title: Green Knight

text: The beheading game appears in a number of tales, the earliest being the Middle Irish tale "Bricriu's Feast". The challenger in this story is named "Fear", a "bachlach" (churl), and is identified as Cú Roí (a superhuman king of Munster in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology) in disguise. He challenges three warriors to his game, only to have them run from the return blow, until the hero Cú Chulainn accepts the challenge. With Cú Chulainn under his axe, this antagonist also feints three blows before letting the hero go. In the Irish version, the cloak of the churl is described as glas, which means green. In the "Life of Caradoc", a Middle French narrative embedded in the anonymous First Continuation of Chrétien de Troyes' "Perceval, the Story of the Grail", another similar challenge is issued. In this story, a notable difference is that Caradoc's challenger is his father in disguise, come to test his honour. The French romances "La Mule sans frein" and "Hunbaut" and the Middle High German epic poem "Diu Crone" feature Gawain in beheading game situations. "Hunbaut" furnishes an interesting twist: Gawain cuts off the man's head, and then pulls off his magic cloak before he can replace it, causing his death. A similar story, this time attributed to Lancelot, appears in the 13th century French work "Perlesvaus".


title: Green Knight

text: The 15th-century "The Turke and Gowin" begins with a Turk entering Arthur's court and asking, "Is there any will, as a brother, To give a buffett and take another?" Gawain accepts the challenge, and is then forced to follow the Turk until he decides to return the blow. Through the many adventures they have together, the Turk, out of respect, asks the knight to cut off the Turk's head, which Gawain does. The Turk, surviving, then praises Gawain and showers him with gifts. "Sir Gawain and the Carle of Carlisle" contains a scene in which the Carl, a lord, orders Gawain to strike him with his spear, and bends over to receive the blow. Gawain obliges, the Carl rises, laughing and unharmed, and, unlike in "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", no return blow is demanded or given. Among all these stories, "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" is the only one with a completely green character, and the only one tying Morgan le Fay to his transformation.


title: Green Knight

text: Several stories also feature knights struggling to stave off the advances of voluptuous women, including "Yder", the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, "Hunbaut", and "The Knight of the Sword". The Green Knight parallel in these stories is a King testing a knight as to whether or not he will remain chaste in extreme circumstances. The woman he sends is sometimes his wife (as in "Yder"), if he knows that she is unfaithful and will tempt other men; in "The Knight of the Sword" the king sends his beautiful daughter. All characters playing the Green Knight's role kill unfaithful knights who fail their tests.


title: Green Knight

text: In English folklore and literature, green has traditionally been used to symbolise nature and its embodied attributes, namely those of fertility and rebirth. Critics have claimed that the Green Knight's role emphasises the environment outside of human habitation. With his alternate identity as Bertilak, the Green Knight can also be seen as a compromise between both humanity and the environment as opposed to Gawain's representation of human civilisation. Oftentimes, it is used to embody the supernatural or spiritual other world. In British folklore, the devil was sometimes considered to be green which may or may not play into the concept of the Green Man/ Wild Man dichotomy of the Green Knight. Stories of the medieval period also portray the colour as representing love and the amorous in life, and the base, natural desires of man. Green is also known to have signified witchcraft, devilry and evil for its association with the fairies and spirits of early English folklore and for its association with decay and toxicity. The colour, when combined with gold, is sometimes seen as representing the fading of youth. In the Celtic tradition, green was avoided in clothing for its superstitious association with misfortune and death. Green can be considered in "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" as signifying a transformation from good to evil and back again; displaying both the spoiling and regenerative connotations of the colour. Given these varied and even contradictory interpretations of the colour green, its precise meaning in the poem remains ambiguous.


title: Green Knight

text: Of the many characters similar to him, the Green Knight of "Sir Gawain" is the first to be green. Because of his strange colour, some scholars believe him to be a manifestation of the Green Man figure of medieval art, or as a representation of both the vitality and fearful unpredictability of nature. That he carries a green holly branch, and the comparison of his beard to a bush, has guided many scholars to this interpretation. The gold entwined in the cloth wrapped around his axe, combined with the green, gives him both a wild and an aristocratic air. Others consider him as being an incarnation of the Devil. In one interpretation, it is thought that the Green Knight, as the "Lord of Hades", has come to challenge the noble knights of King Arthur's court. Sir Gawain, the bravest of the knights, therefore proves himself equal to Hercules in challenging the Knight, tying the story to ancient Greek mythology. Scholars like Curely claim the descriptive features of the Green Knight suggest a servitude to Satan such as the beaver-hued beard alluding to the allegorical significance of beavers for the Christian audience of the time who believed that they renounced the world and paid "tribute to the devil for spiritual freedom." Another possible interpretation of the Green Knight views him as combining elements from the Greek Hades and the Christian Messiah, at once representing both good and evil and life and death as self-proliferating cycles. This interpretation embraces the positive and negative attributes of the colour green and relates to the enigmatic motif of the poem. The description of the Green Knight upon his entrance to Arthur's Court as "from neck to loin… strong and thickly made" is considered by some scholars as homoerotic.


