2% of the votes, against the 46.8% of Luís Montenegro. In both rounds, turnout of registered members achieved almost 80%. The results were the following:


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: A leadership election in the PSD was held on 27 November 2021. The original date was 4 December 2021, but the party voted to advance the date in one week. MEP Paulo Rangel was a candidate for the leadership. He faced incumbent PSD leader Rui Rio, who announced his re-election bid on 19 October 2021. Around 46,000 party members, out of more than 85,000 active members, were registered to vote. On 27 November 2021, Rui Rio defeated Paulo Rangel by a 52.4% to 47.6% margin and was reelected for a 3rd term as party leader. The results were the following:


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: CDS – People's Party also elected a new leader after former leader Assunção Cristas stepped down after the party's worst result ever in a general election in the 2019 elections. Five candidates were in the race: People's Youth leader Francisco Rodrigues dos Santos, current CDS MP from Aveiro João Almeida, former MP Filipe Lobo d'Ávila, Abel Matos Santos and Carlos Meira. The new leader was elected in a party congress between 25 and 26 January 2020. In that congress, in Aveiro city, Francisco Rodrigues dos Santos was elected leader with 46.4% of the delegates votes, against the 38.9% of João Almeida and 14.5% of Filipe Lobo d'Ávila. Abel Matos Santos and Carlos Meira had stepped down from the race, near the end of the congress but before the vote, in support of Rodrigues dos Santos. The results were the following:


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: In March 2021, the People–Animals–Nature (PAN) leader and spokesperson, André Silva, announced he was leaving the leadership of the party to dedicate more time to his family. A party congress to elect a new leader was scheduled for the weekend of 5–6 June 2021. For that leadership congress, only one candidate stepped forward, Inês Sousa Real, the party's parliamentary leader. On 6 June, Inês Sousa Real was elected as leader of PAN with 87.2% of the votes in the party's congress in Tomar. The results were the following:


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: According to the Constitution of Portugal, an election must be called between 14 September and 14 October of the year that the legislature ends but can be called earlier. The election is then called by the president of Portugal, not at the sole request of the prime minister of Portugal, after listening to all of the parties represented in Parliament. The election date must be announced at least 60 days in advance if it is held as the legislature ends, but the election must be held within 55 days if it is called during an ongoing legislature (dissolution of parliament). The election day is the same in all multi-seat constituencies, and should fall on a Sunday or a national holiday. The next legislative election should have taken place no later than 8 October 2023; however, due to the rejection of the 2022 State Budget, during which the left-wing parties joined the right-wing parties and voted against the proposal, a snap election was called for 30 January 2022.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The Assembly of the Republic has 230 members elected to four-year terms. Governments do not require absolute majority support of the Assembly to hold office, as even if the number of opposers of government is larger than that of the supporters, the number of opposers still needs to be equal or greater than 116 (absolute majority) for both the Government's Programme to be rejected or for a motion of no confidence to be approved.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The number of seats assigned to each district depends on the district magnitude. The use of the d'Hondt method makes for a higher effective threshold than certain other allocation methods such as the Hare quota or Sainte-Laguë method, which are more generous to small parties.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: In January 2022, Portugal was experiencing rising infection rates as the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant had a prevalence of 93% among variants in the country. Because of this situation, thousands of voters were likely to be in isolation on 30 January, election day. To address this situation, the government asked for legal advice regarding the issue from the Portuguese Attorney-General's Office. On 19 January, the government announced that isolated voters would be able to vote on election day and recommended that these voters cast a ballot during the last hour the polls were open, between 6pm and 7pm 30 January.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: Voters were also able to vote early, which happened on 23 January, one week before election day. Voters had to register between 16 and 20 January 2022 in order to be eligible to cast an early ballot. By the 20 January deadline, 315,785 voters had requested to vote early, a number well below expectations. On 23 January, 285,848 voters (90.5% of voters that requested) cast an early ballot.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The table below lists the parties represented in the Assembly of the Republic during the 14th legislature (2019–2022) and that also contested the 2022 elections:


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The table below lists smaller parties not represented in the Assembly of the Republic that contested the elections in at least one constituency:


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: A coalition between the People's Monarchist Party (PPM) and the United Party of Retirees and Pensioners (PURP) was rejected by the Constitutional Court because of several irregularities.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: A total of 38 debates were scheduled for these elections. CDU leader, Jerónimo de Sousa, would only attend the debates on the main channels of each of the three main networks, RTP1, SIC and TVI. Therefore, he was absent from the debates in the news channels of the three networks, SIC Notícias, RTP3 and CNN Portugal. Shortly after, the debates between Jerónimo de Sousa and other party leaders on those cable channels, were cancelled, thus reducing the number of debates to 32. On 11 January 2022, the PCP announced that Jerónimo de Sousa would undergo urgent vascular surgery on 12 January and would be out of the campaign trail for 10 days, thus being absent in the debates. João Oliveira substituted him in the debate with PSD leader Rui Rio.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: Rádio Observador organised two hour and a half debates with the head candidates for the Porto and Lisbon districts. The Porto debate aired on 11 January and the Lisbon debate aired on 14 January.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The Socialist Party (PS) of incumbent prime minister António Costa won an unexpected absolute majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the second in the party's history. The PS received 41.5% of the vote and 118 seats, two above the minimum required for a majority. The PS won the most votes in all districts in mainland Portugal, only failing to win Madeira. Commentators considered the PS to have benefited from a transfer of the BE and the Unitary Democratic Coalition (CDU) voters to them. Costa said that his "absolute majority doesn't mean absolute power" and that he would still be open to forming a coalition, despite it no longer being a requirement to govern. He also promised reforms, saying: "The conditions have been created to carry out investments and reforms for Portugal to be more prosperous, fairer, more innovative."


