title: Caroline Rhea

text: In 2008, Rhea starred alongside Justin Guarini and Mircea Monroe in the MarVista Entertainment production of "Fast Girl". In 2013, Rhea hosted a travelling live stage show version of the game show "Family Feud" that toured fairs in the US and Canada, including the Calgary Stampede. In 2017, she began a recurring role on ABC's revival of "Match Game".She appeared in 21 episodes, her last airing in October 2020.


title: Caroline Rhea

text: Rhea has competed on Bravo's "Celebrity Poker Showdown" and GSN's "World Series of Blackjack", and has also done a live webcast with author Meg Cabot.


title: Caroline Rhea

text: In 2018, Rhea began hosting "Caroline & Friends" on GSN. The series features funny videos of animals and children. The studio audience votes for the best video from ones chosen by Rhea and her two guest comedian co-hosts. The show lasted for one season.


title: Caroline Rhea

text: In 2019, Rhea began appearing as Judy, the grandmother, in the Disney Channel sitcom "Sydney to the Max", which premiered January 25, 2019 and ran for three seasons until November 2021. The role did get her a spot amongst a team of contemporary moms on the network for an episode of "Celebrity Family Feud" which aired in 2020.


title: Caroline Rhea

text: Rhea has appeared at "Comic Relief" as well as the Ms. Foundation's "Women of Comedy from Caroline's Comedy Club". She appeared as a contestant in 2001 on a special edition of "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire", winning $125,000 for her charity.


title: Caroline Rhea

text: Rhea and her former partner, comedian Costaki Economopoulos, have a daughter, Ava (born October 2008).


title: Caroline Rhea

text: Rhea's parents were diagnosed with cancer one week apart. Her mother, Margery, was diagnosed with breast cancer and her dad, David, with lung cancer. David, an OB/GYN, died 10 months later; Margery lived another six years.


title: Robert Saleh

text: Robert Saleh (born January 31, 1979) is an American football coach who is the head coach for the New York Jets of the National Football League (NFL). A defensive coach for much of his 20-year coaching career, Saleh has served as an assistant coach for the Houston Texans, Seattle Seahawks, Jacksonville Jaguars, and San Francisco 49ers from 2005 to 2020, holding his first defensive coordinator position with the Niners from 2017 to 2020. Saleh has appeared in two Super Bowls, one each with the Seahawks and 49ers, winning one in 2014 with the Seahawks. Following the 2020 season, he left the 49ers to become the Jets' head coach.


title: Robert Saleh

text: Born in Dearborn, Michigan, Saleh is a 1997 graduate of Fordson High School He attended Northern Michigan University in Marquette from 1997 to 2001, where he earned a degree in finance and was a four-year starter for the Wildcats, earning all-conference honors as a tight end.


title: Robert Saleh

text: Saleh's brother David was in the South Tower during the September 11 attacks in 2001 and saw the fireball from the initial plane's impact on the North Tower from the building's 61st floor. After ignoring calls by the public intercom within Tower 2 to return to their offices, he'd made it down to the 24th floor before the second plane hit, this time around 50 floors above in his tower. He safely made it to the lobby and was able to escape to safety. Saleh credits this in providing the spark for him to pursue his dreams of coaching football. Robert Saleh is also related to Detroit "Socialite" Tarick Salmaci from NBC The Contender (season 1) sports reality show.


title: Robert Saleh

text: Saleh began his coaching career at the collegiate level in 2002. He spent four years working as a defensive assistant with Michigan State University (2002–03), Central Michigan University (2004) and the University of Georgia (2005).


title: Robert Saleh

text: In 2005, Saleh was hired as an intern with the Houston Texans, working with the defensive unit. In February 2006, he was retained in Gary Kubiak's staff as a defensive quality control coach under defensive coordinator Richard Smith. In January 2009, he was promoted to assistant linebackers coach.


title: Robert Saleh

text: In February 2011, Saleh was hired as the defensive quality control coach for the Seattle Seahawks under Pete Carroll. He spent three seasons with the Seahawks, including their 2013 championship season when they defeated the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XLVIII. During this span the defense was known as the Legion of Boom.


title: Robert Saleh

text: Following the Seahawks' 2013 championship, Saleh was named linebackers coach for the Jacksonville Jaguars under head coach Gus Bradley. Saleh would not be retained under new head coach Doug Marrone.


title: Robert Saleh

text: On February 13, 2017, Saleh was named defensive coordinator for the San Francisco 49ers under new head coach Kyle Shanahan. Shanahan and Saleh previously served as assistant coaches for the Houston Texans from 2006–2009.


title: Robert Saleh

text: During the 2019 season, the 49ers defense was sixth in the league in forced turnovers (27), second in total defense (281.8 yards per game), first in passing defense (169.2 yards per game), and fourth in sacks (48). This was the first time since 2003 that the 49ers finished in the top 10 in both scoring and yards per game. Saleh helped lead the team to a 13–3 record and a Super Bowl LIV berth, where they lost to the Kansas City Chiefs.


title: Robert Saleh

text: On January 14, 2021, Saleh signed a five-year contract to become the head coach of the New York Jets.


title: Robert Saleh

text: On September 12, 2021, Saleh lost in his head coaching debut against the Carolina Panthers by a score of 19–14. Saleh went on to win his first game as a head coach on October 3 in a 27–24 win against the Tennessee Titans in overtime. On December 22, it was reported that Saleh tested positive for COVID-19; he did not coach the Jets in their week 16 game against the Jaguars. In his first season as head coach, the Jets finished 4–13, missing the playoffs for the eleventh consecutive year.


title: Robert Saleh

text: Saleh and his wife, Sanaa, have four sons and two daughters. He is the first Muslim head coach in NFL history upon his hiring by the Jets. He is also the fourth Arab-American head coach of the NFL, after Ed Khayat (Philadelphia Eagles 1971–72), Rich Kotite (Philadelphia Eagles 1991–94), and Abe Gibron (Chicago Bears 1972–1974), who are all of Lebanese descent as well. Saleh and his wife both speak Arabic. Saleh was the best man at Green Bay Packers' head coach Matt LaFleur's wedding, as the two became close while working as graduate assistants at Central Michigan in 2004 and as assistant coaches for the Houston Texans from 2008–2009.


title: Herzegovina

text: Herzegovina ( or ; , ) is the southern and smaller of two main geographical region of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being Bosnia. It has never had strictly defined geographical or cultural-historical borders, nor has it ever been defined as an administrative whole in the geopolitical and economic subdivision of Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Herzegovina

text: Bosnia, the larger of the two regions, lies to the north of Herzegovina; the Croatian region of Dalmatia lies to the southwest; the Montenegrin region of Old Herzegovina lies to the southeast. The land area of Herzegovina is around , or around 23–24% of the country. The largest city is Mostar, in the center of the region. Other large settlements include Trebinje, Široki Brijeg, Ljubuški, Čapljina, Konjic and Posušje.


title: Herzegovina

text: The name (or "Herzegovina" in English) stems from German (the German term for a duke; ), and means a land ruled and/or owned by a , thus literally meaning 'duke's land' (). The first among the Kosača dukes to use the title instead of "duke" was Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, who became the of in 1449–50. In December 1481, the lands of Stjepan Vukčić's successors were finally occupied by Ottoman forces. The Ottomans were the first to officially use the name "Herzegovina" (, ) for the region in their administrative affairs in 1454, and established a sanjak bearing that name in 1470, the Sanjak of Herzegovina, with its first seat at Foča.


title: Herzegovina

text: The name "Herzegovina" is the most important and indelible part of 's legacy, unique within the entire Serbo-Croatian speaking world of the Balkans, of one medieval person giving his name, or more precisely his noble title, which in the last few years of his life became literally inseparable from his name, to an entire region previously called , or for short, which still exists today with the name Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Herzegovina

text: Although this is just a superficial understanding, because the appearance of the name "Herzegovina", recorded as early as 1 February 1454, in a letter written by the Ottoman commander Esebeg from Skopje, cannot be attributed to alone, as his title was not of decisive importance after all. Far more crucial was a well-known Ottoman custom to call newly acquired lands by the names of its earlier lords. It was enough for the Ottomans to conquer 's land as a whole, to start calling it Herzegovina. Also, did not establish this province as a feudal and political unit of the Bosnian state, that honor befell Grand Duke of Bosnia, Vlatko Vuković, who received it from King Tvrtko I, while Sandalj Hranić expanded it and reaffirmed the Kosača family supremacy.


title: Herzegovina

text: While under governance of Austria-Hungary, the region was known in German as , which etymologically corresponds to the Slavic name.


title: Herzegovina

text: Slavs settled in the Balkans in the 7th century. What later became known as Herzegovina was divided between Croatia, Zachlumia and Travunija in the Early Middle Ages. Parts of the region were later ruled by various medieval rulers, with the eastern part mostly within Medieval Serbia, and the western part in the Kingdom of Croatia. During the 13th and 14th centuries the Bosnian "bans" Stjepan I Kotromanić and Stjepan II Kotromanić joined these regions to the Bosnian state, with the King Tvrtko I Kotromanić extending territories even further, beyond what is modern-day Herzegovina proper.


title: Herzegovina

text: During these times, parts of Herzegovina, or Hum, as it was called at the time, were ruled by powerful Bosnian magnates of Kosača family and its branch clans, namely Vuković, headed by Vlatko Vuković, who received it from the King Tvrtko I as an award for his service as a supreme commander of the Bosnian army, and Hranić, headed by Grand Duke of Bosnia, Sandalj Hranić. Another powerful Bosnian noble family, Pavlović, whose seat was near Rogatica in Drina county, including holdings in Drina and parts of Vrhbosna, also shared some of the territories in Hum centered around Trebinje. Stjepan Vukčić, Sandalj's nephew, inherited lordship over the Hum, and was the last Bosnian nobleman who had effective control over the province ("zemlja") before Ottoman conquest. He titled himself "Duke of Hum and Primorje, Bosnian Grand Duke, Knyaz of Drina", and later "Herzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum and Bosnian Grand Duke, Knyaz of Drina and the rest". Following the Ottomans conquest and fall of Bosnian Kingdom, "Hum" or "Humska zemlja" became known as "Hercegovina" (), which literally means Herzog's land.


