title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: McCain faced primary challenges from Fair Tax activist Alex Meluskey, businessman David Pizer, talk radio host Clair Van Steenwyk, and State Senator Kelli Ward. David Pizer later dropped out of the race. Representatives Matt Salmon and David Schweikert were both mentioned as possible candidates, but both chose not to run. Other potential Republican candidates included former Governor Jan Brewer, businesswoman and 2014 gubernatorial candidate Christine Jones, former Governor of Alaska and 2008 vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin, former U.S. Representative John Shadegg, and former Arizona Attorney General Grant Woods.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Congresswoman Ann Kirkpatrick and teacher Lennie Clark ran for the Democratic nomination. Lennie Clark dropped out and Ann Kirkpatrick became the Democratic nominee. Other potential Democratic candidates included U.S. Representative Ruben Gallego, former Surgeon General and 2012 nominee Richard Carmona, 2014 gubernatorial nominee Fred DuVal, Phoenix Mayor Greg Stanton, and retired astronaut Mark Kelly, who is the husband of ex-Congresswoman Gabby Giffords.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator John Boozman (Republican) defeated two-term Senator Blanche Lincoln with 58% of the vote in 2010. He was 65 years old in 2016. Despite speculation that he might retire following health problems, Boozman ran for re-election. Fellow Republican Curtis Coleman, who ran against Boozman in 2010 but came in fifth place, ran again.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Conner Eldridge, the former U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Arkansas, is the only Democrat who met the filing deadline.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Frank Gilbert was the candidate for the Libertarian Party, and Jason Tate was running a write-in campaign.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Incumbent Republican Senator John Boozman won re-election to a second term in office, becoming the first Republican senator re-elected in the history of the state.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Four-term Senator Barbara Boxer (Democrat) was re-elected with 52% of the vote in 2010. Boxer declined to run for re-election. California Attorney General Kamala Harris and U.S. Representative Loretta Sanchez, both Democrats, finished first and second, respectively, in California's nonpartisan blanket primary, and contested the general election. As such, Boxer's successor was guaranteed to be a Democrat. This marked a historic first such occasion in California, ever since the Senate elections began in 1914.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Other Democrats on the primary ballot included "President" Cristina Grappo, Massie Munroe, Herbert Peters, Emory Rogers, and Steve Stokes. Among the potential candidates who declined to run were Governor Jerry Brown, Lieutenant Governor Gavin Newsom, U.S. Representatives Xavier Becerra and Adam Schiff, and Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Former state Republican Party chairs Tom Del Beccaro and Duf Sundheim, and former State Senator Phil Wyman ran, along with Don Krampe, Tom Palzer, Karen Roseberry, Greg Conlon, Von Huogo, Jerry Laws, Ron Unz, Jarrell Williamson, and George Yang. State Assemblymen Rocky Chavez was running as well, but withdrew from the race. Republicans who were once considered potential candidates but ruled out runs included San Diego Mayor Kevin Faulconer, former Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability and 2014 gubernatorial nominee Neel Kashkari, U.S. Representative Darrell Issa, and businesswoman and nominee for the U.S. Senate in 2010 Carly Fiorina.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Polling conducted by the SurveyUSA from March 30, 2016 to April 3, 2016 indicated that Harris was ahead with 26%, compared to Rep. Sánchez with 22%, Del Beccaro with 8%, Wyman with 8%, and Sundheim with 3%; 7% of those polled were supporting other candidates, and 24% were undecided.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Michael Bennet (Democrat) was appointed in 2009 and elected to a full term with 48% of the vote in 2010. He was 51 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Businessman Robert Blaha, former Aurora councilman Ryan Frazier, El Paso County Commissioners Darryl Glenn, and Peggy Littleton, former Colorado State University Athletic Director Jack Graham, State Representative Jon Keyser, former SBA director Greg Lopez, State Senator Tim Neville, and Jefferson County Commissioner Donald Rosier ran for the Republican nomination. Glenn, Graham, Blaha, Keyser, and Frazier actually competed in the primary.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Richard Blumenthal (Democrat) was elected with 55% of the vote in 2010. He was 70 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: State Representative Dan Carter, apparel company CEO and 2004 Senate nominee Jack Orchulli, and former Olympic athlete August Wolf ran for the Republican nomination. Another potential candidate was former West Hartford Town Councilor Joe Visconti, who ran for CT-01 in 2008 and ran as an Independent for Governor in 2014. Former U.S. Comptroller General and 2014 candidate for Lieutenant Governor David M. Walker, former U.S. Representative and 2010 candidate Rob Simmons, and economist and former CNBC television host Lawrence Kudlow declined to run.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Marco Rubio (Republican) was elected in a three-way race with 49% of the vote in 2010. In April 2014, Rubio stated that he would not run for both the Senate and President in 2016, as Florida law prohibits a candidate from appearing twice on a ballot. In April 2015, he announced that he would run for President and would not seek re-election. After suspending his campaign on March 15, 2016, Rubio announced on June 22, 2016 that he changed his mind and will run for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: U.S. Representative Ron DeSantis, combat veteran Todd Wilcox, real estate developer Carlos Beruff, retired college lecturer Ilya Katz, and Donald J. DeRenzo ran for the Republican nomination.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Ben Carson, retired neurosurgeon and candidate for President in 2016 was also mentioned as a potential candidate. On June 17, 2016, U.S. Representative David Jolly withdrew from the race to run for re-election to his House seat, four days after Rubio began openly considering reversing his decision to not run for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: U.S. Representative Patrick Murphy defeated fellow representative Alan Grayson, as well as Pam Keith, Lateresa Jones, Richard Coleman, Sam Brian Gibbons, and Josh Larose, for the Democratic nomination. Murphy lost to incumbent Marco Rubio in the November general election on November 8.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Two-term Senator Johnny Isakson (Republican) was re-elected with 58% of the vote in 2010. He was 71 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election. In 2015, Isakson announced he was being treated for Parkinson's disease, but stated that his treatment would not interfere with his re-election campaign or his ability to serve another term.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Mary Kay Bacallao, college professor, former Fayette County Board of Education member, and candidate for State Superintendent of Schools in 2014 and Derrick Grayson, candidate for the state's other Senate seat in 2014, challenged Isakson for the Republican nomination. Isakson won the Republican nomination with more than three quarters of the vote.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Investment firm executive Jim Barksdale, project manager Cheryl Copeland, and businessman John Coyne ran for the Democratic nomination. USAF veteran Jim Knox was running but dropped out of the race. Barksdale defeated Copeland in a close race to win the Democratic nomination.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: In 2012, Hawaii Governor Neil Abercrombie appointed Lieutenant Governor Brian Schatz (Democrat) to take the place of deceased nine-term Senator Daniel Inouye. Schatz won a 2014 special election to serve the remainder of Inouye's term. Schatz ran for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Former U.S. Representative and 2014 Senate candidate Colleen Hanabusa considered challenging Schatz in the primary again, while U.S. Representative Tulsi Gabbard declined to seek the Democratic nomination for the seat.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Charles Collins, a Republican who ran for the Senate in 2012 and for Governor in 2014, was seeking the nomination again, but withdrew from the race.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Three-term Senator Mike Crapo (Republican) was re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2010. Crapo was 65 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election. U.S Representative Raul Labrador declined to challenge Crapo in the Republican primary.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Perennial candidate Pro-Life ran as an independent. He was defeated in the Constitution Party primary on May 17, 2016 to Ray J. Writz.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Mark Kirk (Republican) was elected with 48% of the vote in 2010. He was 57 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election. Kirk suffered a stroke in January 2012 that kept him away from the Senate until January 2013. In June 2013, he confirmed that he was planning to run for re-election, but speculation he might retire persisted. In November 2014, Kirk reiterated that he was going to run for re-election, saying: "No frickin' way am I retiring."


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Joe Walsh, a former U.S. Representative and conservative talk radio host, declined to challenge Kirk in the Republican primary. Two others filed for the right to challenge Senator Kirk in the primary: businessman James Marter, and Elizabeth Pahlke, but Pahlke was disqualified, so only Marter was on the ballot running against Kirk. On March 15, Kirk won the primary with 71% of the vote.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: U.S. Representative Tammy Duckworth, President and CEO of the Chicago Urban League, Andrea Zopp, and State Senator Napoleon Harris ran for the Democratic nomination. On March 15, Duckworth won the primary with 64% of the vote.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: In December 2015, Jim Brown, a teacher and former businessman, announced he was running as an independent.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Chris Aguayo, an Iraq/Afghan War veteran and Veterans Party State Chair, announced he was running, representing the Veterans Party.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Three-term Senator Dan Coats (Republican) was elected with 55% of the vote in 2010; Coats served in the Senate from 1989 to 1999 and then returned to serve another term from 2011 to 2017. Coats did not run for re-election. Republican candidates include U.S. Representatives Marlin Stutzman and Todd Young. Coats's chief of Staff Eric Holcomb was a candidate, but withdrew from the race.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Former U.S. Representative Baron Hill won the Democratic nomination on May 3, but withdrew in July 2016 in favor of Evan Bayh. Bayh held the seat from 1999 until his retirement in 2011, and also served as Governor of Indiana from 1989 to 1997. Former non-profit director John Dickerson also announced he was going to run, but suspended his campaign in early 2016.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Six-term Senator Chuck Grassley was re-elected with 65% of the vote in 2010. He was 83 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election. Talk radio host Robert Rees announced he was going to challenge Grassley for the nomination, but later withdrew.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Former Lt Governor Patty Judge earned the Democratic nomination by defeating State Senator Rob Hogg, former state Senator Tom Fiegen, and former state representative Bob Krause. Former state representative Ray Zirkelbach briefly ran but ended his campaign soon after.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Jerry Moran (Republican) was elected with 70% of the vote in 2010. He was 62 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election. Radiologist and 2014 Senate candidate Milton R. Wolf and U.S. Representative Tim Huelskamp declined to run.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Patrick Wiesner, an attorney and a candidate for the Senate in 2010 and 2014, defeated Monique Singh-Bey for the Democratic nomination. Potential candidates who declined to run included Wichita Mayor Carl Brewer, 2014 Governor nominee Paul Davis, former Kansas City Mayor Joe Reardon, former U.S. Representative and 2008 nominee Jim Slattery, and 2014 KS-02 nominee Margie Wakefield.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Rand Paul (Republican) was elected with 56% of the vote in 2010. He was 53 years old in 2016. Paul filed for re-election, although he was also running for President of the United States in 2016. Although Kentucky law did not allow for a candidate to appear twice on the same ballot, Paul successfully convinced the Kentucky GOP to adopt a caucus system for 2016, allowing Paul to run for president and for the Senate simultaneously. Kentucky law still bars Paul from appearing twice on the ballot in the general election. However, on February 3, 2016, Paul ended his campaign for the presidency and ran for reelection. James Gould and Stephen Slaughter filed to run against Paul. Paul won the Republican primary, receiving 169,180 votes (about 85%); James R. Gould received 16,611 (about 8%) and Stephen Howard Slaughter received 13,728 (about 7%).