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The Social Democratic Party (PSD) remained stable, underperforming opinion polls that had predicted a close race with the PS. The PSD won 29.2% of the vote, a slightly higher share than in 2019, and received 77 seats, two less than the previous election. The PSD was surpassed by the PS in districts like Leiria and Viseu, and lost Bragança district by only 15 votes to the PS. In the aftermath of the election, party leader Rui Rio announced he would resign from the leadership.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: CHEGA finished in third place, winning 12 seats and 7.3% of the vote. The Liberal Initiative (IL) finished in fourth place, winning 8 seats and 4.9% of the vote. Both parties experienced a surge of voters and made gains in this election. CHEGA leader André Ventura celebrated a "great night", though the party received more than 100,000 less votes than Ventura had received in the previous year's presidential election, an election in which turnout was lower. He blamed the PS majority on PSD leader Rio for not forming an alliance between the two right-wing parties and stated "From now on there won't be a soft opposition. We will assume the role of being the real opposition to the Socialists and restore dignity to this country." IL leader João Cotrim de Figueiredo also celebrated sufficient gains to form a parliamentary group, and said that his party would be a "firm opposition to socialism".


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: Both the BE and CDU suffered losses, being surpassed by the CHEGA and IL, with 5 seats and 4.4% of the vote; their rejection of the 2022 budget was considered to be a factor in losing votes and seats, as well as tactical voting to avoid a PSD plurality. The CDU won 6 seats and 4.3% of the vote, while losing seats in Évora and Santerém districts. The Ecologist Party "The Greens" (PEV) lost all their seats for the first time. Catarina Martins of the BE blamed the PS for having created a "false crisis" that she believed had resulted in a polarised election that penalised parties to the left of the PS. She also spoke out against the gains for CHEGA. Portuguese Communist Party leader Jerónimo de Sousa made a similar statement about the PS.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The CDS – People's Party (CDS–PP) lost all their seats for the first time, receiving 1.6% of the vote. Party leader Francisco Rodrigues dos Santos announced his resignation. Also due to tactical voting, People Animals Nature (PAN) suffered losses, winning 1 seat and 1.6% of the vote, 3 fewer seats than in the previous election. PAN leader Inês Sousa Real spoke of sadness after this result, and said that an absolute majority would be bad for democracy. LIVRE won 1 seat and received 1.3% of the vote, holding on to the single seat they won in the previous election, with party leader Rui Tavares being elected in Lisbon. Tavares pledged to get Costa to work with other left-wing parties.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: The voter turnout was the highest since the 2015 Portuguese legislative election, with 51.5% of registered voters casting a ballot.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: In this election, 257,791 ballots from overseas were received, but, during the process of counting the ballots, a controversy started. The Social Democratic Party (PSD) filed a complaint in order for the ballots with no ID card copy to be put aside. The Portuguese electoral law requires that for a ballot received by mail to be valid, it needs to be accompanied with an ID card copy of the voter (in order to confirm the identity of the voter, as the equivalent of presenting the ID to the poll workers when voting in person). The Socialist Party (PS) protested against the PSD complaint, reminding the PSD that all parties had had an informal meeting in which it had been decided that all ballots, with or without an ID card copy, would be counted and declared valid. The PSD had confirmed their position in that meeting, but announced that they had changed their mind after they were given a document stating that any such actions would be illegal. Nonetheless, the PSD and the Electoral Commission (CNE) warned and advised counting staffs to separate the ballots. But this guideline wasn't followed by several counting staffs, and by the end of the counting of ballots, 80.32% of the Europe constituency ballots, 157,205 ballots out from a total of 195,701, were considered invalid and thrown out. Several parties (Volt, LIVRE, PAN, CHEGA, MAS) appealed to the Constitutional Court in order to have the ballots counted. Of the 5 complaints filed, however, the court accepted only Volt Portugal's complaint. On 15 February, the Court annulled the election in the Europe constituency and demanded a repetition of the vote. The National Election Committee determined that for the rerun of the parliamentary elections in the constituency of Europe on March 12 and 13 can be voted in person, just as until March 23 by absentee ballot. 109,350 ballots were received until 23 March, and of those, 30% (32,777) were declared null as they were not accompanied with an ID card copy. In terms of results, the PS was able to win the two seats from the Europe constituency, unlike in the original election when the PS and PSD both won one seat.


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: Spanish prime minister Pedro Sánchez, leader of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, congratulated Costa on Twitter, stating that "Portugal has once again opted for a social democratic project that combines growth and social justice. Together we will continue to promote in our countries and in Europe a socialist response to the challenges we share." The European Commission's First Vice-president Frans Timmermans congratulated Costa's victory on Twitter as "an important victory for Portugal and Europe." Keir Starmer, the British opposition and Labour Party leader, congratulated Costa on Twitter for "a victory for seriousness in government, shared prosperity and social justice."


title: 2022 Portuguese legislative election

text: Indian prime minister Narendra Modi congratulated Costa, who is Luso-Indian, on Twitter "for resounding performance in the parliamentary elections in Portugal and his re-election." He also stated: "Look forward to continue deepening the warm and time-tested relationship with Portugal." Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, former president of Brazil and presidential pre-candidate in the 2022 Brazilian general election, congratulated Costa and his party for "their great electoral victory in Portugal", wishing them "good luck".


title: Daniel Ezra

text: Daniel Ezra (born 15 December 1991) is a British actor best known for his role as Spencer James on "All American".


title: Daniel Ezra

text: Ezra was born in Birmingham, England. Both his paternal and maternal grandparents were from Jamaica. Growing up, he was a fan of "Harry Potter", Philip Pullman books, and "The Lord of the Rings". He grew up playing basketball, but stopped sports when he began acting.