title: Herzegovina

text: In 1482, the lands of Stefan Vukčić's successors were occupied by Ottoman forces. The Ottomans were the first to begin officially using the name Herzegovina (Hersek) for the region.


title: Herzegovina

text: The Bosnian beylerbey Isa-beg Ishaković mentioned the name in a letter from 1454. In the Ottoman Empire, Herzegovina was organized as a "sanjak", the Sanjak of Herzegovina, within the Bosnia Eyalet. According to the Turkish census of


title: Herzegovina

text: Herzegovina from 1477, some villages were mentioned as being "in the possession of Vlachs," while others, were listed as "Serb settlements" and mostly deserted. According to Ottoman defters, at the end of 15th century in Herzegovina were at least 35,000 Vlachs.


title: Herzegovina

text: During the Long War (1591–1606), Serbs rose up in Herzegovina (1596–97), but they were quickly suppressed after their defeat at the field of Gacko.


title: Herzegovina

text: The Candian War of 1645 to 1669 caused great damage to the region as the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire fought for control over Dalmatia and coastal Herzegovina.


title: Herzegovina

text: As a result of the Treaty of Karlowitz of 1699, the Ottomans gained access to the Adriatic Sea through the Neum-Klek coastal area. The Republic of Dubrovnik ceded this to distance themselves from the Venetian Republic's influence. The Ottomans benefitted from this in gaining the region's salt.


title: Herzegovina

text: As a result of the Bosnian Uprising (1831–32), the Vilayet was split to form the separate Herzegovina Eyalet, ruled by semi-independent vizier Ali-paša Rizvanbegović. After his death, the eyalets of Bosnia and Herzegovina were merged.


title: Herzegovina

text: The new joint entity was after 1853 commonly referred to as Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbs in the region revolted against the Ottomans (1852–62) and were aided by the Montenegrins, who sought the liberation of the Serb people from Ottoman rule.


title: Herzegovina

text: The Herzegovinian Serbs frequently rose up against the Ottoman rule; culminating in the Herzegovina Uprising (1875-78), which was supported by the Principality of Serbia and Montenegro.


title: Herzegovina

text: Montenegro did succeed in liberating and annexing large parts of Herzegovina before the Berlin Congress of 1878, including the Nikšić area; the historical Herzegovina region annexed to Montenegro is known as East or Old Herzegovina.


title: Herzegovina

text: As a result of the Treaty of Berlin (1878), Herzegovina, along with Bosnia, were occupied by Austria-Hungary, only nominally remaining under Ottoman rule.


title: Herzegovina

text: The historical Herzegovina region in the Principality of Montenegro was known as East or Old Herzegovina. The Serb population of Herzegovina and Bosnia hoped for annexation to Serbia and Montenegro. The Franciscan order opened the first university in Herzegovina in 1895 in Mostar.


title: Herzegovina

text: In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed the province, leading to the Bosnian Crisis, an international dispute which barely failed to precipitate a world war immediately, and was an important step in the buildup of international tensions during the years leading up to the First World War. The assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand came as a direct result of the resentment of the Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina against Austro-Hungarian rule.


title: Herzegovina

text: During World War I, Herzegovina was a scene of inter-ethnic conflict. During the war, the Austro-Hungarian government formed Šuckori, Muslim para-militia units. Šuckori units were especially active in Herzegovina. Persecution of Serbs conducted by the Austro-Hungarian authorities was the "first incidence of active 'ethnic cleansing' in Bosnia and Herzegovina".


title: Herzegovina

text: In 1918, Herzegovina became a part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In 1941 Herzegovina fell once again under the rule of the fascist Independent State of Croatia. During World War II, Herzegovina was a battleground between fascist Croat Ustaše, royalist Serb Četniks, and the communist Yugoslav Partisans; Herzegovina was a part of the Independent State of Croatia, administratively divided into the counties of Hum and Dubrava, then in 1945, Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina became one of the republics of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It remained so until the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. During the Bosnian War, large parts of western and central Herzegovina came under control of the Croat republic of Herzeg-Bosnia (which later joined the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina) while eastern Herzegovina became a part of Republika Srpska.


title: Herzegovina

text: Herzegovina is a southern region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its borders and territory have never been strictly defined, be it geographically or culturally, nor has there ever been a geopolitical and economic subdivision of Bosnia and Herzegovina bearing the name.


title: Herzegovina

text: The larger of two Bosnia and Herzegovina regions, Bosnia, is to the west and north of Herzegovina, and the border between two regions, Herzegovina and Bosnia, is unclear as it has never been strictly defined. To the south-southwest of region lies Croatian region of Dalmatia, and to the east-southeast is Montenegro.


title: Herzegovina

text: The land area is , or around 23% of the total area of the present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, to , or around 24% of the country.


title: Herzegovina

text: The terrain of Herzegovina is mostly hilly karst with high mountains in the north such as Čvrsnica and Prenj, except for the central valley of the river Neretva. The upper reaches of the River Neretva lie in northern Herzegovina, a heavily forested area with fast-flowing rivers and high mountains. Konjic and Jablanica lie in this area.


title: Herzegovina

text: The Neretva rises on Lebršnik Mountain, close to the Montenegro border, and as the river flows west, it enters Herzegovina. The entire upper catchment of the Neretva constitutes a precious ecoregion with many endemic and endangered species. The river carves through the precipitous karst terrain, providing excellent opportunities for rafting and kayaking, while the spectacular scenery of the surrounding mountains and forests is a challenging hiking terrain. The Neretva's tributaries in the upper reaches are mostly short, due to the mountainous terrain: the River Rakitnica has cut a deep canyon, its waters being one of the least explored areas in this part of Europe. The Rakitnica flows into Neretva upstream from Konjic. The Neretva then flows northwest, through Konjic. It enters the Jablanica Reservoir ("Jablaničko jezero"), one of the largest in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The lake ends near the town of Jablanica. From here on, the Neretva turns southward, continuing toward the Adriatic Sea. With the mountains lining its shores gradually receding, the Neretva enters a valley where the city of Mostar lies. It flows under the old bridge ("Stari most") and continues, now wider, toward the town of Čapljina and the Neretva Delta in Croatia before emptying into the Adriatic Sea.


title: Herzegovina

text: The largest city is Mostar, in the center of the region. Other larger towns include Trebinje, Stolac, Široki Brijeg, Posušje, Ljubuški, Tomislavgrad, Grude, Konjic, and Čapljina.


title: Herzegovina

text: Mostar is the best-known urban area and the unofficial capital. It is the only city with over 100,000 citizens. There are no other large cities in Herzegovina, though some have illustrious histories.


title: Herzegovina

text: Stolac, for example, is perhaps Herzegovina's oldest city. Settlements date from the Paleolithic period (Badanj Cave). An Illyrian tribe lived in the city of Daorson. There were several Roman settlements alongside the Bregava River and medieval inhabitants left large stone grave monuments called stećak in Radimlja. Trebinje, on the Trebišnjica River, is the southernmost city in Bosnia and Herzegovina, near the Montenegro border.


title: Herzegovina

text: Čapljina and Ljubuški are known for their history and their rivers; the village of Međugorje has religious importance for many Roman Catholics.


title: Herzegovina

text: In the modern state of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Herzegovina is divided between the countries' two major entities, Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Republika Srpska's part of Herzegovina, commonly referred to as East Herzegovina, or increasingly more often "Trebinje Region", is administratively divided into municipalities of Berkovići, Bileća, Gacko, Istočni Mostar, Ljubinje, Nevesinje, and Trebinje.


title: Herzegovina

text: Within the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Herzegovina is administratively divided between the cantons of Herzegovina-Neretva and West Herzegovina; the two cantons only make mention of the region in relation to other locations or geographical features. Part of the region belongs to Canton 10.


title: Herzegovina

text: The locals of Herzegovina are known by the demonym Herzegovinians (Serbo-Croatian: / ; / , / ). While the population of Herzegovina throughout history has been ethnically mixed, the Bosnian War in the 1990s resulted in mass ethnic cleansing and large-scale displacement of people. The last pre-war census in 1991 recorded a population of 437,095 inhabitants.


title: Herzegovina

text: The region has rich history and diverse culture, with variety of important monuments of cultural-historical heritage, such as the following cultural monuments; Mogorjelo, Stari most, Stećci and Tekija.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: The Bad Seed is a 2018 American made-for-television horror drama film directed by Rob Lowe for Lifetime. Lowe is also executive producer and stars in the film, alongside Mckenna Grace, Sarah Dugdale, Marci T. House, Lorne Cardinal, Chris Shields, Cara Buono, and a special appearance by Patty McCormack. The horror thriller is based on the 1954 novel by William March, the 1954 play, and the 1956 film. "The Bad Seed" originally aired on Lifetime on September 9, 2018. This is the second remake of the film, the first being a 1985 film.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: On September 16, 2018, a "special edition" of the TV movie was released that features behind the scenes interviews with Lowe, Grace, and McCormack.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: The film begins as Emma Grossman (Mckenna Grace), a nine-year-old girl and daughter of widowed father David Grossman (Rob Lowe), watches a cat drown in the fountain beneath her bedroom window. She simply draws the blind and prepares for her day. At breakfast, she expresses to her father her hope to win a Citizenship medal handed out each year to a student who exemplifies the values of the school.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: The “merit day” (on which the medal is awarded) arrives and Emma is seated in the crowd, certain that she will win the medal. To Emma’s shock and disappointment, Mrs. Ellis (Marci T. House) announces that the winner of this year’s medal is Emma’s classmate Milo Curtis (Luke Roessler).