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Lexington Mayor Jim Gray, Rory Houlihan, Ron Leach, Sellus Wilder Jeff Kender, Tom Recktenwald (who was a candidate in 2014), and Grant Short ran for the Democratic nomination. Gray won the nomination.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Two-term Senator David Vitter (Republican) was re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2010. After losing the 2015 gubernatorial race, Vitter chose to retire from the Senate at the end of his term.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Republicans who ran for the seat included U.S. Representatives Charles Boustany and John Fleming, former U.S. Representative Joseph Cao, State Treasurer John Kennedy, retired U.S. Air Force Colonel Rob Maness, and former Louisiana State Representative David Duke. Other potential Republican candidates included Public Service Commissioner Erik Skrmetta, 2014 candidate for LA-05 Zach Dasher, state representative Paul Hollis, and former President of Jefferson Parish John Young.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Democratic candidates included Public Service Commissioner Foster Campbell, attorney Derrick Edwards, Caroline Fayard, an attorney and candidate for Lieutenant Governor in 2010, and businessman Josh Pellerin. Other potential Democratic candidates included state legislators Robert Johnson, Eric LaFleur, and Gary Smith Jr., and Mayor of Alexandria Jacques Roy. Former U.S. Senator Mary Landrieu and her brother, New Orleans Mayor Mitch Landrieu, declined to run.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: As no candidate won a majority of the vote in the "jungle primary", a runoff election was held on December 10 to choose between Kennedy and Campbell (the 2 candidates with the most votes in the primary). John Kennedy was declared the winner of the runoff election with 61% of the vote to Campbell's 39%.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Five-term U.S. Senator Barbara Mikulski of the Democratic Party was re-elected with 62% of the vote in 2010. She is the longest-serving female senator and the longest-serving woman in the history of the U.S. Congress. She did not seek re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: The candidates who filed for the Democratic nomination were: U.S. Representatives Donna Edwards and Chris Van Hollen, Freddie Donald Dickson Jr., Ralph Jaffe, Theresa Scaldaferri, Charles Smith, Violate Staley, Blaine Taylor, Ed Tinus, and Lih Young. Van Hollen won the April 26 primary.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: The Republican candidates who filed were former Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense and Senate candidate in 2012 Richard Douglas, Chrys Kefalas, State Delegate Kathy Szeliga, Chris Chaffee, Sean Connor, John Graziani, Greg Holmes, Joseph David Hooe, Mark McNicholas, Lynn Richardson, Anthony Seda, Richard Shawver, Dave Walle, and Garry T. Yarrington. Szeliga won the primary to face Van Hollen in the general election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Roy Blunt (Republican) was elected with 54% of the vote in 2010. He was 66 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election. Former U.S. Representative and 2012 Senate nominee Todd Akin was rumored to be a possible candidate, but declined to run. Three candidates ran against Blunt for the Republican nomination, the best-known being sales manager, Tea Party activist, and 2010 candidate Kristin Nichols, but Blunt won decisively with 72% of the vote.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: For the Democrats, Secretary of State Jason Kander easily won the nomination, defeating Robert Mack, Pastor Cori Bush and activist Chief Wana Dubie. Governor Jay Nixon and State Treasurer Clint Zweifel chose not to seek election to the Senate.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Five-term Senator and Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid (Democrat) was re-elected with 50% of the vote in 2010. Reid did not seek re-election. Former Nevada Attorney General Catherine Cortez Masto earned the Democratic nomination, defeating Bobby Mahendra, Liddo Susan O'Briant, and Allen Rheinhart in the primary on June 14, 2016.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Congressman Joe Heck defeated eight candidates, including 2010 nominee Sharron Angle, who ran against Reid in 2010, for the Republican nomination.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Jarrod M. Williams, an independent candidate ran for the seat. He describes himself as a Democratic Socialist, a supporter of Bernie Sanders, and is a member of the Socialist Party USA, although the party doesn't have a chapter in the State of Nevada.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Kelly Ayotte (Republican) was elected with 60% of the vote in 2010. She was 48 years old in 2016. Ayotte ran for re-election. Jim Rubens, a former state senator, candidate for Governor in 1998 and for the Senate in 2014, announced a challenge to Ayotte in the primary, but Ayotte won the nomination.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Brian Chabot is the Libertarian candidate for US Senate in 2016. He is a relative newcomer to politics, having run for US Senate in 2010 and US Representative in 2014.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Governor Maggie Hassan ran for the Democratic nomination. Other potential candidates include Executive Councilor Chris Pappas, State Senators Dan Feltes and Donna Soucy, Portsmouth City Councilor and daughter of U.S. Senator Jeanne Shaheen Stefany Shaheen, and campaign manager for Senator Shaheen Mike Vlacich.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: A series of polls taken by WMUR/UNH in February, April, and July 2016, as well as WBUR polls taken in May and July/August, show Hassan gaining support over time and now leading Ayotte.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Gov. Hassan won a very close election, 353,978 or 47.97%, to Sen. Ayotte's 353,262 or 47.87%, a difference of 716 votes. Sen. Ayotte conceded the race to Gov. Hassan around noon Wednesday November 9, 2016.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Three-term Senator Chuck Schumer (Democrat) was re-elected with 66% of the vote in 2010. He was 66 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election. Chuck Schumer had been elected leader of the Senate Democrats on November 16, 2016, succeeding Harry Reid.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Wendy Long, the Republican nominee in 2012, ran as the nominee of Republican, Conservative, and Reform Parties. Other potential Republican candidates included U.S. Representatives Chris Gibson and Peter T. King. U.S. Representative Richard L. Hanna, Manhattan Republican Party Chairwoman Adele Malpass, and former CNBC television host Larry Kudlow were also mentioned as possible candidates, but all have declined to run.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Robin Laverne Wilson, the Green Party of New York nominee, received 1.5% of the vote. Alex Merced, the Libertarian Party candidate, received 0.7% of the vote.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Two-term Senator Richard Burr (Republican) was re-elected with 55% of the vote in 2010. He was 61 years old in 2016. There had been speculation that Burr might retire, but he ran for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Three Republicans challenged Burr in the primary: Greg Brannon, Larry Holmquist, and former Superior Court Judge Paul Wright. On March 15, Burr won the primary with 61% of the vote.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Former state representative Deborah Ross, Spring Lake Mayor Chris Rey, businessman Kevin Griffin, and retired U.S. Army Captain Ernest Reeves ran for the Democratic nomination. Former U.S. Senator Kay Hagan, state treasurer Janet Cowell, and Anthony Foxx, the United States Secretary of Transportation and former Mayor of Charlotte, declined to run. On March 15, Ross won the primary with 62% of the vote.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator John Hoeven (Republican) was elected with 76% of the vote in 2010. He was 59 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Democrats endorsed state representative Eliot Glassheim On November 7, 2015, the Libertarian party nominated Robert Marquette.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Rob Portman (Republican) was elected with 57% of the vote in 2010. He was 60 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election. He had considered running for President, but decided not to.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Two candidates filed to challenge him: Don Elijah Eckhart, who ran for OH-15 as an independent in 2008, and Melissa Strzala, but Strzala was disqualified. On March 15, Portman won the primary with 82% of the vote.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Former Governor and Congressman Ted Strickland, Cincinnati City Councilman P.G. Sittenfeld, and occupational therapist Kelli Prather ran for the Democratic nomination. Former State Representative Bob Hagan had filed papers to run, but later withdrew from the race. On March 15, Strickland won the primary with 65% of the vote.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Joseph DeMare, a machinist from Bowling Green, is the Green Party candidate. He ran unopposed in the March 15, 2016 primary, and received enough votes to substantially increase the number of enrolled Green Party members. In Ohio, the only way to join a political party is to vote in that Party's primary.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Two-term Senator Tom Coburn (Republican) was re-elected with 71% of the vote in 2010, but chose to leave office before the end of his term after being diagnosed with prostate cancer. James Lankford won the 2014 special election to serve the remainder of Coburn's term. Lankford ran for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Former Congressman Dan Boren was viewed by some Oklahoma political operatives as the only Democrat who could make the 2016 race competitive, but was seen as unlikely to run. Lankford's 2014 special election opponent Constance N. Johnson had also declined to run.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Three-term Senator Ron Wyden (Democrat) was re-elected with 57% of the vote in 2010. He was 67 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Medford City Councilor Kevin Stine and retired locomotive engineer Paul Weaver challenged Wyden for the Democratic nomination. Wyden won the Democratic nomination.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Information technology consultant and 2014 candidate Mark Callahan, businessman Sam Carpenter, business consultant Dan Laschober, Steven Reynolds, and Lane County commissioner Faye Stewart ran for the Republican nomination. Callahan won the Republican nomination.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Pat Toomey (Republican) was elected with 51% of the vote in 2010. He was 54 years old in 2016. Toomey ran for re-election.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Everett Stern, a security intelligence consultant and whistleblower of the HSBC money laundering scandal, announced that he would challenge Toomey for the Republican nomination, but missed the filing deadline, so Toomey was unopposed in the primary.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Democratic candidates included Katie McGinty, former Chief of Staff to Governor Tom Wolf and former Secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, former Congressman Joe Sestak, who defeated incumbent Senator Arlen Specter (a Democrat turned Republican turned back to Democrat) for the 2010 Democratic nomination, but lost to Toomey in the general election, the current mayor of Braddock, Pennsylvania, John Fetterman, who is an AmeriCorps alum and Harvard University graduate, and small businessman and senate candidate in 2010 and 2012 Joseph Vodvarka. Allentown Mayor Ed Pawlowski announced his candidacy for the seat but suspended his campaign due to an FBI investigation of Allentown. McGinty won the primary and faced Toomey in the general election on November 8, 2016. Toomey defeated McGinty and retained the seat.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Two-term Republican Senator Jim DeMint (Republican) was re-elected with 61% of the vote in 2010. He resigned at the start of 2013 to become President of The Heritage Foundation and U.S. Representative Tim Scott (Republican) of South Carolina's 1st congressional district was appointed to replace DeMint by Governor Nikki Haley.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Scott subsequently won the special election in 2014 for the remaining two years of the term. Scott ran for re-election and he was a potential Republican vice presidential nominee.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Other potential Republican candidates include Congressmen Mick Mulvaney, Jeff Duncan and Mark Sanford, along with State Senator Tom Davis, State Treasurer Curtis Loftis and State Attorney General Alan Wilson. Darla Moore was mentioned as a potential candidate for either party.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: On the Democratic side, pastor Thomas Dixon ran in the general election on November 8, 2016 but was defeated by the incumbent, Scott.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Jay Williams, Chair of the Yankton County Democratic Party, and candidate for the State House in 2010 and 2014, is running for the Democratic nomination. Other potential Democratic candidates include State Senator Bernie Hunhoff and filmmaker and former television news producer Sam Hurst.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Former U.S. Representative Stephanie Herseth Sandlin, Sioux Falls Mayor Mike Heuther, and 2014 nominee Rick Weiland all declined to run.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Mike Lee (Republican) was elected with 62% of the vote in 2010. He was 45 years old in 2016. He ran for re-election. State party chair Thomas Wright, former State Senator Dan Liljenquist, State Senator Aaron Osmond, Congressman Jason Chaffetz, Congressman Chris Stewart, former Governor of Utah Mike Leavitt, and Mitt Romney's son Josh Romney were mentioned as potential primary challengers, but all declined to run. Lee ran unopposed at the Utah Republican convention and is the Republican nominee.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Marriage therapist Jonathan Swinton and grocery store clerk Misty Snow, a transgender woman, ran for the Democratic nomination. Snow defeated Swinton by more than 20 percentage points, running to the left of Swinton, criticizing him for supporting limitations on abortion rights. She became the first transgender woman to become a major party's nominee for the Senate.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Seven-term Democratic Senator Patrick Leahy was re-elected with 64% of the vote in 2010. Leahy won re-election in 2016, aged 76.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Scott Milne, the Republican nominee who narrowly lost the 2014 Vermont gubernatorial election, ran unsuccessfully against Leahy.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Four-term Senator Patty Murray (Democrat) was re-elected with 52% of the vote in 2010. She ran successfully for re-election against Republican candidate Chris Vance. Congressman Dave Reichert was considered a potential Republican candidate but chose to run for reelection.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: One-term Senator Ron Johnson (Republican) defeated three-term Senator Russ Feingold (Democrat) with 52% of the vote in 2010.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: On May 14, 2015, Feingold announced that he would seek a rematch against Johnson for his former Senate seat. Immediately after his announcement, the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee endorsed Feingold's candidacy. Businesswoman and 2014 gubernatorial nominee Mary Burke has declared that she is not seeking statewide office in 2016.