title: Green Knight

text: C.S. Lewis declared the Green Knight "as vivid and concrete as any image in literature" and further described him as:


title: Green Knight

text: a living "coincidentia oppositorum"; half giant, yet wholly a "lovely" knight"; as full of demoniac energy as old Karamazov, yet in his own house, as jolly as a Dickensian Christmas host; now exhibiting a ferocity so gleeful that it is almost genial, and now a geniality so outrageous that it borders on the ferocious; half boy or buffoon in his shouts and laughter and jumpings; yet at the end judging Gawain with the tranquil superiority of an angelic being


title: Green Knight

text: The Green Knight could also be interpreted as a blend of two traditional figures in romance and medieval narratives, namely, "the literary green man" and the "literary wild man." "The literary green man" signifies "youth, natural vitality, and love," whereas the "literary wild man" represents the "hostility to knighthood," "the demonic" and "death." The Knight's green skin connects the green of the costume to the green of the hair and beard, thus connecting the green man's pleasant manners and significance into the wild man's grotesque qualities.


title: Green Knight

text: The Green Knight is also compared to the English holiday figure Jack in the green. Jack is part of a May Day holiday tradition in some parts of England, but his connection to the Knight is found mainly in the Derbyshire tradition of Castleton Garland. In this tradition, a kind of Jack in the green known as the Garland King is led through the town on a horse, wearing a bell-shaped garland of flowers that covers his entire upper body, and followed by young girls dressed in white, who dance at various points along the route (formerly the town's bellringers, who still make the garland, also performed this role). On the top of the King's garland is the "queen", a posy of bright flowers. The King is also accompanied by his elegantly dressed female consort (nowadays, confusingly, also known as the Queen); played by a woman during recent times, until 1956 "the Woman" was always a man in woman's clothing. At the end of the ceremony, the queen posy is taken off the garland, to be placed on the town's war memorial. The Garland King then rides to the church tower where the garland is hauled up the side of the tower and impaled upon a pinnacle. Due to the nature imagery associated with the Green Knight, the ceremony has been interpreted as possibly deriving from his famous beheading in the "Gawain" poem. In this case, the posy's removal would symbolise the loss of the knight's head.


title: Green Knight

text: In the poem "Gawain", when the Knight is beheaded, he tells Gawain to meet him at the Green Chapel, saying that all nearby know where it is. Indeed, the guide which is to bring Gawain there from Bertilak's castle grows very fearful as they near it and begs Gawain to turn back. The final meeting at the Green Chapel has caused many scholars to draw religious connections, with the Knight fulfilling a priestly role with Gawain as a penitent. The Green Knight ultimately, in this interpretation, judges Gawain to be a worthy knight, and lets him live, playing a priest, God, and judge all at once.


title: Green Knight

text: The chapel is considered by Gawain as an evil place: foreboding, "the most accursed church", "the place for the Devil to recite matins"; but when the mysterious Knight allows Gawain to live, Gawain immediately assumes the role of penitent to a priest or judge, as in a genuine church. The Green Chapel may also be related to tales of fairy hills or knolls of earlier Celtic literature. Some scholars have wondered whether "Hautdesert" refers to the Green Chapel, as it means "High Hermitage"; but such a connection is doubted by most scholars. As to the location of the chapel, in the "Greene Knight" poem, Sir Bredbeddle's living place is described as "the castle of hutton", causing some scholars to suggest a connection with Hutton Manor House in Somerset. Gawain's journey leads him directly into the centre of the Pearl Poet's dialect region, where the candidates for the locations of the Castle at Hautdesert and the Green Chapel stand. Hautdesert is thought to be in the area of Swythamley in northwest Midland, as it is in the writer's dialect area, and matches the land features described in the poem. The Green Chapel is thought to be in either Lud's Church or Wetton Mill, as these areas closely match the descriptions given by the author. Ralph Elliott for example located the chapel the knight searches for near ( v1078) the old manor house at Swythamley Park at the bottom of a valley ( v2145) on a hillside ( v2147) in a large fissure ( v2182–83).