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: Later, all students and parents are celebrating outside and Emma expresses contempt for Milo to her father, who scolds her for her bitterness. Emma apologizes, but she secretly guides Milo away from the party and through a nearby patch of trees until they reach rocky cliffs overlooking the sea. She slowly moves towards him and murders him off-screen by pushing him into the sea, after stealing the Citizenship medal from him, and sneaking back into the party. Milo’s body is found shortly thereafter by two girls who scream for help. Emma and David watch from a distance as people desperately try to resuscitate him and his mother breaks down into hysterics.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: The next day, David asks Emma if she is feeling okay following what happened to Milo, but Emma acts cheerily and neglects to talk about the matter with any kind of empathy. David’s sister Angela (Cara Buono), a psychiatrist, suggests to David that Emma is in shock and will find time to grieve whenever she is ready. Chloe (Sarah Dugdale), a babysitter David hired, begins work. Emma notices her stealing Xanax from David’s bedroom, and tells her she knows what Chloe did as they are watching a film. Emma utilizes this fact to manipulate Chloe into doing tasks for her such as getting her ice cream and letting her stay up past her bedtime.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: Milo’s funeral is held and Emma and David speak with Mr. and Mrs. Curtis (Shauna Johannesen and Robert Egger). Emma feigns sadness in front of them. Mrs. Curtis requests photos of Milo from the day of the ceremony from David. That night, as David peruses the photos he took, he notices Emma in the background of many of them looking at Milo and his medal with a contemptuous scowl, and David grows concerned.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: The next day, Mrs. Ellis and an investigator arrive at David’s house to ask him questions, and Emma eavesdrop on the conversation. Mrs. Ellis explains that Emma was the last person to be seen with Milo, having been witnessed taking him into the woods. David becomes anxious and assumes they are insinuating something dark. Chloe appears behind Emma in the next room, deducing that Emma killed Milo. In order to prevent the adults from discussing the matter further, Emma smashes a cookie jar and scratches her arm on broken glass, screaming. Mrs. Ellis and the investigator promptly leave. David asks Emma if she knows anything about being out on the rock-face with Milo, but Emma says she was never out there with Milo and that Mrs. Ellis is lying because she has always hated her.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: Whilst Emma and Chloe are out on a walk the next day, Chloe talks to Emma about what she did to Milo, but Emma denies everything. Chloe and Emma spot Mrs. Curtis and the investigator arriving at Milo's house, and Chloe says that Emma better get her story straight or they would capture her for murdering him. Back at the house, Chloe and Emma are eating together and Chloe lies to Emma, saying that if she gets caught for murdering Milo she will be put into a little electric chair for children that’s been painted pink. Emma says she doesn’t believe her but appears worried about the notion. Later on, Mrs. Ellis is seen getting into her car with a wasp nest having been put in it by Emma and she crashes offscreen. Chloe discovers Milo's citizenship medal hidden under Emma’s bed and hangs it from a lamp in David's room so that he will find it.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: When David returns home, he does not notice the medal and Emma comes into his room and talks to him. She finds the medal hanging from the lamp and secretly takes it off, hiding it behind her back. David questions her as to what she is hiding and Emma shows him the medal. Distressed, he interrogates her about where she got it and if she was out on the rock face with Milo. Emma admits that she was, but lies and says they played a game and Milo let her wear it for a short time, but that when she left the rock face he didn’t return and so she kept the medal.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: David calls his sister Angela to refer Emma to a child psychiatrist because he is extremely worried that Emma may have been involved in Milo’s death and is concerned about her behavior. The next day, David makes Emma return the medal to Mrs. Curtis. That night, he researches antisocial behavior in children and seems convinced that Emma's behavior is psychopathic. The next day, Emma visits a child psychiatrist (Patty McCormack), and acts normally to deceive her. The psychiatrist, named Dr. March, assures David that Emma is “one hundred percent normal”, and he is relieved.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: Later, Chloe goes into Emma’s room and taunts her, telling her that she wants to hook up with David and that one day she may become Emma’s stepmother. Emma is disgusted and says that she is going to have David get rid of Chloe. That night David, is readying to leave for a date and Emma reveals the contents of the conversation to him, but he assures her that what Chloe said isn’t true, and Emma states that she does not ever want to have a stepmother.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: Chloe is watching a film downstairs and searches for Emma. Seeing that the work-shed lights are on, she goes out of the house and over to the shed and looks around inside for Emma. Emma locks her in and sets the shed on fire, killing Chloe. David rushes home but the emergency services have already arrived. He later goes into Emma’s room, and she is pretending to be asleep, but he questions her about the recent slew of deaths. Emma ultimately admits to murdering Milo, Mrs. Ellis, Chloe, and her previous babysitter who she didn’t like. Emma justifies these murders, claiming she didn’t do anything wrong. David is heartbroken.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: The next day, David drives Emma to a lake house a few miles away, evading the suspicious Sheriff Peterson (Chris Shields). He doesn’t want Emma to end up in an institution or in prison and plans to kill her and then himself. Emma senses this, and one night switches on the gas fireplace as well as the iron stoves in the kitchen, attempting to kill David in an explosion.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: He wakes up before this can happen and brings Emma back to the lake house. He crushes some medicine and puts it into Emma’s hot chocolate, but Emma switches the mugs without him noticing. He drinks his and when he is asleep, Emma tries to shoot him with his gun but misses. He chases her and Emma calls 911, screaming for help. The caretaker (Lorne Cardinal) of the lake house hears the gunshot and arrives with his shotgun to find David about to kill Emma as he claims that Emma is evil. The caretaker shoots David and Emma remains unharmed as the authorities arrive.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: The next morning as David's body is being removed, Emma sits solemnly in the back of a car and hugs her aunt Angela, staring into the distance with a cold and victorious grin.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: A conventional remake of "The Bad Seed", written by Barbara Marshall, had been in development hell between Lifetime and executive producer Mark Wolper. However, it never survived script stage, until late 2017, when Lifetime gave the green light on production. Warner Bros. Television owns the rights to the title. Actor-director Rob Lowe was also named as director and star of the 2018 release, with additional casting to follow. In February 2018, Mckenna Grace and Patty McCormack were announced as being cast.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: "The Bad Seed" received mixed reviews upon its release. David Feinberg of "The Hollywood Reporter" said: "Call it "The Bad Seed" and you tap into a surface-glaze legitimacy that's probably unwarranted, because the movie, notable as co-star Rob Lowe's directing debut, achieves only a baseline amount of trashy fun, nothing more or less." Andrea Reiher from the website Collider said the film "suffers from being neither dark enough nor campy enough—either choice would have been a lot more enjoyable. But it is stuck in a middle area that is devoid of over-the-top absurdity or any real darkness."


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: Upon its initial broadcast on September 9, 2018, "The Bad Seed" was watched by 1.87 million viewers, placing it in the top ten most-watched cable programs on that date.


title: The Bad Seed (2018 film)

text: On November 12, 2021, Lifetime ordered a sequel to the film with Grace set to reprise her role as Emma. It premiered on May 30, 2022.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Edith Mary Tolkien ( Bratt; 21 January 1889 – 29 November 1971) was an Englishwoman, known as the wife and muse of the novelist J. R. R. Tolkien, and the inspiration for his fictional Middle-earth characters Lúthien Tinúviel and Arwen Undómiel.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Edith Bratt was born in Gloucester on 21 January 1889. Her mother, Frances Bratt, was 30 years old, unmarried, and was the daughter of a local shoe and bootmaker.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: According to Humphrey Carpenter, Frances Bratt never married, and the name of Edith's father is not listed on her birth certificate. Even so, Frances is reported to have always preserved a photograph of him and his name was known within the Bratt family. Edith, however, was always deeply conscious of having been conceived out of wedlock and never told her own children the name of their grandfather. Subsequent research has identified Edith's father as Birmingham paper dealer Alfred Frederick Warrilow, who had previously employed Frances Bratt as governess to his daughter, Nellie Warrilow. When Warrilow died in 1891, he named Frances as his sole executrix in his will.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Edith was brought up in Handsworth, a suburb of Birmingham, by her mother and also her cousin, Jenny Grove (related to Sir George Grove). According to Humphrey Carpenter, the circumstances of Edith's birth were a regular subject of neighbourhood gossip.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Frances Bratt died when her daughter was 14 and Edith was sent to the Dresden House boarding school in Evesham. The school was run by the Watts sisters, who had studied music in Dresden. Although the school had a very "strict regime", Edith was always to remember it fondly. It was at the Dresden House School where Edith "first developed her great love, and talent, for playing the piano."


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Following school, Edith was expected to become a concert pianist or at the very least a piano teacher. While he considered how to proceed, Edith's guardian, solicitor Stephen Gateley, found her rooms at Mrs. Faulkner's boarding house at 37 Duchess Road, Birmingham.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: The boarding house at 37 Duchess Road "was a gloomy, creeper-covered house, hung with dingy lace curtains". It was owned and operated by Mrs. Faulkner, whose husband Louis was "a wine merchant with a taste for his own wares". Mrs. Faulkner was also a Roman Catholic and "an active member" of the parish attached to the nearby Birmingham Oratory.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Mrs. Faulkner hosted musical soirées which were often attended by the Oratory's priests. She was delighted to have, in Edith, a pianist to accompany the soloists. Whenever Edith attempted to practise, however, Mrs. Faulkner "would sweep into the room as soon as the scales and arpeggios began", and say, "Now, Edith dear, enough for now!"


title: Edith Tolkien

text: In later years, Edith told her children that her life at 37 Duchess Road was "rather restricted". Once, Edith, who "had a lifelong enjoyment of the theatre", announced that she was going to a matinée at the Theatre Royal. In response, Mrs. Faulkner told her that, "she must take a book to read in the interval to avoid the risk of being talked to by strangers!"