title: Daniel Ezra

text: Ezra wasn't interested in acting until he turned 18. On stage, Ezra appeared as Sebastian in "Twelfth Night" and was nominated for an Ian Charleson Award.


title: Daniel Ezra

text: After making his screen debut in the 2014 television film "Murdered by My Boyfriend", Ezra began appearing in BBC dramas, including "Undercover" and "The Missing". In 2018, Ezra had a recurring role in the British fantasy drama "A Discovery of Witches".


title: Daniel Ezra

text: In March 2018, Ezra was cast in a leading role in the American sports drama series "All American", which marked his U.S. acting debut and required him to use an American accent. Once he learned that he had received the role, he spent as much time as he could in South Central Los Angeles and carried a football with him everywhere so that he could practise his accent and learn about the local culture. His favorite rapper, Nipsey Hussle, was from Crenshaw, where the show takes place, so Ezra also studied every song and interview of Nipsey Hussle as a way of practising his American accent. He did not have an accent coach. In addition, Spencer Paysinger, the real-life football player on whom Ezra's character is based, drove Ezra and his costar Taye Diggs around his local neighborhood so that they could understand the neighborhood dynamics. To prepare for the show, Ezra also watched the NFL network constantly to learn about the rules of American football. Ezra first realized the show was successful when he attempted to walk in Times Square and was recognized by many fans.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: James A. Garfield, the 20th president of the United States, was shot at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C., at 9:30 am on Saturday, July 2, 1881. He died in Elberon, New Jersey, 79 days later on September 19, 1881. The shooting occurred less than four months into his term as president. Garfield's assassin was Charles J. Guiteau, whose motive was revenge against Garfield for an imagined political debt, and getting Chester A. Arthur elevated to president. Guiteau was convicted of Garfield's murder and executed by hanging one year after the shooting.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Charles Guiteau turned to politics after failing in several ventures, including theology, a law practice, bill collecting, and spending time in the utopian Oneida Community. Former President Ulysses S. Grant was the early front runner for the Republican presidential nomination in 1880 and was supported by the Stalwart faction. Guiteau became a Stalwart and a Grant supporter, and authored a speech, "Grant against Hancock".


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: When Grant lost the nomination to dark horse candidate James Garfield, who was not affiliated with either the Stalwarts or their rivals the Half-Breeds, Guiteau revised his speech to "Garfield against Hancock" and tried to sign on as a campaigner for the Republican ticket. He never delivered the speech in a public setting, but had it printed (he never paid the bill) and distributed several hundred copies. The speech was ineffective, even in written form; among other problems, Guiteau had made a hurried but incomplete effort to replace references to Grant with references to Garfield. The result was that Guiteau appeared to give Garfield credit for accomplishments that he had originally ascribed to Grant, yet he convinced himself that his speech was largely responsible for Garfield's narrow victory over Democratic nominee Winfield Scott Hancock. Guiteau believed he should be awarded a diplomatic post for his supposedly vital assistance, first asking for a consulship in Vienna, then expressing a willingness to "settle" for one in Paris. He loitered around Republican headquarters in New York City during the winter of 1880–1881, expecting rewards for his speech, but to no avail.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Guiteau arrived in Washington, D.C., on March 5, 1881, the day after Garfield's inauguration, still believing that he would be rewarded. He obtained entrance to the White House and saw the President on March 8, 1881, dropping off a copy of his speech as a reminder of the campaign work which he had done on Garfield's behalf. Guiteau spent the next two months roaming around Washington, staying at rooming houses and sneaking away without paying for his meals and lodging. He passed his days loitering in hotel lobbies to read old newspapers and using hotel stationery to write letters to those who he thought could help him obtain an appointment from Garfield. In addition, he spent time shuffling back and forth between the State Department and the White House and approaching various Cabinet members and prominent Republicans to press his claim, all without success. Guiteau was destitute and increasingly slovenly because he was wearing the same clothes every day, and forced to walk through the cold, snowy city without overcoat, hat, gloves, or boots. On May 13, 1881, he was banned from the White House waiting room. The following day, he encountered Secretary of State James G. Blaine, who told him, "Never speak to me again on the Paris consulship as long as you live."


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Guiteau's family had judged him to be insane in 1875 and attempted to have him committed, but he had escaped. Now his mania took a violent turn, and he decided that he had been commanded by a higher power to kill the President. He later stated, "I leave my justification to God."