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The Russian warship "Moskva", the flagship of the Russian Navy's Black Sea Fleet, sank on 14 April 2022 during the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Ukrainian officials said that their forces damaged the ship with two R-360 Neptune anti-ship missiles, while Russia said she sank in stormy seas after a fire caused munitions to explode.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The cruiser is the largest Russian warship to be sunk in wartime since the end of World War II and the first Russian flagship sunk since the "Knyaz Suvorov" in 1905, during the Russo-Japanese War.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Russia said that 396 crew members had been evacuated, with one sailor killed and 27 missing, but there are unverified reports of more casualties. At least 17 of the missing crew members were later declared dead by a court in Sevastopol.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: In February 2022, the flagship of Russia's Black Sea Fleet, the guided missile cruiser "Moskva", left Sevastopol to participate in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The ship was later used against the Ukrainian armed forces during the attack on Snake Island, together with the Russian patrol boat "Vasily Bykov". "Moskva" hailed the island's garrison over the radio and demanded its surrender, receiving the now-famous reply "Russian warship, go fuck yourself" from its garrison. After this, all contact was lost with Snake Island, and the thirteen-member Ukrainian garrison was captured.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The first known report of a missile hitting the ship was at 20:42, 13 April 2022 Ukrainian time (EEST, ) with a Facebook post by a Ukrainian volunteer connected to the military. Later that evening presidential adviser Oleksiy Arestovych reported "Moskva" was on fire in rough seas and Odesa governor Maksym Marchenko officially confirmed that Ukrainian forces hit "Moskva" with two R-360 Neptune anti-ship missiles, which "caused very serious damage." At 12:43, 14 April EEST, the Ukrainian Southern Command posted a video on Facebook with a report stating the ship had received damage within the range of the Neptune anti-ship missile, there was a fire and other vessels in "Moskva"s group "tried to help, but a storm and a powerful explosion of ammunition overturned the cruiser and it began to sink."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Hours after Marchenko's claim, the Russian Ministry of Defense said that a fire had caused munitions to explode and that the ship had been seriously damaged, without any statement of cause or reference to a Ukrainian strike.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The ministry said on 14 April that the missile systems of the cruiser were undamaged, the fire was contained by sailors, and that efforts were underway to tow the ship to port. Later on 14 April, the Russian ministry said that "Moskva" sank while being towed during stormy weather, although the weather was reportedly mild. On 15 April, the sinking was briefly reported on Russian news media and television, where it was said to be due to "stormy seas".