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Edith first met Tolkien early in 1908, when he and his younger brother Hilary were moved into 37 Duchess Road by their guardian, Fr. Francis Xavier Morgan of the Birmingham Oratory. At the time Tolkien, known within his family as Ronald, was 16 years old and Edith was 19. According to Humphrey Carpenter, Edith and Ronald took to frequenting Birmingham teashops, especially one which had a balcony overlooking the pavement. There they would sit and throw sugarlumps into the hats of passers-by, moving to the next table when the sugar bowl was empty. ...With two people of their personalities and in their position, romance was bound to flourish. Both were orphans in need of affection, and they found that they could give it to each other. During the summer of 1909, they decided that they were in love.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: However, before the end of the year the relationship had become known to Tolkien's guardian. Viewing Edith as a distraction from Tolkien's schoolwork and bothered by her Anglican religion, he forbade any contact between them until Tolkien became a legal adult at 21.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Tolkien grudgingly obeyed this instruction to the letter while Father Morgan's guardianship lasted. However, on the evening of his twenty-first birthday, Tolkien wrote a letter to Edith, who had since moved to Cheltenham. It contained a declaration of his love and asked her to marry him. She replied saying that she was already engaged, but implied that she had done so out of a belief that Tolkien had forgotten her. Within a week, Tolkien journeyed to Cheltenham, where Edith met him at the railway station. That day, Edith returned her ring and announced her engagement to Tolkien instead.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Following her engagement in January 1913, Edith announced that she was converting to Roman Catholicism at Tolkien's insistence. Because Edith was heavily involved in her local Anglican parish, she at first resisted the demands. Despite Edith's misgivings, her landlord, a staunch Protestant, was enraged and instantly turned her out of the house.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: The Tolkiens were married in the Catholic Church of St Mary Immaculate on West Street in Warwick on 22 March 1916 and a blue plaque was unveiled at the church in July 2018 to commemorate this. Their week-long honeymoon was spent at Clevedon, in North Somerset, and included a visit to the Cheddar Caves.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Soon after their wedding, Tolkien commenced a course at the British Army signals school at Otley, and in order to be as close to his military camp as possible, Edith moved with her cousin Jennie Grove to a cottage in the village of Great Haywood, where she lived from April 1916 to February 1917. Due to their wedding occurring during Lent, only the Marriage Service and not the Nuptial Mass had been performed; the couple received a nuptial blessing at the Roman Catholic Church of St John the Baptist, in Great Haywood.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Tolkien was subsequently commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Lancashire Fusiliers, transferring to the 11th (Service) Battalion, part of the 25th Division, with the British Expeditionary Force and arrived in France on 4 June 1916. He later wrote:


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Junior officers were being killed off, a dozen a minute. Parting from my wife then ... it was like a death.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Tolkien's service during the Battle of the Somme was very difficult for Edith; she feared that every knock on the door might carry news of his death. To get around the British Army's postal censorship, the Tolkiens arranged a means for letters from the trenches to contain coded messages. By deciphering the code, Edith was able to track her husband's movements on a map of the front.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: After Tolkien's return from France, their first child, John Francis Reuel (16 November 1917 – 22 January 2003) was born in Cheltenham.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: While Tolkien was stationed at Kingston upon Hull, Edith and he went walking in the woods at nearby Roos, and she began to dance for him in a clearing among the flowering hemlock:


title: Edith Tolkien

text: This incident inspired the account of the meeting of Beren and Lúthien, and from that the Song of Beren and Luthien."


title: Edith Tolkien

text: After World War I, the Tolkiens had three more children: Michael Hilary Reuel (October 1920 – 1984), Christopher John Reuel (1924–2020) and Priscilla Anne Reuel (1929–2022).


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Tolkien's professional career at the universities of Leeds and Oxford resulted in the family moving to these cities. According to Humphrey Carpenter, Edith was not an intellectual and had a difficult time functioning around her husband's colleagues and their families. As she often had no companionship other than the children and the servants, Edith's loneliness frequently manifested itself as authoritarianism. Another result of her loneliness was her envy and resentment of Tolkien's close friendship with C.S. Lewis, whom she regarded as an intruder into her family.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: According to Carpenter, There was also the problem of Edith's attitude to Catholicism. Before they were married, Ronald had persuaded her to leave the Church of England and become a Catholic, and she had resented this a little at the time. During the subsequent years she had almost given up going to mass. In the second decade of marriage her anti-Catholic feelings hardened, and by the time the family returned to Oxford in 1925 she was showing resentment of Ronald taking the children to church. In part, these feelings were due to Ronald's rigid, almost medieval, insistence upon frequent confession; and Edith had always hated confessing her sins to a priest. Nor could he discuss her feelings with her in a rational manner, certainly not with the lucidity he demonstrated in his theological arguments with author Lewis: to Edith he presented only his emotional attachment to religion, of which she had little understanding. Occasionally, her smouldering anger about church-going burst into a fury; but at last after one such outburst in 1940 there was true reconciliation between her and Ronald, in which she explained her feelings and even declared that she wished to resume the practice of her religion. In the event she did not return to regular church-going, but for the rest of her life she showed no resentment of Catholicism, and indeed delighted to take an interest in church affairs, so that it appeared even to friends who were Catholics that she was an active church-goer.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: According to Humphrey Carpenter, Those friends who knew Ronald and Edith Tolkien over the years never doubted that there was deep affection between them. It was visible in the small things, the almost absurd degree in which each worried about the other's health, and the care in which they chose and wrapped each other's birthday presents; and in the large matters, the way in which Ronald willingly abandoned such a large part of his life in retirement to give Edith the last years in Bournemouth that he felt she deserved, and the degree in which she showed pride in his fame as an author. A principal source of happiness to them was their shared love of their family. This bound them together until the end of their lives, and it was perhaps the strongest force in the marriage. They delighted to discuss and mull over every detail of the lives of their children, and later their grandchildren.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: In a 1992 lecture, George Sayer recalled his friendship with the Tolkiens during the 1950s and 1960s, If I was there in the right time in the afternoon he would take me to have tea in the drawing room of the floor below, Edith Tolkien's room. The atmosphere was quite different, with hardly any papers and few books. She did most of the talking and it was not at all literary. Frequent subjects were the doings of the children, especially Christopher, the grandchildren, the garden in which I think Ronald enjoyed working, the iniquities of the Labour Party, the rising price of food, the changes for the worse in the Oxford shops and the difficulty in buying certain groceries. The road had deteriorated since they moved there. It used to be a quiet cul-de-sac. Now the lower end had been opened up and lorries and cars rushed through on their way to a building site or to the Oxford United's football ground. There were some very noisy people on the road. They even had as near neighbours an aspiring pop group. Ronald... told me that when she was younger Edith had been a fine pianist. Some of the conversation was about music. On one occasion she played to us on a very simple old-fashioned gramophone a record she had just bought. Her husband was relaxed and happy with this domesticity. Anyway, it was an important part of his life. Without a liking for the homely and domestic, he could not have written "The Hobbit", or created Frodo and Sam Gamgee, characters that sustain quite convincingly the story of "The Lord of the Rings", and link the high romance to the everyday and the ordinary.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: After his retirement during the 1960s, Tolkien decided to move with Edith to a location near Bournemouth, which was then a resort town patronised by the British upper class. Although his status as a best-selling author gave them both easy entry into local society, Tolkien was never comfortable in Bournemouth and missed the company of his fellow intellectuals. Edith, however, was at last in her element as a society matron, which had been Tolkien's intention in selecting their new residence in the first place. Their grandson Simon Tolkien states on his website that Edith loved spending time at Bournemouth's Miramar Hotel.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Edith Tolkien died on 29 November 1971 in Bournemouth at the age of 82, and was buried in Wolvercote Cemetery, Oxford. Tolkien was buried with her when he died 21 months later.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Below the Tolkiens' names on their grave are the names of the characters of Beren and Lúthien: in the Middle-earth legendarium, Lúthien was the most beautiful of all the Children of Ilúvatar, and forsook her immortality for her love of the mortal warrior Beren. After Beren was captured by the forces of the dark lord Morgoth, Lúthien rode to his rescue upon the talking wolfhound Huan. Ultimately, when Beren was slain in battle against the demonic wolf Carcharoth, Lúthien, like Orpheus, approached the Valar gods and persuaded them to restore her beloved to life.


title: Edith Tolkien

text: Shortly after Edith's death, Tolkien wrote the following in a letter to their son Christopher. I never called Edith "Luthien" – but she was the source of the story that in time became the chief part of the Silmarillion. It was first conceived in a small woodland glade filled with hemlocks at Roos in Yorkshire (where I was for a brief time in command of an outpost of the Humber Garrison in 1917, and she was able to live with me for a while). In those days her hair was raven, her skin clear, her eyes brighter than you have seen them, and she could sing – and "dance". But the story has gone crooked, & I am left, and "I" cannot plead before the inexorable Mandos.


title: Mens rea

text: In criminal law, (; Law Latin for "guilty mind") is the mental element of a person's intention to commit a crime; or knowledge that one's action (or lack of action) would cause a crime to be committed. It is considered a necessary element of many crimes.


title: Mens rea

text: The standard common law test of criminal liability is expressed in the Latin phrase , i.e. "the act is not culpable unless the mind is guilty". As a general rule, someone who acted without mental fault is not liable in criminal law. Exceptions are known as strict liability crimes. Moreover, when a person intends a harm, but as a result of bad aim or other cause the intent is transferred from an intended victim to an unintended victim, the case is considered to be a matter of transferred intent.


title: Mens rea

text: The types of mental states that apply to crimes vary depending on whether a jurisdiction follows criminal law under the common law tradition or, within the United States, according to the Model Penal Code.


title: Mens rea

text: In civil law, it is usually not necessary to prove a subjective mental element to establish liability for breach of contract or tort, for example. But if a tort is intentionally committed or a contract is intentionally breached, such intent may increase the scope of liability and the damages payable to the plaintiff.


title: Mens rea

text: Under the tradition of common law, judges would often require a “bad state of mind” in addition to an action or omission ("actus reus") to find a criminal guilty. Over time, culpable mental states ("mens rea") became varied among different types of crimes. Such crimes and mental states might include, for example, “malice” for murder, “fraudulence” for fraud, “willfulness and corruption” for perjury, and so on. The crime of manslaughter, further, might not even require a “bad mind” but simply a “negligent” one. Regardless of how the requirements are categorized, the Supreme Court has explained "mens rea" requirements for crimes are "universal" and essential to "mature systems of law", even going so far as to say that this belief undergirds notions of free will and morality.