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Guiteau borrowed $15 () from George Maynard, a relative by marriage, then went out to purchase a revolver. He knew little about firearms, but he believed that he would need a large caliber gun. O'Meara's store in Washington provided a choice between two versions of the .442 Webley caliber British Bulldog revolver, one with a wooden grip and another with an ivory grip. He favored ivory because he thought that it would look better as a museum exhibit after the assassination, but could not afford the extra dollar, so the store owner dropped the price for him. Another source describes the pistol that Guiteau purchased as in fact having wooden grips. The revolver was recovered and displayed by the Smithsonian in the early 20th century, but it has since been lost. Guiteau spent the next few weeks stalking Garfield and in target practice; the kick from the revolver almost knocked him over the first time that he fired it. He wrote a letter to Garfield, saying that he should fire Blaine or "you and the Republican party will come to grief". The letter was ignored, as was all the correspondence that Guiteau sent to the White House.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Guiteau continued to prepare carefully; he wrote a letter to William Tecumseh Sherman, the Commanding General of the Army, asking for protection from the mob that he assumed would gather after he killed the President, and he wrote other letters justifying his action as necessary to heal dissension between the factions of the Republican Party. He went to the District of Columbia jail to ask for a tour of the facility where he expected to be incarcerated, but he was told to come back later. He spent the whole month of June following Garfield around Washington. On one occasion, Guiteau trailed Garfield to the railway station as he was seeing his wife, Lucretia Garfield, off to a beach resort in Long Branch, New Jersey; he decided not to shoot the President then, as Lucretia was known to be in poor health and he did not want to upset her.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Garfield was scheduled to leave Washington on July 2, 1881, for his summer vacation, which was reported in the Washington newspapers, and Guiteau lay in wait for him at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station on the southwest corner of Sixth Street and Constitution Avenue NW in Washington. Garfield came to the station on his way to his alma mater Williams College, where he was scheduled to deliver a speech before beginning his vacation. He was accompanied by his sons James and Harry, and by Secretary of State James G. Blaine; Secretary of War Robert Todd Lincoln waited at the station to see him off. Garfield had no bodyguard or security detail; early presidents did not employ them, with the exception of Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: As Garfield entered the station's waiting room, Guiteau stepped forward and shot the president at point-blank range from behind. Garfield cried out, "My God, what is that?", flinging up his arms. Guiteau fired again, and Garfield collapsed. The first bullet grazed the President's shoulder, and the other struck him in the back, passing the first lumbar vertebra but missing the spinal cord before coming to rest behind his pancreas. Guiteau put his pistol back in his pocket and turned to leave via a cab that he had waiting for him outside the station, but he collided with policeman Patrick Kearney, who was entering the station after hearing the gunfire.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Kearney apprehended Guiteau and was so excited at having arrested the man who had shot the president that he neglected to take the gun from him until after they arrived at the police station. Kearney demanded, "In God's name, man, what did you shoot the President for?" Guiteau responded, "I am a Stalwart, and want Arthur for President." The rapidly gathering crowd screamed, "Lynch him", but Kearney and several other police officers took the assassin to the police station a few blocks away. As he surrendered to authorities, Guiteau uttered the exulting words, repeated everywhere: "I am a Stalwart of the Stalwarts! I did it, and I want to be arrested! Arthur is President now!" This statement briefly led to unfounded suspicions that either Vice President Chester A. Arthur or his supporters had put Guiteau up to the crime.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: The Stalwarts were a Republican faction loyal to Senator Roscoe Conkling; they supported Grant for a third term in 1880 and strongly opposed Blaine's Half-Breeds. Garfield was unaffiliated with either faction, but Blaine had given his support to Garfield once it became clear that Blaine could not win the presidential nomination. Arthur, a Conkling ally, had been selected as Garfield's running mate to placate the Stalwart faction. As a self-professed Stalwart, Guiteau convinced himself that by removing Garfield, he was striking a blow to unite the two factions of the Republican Party.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Garfield was carried to an upstairs floor of the railway station, conscious but in shock. One bullet remained lodged in his body, but doctors could not find it. Robert Lincoln was deeply upset, thinking back to the assassination of his father, Abraham Lincoln, sixteen years earlier; he said, "How many hours of sorrow I have passed in this town."