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The United States Department of Defense spokesman John Kirby said early on 14 April that they did not have enough information to confirm a missile strike, but could not rule it out. Imagery they had examined showed the ship had suffered a sizable explosion. The cause of the explosion was not clear. The ship appeared to be moving under its own power, probably heading to Sevastopol for repairs. A defense department spokesman later stated it was unclear whether the vessel was moving under her own power or being towed. A senior Defense Department official, who spoke on condition of anonymity, stated the ship was "battling a fire on board, but we do not know the extent of the damage” but it was "big" and "extensive."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: An image from a satellite with cloud-penetrating synthetic aperture radar (SAR) revealed that at 18:52 local time () on 13 April 2022, "Moskva" was located at , about south of Odesa, east of Snake Island and around from the Ukrainian coast. An analysis suggested this was not long after the damage occurred which caused the ship to eventually sink. In the image, the cruiser is accompanied by other vessels.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: At 02:59, 14 April 2022 [EEST], the Reverse Side of the Medal, a Telegram channel associated with the Russian paramilitary Wagner Group, posted the following: "According to unconfirmed reports, the flagship of the Black Sea Fleet, the cruiser Moskva, sank." And, according to their "preliminary information, was indeed attacked by the Neptune anti-ship missiles from the coastline between Odesa and Nikolaev. Also, the forces of the ship were diverted to counter the Bayraktar TB-2 UAV. The blow fell on the port side, as a result of which the ship took a strong roll. After the threat of detonation of ammunition, the crew of about 500 people was evacuated."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: At 10:59, 14 April 2022 [EEST], the Lithuanian defense minister, Arvydas Anušauskas, reported on Facebook that an SOS signal was sent at 01:05, the cruiser rolled onto its side at 01:14, and the electricity went out half an hour later. "From 2 a.m., a Turkish ship evacuated 54 sailors from the cruiser, and at about 3 a.m., Turkey and Romania reported that the ship was completely sunk." According to the Albanian website "Politiko", a Turkish official denied to BBC News that a Turkish ship rescued any Russian crew.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: In the afternoon of 14 April, US Defense Department spokesman Kirby confirmed the ship had sunk but said they were unable to confirm what caused the ship to sink, although the Ukrainian account was "certainly plausible." Speculating about the cause of the explosion, he stated: "Certainly, it could have been damage from some external force, like a missile or an attack of some kind, a torpedo or something like that ... but it could also be something that happens inside the skin of the ship – an engineering fire, a fuel fire. You just don't know."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: On 15 April, a senior US Defense official said that "Moskva" had been hit by two Neptune missiles; he also stated that the ship was about south of Odesa when she was struck and that the cruiser continued onward under her own power before sinking on 14 April. The official also said intelligence appraisals indicated there were casualties at the time of the strike, but he did not know how many. The Ukrainian missiles were apparently fired from a land-based launcher near Odesa while "Moskva" was located offshore.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: On 5 May, a US official said that the US gave "a range of intelligence" to assist in the sinking of the "Moskva". However, the decision to strike was purely a Ukrainian one. There was a US Navy P-8A Poseidon maritime surveillance aircraft in the area before the sinking. The P-8A from Italy was patrolling within its radar range over the Black Sea and the US, when asked, did identify the ship as the "Moskva" as part of intelligence sharing to help Ukraine defend against attack from Russian ships. The US Department of Defense spokesman John Kirby stated: "There was no provision of targeting information by any United States Navy P-8 flying in these air policing missions."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: "Moskva" was equipped with a triple-tiered air defense that could have provided an adequate chance of intercepting the incoming Neptune missiles, with 3–4 minutes of radar detection warning. There was no record that the crew had activated these systems, including the S-300F and OSA surface-to-air missiles, chaff or decoys, electronic jamming, or the last-ditch AK-630 close-in weapon systems. Tayfun Ozberk, a Turkey correspondent for "Defense News", suggested that the ship's radars either failed to detect the incoming Neptune missiles or that the defenses were not ready to engage the detected threat, implying a lack of crew training for such emergency scenarios.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The operation to sink "Moskva" may have been assisted by the use of at least one Bayraktar TB2 drone (UCAV), which seems to have observed the event and may have played other roles in the ship's sinking. The Telegram post by the Wagner Group and a Ukrainian official said the drone "diverted" or "distracted" the crew, but David Hambling, a technology journalist writing in "Forbes", considered this unlikely, since the ship's anti-drone and anti-missile defenses were provided by two different systems: the long-range SA-N-6 Grumble (S-300F) missiles against the drone and the multibarreled AK-630 cannons against the Neptune missiles.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Several reports were consistent with Bayraktar drones being in the same area as the ship. Arda Mevlutoglu, a defense industry analyst, stated that a Bayraktar TB2 ground-control station was seen in Odesa on 10 April. A video released by the Russian military on 12 April showed a missile being launched from the Russian frigate Admiral Essen and stated it destroyed a Bayraktar drone near the Crimean coast. A Ukrainian video "shot from the air with a night vision scope," claimed to show "Moskva" burning in the distance, and could have been made by a Bayraktar drone flying in the area.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Analysts stated the Bayraktar drone may also have provided targeting information. Can Kasapoglu, the director of security and defense studies at a Turkish think tank, the Center for the Economics and Foreign Policy Studies (EDAM), said: "Reports that Turkish TB2 drones were involved in the attack either as a distraction for Moskva or as location spotter of Moskva are both quite possible." Mevlutoglu mentioned that Rear Admiral Oleksiy Neizhpapa, commander of the Ukrainian naval forces, had in the past suggested that TB2 drones would be used with Neptune launchers for target reconnaissance. Mevlutoglu also said the main radar system on "Moskva" was out of date, designed to detect aircraft and cruise missiles. The TB2, with a lower radar cross-section and flight speed, may have been missed by the ship's radar.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The aviation journalist Valius Venckunas reported: "According to Arkady Babchenko, a Russian military journalist and an outspoken critic of Vladimir Putin, a Ukrainian Bayraktar disabled Moskva’s radar station, rendering it unable to detect and intercept incoming missiles. However, Babchenko has not provided the source of such information."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Danish military analyst Anders Nielson makes a case that operator fatigue could have been a significant factor. With such systems active, the cruiser was expected to survive several strikes from Neptune missiles ( warhead each) due to her large displacement; one salvo combat model scenario suggests that Ukraine would have needed to launch at least eleven Neptune missiles simultaneously; "Moskva" could have defeated six of them, with the remaining five getting through her defenses and striking the ship, causing just enough hull damage to sink her. However, this assumes that ship munitions were not detonated by the impact, so poor damage control, using conscripts instead of mid-grade professionals, and insufficient compartmentation have been suggested as contributing reasons to why the cruiser sank.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: By 18 April, two images and a short 3-second video clip were circulating on social media showing "Moskva" after the fire broke out and prior to the final sinking. The images show the ship listing to port in daylight and calm sea, with signs of extensive fire damage around the central superstructure in addition to the presence of holes at the waterline, and most of her life rafts missing, indicating that some of the crew had evacuated by this point. According to CNN, "a large Russian rescue tug can be seen dousing the warship with water on the far side."