title: Mens rea

text: Within the United States, there is no single encompassing criminal law. Criminal laws are passed and enforced by the states‚ or the federal government, but each of these criminal "codes" vary and may or may not draw from the same theoretical sources.


title: Mens rea

text: The vast majority of criminal prosecutions in the United States are carried out by the several states in accordance with the laws of the state in question. Historically, the states (with the partial exception of civil-law Louisiana) applied common law rules of "mens rea" similar to those extant in England, but over time American understandings of common law "mens rea" terms diverged from those of English law and from each other. Concepts like "general intent" and "specific intent" dominated classifications of mental states in state common law, but by the late 1950s to early 1960s, the common law of "mens rea" was widely acknowledged to be a slippery, vague, and confused mess. This was one of several factors that led to the development of the Model Penal Code. Nevertheless, states continue to use mental states beyond or besides those listed in the Model Penal Code.


title: Mens rea

text: Since the federal government of the United States does not have a generalized police power like that of the states, the scope of its criminal statutes is necessarily circumscribed. Ordinary prosecutions are the province of the states, and only crimes connected to the constitutional powers may be pursued by the federal government. Nevertheless, the Supreme Court holds that required "mens rea" is an essential element of federal criminal offenses. Consequently, Title 18 of the United States Code does not use the aforementioned culpability scheme but relies instead on more traditional definitions of crimes taken from common law. For example, "malice aforethought" is used as a requirement for committing capital murder, and the Supreme Court has applied mental states such as "willfully."


title: Mens rea

text: Because the landscape of criminal law varied from state to state, the American Law Institute (which issues "restatements" of American legal jurisprudence) declined to issue a restatement of criminal law in favor of a "model" code for states to issue new, standardized criminal law. This Model Penal Code ("MPC") was completed in 1962, and received praise from legal scholars for its reformulation of criminal law. Although not all states follow the criminal law as constructed within the MPC, over thirty-four states had adopted part or substantially all of the MPC as law by 1983. The federal government has not adopted the MPC, although it has attempted to do so for many decades.


title: Mens rea

text: Since its publication, the formulation of "mens rea" set forth in the Model Penal Code has been highly influential throughout the United States in clarifying the discussion of the different modes of culpability. The following levels of "mens rea" are found in the MPC §2.02(2), and are considered by the United States Supreme Court to be the four states of mind that give rise to criminal liability:


title: Mens rea

text: The above mental states also work in a hierarchy, with "negligence" as the lowest mental state and "purposefully" as the highest: a finding of purposefully/intentional establishes a state of knowingness, recklessness, and negligence; a finding of knowingness establishes a finding of recklessness and negligence, and a finding of recklessness establishes a state of negligence.


title: Mens rea

text: The MPC also recognizes culpability not because of a mental state, but for crimes that are legislatively proscribed due to the imposition of "absolute liability." Strict liability crimes will require evidence of such legislative intent, and courts seriously examine such evidence before assuming a crime permits strict liability rather than a mens rea.


title: Mens rea

text: The elements constituting a crime vary between codes that draw on common law principles and those that draw from the Model Penal Code. For example, the "mens rea" required of murder in federal law under the United States Code is distinct from the "mens rea" of murder under the Texas Penal Code (which adopted the Model Penal Code in 1974):


title: Mens rea

text: In the common law approach as under 18 U.S.C. §1111, the definition of murder includes an "actus reus" (the unlawful killing of a human being) and a common law "mens rea": malice aforethought. Modern criminal law approaches the analysis somewhat differently. Using a framework from the American Law Institute's Model Penal Code, homicide is a "results" offense in that it forbids any "purposeful" or "knowing" conduct that causes, and therefore "results" in the death of another human being. "Purposeful" in this sense means the actor possessed a conscious purpose or objective that the result (i.e. the death of another human being) be achieved. "Knowing" means that the actor was aware or practically certain that a death would result, but had no purpose or desire for it to occur. By contrast with traditional common law, the Model Penal Code specifically distinguishes purpose and knowledge to avoid confusion regarding "intent" elements. Many states still adhere to older terminology, relying on the terms "intentional" to cover both types of "mens rea": "purposeful" and "knowing".


title: Mens rea

text: Not all states have adopted the MPC, and for states that have, application of the Model Code varies. Despite its attempt to standardize criminal law, this variance has resulted in confusion and criticism. Some scholars have criticized the levels of culpability in the current Model Penal Code as insufficient or needing revision. Scholars' allegations include incoherency from conflicted philosophical commitments, or the federal governments' failure to explicitly adopt the Model Penal Code resulting in departure from common law precedents. Since the publication of the MPC, confusion has also occurred where norms towards crimes have also changed: especially regarding sexual crimes, hate crimes, drug crimes, and digital crimes. But while some scholarship argues that commitment to reforms gave way to "cynicism and fatigue," others argue the original commitment of the MPC to "imprisonment as a last result" should be preserved in potential revisions to the Code and criminal law.


title: Mens rea

text: Rather than dwell on philosophical or normative arguments, some scholars have looked to evidence-based arguments to update the Code. In an empirical study, participants were presented with scenarios and asked to rate how deserving of punishment the scenario was. The results showed that participants' judgments matched up with the hierarchy of "mens rea" in the MPC, but also found that participants struggled most with "recklessness" scenarios. As a result, the study suggests revising the language of the categories.


title: Mens rea

text: The levels of "mens rea" and the distinction between them vary among jurisdictions. Although common law originated from England, the common law of each jurisdiction with regard to culpability varies as precedents and statutes vary.


title: Mens rea

text: The Supreme Court of Canada has found that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees a minimum requirement for the mental state of various crimes. For example, the crime of murder must include a mental requirement of at least subjective foresight of death. For crimes where imprisonment is a sanction, there is a requirement of at least a defence of due diligence.


title: Mens rea

text: Mens rea needs to be proved by prosecution from offence to offence. If it is a common law offence, mens rea is found out by relevant precedent ("DPP v Morgan" [1976] AC 182). Where the offence is in legislation, the requisite mens rea is found by interpreting the intention of the legislation. They must intend to commit the full offence.


title: Mens rea

text: Mens Rea in the Indian Penal Code 1860 sets out the definition of offences, the general conditions of liability, the conditions of exemptions from liability and punishments for the respective offences. Legislatures had not used the common law doctrine of mens rea in defining these crimes. However, they preferred to import it by using different terms indicating the required evil intent or mens rea as an essence of a particular offence.


title: Mens rea

text: Guilt in respect to almost all offences created under the IPC is fastened either on the ground of intention, knowledge or reason to believe. Almost all the offences under the IPC are qualified by one or other words such as 'wrongful gain or loss', 'dishonesty', 'fraudulently', 'reason to believe', 'criminal knowledge or intention', 'intentional cooperation', 'voluntarily', 'malignantly', 'wantonly', 'maliciously'. All these words indicate the blameworthy mental condition required at the time of commission of the offence, nowhere found in the IPC, its essence is reflected in almost all the provisions of the Indian Penal Code 1860. Every offence created under the IPC virtually imports the idea of criminal intent or mens rea in some form or other.


title: Mens rea

text: In Islamic Law, intention ("niyya") is a criterion for determining whether a criminal act is punishable or pardonable, or whether the penalty for such a crime is predetermined ("ḥadd") or discretionary ("taʿzīr"). The offender cannot be found guilty until their intention in committing the crime has been taken into consideration.


title: Mens rea

text: The general rule under common law and statutory law is that ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is no defense to criminal prosecution. However, in some cases, courts have held that if knowledge of a law, or if intent to break a law, is a material element of an offense, then a defendant may use good faith ignorance as a defense.


title: Mens rea

text: Crimes like tax evasion are specific intent crimes and require intent to violate the law as an element of the offense. In "R v. Klundert", for example, the Ontario Court of Appeal found as follows:


title: Mens rea

text: A good-faith belief that a law is unjust or unconstitutional is no excuse, but "reasonable reliance upon an official statement of law, afterward determined to be invalid or erroneous" does not constitute a criminal act.


title: Mens rea

text: In the United States, a law must be reasonably clear; it must be worded so that a reasonable layman can comprehend the specific prohibited acts. Otherwise, the law may be unconstitutional pursuant to the vagueness doctrine.


title: Mens rea

text: The court will have little difficulty in establishing "mens rea" if there is actual evidencefor instance, if the accused made an admissible admission. This would satisfy a "subjective" test. But a significant proportion of those accused of crimes makes no such admission. Hence, some degree of objectivity must be brought to bear as the basis upon which to impute the necessary components. It is always reasonable to assume that people of ordinary intelligence are aware of their physical surroundings and of the ordinary laws of cause and effect (see causation). Thus, when a person plans what to do and what not to do, they will understand the range of likely outcomes from given behaviour on a sliding scale from "inevitable" to "probable" to "possible" to "improbable". The more an outcome shades towards the "inevitable" end of the scale, the more likely it is that the accused both foresaw and desired it, and, therefore, the safer it is to impute intention. If there is clear subjective evidence that the accused did "not" have foresight, but a reasonable person would have, the hybrid test may find criminal negligence. In terms of the burden of proof, the requirement is that a jury must have a high degree of certainty before convicting, defined as "beyond a reasonable doubt" in the United States and "sure" in the United Kingdom. It is this reasoning that justifies the defenses of infancy, and of lack of mental capacity under the M'Naghten Rules, an alternate common law rule (e.g., "Durham" rule), and one of various statutes defining mental illness as an excuse. Moreover, if there is an irrebuttable presumption of "doli incapax" – that is, that the accused did not have sufficient understanding of the nature and quality of his actionsthen the requisite "mens rea" is absent no matter what degree of probability might otherwise have been present. For these purposes, therefore, where the relevant statutes are silent and it is for the common law to form the basis of potential liability, the reasonable person must be endowed with the same intellectual and physical qualities as the accused, and the test must be whether an accused with these specific attributes would have had the requisite foresight and desire.