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Garfield was carried back to the White House, and doctors told him that he would not survive the night; nevertheless, he remained conscious and alert. The next morning, his vital signs were good and doctors began to hope for recovery. A long vigil began, and Garfield's doctors issued regular bulletins that the American public followed closely throughout the summer of 1881. Garfield's condition fluctuated; fevers came and went, he struggled to keep down solid food, and he spent most of the summer eating only liquids.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Navy engineers rigged up an air cooler in an effort to relieve Garfield from the heat of a Washington summer. Fans blew air over a large box of ice and into the President's sickroom, and the device worked well enough to lower the temperature 20 degrees (Fahrenheit). Doctors continued to probe Garfield's wound with unsterilized fingers and instruments, attempting to find the bullet, and Alexander Graham Bell devised a metal detector specifically to find it. He was unsuccessful, partly because Garfield's metal bed frame made the instrument malfunction, and partly because self-appointed chief physician Doctor Willard Bliss allowed Bell to use the device only on Garfield's right side, where Bliss insisted the bullet had lodged. Bell's subsequent tests indicated that his metal detector was in good working order and that he would have found the bullet had he been allowed to use the device on Garfield's left side.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: On July 29, Garfield met with his Cabinet for the only time during his illness; the members were under strict instruction from the doctors not to discuss anything upsetting. Garfield became increasingly ill over a period of several weeks due to infection, which caused his heart to weaken. He remained bedridden in the White House with fevers and extreme pains. His weight dropped from 210 pounds (95 kilograms) to 130 pounds (58 kilograms) as his inability to keep down and digest food took its toll. Nutrient enemas were given in an attempt to extend his life because he could not digest food. Sepsis and infection set in, and the President suffered from hallucinations for a time. Pus-filled abscesses spread all over his body as the infections raged.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Garfield's condition worsened under the oppressive summer weather in Washington. On September 6, Garfield was taken by train to Elberon (then part of Long Branch) at the Jersey Shore, where volunteers built a spur line, overnight, from the station to the Francklyn Cottage, a seaside mansion given over to his use. The intent was to help the President escape the Washington heat and humidity, in the vain hope that the fresh air and quiet might aid his recovery. Garfield was propped up in bed before a window with a view of the beach and ocean. New infections set in, as well as spasms of angina. Garfield died of a ruptured splenic artery aneurysm, following sepsis and bronchial pneumonia at 10:35 pm on Monday, September 19, 1881, in Elberon, New Jersey, two months before his 50th birthday. During the 79 days between his shooting and death, Garfield's only official act was to sign a request for the extradition of a forger who had escaped and was apprehended after he fled to Canada.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Most historians and medical experts now believe that Garfield probably would have survived his wound had the doctors been more capable. However, most American doctors of the day did not believe in anti-sepsis measures or the need for cleanliness to prevent infection. Several inserted their unwashed fingers into the wound to probe for the bullet, and one doctor punctured Garfield's liver in doing so. Also, Bliss had supplanted Garfield's physician Jedediah Hyde Baxter. Bliss and the other doctors who attended Garfield had guessed wrong about the path of the bullet in his body; they had probed rightward into his back instead of leftward, missing the location of the bullet but creating a new channel which filled with pus. The autopsy discovered this error and revealed pneumonia in both lungs and a body that was filled with pus due to uncontrolled sepsis. The conventional narrative regarding Garfield's post-shooting medical condition was challenged by Theodore Pappas and Shahrzad Joharifard in a 2013 article in "The American Journal of Surgery", in which they argued that the President died from a late rupture of a splenic artery pseudoaneurysm, which developed secondary to the path of the bullet adjacent to the splenic artery. They also argued that his sepsis was actually caused by post-traumatic acute acalculous cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder). Based on the autopsy report, the authors speculate that Garfield's gallbladder subsequently ruptured, leading to the development of a large bile-containing abscess adjacent to the gallbladder. Pappas and Joharifard say this caused the septic decline in Garfield's condition that was visible starting from July 23, 1881.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Vice President Arthur was at his home in New York City when word came the night of September 19 that Garfield had died. He said, "I hope—my God, I do hope it is a mistake", but confirmation by telegram came soon after. Arthur was inaugurated early in the morning on September 20, and he took the presidential oath of office from John R. Brady, a New York Supreme Court judge. Arthur then left for Long Branch to pay his respects to Mrs. Garfield before going on to Washington.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Garfield's body was taken to Washington, where it lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda and in the United States House of Representatives chamber before being taken to Cleveland, Ohio, where the funeral was held on September 26.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Guiteau went on trial in November, represented by his brother-in-law George Scolville. He received ample media attention during his trial for his bizarre behavior, including constantly insulting his defense team, formatting his testimony in epic poems which he recited at length, and soliciting legal advice from random spectators in the audience via passed notes. Guiteau claimed that he was not guilty because Garfield's murder was the will of God and he was only an instrument of it. He sang "John Brown's Body" to the court. He dictated an autobiography to the "New York Herald", ending it with a personal ad for a nice Christian lady under 30. He was oblivious to the American public's outrage and hatred of him, even after he was almost killed twice himself—once while in prison, and again while being transported there. At one point, Guiteau argued that Garfield was killed not by him but by medical malpractice: "I deny the killing, if your honor please. We admit the shooting." He was housed at St. Elizabeths Hospital in the southeastern quadrant of Washington, D.C., throughout the trial and up until his execution.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Guiteau's trial was one of the first high-profile cases in the United States where the insanity defense was considered. Guiteau vehemently insisted that he had been legally insane at the time of the shooting, but he was not really medically insane, which caused a major rift with his defense lawyers, and which probably contributed to the jury's impression that Guiteau was merely trying to deny responsibility.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Guiteau was actively making plans to start a lecture tour after his release and to run for president himself in 1884; at the same time, he delighted in the media circus surrounding his trial. Guiteau was dismayed when the jury was unconvinced of his divine inspiration, convicting him of Garfield's murder on January 25, 1882, and sentencing him to death. He appealed, but his appeal was rejected, and he was hanged on June 30, 1882, just two days before the first anniversary of the shooting, in the District of Columbia. Guiteau famously danced his way up to the gallows and waved at the audience, shook hands with his executioner, and, as a last request, recited a poem that he had written called "I am Going to the Lordy". He requested an orchestra to play as he sang the poem; it was denied. As per request with the executioner, Guiteau signaled that he was ready to die by dropping the paper.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Part of Guiteau's preserved brain is on display at the Mütter Museum at the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. Guiteau's bones and more of his brain, along with Garfield's backbone and a few ribs, are kept at the National Museum of Health and Medicine, at the Army's Forest Glen Annex in Silver Spring, Maryland.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Garfield's assassination was instrumental to the passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act on January 16, 1883. Garfield himself had called for civil service reform in his inaugural address and supported it as president in the belief that it would make government more efficient. It was passed as something of a memorial to the fallen President. Arthur lost the Republican nomination in 1884 to Blaine, who went on to lose a close election to Democrat Grover Cleveland.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: The Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station was later demolished. The site is now occupied by the West Building of the National Gallery of Art. The National Park Service in 2018 placed permanent wayside signs to mark the spot of the assassination and to honor Garfield. A few blocks away the James A. Garfield Monument stands on the southwest corner of the U.S. Capitol grounds.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: The question of Presidential disability was not addressed. of the U.S. Constitution says that in case of the "Inability [of the President] to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President", but gives no further instruction on what constitutes inability or how the President's inability should be determined. Garfield had lain on his sickbed for 79 days without performing any of the duties of his office except for the signing of an extradition paper, but this did not prove to be a difficulty because in the 19th century the federal government effectively shut down for the summer regardless. During Garfield's ordeal, Congress was not in session and there was little for a president to do. Blaine suggested the Cabinet declare Arthur acting president, but this option was rejected by all, including Arthur, who did not wish to be perceived as grasping for power.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Congress did not deal with the problem of what to do if a president were alive but incapacitated as Garfield was, nor did the Congress take up the question thirty-eight years later, when Woodrow Wilson suffered a stroke that put him in a coma for days and left him partially paralyzed and blind in one eye for the last year and a half of his presidency. The Twenty-fifth Amendment was ratified in 1967 and provides an official procedure when the incapacity of a president is recognized.