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The source or author of the video or images is unknown. "The Telegraph" reported the images were first posted to the web via Telegram on a channel linked to Russian security agencies. Analysts who were independently consulted by "The Guardian" and CNN confirmed that the images appear to show "Moskva". "The Guardian" quoted Yörük Işık, a journalist and expert ship spotter, as saying: "I believe the video is real. What we see shape, size. It is the "Moskva"." "The Guardian" also reported: "He [Işık] said he believed at least one of the photographs was taken from a Project 22870 rescue tugship, of which Russia is believed to have two in the Black Sea."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: A senior US defense official said the images could not be independently verified, "but the images themselves comport with what we had assessed to be the damage done to the ship." Carl Schuster, former director of operations at the US Pacific Command's Joint Intelligence Operations Center, stated: "Assuming the photo is not faked in some way or photo-shopped, it looks like the missile(s) hit forward, which is not unexpected. Anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs) tend to go for the center of the radar return, which typically is the forward section of the superstructure." Chris Parry, a former rear admiral, wrote to "The Guardian": "It seems that one–two missiles entered the ship just below after the pair of Vulcan anti-ship missiles ... This would have caused massive internal damage and looks to have punctured the two missiles ... which would have drained down propellant fuel that further intensified the fire within the ship by spreading horizontally along the decks and through the damaged bulkheads." Naval experts consulted by the BBC considered damage to be consistent with a missile attack but disagreed with each other about the plausibility of other causes. The video does not show the storm stated in Russian reports.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Lithuania's defense minister Arvydas Anušauskas said on 14 April that a distress signal had been sent from "Moskva" that day, and a Turkish ship responded, evacuating 54 personnel from the cruiser at 2 am, before she sank at 3 am. According to him, there were 485 crew on board, of whom 66 were officers. It was not known how many had survived.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Ukrainian sources reported on 15 April that some of "Moskva"s crew were killed, including First Rank Captain Anton Kuprin (age 43), the ship's commanding officer, at the time of the explosion. On 15 April, a senior US official said the government also believed there had been casualties. At a US Department of Defense briefing on 18 April, a senior defense official revealed they had also seen lifeboats in the water with sailors in them but did not have an accurate count. The independent Russian newspaper "Novaya Gazeta Europe" reported some 40 sailors had been killed at the time of the sinking. According to an eyewitness, there were some 200 injured sailors in a hospital in Crimea.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The Russian Ministry of Defense said soon after the sinking that the crew had been evacuated, and initially did not report any casualties; however, some relatives of sailors have been told that their family member was "missing". On 16 April, Russia released a video allegedly showing a meeting in Sevastopol with around 100 sailors of "Moskva", along with Navy Commander-in-Chief Admiral Nikolay Yevmenov, who said that the sailors would continue their service in the Navy. According to independent Russian online newspaper "The Insider", about 100 sailors, and notably the First Rank Captain of the ship Anton Kuprin, are visible in the video. "Naval News" reported that the Russian Defense Ministry video showed around 240 people survived, about half the crew. The Ukrainian edition of Radio Liberty, however, says that it is impossible to verify the authenticity of the video.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: On 22 April, the Russian Defense Ministry released a statement confirming that one sailor from "Moskva" was killed and 27 were missing, while 396 crew members were rescued. Family members of crew serving aboard the "Moskva" allege that the number of missing sailors could be higher and that they have received no official information regarding their fate. At least 17 of the missing crew members were later declared dead by a court in Sevastopol.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: "Moskva" is the largest Soviet or Russian warship to be sunk in action since World War II, when German aircraft bombed the Soviet battleship "Marat", and the first loss of a Russian flagship in wartime since the 1905 sinking of the battleship "Knyaz Suvorov" during the Battle of Tsushima in the Russo-Japanese War. The last time a warship of comparable size was sunk was during the Falklands War in 1982, when the Argentine Navy cruiser ARA "General Belgrano" was sunk by the Royal Navy submarine . If Ukrainian claims are true, "Moskva" might be the largest warship ever disabled or destroyed by a missile, according to Carl Schuster, a retired US Navy captain and former director of operations at the US Pacific Command's Joint Intelligence Center.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The loss of "Moskva" is considered significant and humiliating to Russian president Vladimir Putin, but "more about psychological damage than material damage" according to Mykola Bielieskov from Ukraine's National Institute for Strategic Studies. He said that it would not completely lift Russia's naval blockade on Ukraine, but showed that Ukraine could employ sophisticated weaponry effectively. The Institute for the Study of War reached similar conclusions and said the loss of the ship may force Russia "to either deploy additional air and point-defense assets to the Black Sea battlegroup or withdraw vessels from positions near the Ukrainian coast." Russia moved 5 other warships further away from the Ukrainian coast.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: "Moskva" was the only warship in Russia's Black Sea Fleet with the S-300F missile system for long-range air defense. She did not herself fire missiles at land targets in Ukraine, but she provided anti-aircraft support to vessels that did, and her sinking prompted Russian ships, now less protected, to move further offshore. Retired US Rear Admiral Samuel J. Cox, director of the Naval History and Heritage Command, told "The New York Times" that with the loss of the ship, in the newspaper's words, "any amphibious assault on Ukraine would be much more dangerous for Russia, with its landing and amphibious ships much more vulnerable to attacks."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: In June 2022, Russian "Vasily Bykov" class corvettes were spotted fitted with ground-based Tor-M1/2 anti-air missile systems on deck, with analysts speculating that the arrangement was to compensate for the loss of seaborne air defense following the loss of the "Moskva". Also in June, some of Russia's many gas platforms were attacked due to decreased area protection, about halfway between Crimea and occupied Snake Island. By August, the Russian Navy's ability to control the Black Sea had decreased as Odesa was no longer threatened from sea. However, the Russian Navy maintained ability to protect the export of products from Russia's interior.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: While two sister ships of "Moskva" were deployed to the Eastern Mediterranean as of February 2022, Turkey has for the duration of the war closed the Turkish Straits to belligerent warships whose home port is not in the Black Sea, following the Montreux Convention. Thus, Russia cannot send ships to replace the lost "Moskva" from its other fleet bases without violating Turkish sovereignty.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: In 2020, the archpriest of the Russian Orthodox Church Sevastopol District said that a fragment of the True Cross would be kept in "Moskva"s chapel. The True Cross is the cross on which believers say Jesus was crucified and a very rare relic important to many Christians. There was speculation after her sinking that the relic may have gone down with the ship.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: United States National Security Adviser Jake Sullivan said that the sinking of "Moskva" "is a big blow to Russia", with Moscow split between a narrative of incompetence and one of having been attacked. Sasaki Takahiro, guest professor on Russian security policy at Hiroshima University, stated in "The Asahi Shimbun" that the sinking of "Moskva" is compared with that of "Yamato", the battleship of Imperial Japan. US Defense Department spokesman John Kirby said that "Moskva"s main mission was air defense for the Russian forces in the Black Sea and that her sinking "will have an impact on that capability, certainly in the near term".