title: 2016 United States Senate elections

text: Johnson and Feingold faced each other again, and Johnson again defeated Feingold, in what many observers and pundits considered to be a surprising and uphill victory.


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: Chemtrails over the Country Club is the seventh studio album by American singer-songwriter Lana Del Rey. It was released on March 19, 2021, by Interscope Records and Polydor Records as the follow-up to her sixth studio album, "Norman Fucking Rockwell!" (2019). Initially titled "White Hot Forever", the album was produced by Del Rey and Jack Antonoff and features additional production contributions from Rick Nowels, whom Del Rey worked with on past studio albums. The album features Nikki Lane in "Breaking Up Slowly", as well as Weyes Blood and Zella Day in a cover of Joni Mitchell's "For Free" (1970).


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: "Chemtrails over the Country Club" is described as a folk, country folk, and Americana record. The album deals with themes of escapism, love, heartbreak, and nostalgia, while encompassing her usual references to Americana, alongside emotions of disillusionment. "Chemtrails over the Country Club" received acclaim from music critics, with many comparing its sound to its predecessor. It debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, earning 75,000 album-equivalent units in its first week, becoming her seventh top-ten album in the country. It also topped the UK Albums Chart, becoming her fifth number-one album in the country.


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: On August 30, 2019, the release day of her sixth studio album "Norman Fucking Rockwell!", Del Rey announced she had already begun work on her follow-up album, revealing the working title "White Hot Forever". Nearly nine months later on May 25, 2020, she posted a series of videos on Instagram announcing the title had changed to "Chemtrails over the Country Club", referencing a conspiracy theory about contrails. The album was initially scheduled for release on September 5, 2020, but it was later revealed that the release had been postponed because of vinyl production delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as uncertainty over whether the track "Dealer" would be included on the album. "Dealer" was later included in Del Rey's eighth studio album "Blue Banisters".


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: Del Rey stated "so much of the album" pertains to her "stunning girlfriends" and "beautiful siblings". She further added that, "In 2021, ["Chemtrails over the Country Club"] opens a sunnier chapter in [Del Rey's] controversial roman-à-clef, and folk legend Joan Baez advocates her acceptance in the pantheon", adding that the album "appears to reveal a more vulnerable Del Rey" who is "lighter on the LA menace" and "more innocently emotional" than in her previous work.


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: On August 7, 2020, Del Rey posted a video on Instagram featuring a snippet of the track "Tulsa Jesus Freak", which would later be included on the album. On September 1, she posted a video on Instagram of her on set filming the music video for the album title track, "Chemtrails over the Country Club", and announced that she would soon release another track, "Let Me Love You like a Woman", further stating the album would be released "soon" after. "Let Me Love You Like a Woman" was released on October 16 as the lead single from "Chemtrails over the Country Club".


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: On December 14, 2020, a pre-recorded live performance of "Let Me Love You Like a Woman" (Del Rey's first television performance in nine years, since her 2012 live performance on "Saturday Night Live)" was presented on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon," and a few days later, Del Rey performed "Silent Night" alongside "Let Me Love You Like a Woman" at Jack Antonoff's Ally Coalition Talent Show. Shortly after, on December 22, Del Rey posted a teaser video for "Chemtrails over the Country Club" on social media, announcing the track would be released as the second single from the album on January 11, 2021, the same day the album would become available for pre-order.


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: The eighth track on the album, "Yosemite", was originally intended to be included on Del Rey's fifth studio album, "Lust for Life" (2017). In a 2017 interview with Zane Lowe, Del Rey stated the track was excluded from "Lust for Life" because "the song was too happy; we're not there yet."


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: On January 10, 2021, a day prior to the release of "Chemtrails over the Country Club", Del Rey revealed the album cover and track list of "Chemtrails over the Country Club" on Twitter and Instagram. The cover shows Del Rey with a number of her female friends (who also appear in the title track's music video). On January 11, retail chains Target and HMV revealed exclusive editions of the record featuring alternate cover art—a portrait photograph by Neil Krug.


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: "Chemtrails over the Country Club" received acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 81 based on 28 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". At AnyDecentMusic?, which collects critical reviews from more than 50 media sources, the album scored 7.8 points out of 10, based on 29 reviews.


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: AllMusic Fred Thomas stated Del Rey "shakes off the cocoon of her slick pop days completely" in "Chemtrails over the Country Club", carrying on the nuanced songwriting of "Norman Fucking Rockwell!" and ensuing in her "most atmospheric" album to-date. Will Hodgkinson of "The Times" called the album both "beautifully executed" and "thoughtfully realised". "Los Angeles Times" critic Mikael Wood found Del Rey's singing reaching a "new peak" in "Chemtrails"; he pinpointed how her vocals move "between her airy head voice and her sultry chest voice". Rhian Daly of "NME" called the album "a sublime statement" that mediates on fame and romance, having the singer "at the peak of her game". Reviewing for "The Independent", Helen Brown named Del Rey "a great storyteller", who consistently details "the who, what, where and when". Brown wrote that the album tones down the "lush orchestration" of its predecessor, opting for more acoustic guitar-picking, supported by "scuffs of scuzzy electric guitar and trip-hoppy hotel lobby organ".


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: Liam Inscoe-Jones of "The Line of Best Fit" complimented the album's "gorgeous" instrumentation and Del Rey's story-based songwriting. Praising the album's writing, "The Observer" critic Kitty Empire described it as "a record chockful of beauty and thoughtful autobiography that only a more experienced, more assured songwriter could have made". Branding it "an enchanting listen" and a "bewitching project", "Clash" Robin Murray lauded the album's minimal instrumentation and the world-building of its lyrics. John Amen of "PopMatters" wrote, ""Chemtrails" makes use of a more minimal and nuanced palette than earlier albums, Del Rey distancing herself, throughout the set and to varying degrees, from her longstanding persona and familiar stylistics. In this way, she avoids collapsing into formulas or self-caricature, continuing to explore new aesthetic possibilities."