title: Assassination of James A. Garfield

text: Lincoln's assassination had taken place roughly sixteen years before during the closing stages of the Civil War. On the other hand, Garfield's term was marked (for the most part) by peacetime, and a general complacency with respect to presidential security had developed by this time. Garfield, like many other presidents, often preferred to interact directly with the public, and although some form of security was almost certainly in place, a comprehensive security detail had not been seriously considered by either Congress or the president up to that point. Remarkably, it would not be until the assassination of William McKinley some twenty years later that Congress would finally task the United States Secret Service (founded to prevent counterfeiting) with the responsibility of ensuring the president's personal safety.


title: Claudia Wells

text: Claudia Grace Wells is an American actress and businesswoman, best known for her role as Jennifer Parker in the 1985 film "Back to the Future".


title: Claudia Wells

text: Wells was born in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, but her family moved to San Francisco when she was seven weeks old. She went to Marin Country Day School and French-American Bilingual School. Her father, a parasitologist, and sister, Jennifer, still live in San Francisco, but Wells moved to Los Angeles at the age of 14, later graduating from Beverly Hills High School. Wells also has a brother.


title: Claudia Wells

text: She started acting with appearances in TV shows. When she was 15, she became a born-again Christian at the urging of Dean Jones on the set of "Herbie, the Love Bug".


title: Claudia Wells

text: Wells played Jennifer Parker, Marty McFly's girlfriend, in the 1985 film "Back to the Future". She almost did not end up in the first film of the successful franchise. According to Wells, she had been cast, but a pilot she had done for ABC had been picked up, and she was contractually forced to drop out of "Back to the Future". During that time, Eric Stoltz had been shooting for five weeks in the role of Marty McFly. Melora Hardin was slated for the role of Jennifer though she never actually filmed any scenes. The producers halted filming and replaced Stoltz with Michael J. Fox. By then, Wells's pilot had been finished and she was recast as Jennifer, now shooting alongside Fox, having never filmed a frame with Stoltz.


title: Claudia Wells

text: That same year (1985), Wells co-starred in "Stop the Madness", an anti-drug music video sponsored by the Reagan administration, featuring several famous musicians, actors and athletes. The following year, she appeared in the TV movie "Babies Having Babies", and the short-lived series "Fast Times", a TV adaptation of the 1982 film "Fast Times at Ridgemont High" (Wells played Linda Barrett, portrayed by Phoebe Cates in the film). Following "Fast Times", she did not appear again on-screen until the 1996 independent film, "Still Waters Burn" (released on DVD February 12, 2008).


title: Claudia Wells

text: After her mother was diagnosed with cancer, Wells put her career on hold for family reasons, and told the studio she would be unavailable to reprise her "Back to the Future" role for the two sequels. Actress Elisabeth Shue replaced her.


title: Claudia Wells

text: In the early 1990s, Wells started a clothing store, Armani Wells, which she still manages as of 2015.


title: Claudia Wells

text: After a lengthy absence, Wells returned to acting in 2011 with a small role in the independent science-fiction film, "Alien Armageddon".


title: Claudia Wells

text: The same year, Wells had the opportunity to reprise her role from "Back to the Future" 26 years after her last appearance in the series. She provided the voice of Jennifer Parker for "". Wells announced that her next project would be a horror film titled "Room & Board".


title: Photolithography

text: In integrated circuit manufacturing, photolithography or optical lithography is a general term used for techniques that use light to produce minutely patterned thin films of suitable materials over a substrate, such as a silicon wafer, to protect selected areas of it during subsequent etching, deposition, or implantation operations. Typically, ultraviolet light is used to transfer a geometric design from an optical mask to a light-sensitive chemical (photoresist) coated on the substrate. The photoresist either breaks down or hardens where it is exposed to light. The patterned film is then created by removing the softer parts of the coating with appropriate solvents.


title: Photolithography

text: Photolithography processes can be classified according to the type of light used, such as ultraviolet, deep ultraviolet, extreme ultraviolet, or X-ray. The wavelength of light used determines the minimum feature size that can be formed in the photoresist.


title: Photolithography

text: Photolithography is a subclass of microlithography, the general term for processes that generate patterned thin films. Other technologies in this broader class include the use of steerable electron beams, or more rarely, nanoimprinting, interference, magnetic fields, or scanning probes. On a broader level, it may compete with directed self-assembly of micro- and nanostructures.


title: Photolithography

text: Photolithography shares some fundamental principles with photography in that the pattern in the photoresist is created by exposing it to light — either directly by projection through a lens, or by illuminating a mask placed directly over the substrate, as in contact printing. The technique can also be seen as a high precision version of the method used to make printed circuit boards. The name originated from a loose analogy with the traditional photographic method of producing plates for lithographic printing on paper; however, subsequent stages in the process have more in common with etching than with traditional lithography.


title: Photolithography

text: Photolithography is the most common method for semiconductor fabrication of integrated circuits ("ICs" or "chips"), such as solid-state memories and microprocessors. It can create extremely small patterns, down to a few tens of nanometers in size. It provides precise control of the shape and size of the objects it creates and can create patterns over an entire wafer in a single step, quickly and with relatively low cost. In complex integrated circuits, a wafer may go through the photolithographic cycle as many as 50 times. It is also an important technique for the fabrication of microscopic structures in general, such as microelectromechanical systems. However, photolithography cannot be used to produce masks on surfaces that are not perfectly flat; and, like all chip manufacturing processes, it requires extremely clean operating conditions.