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: According to an analysis by "Forbes Ukraine" on 14 April 2022, the sinking of "Moskva" is the most costly single loss for the Russian military in the war to date, and the ship would cost around US$750 million to replace.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Although Russia did not confirm that Ukrainian missiles had hit the ship, Reuters reported that in the morning of 15 April, Russia launched an apparent retaliatory missile strike against the missile factory Luch Design Bureau in Kyiv, where the Neptune missiles allegedly used in the attack were designed and manufactured.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The sinking of "Moskva" came two days after Ukrposhta released one million "Russian warship, go fuck yourself" stamps, which show a soldier giving the finger to "Moskva". The sinking boosted sales of the stamp in Ukraine. Some people in Ukraine queued for more than two hours to get the stamp. The sinking of "Moskva" likely boosted the morale of many Ukrainians and negatively affected morale of the invading Russian forces. Oleksiy Neizhpapa, the commander of Ukrainian naval forces, was promoted as a reward for the sinking of "Moskva."


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Russian TV media only discussed the story briefly, while news articles described out-of-date fire-suppression systems and said that the sinking would not have an effect on the war. However, film director and former State Duma member Vladimir Bortko, described by the BBC as "clearly emotional", said (as a guest on a talk show) the fate of "Moskva" was grounds for war. On 18 April, Russia-1 state TV presenter Vladimir Solovyov criticised the Russian navy over the sinking; Russian commentator Sergei Markov, a strong Kremlin supporter, told the BBC Radio 4's "The World at One" that the cruiser had been struck by missiles shipped from Norway, and that her electronic defenses had been neutralised by the US. The Russian tabloid Komsomolskaya Pravda speculated that the ship had been hit by a Norwegian AGM-119 Penguin missile.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: A Ukraine-based publication and two defense analysts wrote in the aftermath that "Moskva" had the capability to carry nuclear warheads and that she may have been carrying two nuclear warheads at the time of her sinking. They called for neighboring nations to launch an investigation into the possibility of a nuclear accident. There is a slight chance that the cruiser was carrying nuclear warheads for her P-500/P-1000 anti-ship missiles, but there is no evidence indicating that she was doing so. A senior U.S. defense official stated there were no nuclear weapons on the ship when she sank.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: Ukraine declared the wreck of "Moskva" as having "underwater cultural heritage". It is being advertised as a dive wreck as it is only off the coast from Odesa and the water is only 45–50 metres deep. The wreck "can be admired without much diving".