title: Mens rea

text: In English law, s. 8 Criminal Justice Act 1967 provides a statutory framework within which "mens rea" is assessed. It states:


title: Mens rea

text: Under s. 8(b), therefore, the jury is allowed a wide latitude in applying a hybrid test to impute intention or foresight (for the purposes of recklessness) on the basis of all the evidence.


title: Mens rea

text: One of the mental components often raised in issue is that of motive. If the accused admits to having a motive consistent with the elements of foresight and desire, this will add to the level of probability that the actual outcome was intended (it makes the prosecution case more credible). But if there is clear evidence that the accused had a different motive, this may decrease the probability that he or she desired the actual outcome. In such a situation, the motive may become subjective evidence that the accused did not intend, but was reckless or willfully blind.


title: Mens rea

text: Motive cannot normally be a defense. If, for example, a person breaks into a laboratory used for the testing of pharmaceuticals on animals, the question of guilt is determined by the presence of an "actus reus", i.e. entry without consent and damage to property, and a "mens rea", i.e. intention to enter and cause the damage. That the person might have had a clearly articulated political motive to protest such testing does not affect liability. If motive has any relevance, this may be addressed in the sentencing part of the trial, when the court considers what punishment, if any, is appropriate.


title: Mens rea

text: Rarely, a motive may amount to a defence if it is specifically allowed in law, or is protected as a right (for example, if a conviction for crimes committed during a protest would unduly interfere with free speech rights; see "DPP v Ziegler").


title: Mens rea

text: In such cases, there is clear subjective evidence that the accused foresaw but did not desire the particular outcome. When the accused failed to stop the given behavior, he took the risk of causing the given loss or damage. There is always some degree of intention subsumed within recklessness. During the course of the conduct, the accused foresees that he may be putting another at risk of injury: A choice must be made at that point in time. By deciding to proceed, the accused actually intends the other to be exposed to the risk of that injury. The greater the probability of that risk maturing into the foreseen injury, the greater the degree of recklessness and, subsequently, sentence rendered. In common law, for example, an unlawful homicide committed recklessly would ordinarily constitute the crime of voluntary manslaughter. One committed with "extreme" or "gross" recklessness as to human life would constitute murder, sometimes defined as "depraved heart" or "abandoned and malignant heart" or "depraved indifference" murder.


title: Mens rea

text: Here, the test is both subjective and objective. There is credible subjective evidence that the particular accused neither foresaw nor desired the particular outcome, thus potentially excluding both intention and recklessness. But a reasonable person with the same abilities and skills as the accused would have foreseen and taken precautions to prevent the loss and damage being sustained. Only a small percentage of offences are defined with this "mens rea" requirement. Most legislatures prefer to base liability on either intention or recklessness and, faced with the need to establish recklessness as the default "mens rea" for guilt, those practising in most legal systems rely heavily on objective tests to establish the minimum requirement of foresight for recklessness.


title: Journalist

text: A journalist is an individual that collects/gathers information in form of text, audio, or pictures, processes them into a news-worthy form, and disseminates it to the public. The act or process mainly done by the journalist is called journalism.


title: Journalist

text: Journalists can be broadcast, print, advertising, and public relations personnel, and, depending on the form of journalism, the term "journalist" may also include various categories of individuals as per the roles they play in the process. This includes reporters, correspondents, citizen journalists, editors, editorial-writers, columnists, and visual journalists, such as photojournalists (journalists who use the medium of photography).


title: Journalist

text: A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes and reports on information in order to present using sources. This may entail conducting interviews, information-gathering and/or writing articles. Reporters may split their time between working in a newsroom, or from home, and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a specific beat or area of coverage.


title: Journalist

text: Matthew C. Nisbet, who has written on science communication, has defined a "knowledge journalist" as a public intellectual who, like Walter Lippmann, David Brooks, Fareed Zakaria, Naomi Klein, Michael Pollan, Thomas Friedman, and Andrew Revkin, sees their role as researching complicated issues of fact or science which most laymen would not have the time or access to information to research themselves, then communicating an accurate and understandable version to the public as a teacher and policy advisor.In his best-known books, "Public Opinion" (1922) and "The Phantom Public" (1925), Lippmann argued that most individuals lacked the capacity, time, and motivation to follow and analyze news of the many complex policy questions that troubled society. Nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a news media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints, and prejudices. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as expert analysts, guiding "citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important".


title: Journalist

text: In 2018, the United States Department of Labor's Occupational Outlook Handbook reported that employment for the category, "reporters, correspondents and broadcast news analysts," will decline 9 percent between 2016 and 2026.


title: Journalist

text: A worldwide sample of 27,500 journalists in 67 countries in 2012-2016 produced the following profile:


title: Journalist

text: Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger, particularly when reporting in areas of armed conflict or in states that do not respect the freedom of the press. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom and advocate for journalistic freedom. As of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder (71%), crossfire or combat (17%), or on dangerous assignment (11%). The "ten deadliest countries" for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq (230 deaths), Philippines (109), Russia (77), Colombia (76), Mexico (69), Algeria (61), Pakistan (59), India (49), Somalia (45), Brazil (31) and Sri Lanka (30).


title: Journalist

text: The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of 1 December 2010, 145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. Current numbers are even higher. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey (95), China (34), Iran (34), Eritrea (17), Burma (13), Uzbekistan (6), Vietnam (5), Cuba (4), Ethiopia (4), and Sudan (3).


title: Journalist

text: Apart from physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their editorial offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger. Hence, a systematic and sustainable way of psychological support for traumatized journalists is strongly needed. However, only little and fragmented support programs exist so far.


title: Journalist

text: The relationship between a professional journalist and a source can be rather complex, and a source can sometimes have an effect on an article written by the journalist. The article 'A Compromised Fourth Estate' uses Herbert Gans' metaphor to capture their relationship. He uses a dance metaphor, "The Tango," to illustrate the co-operative nature of their interactions inasmuch as "It takes two to tango". Herbert suggests that the source often leads, but journalists commonly object to this notion for two reasons:


title: Journalist

text: A relationship with sources that is "too cozy" is potentially compromising of journalists' integrity and risks becoming collusive. Journalists have typically favored a more robust, conflict model, based on a crucial assumption that if the media are to function as watchdogs of powerful economic and political interests, journalists must establish their independence of sources or risk the fourth estate being driven by the fifth estate of public relations.


title: Journalist

text: According to Reporters Without Borders' annual report, 2018 was the worst year on record for deadly violence and abuse toward journalists; there was a 15 percent increase in such killings since 2017, with 80 killed, 348 imprisoned and 60 held hostage.


title: Journalist

text: Yaser Murtaja was shot by an Israeli army sniper. Rubén Pat was gunned down outside a beach bar in Mexico. Mexico was described by Reporters Without Borders as "one of world's deadliest countries for the media"; 90% of attacks on journalists in the country reportedly go unsolved. Bulgarian Viktoria Marinova was beaten, raped and strangled. Saudi Arabian dissident Jamal Khashoggi was killed inside Saudi Arabia's consulate in Istanbul.


title: Blizzard

text: A blizzard is a severe snowstorm characterized by strong sustained winds and low visibility, lasting for a prolonged period of time—typically at least three or four hours. A ground blizzard is a weather condition where snow is not falling but loose snow on the ground is lifted and blown by strong winds. Blizzards can have an immense size and usually stretch to hundreds or thousands of kilometres.


title: Blizzard

text: In the United States, the National Weather Service defines a blizzard as a severe snow storm characterized by strong winds causing blowing snow that results in low visibilities. The difference between a blizzard and a snowstorm is the strength of the wind, not the amount of snow. To be a blizzard, a snow storm must have sustained winds or frequent gusts that are greater than or equal to with blowing or drifting snow which reduces visibility to or less and must last for a prolonged period of time—typically three hours or more.


title: Blizzard

text: Environment Canada defines a blizzard as a storm with wind speeds exceeding accompanied by visibility of or less, resulting from snowfall, blowing snow, or a combination of the two. These conditions must persist for a period of at least four hours for the storm to be classified as a blizzard, except north of the arctic tree line, where that threshold is raised to six hours.


title: Blizzard

text: The Australia Bureau of Meteorology describes a blizzard as, "Violent and very cold wind which is laden with snow, some part, at least, of which has been raised from snow covered ground."


title: Blizzard

text: While severe cold and large amounts of drifting snow may accompany blizzards, they are not required. Blizzards can bring whiteout conditions, and can paralyze regions for days at a time, particularly where snowfall is unusual or rare.


title: Blizzard

text: A severe blizzard has winds over , near zero visibility, and temperatures of or lower. In Antarctica, blizzards are associated with winds spilling over the edge of the ice plateau at an average velocity of .


title: Blizzard

text: Ground blizzard refers to a weather condition where loose snow or ice on the ground is lifted and blown by strong winds. The primary difference between a ground blizzard as opposed to a regular blizzard is that in a ground blizzard no precipitation is produced at the time, but rather all the precipitation is already present in the form of snow or ice at the surface.


title: Blizzard

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" concludes the term "blizzard" is likely onomatopoeic, derived from the same sense as "blow, blast, blister, and bluster"; the first recorded use of it for weather dates to 1829, when it was defined as a "violent blow". It achieved its modern definition by 1859, when it was in use in the western United States. The term became common in the press during the harsh winter of 1880–81.


title: Blizzard

text: In the United States, storm systems powerful enough to cause blizzards usually form when the jet stream dips far to the south, allowing cold, dry polar air from the north to clash with warm, humid air moving up from the south.


title: Blizzard

text: When cold, moist air from the Pacific Ocean moves eastward to the Rocky Mountains and the Great Plains, and warmer, moist air moves north from the Gulf of Mexico, all that is needed is a movement of cold polar air moving south to form potential blizzard conditions that may extend from the Texas Panhandle to the Great Lakes and Midwest. A blizzard also may be formed when a cold front and warm front mix together and a blizzard forms at the border line.


title: Blizzard

text: Another storm system occurs when a cold core low over the Hudson Bay area in Canada is displaced southward over southeastern Canada, the Great Lakes, and New England. When the rapidly moving cold front collides with warmer air coming north from the Gulf of Mexico, strong surface winds, significant cold air advection, and extensive wintry precipitation occur.