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: In mixed reviews, Tim Sentz, writing for "Beats Per Minute", stated "Chemtrails" is nowhere near as sonically versatile as its predecessor and is "a coffeehouse-appropriate album that contains almost none of what made her last album transcend"." Spin" critic Bobby Olivier favored the "several gorgeous arrangements" of the album but felt the music is less memorable than the rest of her catalogue. He found the country and folk inspired sound "sometimes striking", but the lyrics were "uninspired" at moments. Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" thought the album centers heavily on Del Rey's recurrent themes of "nostalgia, troubled fame and ne'er-do-well lovers", but appreciated the melodies of its tracks. "The A.V. Club" Tatiana Tenreyro dubbed "Chemtrails" a sonically and lyrically inferior record to "Norman Fucking Rockwell!", commenting that most of its tracks "don't stand out" and "blend together in their delicateness". Johnny of the Well, reviewing for "Sputnikmusic", criticized the album's "clumsy writing, bland instrumentation, vacuous sentimentalism and hamfisted stylisation"; nevertheless, he picked "Tulsa Jesus Freak" as a highlight.


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: "Chemtrails over the Country Club" debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, earning 75,000 album-equivalent units, (including 58,000 copies in pure album sales) in its first week, according to MRC Data, becoming Del Rey's seventh US top ten debut on the chart. The album became her third chart-topper on the US Top Album Sales list, scoring the fourth-largest sales week for a vinyl album since MRC Data began tracking sales in 1991, with nearly 32,000 copies sold. In addition, the album accumulated a total of 21.19 million on-demand streams from the album’s songs.


title: Chemtrails over the Country Club

text: In the United Kingdom, "Chemtrails over the Country Club" debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, selling 40,000 copies in its first week and outselling the rest of the top 10 combined, becoming Del Rey's fifth UK number-one album. The album became the fastest-selling vinyl of the century for a female act in the UK, with 16,700 vinyl copies sold. In its first three days in the United Kingdom, the album sold 30,566 physical copies. In August 2021, the album was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for earning over 60,000 album-equivalent units in the UK.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Bluetooth Low Energy (Bluetooth LE, colloquially BLE, formerly marketed as Bluetooth Smart) is a wireless personal area network technology designed and marketed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (Bluetooth SIG) aimed at novel applications in the healthcare, fitness, beacons, security, and home entertainment industries. It is independent of classic Bluetooth and has no compatibility, but Bluetooth Basic Rate/Enhanced Data Rate (BR/EDR) and LE can coexist. The original specification was developed by Nokia in 2006 under the name Wibree, which was integrated into Bluetooth 4.0 in December 2009 as Bluetooth Low Energy.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Compared to Classic Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low Energy is intended to provide considerably reduced power consumption and cost while maintaining a similar communication range. Mobile operating systems including iOS, Android, Windows Phone and BlackBerry, as well as macOS, Linux, Windows 8, Windows 10 and Windows 11, natively support Bluetooth Low Energy.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Bluetooth Low Energy is distinct from the previous (often called "classic") Bluetooth Basic Rate/Enhanced Data Rate (BR/EDR) protocol, but the two protocols can both be supported by one device: the Bluetooth 4.0 specification permits devices to implement either or both of the LE and BR/EDR systems.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Bluetooth Low Energy uses the same 2.4 GHz radio frequencies as classic Bluetooth, which allows dual-mode devices to share a single radio antenna, but uses a simpler modulation system.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: In 2011, the Bluetooth SIG announced the Bluetooth Smart logo so as to clarify compatibility between the new low energy devices and other Bluetooth devices.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: With the May 2016 Bluetooth SIG branding information, the Bluetooth SIG began phasing out the Bluetooth Smart and Bluetooth Smart Ready logos and word marks and reverted to using the Bluetooth logo and word mark in a new blue color.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The Bluetooth SIG identifies a number of markets for low-energy technology, particularly in the smart home, health, sport, and fitness sectors. Cited advantages include:


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: In 2001, researchers at Nokia determined various scenarios that contemporary wireless technologies did not address. The company began developing a wireless technology adapted from the Bluetooth standard which would provide lower power usage and cost while minimizing its differences from Bluetooth technology. The results were published in 2004 using the name Bluetooth Low End Extension.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: After further development with partners, in particular Logitech and within the European project MIMOSA, and actively promoted and supported by STMicroelectronics since its early stage, the technology was released to the public in October 2006 with the brand name Wibree. After negotiations with Bluetooth SIG members, an agreement was reached in June 2007 to include Wibree in a future Bluetooth specification as a Bluetooth ultra low power technology.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The technology was marketed as Bluetooth Smart and integration into version 4.0 of the Core Specification was completed in early 2010. The first smartphone to implement the 4.0 specification was the iPhone 4S, released in October 2011. A number of other manufacturers released Bluetooth Low Energy Ready devices in 2012.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The Bluetooth SIG officially unveiled Bluetooth 5 on 16 June 2016 during a media event in London. One change on the marketing side is that the point number was dropped, so it is now just called Bluetooth 5 (and not Bluetooth 5.0 or 5.0 LE like for Bluetooth 4.0). This decision was made to “simplify marketing, and communicate user benefits more effectively”. On the technical side, Bluetooth 5 will quadruple the range by using increased transmit power or coded physical layer, double the speed by using optional half of the symbol time compared to Bluetooth 4.x, and provide an eight-fold increase in data broadcasting capacity by increasing the advertising data length of low energy Bluetooth transmissions compared to Bluetooth 4.x, which could be important for IoT applications where nodes are connected throughout a whole house. An 'advertising packet' in Bluetooth parlance is the information that is exchanged between two devices "before" pairing, i.e. when they are not connected. For example, advertising packets is what let you see the name of a Bluetooth device before you can pair it. Bluetooth 5 will increase the data length of this advertising packet. The length of this packet in Bluetooth 4.x was 31 bytes (for broadcast topology).


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The Bluetooth SIG released Mesh Profile and Mesh Model specifications officially on 18 July 2017. Mesh specification enables using Bluetooth Low Energy for many-to-many device communications for home automation, sensor networks and other applications.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Borrowing from the original Bluetooth specification, the Bluetooth SIG defines several profiles — specifications for how a device works in a particular application — for low energy devices. Manufacturers are expected to implement the appropriate specifications for their device in order to ensure compatibility. A device may contain implementations of multiple profiles.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The majority of current low energy application profiles are based on the Generic Attribute Profile (GATT), a general specification for sending and receiving short pieces of data, known as attributes, over a low energy link. The Bluetooth mesh profile is an exception to this rule, being based on the General Access Profile (GAP).


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Bluetooth mesh profiles use Bluetooth Low Energy to communicate with other Bluetooth Low Energy devices in the network. Each device can pass the information forward to other Bluetooth Low Energy devices creating a “mesh” effect. For example, switching off an entire building of lights from a single smartphone.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: There are many profiles for Bluetooth Low Energy devices in healthcare applications. The Continua Health Alliance consortium promotes these in cooperation with the Bluetooth SIG.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: “Electronic leash” applications are well suited to the long battery life possible for 'always-on' devices. Manufacturers of iBeacon devices implement the appropriate specifications for their device to make use of proximity sensing capabilities supported by Apple’s iOS devices.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Announced in January 2020, LE Audio allows the protocol to carry sound and add features such as one set of headphones connecting to multiple audio sources or multiple headphones connecting to one source and also adds support for hearing aids. It introduces LC3 as its default codec. Compared with standard Bluetooth audio it offers longer battery life.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Specifications on the implementation of Basic Audio Profile and Coordinated Set Identification was released in 2021, and the Common Audio Profile and Service in March 2022.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: In December 2020, the Bluetooth SIG released a draft specification for a wearable exposure notification service. This service will allow exposure notification services on wearable devices to communicate with and be controlled by client devices such as smartphones.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Starting in late 2009, Bluetooth Low Energy integrated circuits were announced by a number of manufacturers. These ICs commonly use software radio so updates to the specification can be accommodated through a firmware upgrade.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Current mobile devices are commonly released with hardware and software support for both classic Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Bluetooth Low Energy technology operates in the same spectrum range (the 2.400–2.4835 GHz ISM band) as classic Bluetooth technology, but uses a different set of channels. Instead of the classic Bluetooth 79 1-MHz channels, Bluetooth Low Energy has 40 2-MHz channels. Within a channel, data is transmitted using Gaussian frequency shift modulation, similar to classic Bluetooth's Basic Rate scheme. The bit rate is 1 Mbit/s (with an option of 2 Mbit/s in Bluetooth 5), and the maximum transmit power is 10 mW (100 mW in Bluetooth 5). Further details are given in Volume 6 Part A (Physical Layer Specification) of the Bluetooth Core Specification V4.0.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Bluetooth Low Energy uses frequency hopping to counteract narrowband interference problems. Classic Bluetooth also uses frequency hopping but the details are different; as a result, while both FCC and ETSI classify Bluetooth technology as an FHSS scheme, Bluetooth Low Energy is classified as a system using digital modulation techniques or a direct-sequence spread spectrum.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: More technical details may be obtained from official specification as published by the Bluetooth SIG. Note that power consumption is not part of the Bluetooth specification.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: BLE devices are detected through a procedure based on broadcasting advertising packets. This is done using 3 separate channels (frequencies), in order to reduce interference. The advertising device sends a packet on at least one of these three channels, with a repetition period called the advertising interval. For reducing the chance of multiple consecutive collisions, a random delay of up to 10 milliseconds is added to each advertising interval. The scanner listens to the channel for a duration called the scan window, which is periodically repeated every scan interval.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The discovery latency is therefore determined by a probabilistic process and depends on the three parameters (viz., the advertising interval, the scan interval and the scan window). The discovery scheme of BLE adopts a periodic-interval based technique, for which upper bounds on the discovery latency can be inferred for most parametrizations. While the discovery latencies of BLE can be approximated by models for purely periodic interval-based protocols, the random delay added to each advertising interval and the three-channel discovery can cause deviations from these predictions, or potentially lead to unbounded latencies for certain parametrizations.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: All Bluetooth Low Energy devices use the Generic Attribute Profile (GATT). The application programming interface offered by a Bluetooth Low Energy aware operating system will typically be based around GATT concepts. GATT has the following terminology:


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Some service and characteristic values are used for administrative purposes – for instance, the model name and serial number can be read as standard characteristics within the "Generic Access" service. Services may also include other services as sub-functions; the main functions of the device are so-called "primary" services, and the auxiliary functions they refer to are "secondary" services.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Services, characteristics, and descriptors are collectively referred to as "attributes", and identified by UUIDs. Any implementer may pick a random or pseudorandom UUID for proprietary uses, but the Bluetooth SIG have reserved a range of UUIDs (of the form "" ) for standard attributes. For efficiency, these identifiers are represented as 16-bit or 32-bit values in the protocol, rather than the 128 bits required for a full UUID. For example, the "Device Information" service has the short code 0x180A, rather than ... . The full list is kept in the Bluetooth Assigned Numbers document online.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The GATT protocol provides a number of commands for the client to discover information about the server. These include:


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Commands are also provided to "read" (data transfer from server to client) and "write" (from client to server) the values of characteristics:


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Finally, GATT offers "notifications" and "indications". The client may request a notification for a particular characteristic from the server. The server can then send the value to the client whenever it becomes available. For instance, a temperature sensor server may notify its client every time it takes a measurement. This avoids the need for the client to poll the server, which would require the server's radio circuitry to be constantly operational.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: An "indication" is similar to a notification, except that it requires a response from the client, as confirmation that it has received the message.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Bluetooth Low Energy is designed to enable devices to have very low power consumption. Several chipmakers including Cambridge Silicon Radio, Dialog Semiconductor, Nordic Semiconductor, STMicroelectronics, Cypress Semiconductor, Silicon Labs and Texas Instruments had introduced Bluetooth Low Energy optimized chipsets by 2014. Devices with peripheral and central roles have different power requirements. A study by beacon software company Aislelabs reported that peripherals such as proximity beacons usually function for 1–2 years powered by a 1,000mAh coin cell battery. This is possible because of the power efficiency of Bluetooth Low Energy protocol, which only transmits small packets as compared to Bluetooth Classic which is also suitable for audio and high bandwidth data.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: In contrast, a continuous scan for the same beacons in central role can consume 1,000 mAh in a few hours. Android and iOS devices also have very different battery impact depending on type of scans and the number of Bluetooth Low Energy devices in the vicinity. With newer chipsets and advances in software, by 2014 both Android and iOS phones had negligible power consumption in real-life Bluetooth Low Energy use.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Bluetooth 5 has introduced a new transmission mode with a doubled symbol rate. Bluetooth LE has been traditionally transmitting 1 bit per symbol so that theoretically the data rate doubles as well. However, the new mode doubles the bandwidth from about 1 MHz to about 2 MHz which makes for more interferences on the edge regions. The partitioning of the ISM frequency band has not changed being still 40 channels spaced at a distance of 2 MHz. This is an essential difference over Bluetooth 2 EDR which also doubled the data rate but was doing that by employing a π/4-DQPSK or 8-DPSK phase modulation on a 1 MHz channel while Bluetooth 5 continues to use just frequency shift keying.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The traditional transmission of 1 Mbit in the Bluetooth Basic Rate was renamed 1M PHY in Bluetooth 5. The new mode at a doubled symbol speed was introduced as the 2M PHY. In Bluetooth Low Energy every transmission starts on the 1M PHY leaving it to the application to initiate a switch to the 2M PHY. In that case both sender and receiver will switch to the 2M PHY for transmissions. This is designed to facilitate firmware updates where the application can switch back to a traditional 1M PHY in case of errors. In reality the target device should be close to the programming station (at a few meters).


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: Bluetooth 5 has introduced two new modes with lower data rate. The symbol rate of the new “Coded PHY” is the same as the Base Rate 1M PHY but in mode S=2 there are two symbols transmitted per data bit. In mode S=2 only a simple Pattern Mapping P=1 is used which simply produces the same stuffing bit for each input data bit. In mode S=8 there are eight symbols per data bit with a Pattern Mapping P=4 producing contrasting symbol sequences - a 0 bit is encoded as binary 0011 and a 1 bit is encoded as binary 1100. In mode S=2 using P=1 the range doubles approximately, while in mode S=8 using P=4 it does quadruple.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The “LE Coded” transmissions have not only changed the error correction scheme but it uses a fundamentally new packet format. Each “LE Coded” burst consists of three blocks. The switch block (“extended preamble”) is transmitted on the LE 1M PHY but it only consists of 10 times a binary '00111100' pattern. These 80 bits are not FEC encoded as usual but they are sent directly to the radio channel. It is followed by a header block (“FEC Block 1”) which is always transmitted in S=8 mode. The header block only contains the destination address (“Access Address” / 32 bit) and an encoding flag (“Coding Indicator” / 2 Bit). The Coding Indicator defines the Pattern Mapping used for the following payload block (“FEC Block 2”) where S=2 is possible.


title: Bluetooth Low Energy

text: The new packet format of Bluetooth 5 allows transmitting from 2 up to 256 bytes as the payload in a single burst. This is a lot more than the maximum of 31 bytes in Bluetooth 4. Along with reach measurements this should allow for localisation functions. As a whole the quadrupled range - at the same transmission power - is achieved at the expense of a lower data being at an eighth with 125 kBit. The old transmission packet format, as it continues to be used in the 1M PHY and 2M PHY modes, has been named “Uncoded” in Bluetooth 5. The intermediate “LE Coded” S=2 mode allows for a 500 kBit data rate in the payload which is both beneficial for shorter latencies as well lower power consumption as the burst time itself is shorter.


title: STAYC

text: STAYC (; , acronym for Star to a Young Culture) is a South Korean girl group formed by High Up Entertainment. The group is composed of six members: Sumin, Sieun, Isa, Seeun, Yoon, and J. They debuted on November 12, 2020, with the release of their debut single album "Star to a Young Culture".


title: STAYC

text: The group's name, STAYC, is an acronym for "Star to a Young Culture", and is meant to "reflect the act's aim of dominating pop culture".


title: STAYC

text: Sieun was well-known prior to debut as both the daughter of veteran singer Park Nam-jung, and for her roles in dramas such as "The Good Wife", "Queen for Seven Days", and "The Crowned Clown". She won the Youth Acting Award in 2018 SBS Drama Awards for her role in "Still 17".


title: STAYC

text: Prior to debut, STAYC was known as "High Up Girls", named after their company, High Up Entertainment. The members, along with unsuccessful trainees Chang Chien-chien ("Lydia") and Kim Min-jung, were featured in the YouTube Originals docuseries "K-Pop Evolution" during the last few months of their training before debut.


title: STAYC

text: On September 8, it was announced that Black Eyed Pilseung of High Up Entertainment would debut their first girl group, with Sieun named as its first member. On October 8, High Up Entertainment announced that the group would be debuting in November. Three last members - Isa, J, and Yoon were revealed via prologue films on October 12, 13 and 14 respectively. On October 22, the title of their single album was announced to be "Star to a Young Culture", with the lead single "So Bad". The teaser schedule was released the same day. The single album was announced to be produced by Black Eyed Pilseung, known for previous hits such as "TT", "Touch My Body", "Roller Coaster", and "Dumhdurum". The producing duo described the group's sound as "Teen Fresh", a combination of "Teen" and "Fresh", highlighting the group's "unique individual vocal colors". Prior to the album's release, promotions were done through 1theK's YouTube page. These included dance covers of groups such as Blackpink, BTS, and Stray Kids, which received over 1 million views, and a vocal cover of songs by Twice and Red Velvet which received over 2 million views.


title: STAYC

text: On November 12, the music video for the album's lead single "So Bad" was released, receiving over 2.6 million views in the first 24 hours. Their album was released on the same day, selling over 4,300 copies on its first day, the most for a debut girl group in 2020. It went on to sell more than 10,000 copies on its first week, becoming the first debut album by a girl group in 2020 to do so. They promoted the album through a V Live debut showcase, promoting both the lead single, "So Bad" and B-side "Like This". The group made their music show debut on November 13, 2020, at KBS Music Bank, which was followed up with performances at Show Champion, Inkigayo, and The Show. The album debuted at number 17 on the weekly Gaon Album Chart. "So Bad" debuted at number 90 on "Billboard's" K-pop Hot 100, and number 21 on the World Digital Song Sales chart.


title: STAYC

text: On April 8, 2021, STAYC released their second single album "Staydom" and its lead single "ASAP". The music video of "ASAP" was released simultaneously with the album and reached 20 million views in nine days. The single also entered the "Billboard" K-pop 100 weekly chart. "Staydom" sold 56,198 copies in its first month.


title: STAYC

text: On September 6, the group released their first extended play "Stereotype" and its lead single of the same name. The music video reached 30 million views in 21 days. The album recorded sales of over 114,000 copies in its first week. On September 14, the group received their first music show trophy on SBS MTV's "The Show" with an overall score of 8,760 points.


title: STAYC

text: On February 21, 2022, STAYC released their second extended play "Young-Luv.com" and its lead single "Run2U". The album debuted atop the Gaon Album Chart, becoming their first number one album on the chart. The single peaked at number 4 on the Gaon Digital Chart.