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: The Russian navy was reported to have sent the salvage ship with the submersible onboard to the wreck, as part of an eight-ship convoy. Worldwide, "Kommuna" is the oldest active-duty navy ship still in service, at 110 years old and inherited from the Imperial Russian Navy. Due to the size of "Moskva" and that she sank in one piece, bringing her to the surface is thought to be impractical. The aim is likely to recover encryption material, weapons, bodies, and other sensitive material that foreign powers might be interested in. "Kommuna" is based with the Black Sea Fleet and sails from Sevastopol. Her presence at the wreck site would expose her to attack by Ukrainian forces. On 24 May, Ukrainian sources claimed that Russia had spent the previous two weeks removing bodies and classified equipment from the wreck of the "Moskva". According to Ukraine, five to seven ships were involved.


title: Sinking of the Moskva

text: On 30 June, Russia retreated from Snake Island, the island that "Moskva" had attacked together with "Vasily Bykov". The Ukrainian military set foot on Snake Island on 4 July and raised the Ukrainian flag over it.


title: The DUFF

text: The DUFF (teen slang for "Designated Ugly Fat Friend") is a 2015 American high school teen comedy film directed by Ari Sandel. The screenplay by Josh Cagan was based on the 2010 novel of the same name by Kody Keplinger. The film stars Mae Whitman, Robbie Amell, Bella Thorne, Nick Eversman, Skyler Samuels, Bianca Santos, Allison Janney, and Ken Jeong.


title: The DUFF

text: "The DUFF" was distributed by CBS Films via Lionsgate. CBS also produced the film with Vast Entertainment and Wonderland Sound and Vision. It was released on February 20, 2015, and was the first film for which Lionsgate took over CBS Films' distribution functions. It received positive reviews from critics, with Cagan's screenplay and Whitman's and Thorne's performances receiving acclaim. Comparisons were frequently drawn to the cult teen films "Mean Girls" (2004) and "Easy A" (2010). Against a budget of $8.5million, the film grossed $43million at the box office.


title: The DUFF

text: Bianca is enjoying her senior year of high school in the suburbs of Atlanta with her two best friends, Jess and Casey, both of whom are significantly more popular than she is. Her neighbor is Wesley, the captain of the football team, who was her childhood friend.


title: The DUFF

text: Bianca reluctantly attends a party hosted by mean girl Madison, Wesley's "on-again, off-again" girlfriend with hopes of talking to her guitar-playing crush Toby. At the party, Wesley casually brings to Bianca's awareness that she is the "DUFF" of her friend group—an acronym which stands for Designated Ugly Fat Friend. He explains that the DUFF does not necessarily have to be ugly or fat, it is merely the person in a social group who is less popular, and therefore more accessible, than the others in the group. People exploit the DUFF to get to the popular people. Bianca is insulted and devastated, but she soon realizes Wesley is right: the students in her high school are only interested in her as a way to get to Jess and Casey.


title: The DUFF

text: She takes her anger out on Jess and Casey and "unfriends" them on social media and in person. She later overhears Wesley's science teacher Mr. Fillmore telling Wesley that unless he passes the midterm, he is off the football team, which could cost him his football scholarship. Desperate to up her social standing and go on a date with her crush, Bianca strikes a deal with Wesley: she will help him pass his class if he helps her socially. The two have a fun time at the mall, attempting a makeover by buying new clothes.


title: The DUFF

text: Secretly, Madison's henchgirl records Bianca embarrassingly playing around in her new clothes and pretending that a mannequin is Toby. Madison posts the video online to embarrass Bianca because she has become possessive of Wesley and jealous of Bianca's relationship with him. Wesley suggests Bianca just "own" the video and be upfront with Toby, talking directly to him and asking him out. She takes the advice and, to her surprise, he accepts. Bianca takes Wesley to her favorite spot in the forest, her "think rock", to get him away from the constant arguing between his parents, and to help him cope with a possible divorce. They kiss, but joke about it, and pretend it didn't mean anything.


title: The DUFF

text: Bianca and Toby have a date at his house, but she finds herself thinking about Wesley and tries to brush it off. By the end of the date, she discovers that Toby has been "DUFFing" her; i.e., spending time with her in order to connect with Jess and Casey. She confronts him as the shallow and superficial person he has revealed himself to be, and leaves in tears. While looking for Wesley, to talk with him about the date, she finds him at the thinking rock kissing Madison.


title: The DUFF

text: Furious with both boys, Bianca reunites with her girl friends, who were actually genuine all along. They, along with her understanding mother Dottie, convince her to go to the homecoming dance with them in a dress they create together which incorporates elements of her previous wardrobe, such as her plaid flannel shirts. At the dance, Bianca uses Wesley's advice to be upfront, and tells him that she likes him, but he regrettably informs her that he is back with Madison, who approaches the two of them and begins to hurl insults at Bianca.