title: Blizzard

text: Low pressure systems moving out of the Rocky Mountains onto the Great Plains, a broad expanse of flat land, much of it covered in prairie, steppe and grassland, can cause thunderstorms and rain to the south and heavy snows and strong winds to the north. With few trees or other obstructions to reduce wind and blowing, this part of the country is particularly vulnerable to blizzards with very low temperatures and whiteout conditions. In a true whiteout there is no visible horizon. People can become lost in their own front yards, when the door is only away, and they would have to feel their way back. Motorists have to stop their cars where they are, as the road is impossible to see.


title: Blizzard

text: A nor'easter is a macro-scale storm that occurs off the New England and Atlantic Canada coastlines. It gets its name from the direction the wind is coming from. The usage of the term in North America comes from the wind associated with many different types of storms some of which can form in the North Atlantic Ocean and some of which form as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. The term is most often used in the coastal areas of New England and Atlantic Canada. This type of storm has characteristics similar to a hurricane. More specifically it describes a low-pressure area whose center of rotation is just off the coast and whose leading winds in the left-forward quadrant rotate onto land from the northeast. High storm waves may sink ships at sea and cause coastal flooding and beach erosion. Notable nor'easters include The Great Blizzard of 1888, one of the worst blizzards in U.S. history. It dropped of snow and had sustained winds of more than that produced snowdrifts in excess of . Railroads were shut down and people were confined to their houses for up to a week. It killed 400 people, mostly in New York.


title: Blizzard

text: The 1972 Iran blizzard, which caused 4,000 reported deaths, was the deadliest blizzard in recorded history. Dropping as much as of snow, it completely covered 200 villages. After a snowfall lasting nearly a week, an area the size of Wisconsin was entirely buried in snow.


title: Blizzard

text: The 2008 Afghanistan blizzard, was a fierce blizzard that struck Afghanistan on the 10th of January 2008. Temperatures fell to a low of , with up to of snow in the more mountainous regions, killing at least 926 people. It was the third deadliest blizzard in history. The weather also claimed more than 100,000 sheep and goats, and nearly 315,000 cattle died.


title: Blizzard

text: The winter of 1880–1881 is widely considered the most severe winter ever known in many parts of the United States.


title: Blizzard

text: The initial blizzard in October of 1880 brought snowfalls so deep that two-story homes experienced "accumulations", as opposed to drifts, up to their second floor windows. No one was prepared for deep snow so early in the winter. Farmers from North Dakota to Virginia were caught flat with fields unharvested, what grain that had been harvested unmilled, and their suddenly all-important winter stocks of wood fuel only partially collected. By January train service was almost entirely suspended from the region. Railroads hired scores of men to dig out the tracks but as soon as they had finished shoveling a stretch of line a new storm arrived, burying it again.


title: Blizzard

text: There were no winter thaws and on February 2, 1881, a second massive blizzard struck that lasted for nine days. In towns the streets were filled with solid drifts to the tops of the buildings and tunneling was necessary to move about. Homes and barns were completely covered, compelling farmers to construct fragile tunnels in order to feed their stock.


title: Blizzard

text: When the snow finally melted in late spring of 1881 huge sections of the plains experienced flooding. Massive ice jams clogged the Missouri River and when they broke the downstream areas were inundated. Most of the town of Yankton, in what is now South Dakota, was washed away when the river overflowed its banks after the thaw.


title: Blizzard

text: Many children—and their parents—learned of "The Snow Winter" through the children's book "The Long Winter" by Laura Ingalls Wilder, in which the author tells of her family's efforts to survive. The snow arrived in October 1880 and blizzard followed blizzard throughout the winter and into March 1881, leaving many areas snowbound throughout the entire winter. Accurate details in Wilder's novel include the blizzards' frequency and the deep cold, the Chicago and North Western Railway stopping trains until the spring thaw because the snow made the tracks impassable, the near-starvation of the townspeople, and the courage of her future husband Almanzo and another man, who ventured out on the open prairie in search of a cache of wheat that no one was even sure existed.


title: Blizzard

text: The Storm of the Century, also known as the Great Blizzard of 1993, was a large cyclonic storm that formed over the Gulf of Mexico on March 12, 1993, and dissipated in the North Atlantic Ocean on March 15. It is unique for its intensity, massive size and wide-reaching effect. At its height, the storm stretched from Canada towards Central America, but its main impact was on the United States and Cuba. The cyclone moved through the Gulf of Mexico, and then through the Eastern United States before moving into Canada. Areas as far south as northern Alabama and Georgia received a dusting of snow and areas such as Birmingham, Alabama, received up to with hurricane-force wind gusts and record low barometric pressures. Between Louisiana and Cuba, hurricane-force winds produced high storm surges across northwestern Florida, which along with scattered tornadoes killed dozens of people. In the United States, the storm was responsible for the loss of electric power to over 10 million customers. It is purported to have been directly experienced by nearly 40 percent of the country's population at that time. A total of 310 people, including 10 from Cuba, perished during this storm. The storm cost $6 to $10 billion in damages.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: SS-Totenkopfverbände (SS-TV; ) was the "Schutzstaffel" (SS) organization responsible for administering the Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps for Nazi Germany, among similar duties. While the "Totenkopf" was the universal cap badge of the SS, the SS-TV also wore this insignia on the right collar tab to distinguish itself from other SS formations.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: The SS-TV originally created in 1933 was an independent unit within the SS, with its own command structure. It ran the camps throughout Germany and later in occupied Europe. Camps in Germany included Dachau, Bergen-Belsen, and Buchenwald; camps elsewhere in Europe included Auschwitz-Birkenau in German occupied Poland and Mauthausen in Austria among the numerous other concentration camps, and death camps handled with the utmost of secrecy. The extermination camps' function was genocide; they included Treblinka, Bełżec, and Sobibór built specifically for "Aktion Reinhard", as well as the original Chełmno extermination camp, and Majdanek which was fitted with mass killing facilities, along with Auschwitz. They were responsible for facilitating what the Nazis called the Final Solution, known since the war as the Holocaust; perpetrated by the SS within the command structure of the Reich Security Main Office, subordinate to Heinrich Himmler, and the SS Economic and Administrative Main Office or WVHA.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: At the outbreak of World War II in Europe, the SS Division "Totenkopf" was formed from SS-TV personnel. It soon developed a reputation for brutality, participating in war crimes such as the Le Paradis massacre in 1940 during the Fall of France. On the Eastern Front, the mass shootings of Polish and Soviet civilians in Operation Barbarossa were the work of "Einsatzgruppen" mobile death squads and their subgroups called "Einsatzkommando". These units were organized by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: After taking national power in 1933, the Nazi Party launched a new programme of mass incarceration of the so-called enemies of the state. Originally there were only wild camps in operation. Springing up in every town across Germany "like mushrooms after the rain" (Himmler's quote), the early camps utilized lockable spaces usually without infrastructure for permanent detention (i.e. engine rooms, brewery floors, storage facilities, cellars). Following the fall from power of the paramilitary Brownshirts of the SA during the NSDAP purge known as the Night of the Long Knives (30 June to 2 July 1934), the SS took control of the fledgling camp system. The SS founded state-run concentration camps at Dachau, Oranienburg, and Esterwegen, which held the total of 107,000 'undesirables' already by 1935.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: On 26 June 1933, "Reichsführer-SS" Heinrich Himmler appointed "SS-Oberführer" Theodor Eicke the "Kommandant" of the Dachau concentration camp. Eicke requested a permanent unit that would be subordinate only to him, and hence the SS-Wachverbände (guard units) were formed. Eicke began his infamous tenure by issuing new orders about the killing of inmates trying to escape ("Postenpflicht"). He developed the first "Lagerordnung", a Nazi disciplinary and penal code regulating the system of extreme disciplinary sanctions for detainees. His rules were adopted by all concentration camps of Nazi Germany as of 1 January 1934. Eicke was promoted to "SS-Brigadeführer" (equivalent to a major-general in the army) on 30 January 1934. Following the Night of the Long Knives, Eicke – who played a role in the affair by shooting SA chief Ernst Röhm – was again promoted to the rank of "SS-Gruppenführer" and officially appointed Inspector of Concentration Camps and Commander of the SS-Wachverbände. Thereafter, all remaining SA-run camps were taken over by the SS. In his role as the Concentration Camps Inspector, Eicke began a large reorganisation of the camps in 1935. The smaller camps were dismantled. Dachau concentration camp remained, then personnel from Dachau went on to work at Sachsenhausen and Oranienburg, where Eicke established his central office.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: In 1935, Dachau became the training center for the concentration camps service. Many of the early recruits came from the ranks of the SA and "Allgemeine SS". Senior roles were filled by personnel from the "Ordnungspolizei", the police who maintained order. On 29 March 1936, concentration camp guards and administration units were officially designated as the "SS-Totenkopfverbände" (SS-TV). In the summer of 1937, Buchenwald became operational, followed by Ravensbrück (near Lichtenburg) in May 1939. There were other new camps in Austria, such as Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp, which opened in 1938. All SS camps' regulations, both for guards and prisoners, followed the Dachau camp model.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: In 1935, as the concentration camp system within Germany expanded, groups of camps were organized into "Wachsturmbanne" (battalions) under the office of the Inspector of Concentration Camps who answered directly to the SS headquarters office and Heinrich Himmler. When the "SS-Totenkopfverbände" were formally established in March 1936, the group was organized into six "Wachtruppen" situated at each of Germany's major concentration camps. In April 1936, Eicke was named commander of the "SS-Totenkopfverbände" and the number of men under his command increased from 2,876 to 3,222; the Concentration Camps Inspectorate (CCI) was also provided official funding through the Reich's budget office, and Eicke was allowed to recruit future troops from the Hitler Youth based on regional needs. In 1937, the "Wachsturmbanne" were in turn organized into three main "SS-Totenkopfstandarten" (regiments).