title: Photolithography

text: The root words "photo", "litho", and "graphy" all have Greek origins, with the meanings 'light', 'stone' and 'writing' respectively. As suggested by the name compounded from them, "photolithography" is a printing method (originally based on the use of limestone printing plates) in which light plays an essential role. In the 1820s, Nicephore Niepce invented a photographic process that used Bitumen of Judea, a natural asphalt, as the first photoresist. A thin coating of the bitumen on a sheet of metal, glass or stone became less soluble where it was exposed to light; the unexposed parts could then be rinsed away with a suitable solvent, baring the material beneath, which was then chemically etched in an acid bath to produce a printing plate. The light-sensitivity of bitumen was very poor and very long exposures were required, but despite the later introduction of more sensitive alternatives, its low cost and superb resistance to strong acids prolonged its commercial life into the early 20th century. In 1940, Oskar Süß created a "positive" photoresist by using diazonaphthoquinone, which worked in the opposite manner: the coating was initially insoluble and was rendered soluble where it was exposed to light. In 1954, Louis Plambeck Jr. developed the Dycryl polymeric letterpress plate, which made the platemaking process faster.


title: Photolithography

text: In 1952, the U.S. military assigned Jay W. Lathrop and James R. Nall at the National Bureau of Standards (later the U.S. Army Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratory, which eventually merged to form the now-present Army Research Laboratory) with the task of finding a way to reduce the size of electronic circuits in order to better fit the necessary circuitry in the limited space available inside a proximity fuze. Inspired by the application of photoresist, a photosensitive liquid used to mark the boundaries of rivet holes in metal aircraft wings, Nall determined that a similar process can be used to protect the germanium in the transistors and even pattern the surface with light. During development, Lathrop and Nall were successful in creating a 2D miniaturized hybrid integrated circuit with transistors using this technique. In 1958, during the IRE Professional Group on Electron Devices (PGED) conference in Washington, D.C., they presented the first paper to describe the fabrication of transistors using photographic techniques and adopted the term "photolithography" to describe the process, marking the first published use of the term to describe semiconductor device patterning.


title: Photolithography

text: Despite the fact that photolithography of electronic components concerns etching metal duplicates, rather than etching stone to produce a "master" as in conventional lithographic printing, Lathrop and Nall chose the term "photolithography" over "photoetching" because the former sounded "high tech." A year after the conference, Lathrop and Nall's patent on photolithography was formally approved on June 9, 1959. Photolithography would later contribute to the development of the first semiconductor ICs as well as the first microchips.


title: Photolithography

text: A single iteration of photolithography combines several steps in sequence. Modern cleanrooms use automated, robotic wafer track systems to coordinate the process. The procedure described here omits some advanced treatments, such as thinning agents or edge-bead removal. The photolithography process is carried out by the wafer track and stepper/scanner, and the wafer track system and the stepper/scanner are installed side by side. Wafer track systems have been replaced by wafer coater/developer systems, which perform the same functions.


title: Photolithography

text: If organic or inorganic contaminations are present on the wafer surface, they are usually removed by wet chemical treatment, e.g. the RCA clean procedure based on solutions containing hydrogen peroxide. Other solutions made with trichloroethylene, acetone or methanol can also be used to clean.


title: Photolithography

text: The wafer is initially heated to a temperature sufficient to drive off any moisture that may be present on the wafer surface; 150 °C for ten minutes is sufficient. Wafers that have been in storage must be chemically cleaned to remove contamination. A liquid or gaseous "adhesion promoter", such as Bis(trimethylsilyl)amine ("hexamethyldisilazane", HMDS), is applied to promote adhesion of the photoresist to the wafer. The surface layer of silicon dioxide on the wafer reacts with HMDS to form tri-methylated silicon-dioxide, a highly water repellent layer not unlike the layer of wax on a car's paint. This water repellent layer prevents the aqueous developer from penetrating between the photoresist layer and the wafer's surface, thus preventing so-called lifting of small photoresist structures in the (developing) pattern. In order to ensure the development of the image, it is best covered and placed over a hot plate and let it dry while stabilizing the temperature at 120 °C.


title: Photolithography

text: The wafer is covered with photoresist by spin coating. Thus, the top layer of resist is quickly ejected from the wafer's edge while the bottom layer still creeps slowly radially along the wafer. In this way, any 'bump' or 'ridge' of resist is removed, leaving a very flat layer. However, viscous films may result in large edge beads whose planarization has physical limits. Final thickness is also determined by the evaporation of liquid solvents from the resist. For very small, dense features (< 125 or so nm), lower resist thicknesses (< 0.5 microns) are needed to overcome collapse effects at high aspect ratios; typical aspect ratios are < 4:1.


title: Photolithography

text: The photoresist-coated wafer is then prebaked to drive off excess photoresist solvent, typically at 90 to 100 °C for 30 to 60 seconds on a hotplate. A BARC coating (Bottom Anti-Reflectant Coating) may be applied before the photoresist is applied, to avoid reflections from occurring under the photoresist and to improve the photoresist's performance at smaller semiconductor nodes.


title: Photolithography

text: After prebaking, the photoresist is exposed to a pattern of intense light. The exposure to light causes a chemical change that allows some of the photoresist to be removed by a special solution, called "developer" by analogy with photographic developer. Positive photoresist, the most common type, becomes soluble in the developer when exposed; with negative photoresist, unexposed regions are soluble in the developer.


title: Photolithography

text: A post-exposure bake (PEB) is performed before developing, typically to help reduce standing wave phenomena caused by the destructive and constructive interference patterns of the incident light. In deep ultraviolet lithography, chemically amplified resist (CAR) chemistry is used. This process is much more sensitive to PEB time, temperature, and delay, as most of the "exposure" reaction (creating acid, making the polymer soluble in the basic developer) actually occurs in the PEB.