title: STAYC

text: On July 19, STAYC released their third single album "We Need Love" and its lead single "Beautiful Monster". It has been announced that the group will hold their first fan meeting on August 13.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoreanism originated in the 6th century BC, based on and around the teachings and beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans. Pythagoras established the first Pythagorean community in the ancient Greek colony of Kroton, in modern Calabria (Italy). Early Pythagorean communities spread throughout Magna Graecia.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoras’ death and disputes about his teachings led to the development of two philosophical traditions within Pythagoreanism. The "akousmatikoi" were superseded in the 4th century BC as a significant mendicant school of philosophy by the Cynics. The "mathēmatikoi" philosophers were absorbed into the Platonic school in the 4th century BC.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Following political instability in Magna Graecia, some Pythagorean philosophers fled to mainland Greece while others regrouped in Rhegium. By about 400 BC the majority of Pythagorean philosophers had left Italy. Pythagorean ideas exercised a marked influence on Plato and through him, on all of Western philosophy. Many of the surviving sources on Pythagoras originate with Aristotle and the philosophers of the Peripatetic school.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: As a philosophic tradition, Pythagoreanism was revived in the 1st century BC, giving rise to Neopythagoreanism. The worship of Pythagoras continued in Italy and as a religious community Pythagoreans appear to have survived as part of, or deeply influenced, the Bacchic cults and Orphism.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoras was already well known in ancient times for the mathematical achievement of the Pythagorean theorem. Pythagoras had been credited with discovering that in a right-angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. In ancient times Pythagoras was also noted for his discovery that music had mathematical foundations. Antique sources that credit Pythagoras as the philosopher who first discovered music intervals also credit him as the inventor of the monochord, a straight rod on which a string and a movable bridge could be used to demonstrate the relationship of musical intervals.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Much of the surviving sources on Pythagoras originated with Aristotle and the philosophers of the Peripatetic school, which founded historiographical academic traditions such as biography, doxography and the history of science. The surviving 5th century BC sources on Pythagoras and early Pythagoreanism are void of supernatural elements, while surviving 4th century BC sources on Pythagoreas' teachings introduced legend and fable. Philosophers who discussed Pythagoreanism, such as Anaximander, Andron of Ephesus, Heraclides and Neanthes had access to historical written sources as well as the oral tradition about Pythagoreanism, which by the 4th century BC was in decline. Neopythagorean philosophers, who authored many of the surviving sources on Pythagoreanism, continued the tradition of legend and fantasy.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The earliest surviving ancient source on Pythagoras and his followers is a satire by Xenophanes, on the Pythagorean beliefs on the transmigration of souls. Xenophanes wrote of Pythagoras that:


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Two other surviving fragments of ancient sources on Pythagoras are by Ion of Chios and Empedocles. Both were born in the 490s, after Pythagoras' death. By that time he was known as a sage and his fame had spread throughout Greece. According to Ion, Pythagoras was:


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Empedocles described Pythagoras as "a man of surpassing knowledge, master especially of all kinds of wise works, who had acquired the upmost wealth of understanding." In the 4th century BC the Sophist Alcidamas wrote that Pythagoras was widely honored by Italians.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Today scholars typically distinguish two periods of Pythagoreanism: early-Pythagoreanism, from the 6th until the 5th century BC, and late-Pythagoreanism, from the 4th until the 3rd century BC. The Spartan colony of Taranto in Italy became the home for many practitioners of Pythagoreanism and later for Neopythagorean philosophers. Pythagoras had also lived in Crotone and Metaponto, both were Achaean colonies. Early-Pythagorean sects lived in Croton and throughout Magna Graecia. They espoused to a rigorous life of the intellect and strict rules on diet, clothing and behavior. Their burial rites were tied to their belief in the immortality of the soul.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Early-Pythagorean sects were closed societies and new Pythagoreans were chosen based on merit and discipline. Ancient sources record that early-Pythagoreans underwent a five-year initiation period of listening to the teachings ("akousmata") in silence. Initiates could through a test become members of the inner circle. However, Pythagoreans could also leave the community if they wished. Iamblichus listed 235 Pythagoreans by name, among them 17 women whom he described as the "most famous" women practitioners of Pythagoreanism. It was customary that family members became Pythagoreans, as Pythagoreanism developed into a philosophic traditions that entailed rules for everyday life and Pythagoreans were bound by secrets. The home of Pythagoras was known as the site of mysteries.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoras had been born on the island of Samos at around 570 BC and left his homeland at around 530 BC in opposition to the policies of Polycrates. Before settling in Croton, Pythagoras had traveled throughout Egypt and Babylonia. In Croton, Pythagoras established the first Pythagorean community, described as a secret society, and attained political influence. In the early 5th century BC Croton acquired great military and economic importance. Pythagoras emphasized moderation, piety, respect for elders and of the state, and advocated a monogamous family structure. The Croton Council appointed him to official positions. Among others Pythagoras was in charge of education in the city. His influence as political reformer reputably extended to other Greek colonies in southern Italy and in Sicily. Pythagoras died shortly after an arson attack on the Pythagorean meeting place in Croton.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The anti-Pythagorean attacks in c. 508 BC were headed by Cylon of Croton. Pythagoras escaped to Metapontium. After these initial attacks and the death of Pythagoras, Pythagorean communities in Croton and elsewhere continued to flourish. At around 450 BC attacks on Pythagorean communities were carried out across Magna Graecia. In Croton, a house where Pythagoreans gathered was set on fire and all but two of the Pythagorean philosophers burned alive. Pythagorean meeting places in other cities were also attacked and philosophic leaders killed. These attacks occurred in the context of widespread violence and destruction in Magna Graecia. Following the political instability in the region, some Pythagorean philosophers fled to mainland Greece while others regrouped in Rhegium. By about 400 BC the majority of Pythagorean philosophers had left Italy. Archytas remained in Italy and ancient sources record that he was visited there by young Plato in the early 4th century BC. The Pythagorean schools and societies died out from the 4th century BC. Pythagorean philosophers continued to practice, albeit no organized communities were established.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: According to surviving sources by the Neopythagorean philosopher Nicomachus, Philolaus was the successor of Pythagoras. According to Cicero (de Orat. III 34.139), Philolaus was teacher of Archytas. According to the Neoplatonist philosopher Iamblichus, Archytas in turn became the head of the Pythagorean school about a century after the Pythagoras' death. Philolaus, Eurytus and Xenophilus are identified by Aristoxenus as the teachers of the last generation of Pythagoreans.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Following Pythagoras’ death, disputes about his teachings led to the development of two philosophical traditions within Pythagoreanism in Italy: "akousmatikoi" and "mathēmatikoi". The "mathēmatikoi" recognized the "akousmatikoi" as fellow Pythagoreans, but because the "mathēmatikoi" allegedly followed the teachings of Hippasus, the "akousmatikoi" philosophers did not recognise them. Despite this, both groups were regarded by their contemporaries as practitioners of Pythagoreanism.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The "akousmatikoi" were superseded in the 4th century BC as significant mendicant school of philosophy by the Cynics. "Mathēmatikoi" philosophers were in the 4th century BC absorbed into the Platonic school of Speusippus, Xenocrates and Polemon. As a philosophic tradition, Pythagoreanism was revived in the 1st century BC, giving rise to Neopythagoreanism. The worship of Pythagoras continued in Italy in the two intervening centuries. As a religious community Pythagoreans appear to have survived as part of, or deeply influenced, the Bacchic cults and Orphism.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The "akousmatikoi" believed that humans had to act in appropriate ways. The "Akousmata" (translated as "oral saying") was the collection of all the sayings of Pythagoras as divine dogma. The tradition of the "akousmatikoi" resisted any reinterpretation or philosophical evolution of Pythagoras' teachings. Individuals who strictly followed most "akousmata" were regarded as wise. The "akousmatikoi" philosophers refused to recognize that the continuous development of mathematical and scientific research conducted by the "mathēmatikoi" was in line with Pythagoras's intention. Until the demise of Pythagoreanism in the 4th century BC, the "akousmatikoi" continued to engage in a pious life by practicing silence, dressing simply and avoiding meat, for the purpose of attaining a privileged afterlife. The "akousmatikoi" engaged deeply in questions of Pythagoras' moral teachings, concerning matters such as harmony, justice, ritual purity and moral behavior.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The "mathēmatikoi" acknowledged the religious underpinning of Pythagoreanism and engaged in "mathēma" (translated as "learning" or "studying") as part of their practice. While their scientific pursuits were largely mathematical, they also promoted other fields of scientific study in which Pythagoras had engaged during his lifetime. A sectarianism developed between the dogmatic "akousmatikoi" and the "mathēmatikoi", who in their intellectual activism became regarded as increasingly progressive. This tension persisted until the 4th century BC, when the philosopher Archytas engaged in advanced mathematics as part of his devotion to Pythagoras' teachings.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Today, Pythagoras is mostly remembered for his mathematical ideas, and by association with the work early Pythagoreans did in advancing mathematical concepts and theories on harmonic musical intervals, the definition of numbers, proportion and mathematical methods such as arithmetic and geometry. The "mathēmatikoi" philosophers claimed that numbers were at the heart of everything and constructed a new view of the cosmos. In the "mathēmatikoi" tradition of Pythagoreanism the Earth was removed from the center of the universe. The "mathēmatikoi" believed that the Earth, along with other celestial bodies, orbited around a central fire. This, they believed, constituted a celestial harmony.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoreanism was a philosophic tradition as well as a religious practice. As a religious community they relied on oral teachings and worshiped the Pythian Apollo, the oracular god of Delphic Oracle. Pythagoreans preached an austere life. They believed that the soul was buried in the body, which acted as a tomb for the soul in this life. The highest reward a human could attain was for the soul to join in the life of the gods and thus escaped the cycle of reincarnation in another human body. Like the practitioners of Orphism, a religious tradition that developed in parallel to Pythagorean religious practice, Pythagoreanism believed that the soul was buried in the body as a punishment for a committed offense and that the soul could be purified. Aside from conducting their daily lives according to strict rules Pythagorean also engaged in rituals to attain purity. The 4th century Greek historian and sceptic philosopher Hecataeus of Abdera asserted that Pythagoras had been inspired by ancient Egyptian philosophy in his use of ritual regulations and his belief in reincarnation.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Early Pythagoreanism was based on research and the accumulation of knowledge from the books written by other philosophers. Pythagoras' philosophic teachings made direct reference to the philosophy of Anaximander, Anaximenes of Miletus and Pherecydes of Syros. Of the Pythagorean philosophers, Hippasus, Alcmaeon, Hippon, Archytas and Theodorus, written sources have survived.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoras, in his teachings focused on the significance of numerology, he believed that numbers themselves explained the true nature of the Universe. "Numbers" were in the Greek world of Pythagoras' days "natural numbers" – that is positive integers (there was no zero). But unlike their Greek contemporaries, the Pythagorean philosophers represented numbers graphically, not symbolically through letters. Pythagoreans used dots, also known as "psiphi" (pebbles), to represent numbers in triangles, squares, rectangles and pentagons. This enabled a visual comprehension of mathematics and allowed for a geometrical exploration of numerical relationships. Pythagorean philosophers investigated the relationship of numbers exhaustively. They defined "perfect numbers" as those that were equal to the sum of all their divisors. For example: 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14. The theory of odd and even numbers was central to Pythagorean arithmetic. This distinction was for the Pythagorean philosophers direct and visual, as they arranged triangular dots so that the even and odd numbers successively alternate: 2, 4, 6, ... 3, 5, 7, ...