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: By 1936, Eicke had also begun to establish military formations of concentration camp personnel which eventually became the "Totenkopf" Division and other units of the Waffen-SS. In the early days of the military camp service formation, the group's exact chain of command was contested since Eicke as "Führer der Totenkopfverbände" exercised personal control of the group but also, as it was considered an armed SS formation, authority over the armed units was claimed by the "SS-Verfügungstruppe" (SS-VT), which had been first formed in 1934 as combat troops for the Nazi Party. But at this time, Himmler and Eicke envisioned the armed SS-VT as a force for internal "police and security operations". Later by 1938, it became clear that the SS-VT troops were to be used for front-line "purposes", as well.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: Eicke in his role as the commander of the SS-TV, continued to reorganize the camp system by dismantling smaller camps. By August 1937 only Dachau, Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald and Ravensbrück remained in Germany. In 1938 Eicke oversaw the building of new camps in Austria following the "Anschluss", such as Mauthausen. Eicke's reorganization and the introduction of forced labor made the camps one of the SS's most powerful tools, but it earned him the enmity of Gestapo and "Sicherheitsdienst" (SD) chief, Reinhard Heydrich, who wanted to take over control of the concentration camp system. Himmler wanted to keep a separation of power, so Eicke remained in command of the SS-TV and camp operations. This kept control of the camps out of the hands of the Gestapo or the SD.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: By April 1938, the SS-TV had four regiments of three storm battalions with three infantry companies, one machine gun company and medical, communication and transportation units. On 17 August 1938 Hitler decreed, at Himmler's request, the SS-TV to be the official reserve for the SS-VT; this would over the course of the war lead to a constant flux of men between the Waffen-SS and the concentration camps. Himmler's intention was simply to expand his private army by using the SS-TV (as well as the police, which he also controlled) as a manpower pool. Himmler sought and obtained a further decree, issued on 18 May 1939, which authorized the expansion of the SS-TV to 50,000 men, and directed the army to provide it with military equipment, something the army had resisted.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: During the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, Eicke's SS-TV field forces numbered four infantry regiments and a cavalry regiment, plus two battalions placed in Free City of Danzig. The SS-TV role in the attack on Poland was not military in spite of close proximity to combat. "Their military capabilities were employed instead in terrorizing the civilian population through acts that included hunting down straggling Polish soldiers, confiscating agricultural produce and livestock, and torturing and murdering large numbers of Polish political leaders, aristocrats, businessmen, priests, intellectuals, and Jews." Eicke's three regiments, Oberbayern, Brandenburg and Thuringen, were reformed as the first "Einsatzgruppen"; the Oberbayern and the Thuringen (EG II and EG z. B.V) followed the Tenth Army in Upper Silesia; the Brandenburg (EG III) followed the Eight Army across Warthegau. The behavior of these "Standarten" in Poland elicited some protests from officers of the army, including 8th Army commander Johannes Blaskowitz who wrote a memorandum to Walther von Brauchitsch detailing the SS-TV atrocities, unaware that they were planned years in advance by the Central Unit II P-Poland under Heydrich who himself coordinated secret extermination actions including Operation Tannenberg and the "Intelligenzaktion" both targeting more than 61,000 members of Polish elites during the opening stages of World War II.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: At the beginning of war in Europe, the SS forces consisted of roughly 250,000 servicemen spread out across multiple branches, with transferable ranks and service records from police regiments and the army. Himmler's military formations at this time comprised several subgroups, including the "SS-Verfügungstruppe", which would become the basis of the Waffen-SS. Hitler approved further expansion of the armed SS formations. By October 1939, a new SS military division the "SS-Totenkopf" was formed. The "Totenkopf" was initially formed from concentration camp guards of the "Standarten" (regiments) of the SS-TV and soldiers from the "SS-Heimwehr "Danzig". Members of other SS militias were also transferred into the division in early 1940; these units had been involved in multiple massacres of Polish civilians, political leaders and prisoners of war.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: From fall 1939 to spring 1940 a massive recruitment effort in Germany raised no fewer than twelve new "TK-Standarten" (four times the size of the "SS-Verfügungstruppe") in anticipation of the coming attack on France. Both Eicke personally and his "Totenkopf" Division performed poorly during Fall Gelb therefore Himmler resolved to curb his decisions which had spurred a conflict with Hausser and Dietrich; especially his designation of "TK-Standarten" as reserves for his "Totenkopf" Division alone, and the fact that the "SS-Verfügungstruppe" military supplies were stored at Eicke's concentration camps. On 15 August 1940 Himmler dissolved Eicke's Inspectorate of "SS-Totenkopfstandarten" using as justification several well-publicized atrocities committed by the Division in France, and transferred the "Totenkopf" Division, the independent "TK-Standarten", and their reserve and replacement system to the newly formed Waffen-SS high command. In February 1941 the "Totenkopf" designation was removed from the names of all units other than the "Totenkopf" Division and the camp "Totenkopfwachsturmbanne", and their personnel exchanged the Death's-Head collar insignia for the Waffen-SS Sig-runes. The camp system expanded greatly after the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, when large numbers of Soviet soldiers were captured. Some were transferred to the camps, where their inhumane treatment became normal.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: The "Totenkopf" Division still had close ties to the camp service and its members continued to wear the Death's-Head as their unit insignia. They were known for brutal tactics, a result of the original doctrine of "no pity" which Eicke had instilled in his camp personnel as far back as 1934, together with the fact that the original "Totenkopfstandarte" had "trained" themselves. The Division's ineffectiveness in France, as well as its war crimes, can in part be explained by its personnel who were more thugs than soldiers. When first formed a total of 6,500 men from the SS-TV were transferred into the "Totenkopf" Division. Over the course of the savage fighting in the East, the Division was twice effectively destroyed and recreated. Very few of the men who were part of the 1939 "Standarten" in Poland were still in the Division by 1945.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: After the close of the Battle of France, the "SS-Verfügungstruppe" was officially renamed the Waffen-SS in a speech made by Hitler in July 1940. Himmler also gained approval for the Waffen-SS to form its own high command, the "Kommandoamt der Waffen-SS" within the "SS-Führungshauptamt", which was created in August 1940. It received command of the "SS-Verfügungstruppe" (the "Leibstandarte" and the "SS-Verfügungs-Division", renamed "Reich") and the armed SS-TV regiments (the "Totenkopf-Division" together with the independent "Totenkopf-Standarten"). The Waffen-SS was greatly expanded and allowed to recruit volunteers from conquered territories from the ethnic German and Germanic populations.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: After Eicke was reassigned to combat duty, his Chief of Staff SS-"Gruppenführer" Richard Glücks was appointed the new Concentration Camps Inspectorate (CCI) or IKL ("Inspektion der Konzentrationslager") chief by Himmler. By 1940, the CCI came under the control of the "Verwaltung und Wirtschaftshauptamt Hauptamt" (VuWHA; Administration and Business office) which was set up under Oswald Pohl. Then in 1942, the CCI became "Amt D" (Office D) of the consolidated main office known as the "SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt" (SS Economic and Administrative Department; WVHA) under Pohl. Glücks continued to manage the camp administration until the end of the war. Therefore, the entire concentration camp system was placed under the authority of the WVHA with the Inspector of Concentration Camps a subordinate to the Chief of the WVHA.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: By 1941, prior to the "Final Solution", the concentration camps run by SS-TV, both in Germany and across occupied territories, grew into a massive system of institutionalized forced labour for the SS. The concentration camp personnel began to arrive from the front-line SS formations upon medical discharge. Attack dogs were introduced to compensate for the personnel shortage. Special death camps of "Aktion Reinhard" had also come into existence. Under the WVHA, the camps were separated into divisions of forced labor, concentration, and extermination camps, all linked by record-high profit margins propped up by the theft of cash and assets from the Holocaust victims. Gigantic camps at Auschwitz and Majdanek were built with the expectation of Soviet prisoners of war entering the camp labour after 1941.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: During the war, almost half of the concentration camp officers served with the "Waffen-SS" combat divisions, including the "Leibstandarte", "Das Reich", Wiking, the Nord Division, and "Totenkopf". Some concentration camp officers served as division commanders in the "Waffen-SS". By October 1944 the "Waffen-SS" membership reached 800,000 and up to 910,000 men.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: Within the camps themselves, there existed a hierarchy of camp titles and positions which were unique only to the camp service. Each camp was commanded by a "Kommandant", sometimes referred to as "Lagerkommandant", who was assisted by a camp adjutant and command staff. The prison barracks within the camp were supervised by a "Rapportführer" who was responsible for daily roll call and the camp daily schedule. The individual prisoner barracks were overseen by junior SS-NCOs called "Blockführer" who, in turn had one to two squads of SS soldiers responsible for overseeing the prisoners. Within the extermination camps, the "Blockführer" was in charge of the prisoner "Sonderkommando" and was also the person who would physically gas victims in the camp's gas chambers.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: The Jewish "Sonderkommando" workers in turn, were terrorised by up to around 100 mostly collaborator Trawniki men per camp, called "Wachmannschaften" (security guards or watchmen).


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: The camp perimeter and watch towers were overseen by a separate formation called the "Wachbattalion" (guard battalion). The guard battalion commander was responsible for providing watch bills to man guard towers and oversaw security patrols outside the camp. The battalion was organized on typical military lines with companies, platoons, and squads. The battalion commander was subordinate directly to the camp commander.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: Concentration camps also had supply and medical personnel, attached to the headquarters office under the camp commander, as well as a security office with Gestapo and Kripo personnel attached to the camp. Heydrich had been successful in getting control over the "political departments" of the camps. These security personnel were under direct command of "Sicherheitspolizei" (SiPo) commanders until September 1939 and thereafter, the Reich Security Main Office ("Reichssicherheitshauptamt", RSHA) commanders independent of the camps.


title: SS-Totenkopfverbände

text: In addition to the regular SS personnel assigned to a concentration camp, there also existed a prisoner system of trustees known as "Kapos" who performed a wide variety of duties from administration to overseeing other groups of prisoners. The "Sonderkommandos" were special groups of Jewish prisoners who assisted in the extermination camps with the disposal of bodies and other tasks. The duty of actually gassing prisoners was, however, always carried out by the SS.