title: Photolithography

text: The develop chemistry is delivered on a spinner, much like photoresist. Developers originally often contained sodium hydroxide (NaOH). However, sodium is considered an extremely undesirable contaminant in MOSFET fabrication because it degrades the insulating properties of gate oxides (specifically, sodium ions can migrate in and out of the gate, changing the threshold voltage of the transistor and making it harder or easier to turn the transistor on over time). Metal-ion-free developers such as tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) are now used.


title: Photolithography

text: The resulting wafer is then "hard-baked" if a non-chemically amplified resist was used, typically at 120 to 180 °C for 20 to 30 minutes. The hard bake solidifies the remaining photoresist, to make a more durable protecting layer in future ion implantation, wet chemical etching, or plasma etching.


title: Photolithography

text: From preparation until this step, the photolithography procedure has been carried out by two machines: the photolithography stepper or scanner, and the coater/developer. The two machines are usually installed side by side.


title: Photolithography

text: In etching, a liquid ("wet") or plasma ("dry") chemical agent removes the uppermost layer of the substrate in the areas that are not protected by photoresist. In semiconductor fabrication, dry etching techniques are generally used, as they can be made anisotropic, in order to avoid significant undercutting of the photoresist pattern. This is essential when the width of the features to be defined is similar to or less than the thickness of the material being etched (i.e. when the aspect ratio approaches unity). Wet etch processes are generally isotropic in nature, which is often indispensable for microelectromechanical systems, where suspended structures must be "released" from the underlying layer.


title: Photolithography

text: The development of low-defectivity anisotropic dry-etch process has enabled the ever-smaller features defined photolithographically in the resist to be transferred to the substrate material.


title: Photolithography

text: After a photoresist is no longer needed, it must be removed from the substrate. This usually requires a liquid "resist stripper", which chemically alters the resist so that it no longer adheres to the substrate. Alternatively, the photoresist may be removed by a plasma containing oxygen, which oxidizes it. This process is called ashing and resembles dry etching. The use of 1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) solvent for photoresist is another method used to remove an image. When the resist has been dissolved, the solvent can be removed by heating to 80 °C without leaving any residue.


title: Photolithography

text: Exposure systems typically produce an image on the wafer using a photomask. The photomask blocks light in some areas and lets it pass in others. (Maskless lithography projects a precise beam directly onto the wafer without using a mask, but it is not widely used in commercial processes.) Exposure systems may be classified by the optics that transfer the image from the mask to the wafer.


title: Photolithography

text: Photolithography produces better thin film transistor structures than printed electronics, due to smoother printed layers, less wavy patterns, and more accurate drain-source electrode registration.


title: Photolithography

text: A contact printer, the simplest exposure system, puts a photomask in direct contact with the wafer and exposes it to a uniform light. A proximity printer puts a small gap between the photomask and wafer. In both cases, the mask covers the entire wafer, and simultaneously patterns every die.


title: Photolithography

text: Contact printing is liable to damage both the mask and the wafer, and this was the primary reason it was abandoned for high volume production. Both contact and proximity lithography require the light intensity to be uniform across an entire wafer, and the mask to align precisely to features already on the wafer. As modern processes use increasingly large wafers, these conditions become increasingly difficult.


title: Photolithography

text: Research and prototyping processes often use contact or proximity lithography, because it uses inexpensive hardware and can achieve high optical resolution. The resolution in proximity lithography is approximately the square root of the product of the wavelength and the gap distance. Hence, except for projection lithography (see below), contact printing offers the best resolution, because its gap distance is approximately zero (neglecting the thickness of the photoresist itself). In addition, nanoimprint lithography may revive interest in this familiar technique, especially since the cost of ownership is expected to be low; however, the shortcomings of contact printing discussed above remain as challenges.


title: Photolithography

text: Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) lithography uses projection systems. Unlike contact or proximity masks, which cover an entire wafer, projection masks (known as "reticles") show only one die or an array of dies (known as a "field"). Projection exposure systems (steppers or scanners) project the mask onto the wafer many times to create the complete pattern. The difference between steppers and scanners is that, during exposure, a scanner moves the photomask and the wafer simultaneously, while a stepper only moves the wafer. Mask aligners preceded steppers and do not move the photomask nor the wafer during exposure. Immersion lithography scanners use a layer of Ultrapure water between the lens and the wafer to increase resolution. An alternative to photolithography is nanoimprint lithography.


title: Photolithography

text: The image for the mask originates from a computerized data file. This data file is converted to a series of polygons and written onto a square of fused quartz substrate covered with a layer of chromium using a photolithographic process. A laser beam (laser writer) or a beam of electrons (e-beam writer) is used to expose the pattern defined by the data file and travels over the surface of the substrate in either a vector or raster scan manner. Where the photoresist on the mask is exposed, the chrome can be etched away, leaving a clear path for the illumination light in the stepper/scanner system to travel through.


title: Photolithography

text: The ability to project a clear image of a small feature onto the wafer is limited by the wavelength of the light that is used, and the ability of the reduction lens system to capture enough diffraction orders from the illuminated mask. Current state-of-the-art photolithography tools use deep ultraviolet (DUV) light from excimer lasers with wavelengths of 248 (KrF) and


title: Photolithography

text: 193 (ArF) nm (the dominant lithography technology today is thus also called "excimer laser lithography"), which allow minimum feature sizes down to 50 nm. Excimer laser lithography has thus played a critical role in the continued advance of the Moore's Law for the last 20 years (see below).


title: Photolithography

text: formula_2 is the minimum feature size (also called the critical dimension, target design rule, or "half-pitch").


title: Photolithography

text: formula_3 (commonly called "k1 factor") is a coefficient that encapsulates process-related factors, and typically equals 0.4 for production. The minimum feature size can be reduced by decreasing this coefficient through computational lithography.