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Early-Pythagorean philosophers such as Philolaus and Archytas held the conviction that mathematics could help in addressing important philosophical problems. In Pythagoreanism numbers became related to intangible concepts. The "one" was related to the intellect and being, the "two" to thought, the number "four" was related to justice because 2 * 2 = 4 and equally even. A dominant symbolism was awarded to the number "three", Pythagoreans believed that the whole world and all things in it are summed up in this number, because end, middle and beginning give the number of the whole. The triad had for Pythagoreans an ethical dimension, as the goodness of each person was believed to be threefold: prudence, drive and good fortune.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The Pythagoreans engaged with geometry as a liberal philosophy which served to establish principles and allowed theorems to be explored abstractly and mentally. Pythagorean philosophers believed that there was a close relationship between numbers and geometrical forms. Early-Pythagorean philosophers proved simple geometrical theorems, including "the sum of the angles of a triangle equals two right angles". Pythagoreans also came up with three of the five regular polyhedra: the tetrahedron, the cube and the dodecahedron. The sides of a regular dodecahedron are regular pentagons, which for Pythagoreans symbolized health. They also revered the pentagram, as each diagonal divides the two others at the golden ratio. When linear geometrical figures replaced the dots, the combination of Babylonian algebra and Pythagorean arithmetic provided the basis for Greek geometric algebra. By attempting to establish a system of concrete and permanent rules, Pythagoreans helped to establish strict axiomatic procedures of solving mathematical problems.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoras pioneered the mathematical and experimental study of music. He objectively measured physical quantities, such as the length of a string, and discovered quantitative mathematical relationships of music through arithmetic ratios. Pythagoras attempted to explain subjective psychological and aesthetic feelings, such as the enjoyment of musical harmony. Pythagoras and his students experimented systematically with strings of varying length and tension, with wind instruments, with brass discs of the same diameter but different thickness, and with identical vases filled with different levels of water. Early Pythagoreans established quantitative ratios between the length of a string or pipe and the pitch of notes and the frequency of string vibration.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoras is credited with discovering that the most harmonious musical intervals are created by the simple numerical ratio of the first four natural numbers which derive respectively from the relations of string length: the octave (1/2), the fifth (2/3) and the fourth (3/4). The sum of those numbers 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10 was for Pythagoreans the perfect number, because it contained in itself "the whole essential nature of numbers". Werner Heisenberg has called this formulation of musical arithmetic as "among the most powerful advances of human science" because it enables the measurement of sound in space.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagorean tuning is a system of musical tuning in which the frequency ratios of all intervals are based on the ratio 3:2. This ratio, also known as the "pure" perfect fifth, is chosen because it is one of the most consonant and easiest to tune by ear and because of importance attributed to the integer 3. As Novalis put it, "The musical proportions seem to me to be particularly correct natural proportions."


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The fact that mathematics could explain the human sentimental world had a profound impact on the Pythagorean philosophy. Pythagoreanism became the quest for establishing the fundamental essences of reality. Pythagorean philosophers advanced the unshakable belief that the essence of all thing are numbers and that the universe was sustained by harmony. According to ancient sources music was central to the lives of those practicing Pythagoreanism. They used medicines for the purification ("katharsis") of the body and, according to Aristoxenus, music for the purification of the soul. Pythagoreans used different types of music to arouse or calm their souls.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: For Pythagoreans, harmony signified the "unification of a multifarious composition and the agreement of unlike spirits". In Pythagoreanism, numeric harmony was applied in mathematical, medical, psychological, aesthetic, metaphysical and cosmological problems. For Pythagorean philosophers, the basic property of numbers was expressed in the harmonious interplay of opposite pairs. Harmony assured the balance of opposite forces. Pythagoras had in his teachings named numbers and the symmetries of them as the first principle, and called these numeric symmetries harmony. This numeric harmony could be discovered in rules throughout nature. Numbers governed the properties and conditions of all beings and were regarded the causes of being in everything else. Pythagorean philosophers believed that numbers were the elements of all beings and the universe as a whole was composed of harmony and numbers.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The philosopher Philolaus, one of the most prominent figures in Pythagoreanism, was the precursor of Copernicus in moving the earth from the center of the cosmos and making it a planet. According to Aristotle's student Eudemus of Cyprus, the first philosopher to determine quantitatively the size of the known planets and the distance between them was Anaximander, a teacher to Pythagoras, in the 6th century BC. Historic sources credit the Pythagorean philosophers with being the first to attempt a clarification of the planet sequence. The early-Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus believed that limited and unlimited things were the components of the cosmos and these had existed ever since. The center of the universe, according to Philolaus, was the number one ("hēn"), which equated to the unity of Monism. Philolaus called the number one an "even-odd" because it was able to generate both even and odd numbers. When one was added to an odd number it produced an even number, and when added to an even number it produced an odd number. Philolaus further reasoned that the fitting together of the earth and the universe corresponded to the construction of the number one out of the even and the odd. Pythagorean philosophers believed that the even was unlimited and the odd was limited.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: It is not known whether Philolaus believed Earth to be round or flat, but he did not believe the earth rotated, so that the Counter-Earth and the Central Fire were both not visible from Earth's surface, or at least not from the hemisphere where Greece was located. But the conclusion of Pythagorean philosophers that the universe is not geocentric was not based on empirical observation. Instead, as Aristotle noted, the Pythagorean view of the astronomical system was grounded in a fundamental reflection on the value of individual things and the hierarchical order of the universe.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoreans believed in a "musica universalis". They reasoned that stars must produce a sound because they were large swiftly moving bodies. Pythagoreans also determined that stars revolved at distances and speeds that were proportional to each other. They reasoned that because of this numerical proportion the revolution of the stars produced a harmonic sound. The early-Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus argued that the structure of the cosmos was determined by the musical numerical proportions of the diatonic octave, which contained the fifth and fourth harmonic intervals.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoreans equated justice with geometrical proportion, because proportion ensured that each part receives what it is due. Early-Pythagoreans believed that after the death of the body, the soul would be punished or rewarded. Humans could, through their conduct, ensure that their soul was admitted to another world. The reincarnation in this world equated to a punishment. In Pythagoreanism life in this world is social and in the realm of society justice existed when each part of society received its due. The Pythagorean tradition of universal justice was later referenced by Plato. For Pythagorean philosophers the soul was the source of justice and through the harmony of the soul, divinity could be achieved. Injustice inverted the natural order. According to the 4th century BC philosopher Heraclides Ponticus, Pythagoras taught that "happiness consists in knowledge of the perfection of the numbers of the soul. A surviving fragment from the 3rd century BC by the late-Pythagorean philosopher Aesara reasoned that:


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoreans believed that body and soul functioned together, and a healthy body required a healthy psyche. Early Pythagoreans conceived of the soul as the seat of sensation and emotion. They regarded the soul as distinct from the intellect. However, only fragments of the early Pythagorean texts have survived and it is not certain whether they believed the soul was immortal. The surviving texts of the Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus indicate that while early Pythagoreans did not believe that the soul contained all psychological faculties, the soul was life and a harmony of physical elements. As such the soul passed away when certain arrangements of these elements ceased to exist.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: However, the teaching most securely identified with Pythagoras is "metempsychosis", or the "transmigration of souls", which holds that every soul is immortal and, upon death, enters into a new body. Pythagorean metempsychosis resembles the teachings of the Orphics, although its version contains substantial differences. Unlike the Orphics, who considered metempsychosis a cycle of grief that could be escaped by attaining liberation from it, Pythagoras seems to postulate an eternal, endless reincarnation where subsequent lives would not be conditioned by any action done in the previous.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Some Medieval authors refer to a "Pythagorean diet", entailing the abstention from eating meat, beans or fish. Pythagoreans believed that a vegetarian diet fostered a healthy body and enhanced the search for Arete. The purpose of vegetarianism in Pythagoreanism was not self-denial; instead, it was regarded as conductive to the best in a human being. Pythagoreans advanced a grounded theory on the treatment of animals. They believed that any being that experienced pain or suffering should not have pain inflicted on it unnecessarily. Because it was not necessary to inflict pain on animals for humans to enjoy a healthy diet, they believed that animals should not be killed for the purpose of eating them. The Pythagoreans advanced the argument that unless an animal posed a threat to a human, it was not justifiable to kill an animal and that doing so would diminish the moral status of a human. By failing to show justice to the animal, humans diminish themselves.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoreans believed that human beings were animals, but with an advanced intellect and therefore humans had to purify themselves through training. Through purification humans could join the psychic force that pervaded the cosmos. Pythagoreans reasoned that the logic of this argument could not be avoided by killing an animal painlessly. The Pythagoreans also thought that animals were sentient and minimally rational. The arguments advanced by Pythagoreans convinced numerous of their philosopher contemporaries to adopt a vegetarian diet. The Pythagorean sense of kinship with non-humans positioned them as a counterculture in the dominant meat-eating culture. The philosopher Empedocles is said to have refused the customary blood sacrifice by offering a substitute sacrifice after his victory in a horse race in Olympia.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Late-Pythagorean philosophers were absorbed into the Platonic school of philosophy and in the 4th century AD the head of the Platonic Academy Polemon included vegetarianism in his concept of living according to nature. In the 1st century AD Ovid identified Pythagoras as the first opponent to meat-eating. But the fuller argument Pythagoreans advanced against the maltreatment of animals did not sustain. Pythagoreans had argued that certain types of food arouse the passions and hindered spiritual ascent. Thus Porphyry would rely on the teachings of the Pythagoreans when arguing that abstinence from eating meat for the purpose of spiritual purification should be practiced only by philosophers, whose aim was to reach a divine state.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The biographical tradition on Pythagoras holds that his mother, wife and daughters were part of his inner circle. Women were given equal opportunity to study as Pythagoreans and learned practical domestic skills in addition to philosophy.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Many of the surviving texts of women Pythagorean philosophers are part of a collection, known as "pseudoepigrapha Pythagorica", which was compiled by Neopythagoreans in the 1st or 2nd century. Some surviving fragments of this collection are by early-Pythagorean women philosophers, while the bulk of surviving writings are from late-Pythagorean women philosophers who wrote in the 4th and 3rd century BC. Female Pythagoreans are some of the first female philosophers from which texts have survived.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Theano of Croton, the wife of Pythagoras, is considered a major figure in early-Pythagoreanism. She was noted as distinguished philosopher and in the lore that surrounds her, is said to have taken over the leadership of the school after his death. Text fragments have also survived from women philosophers of the late-Pythagorean period. These include Perictione I, Perictione II, Aesara of Lucania and Phintys of Sparta.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Scholars believe that Perictione I was an Athenian and contemporary of Plato, because in "On the Harmony of Woman" she wrote in Ionic and used the same terms of virtues as Plato had done in his "Republic": "andreia", "sophrosyne", "dikaiosyne" and "sophia". In "On the Harmony of Woman" Perictione I outlines the condition that enable women to nurture wisdom and self-control. These virtues will, according to Perictione I, bring "worthwhile things" for a woman, her husband, her children, the household and even the city "if, at any rate, such a woman should govern cities and tribes". Her assertion that a wife should remain devoted to her husband, regardless of his behavior, has been interpreted by scholars as a pragmatic response to the legal rights of women in Athens. The woman Pythagorean philosopher Phyntis was Spartan and is believed to have been the daughter of a Spartan admiral killed in the battle of Arginusae in 406 BC. Phyntis authored the treatise "Moderation of Women", in which she assigned the virtue of moderation to women, but asserted that "courage and justice and wisdom are common to both" men and women. Phyntis defended the right of women to philosophize.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Pythagoras' teachings and Pythagoreanism influenced Plato's writings on physical cosmology, psychology, ethics and political philosophy in the 5th century BC. However, Plato adhered to the dominant Greek philosophy, and the Platonic philosophy suppressed the combination of experimental method and mathematics which was an inherent part of Pythagoreanism. The influence of Pythagoreanism extended throughout and beyond antiquity because the Pythagorean doctrine of reincarnation was recounted in Plato's "Gorgias", "Phaedo", and "Republic", while the Pythagorean cosmology was discussed in Plato's "Timaeus". The possible influence of Pythagoreanism on Plato's concept of harmony and the Platonic solids has been discussed extensively. Plato's dialogues have become an important surviving source of Pythagorean philosophic arguments. Plato referenced Philolaus in "Phaedo" and wrote a Platonic adaptation of Philolaus' metaphysical system of limiters and unlimiteds. Plato also quoted from one of the surviving Archytas fragments in the "Republic". However, Plato's views that the primary role of mathematics was to turn the soul towards the world of forms, as expressed in "Timaeus", is regarded as Platonic philosophy, rather than Pythagorean.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Aristotle in the 4th century BC rejected mathematics as a tool for investigation and understanding of the world. He believed that numbers constituted simply a quantitative determinant and had no ontological value. Aristotle's discussion of Pythagorean philosophy is difficult to interpret, because he had little patience for Pythagorean philosophic arguments, and Pythagoreanism does not fit with his philosophic doctrine. In "On the Heavens", Aristotle refuted the Pythagorean doctrine on the harmony of the spheres. Nevertheless, he wrote a treatise on the Pythagoreans of which only fragments survive, in which he treats Pythagoras as a wonder-working religious teacher.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: The Neopythagoreans were a school and a religious community. The revival of Pythagoreanism has been attributed to Publius Nigidius Figulus, Eudorus of Alexandria and Arius Didymus. In the 1st century AD Moderatus of Gades and Nicomachus of Gerasa emerged as leading teachers of Neopythagoreanism. The most significant Neopythagorean teacher was Apollonius of Tyana in the 1st century AD, who was regarded as a sage and lived as ascet. The last Neopythagorean philosopher was Numenius of Apamea in the 2nd century. Neopythagoreanism remained an elite movement which in the 3rd century merged into Neoplatonism.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Neopythagoreans combined Pythagorean teachings with Platonic, Peripatetic, Aristotelian and Stoic philosophic traditions. Two tendencies within Neopythagorean philosophy emerged, one that owed much to Stoic monism and another that relied on Platonic dualism. Neopythagoreans refined the idea of God and located him beyond the finite so that God could not come into contact with anything corporeal. Neopythagoreans insisted on a spiritual worship of God and that life had to be purified through abstinence.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Neopythagoreans manifested a strong interest in numerology and the superstitious aspects of Pythagoreanism. They combined this with the teachings of Plato's philosophic successors. Neopythagorean philosophers engaged in the common ancient practice of ascribing their doctrines to the designated "founder" of their philosophy and by crediting their doctrines to Pythagoras himself, they hoped to gain authority for their views.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Christianity was influenced by a Christianized form of Platonism, which had been set out in the four books of the "Corpus Areopagiticum or Corpus Dionysiacum": "The Celestrial Hierarchy", "The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy", "On Divine Names" and "The Mystical Theology". Having been attributed to Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, the books explained the relationship among celestial beings, humans, God and the universe. At the heart of the explanation were numbers. According to "The Celestrial Hierarchy", the universe consisted of a threefold division: heaven, earth and hell. Sunlight lit up the universe and was proof of God's presence. In the Middle Ages this numerological division of the universe was credited to the Pythagoreans, while early on it was regarded as an authoritative source of Christian doctrine by Photius and John of Sacrobosco. The "Corpus Areopagiticum or Corpus Dionysiacum" was to be referenced in the late Middle Ages by Dante and in the Renaissance a new translation of it was produced by Marsilio Ficino.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: Early Christian theologians, such as Clement of Alexandria, adopted the ascetic doctrines of the neopythagoreans. The moral and ethical teachings of Pythagorean influenced early Christianity and assimilated into early Christian texts. The "Sextou gnomai" ("Sentences of Sextus"), a Hellenistic Pythagorean text modified to reflect a Christian viewpoint, existed from at least the 2nd century and remained popular among Christians well into the Middle Ages. The "Sentences of Sextus" consisted of 451 sayings or principles, such as injunctions to love the truth, to avoid the pollution of the body with pleasure, to shun flatterers and to let one's tongue be harnessed by one's mind. The contents of the "Sentences of Sextus" was attributed by Iamblichus, the 1st century biographer of Pythagoras, to "Sextus Pythagoricus". The assertion was repeated subsequently by Saint Jerome. In the 2nd century many of the "Sentences of Sextus" were cited by Plutarch as Pythagorean aphorisms. The "Sentences of Sextus" were translated into Syriac, Latin and Arabic, then the written language of both Muslims and Jews, but only in the Latin world did they become a guide to daily life that was widely circulated.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: 1st century treatises of Philo and Nicomachus popularised the mystical and cosmological symbolism Pythagoreans attributed to numbers. This interest in Pythagorean views on the importance of numbers was sustained by mathematicians such as Theon of Smyrna, Anatolius and Iamblichus. These mathematicians relied on Plato's "Timaeus" as source for Pythagorean philosophy.


title: Pythagoreanism

text: In the Middle Ages studies and adaptations of "Timaeus" solidified the view that there was a numerical explanation for proportion and harmony among learned men. Pythagoreanism, as mediated in Plato's "Timaeus", spurred increasingly detailed studies of symmetry and harmony. Intellectuals pondered how knowledge of the geometry in which God had arranged the universe could be applied to life. By the 12th century Pythagorean numerological concepts had become a universal language in Medieval Europe and were no longer recognized as Pythagorean. Writers such as Thierry of Chartres, William of Conches and Alexander Neckham referenced classical writers that had discussed Pythagoreanism, including Cicero, Ovid and Pliny, leading them to believe that mathematics was the key to understanding astronomy and nature. Another important text on Pythagorean numerology was Boethius's "De arithmetica", which was widely reproduced in the West. Boethius had relied on Nicomachus's writings as a source of Pythagoreanism.