title: The DUFF

text: Bianca delivers her final speech to Madison, finally confronting her and proclaiming that "everybody" is a DUFF because there is always someone "better", and should be true to their own identity. Additionally, Madison's bullying is just a reflection of her own insecurities about herself. When Madison is crowned homecoming queen and Wesley king, he hesitates before rejecting the title, instead choosing to kiss Bianca in front of the whole school.


title: The DUFF

text: In November 2011, CBS Films acquired the rights to the novel of the same name by Kody Keplinger. Josh A Cagan was enlisted to adapt the book into a script. He decided to use the Kübler-Ross model of five emotional stages to make a better transition of the narrative part. The script featured on the Black List of best unproduced screenplays of 2011.


title: The DUFF

text: Ari Sandel became attached to the project in May 2013. On April 9, 2014, Mae Whitman was cast in the lead; author Kody Keplinger had envisioned Whitman in the role even before the book's release, after watching her on "Parenthood". The cast grew with the addition of Bella Thorne on April 30, Ken Jeong on May 12, Skyler Samuels on May 22 Robbie Amell and Bianca A. Santos on May 27, and Allison Janney on June 10.


title: The DUFF

text: Principal photography began in Atlanta, Georgia, in June 2014 and ended on July 9, 2014. Shooting locations included Henry W. Grady High School, Marietta High School, Perimeter Mall, the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre, Stone Mountain Park, and a local Dave and Buster's.


title: The DUFF

text: The official motion picture soundtrack for "The DUFF" was released digitally on February 17, 2015, by Island Records.


title: The DUFF

text: The film was released on February 20, 2015, by CBS Films via Lionsgate. It was then was released on digital HD on May 26, 2015, before the film's DVD and Blu-ray release on June 9, 2015, by Lionsgate Home Entertainment.


title: The DUFF

text: "The DUFF" grossed $34million in the United States and Canada, and $9.7million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $43.5million, against a budget of $8.5million.


title: The DUFF

text: In North America, the film debuted at number five in its first weekend, with $10.8million, finishing behind "Fifty Shades of Grey", "", "", and "McFarland, USA".


title: The DUFF

text: , the film holds an approval rating of 73% based on 120 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 6.1/10. The site's critics consensus states: ""The DUFF" doesn't achieve teen-movie greatness, but offers enough of a postmodern twist on the genre to recommend—and boasts typically great work from star Mae Whitman." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 56 out of 100 based on 28 reviews , indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "A−" on scale of A to F.


title: The DUFF

text: Lindsey Bahr of the Associated Press gave the film a positive review, saying "While it's neither as biting as "Mean Girls" nor as sweetly referential as "Easy A", the earnest and sometimes amusing "The DUFF" is a fine addition to the canon." Sheri Linden of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave the film a positive review, saying "Its central pair of unlikely allies will engage young audiences' sympathy. They're smartly played by Mae Whitman and Robbie Amell, whose warmth and comic chops keep the movie buoyant." Kyle Smith of the "New York Post" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "This winsome comedy is a little low in the stakes department, not to mention predictable, but it gets an "A" for charm." Kevin P. Sullivan of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a B−, saying ""The DUFF" won't stay with you far past its runtime. But as a vehicle, it's ample proof that we should be seeing more of Mae Whitman." Amy Nicholson of "LA Weekly" gave the film a C, saying ""The DUFF" doesn't seem to know what its point actually is. It's pro-self-acceptance and also pro-makeover. It's about liking yourself, and how you'd like yourself better with a boyfriend." Inkoo Kang of "TheWrap" gave the film a positive review, saying "Mae Whitman reveals herself to be one of the funniest actresses of her generation in a spot-on and endlessly quotable take on teenage 'dramz' in 2015." Michael Phillips of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two out of four stars, saying "You know what would be revolutionary? Making a really good movie about a three-dimensional teenage female character that doesn't start and finish with both eyes on the same old punishing character types."


title: The DUFF

text: Ann Hornaday of "The Washington Post" gave the film zero stars out of four, saying "What might have been a frank portrayal of high school culture and challenges ends up veering between being either too cynically hyper-sexual or preachy." Rafer Guzman of "Newsday" gave the film three and a half out of four stars, saying "A smart, funny, straight-talking teen movie in the John Hughes tradition. Oodles of charm from the young cast." Claudia Puig of "USA Today" gave the film two out of four stars, saying "Mae Whitman is the best thing here, and the funny actress deserves better material than what's offered in this derivative and superficial ode to teen self-acceptance." Betsy Sharkey of the "Los Angeles Times" gave the film a negative review, saying "Romance, or the desire to find someone special, isn't a bad thing—if it's not the only thing. But as it stands in "DUFF", the denouement at prom has cliché written all over it." Christy Lemire of RogerEbert.com gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Whitman displays flawless comic timing and consistently makes inspiring choices in terms of delivery, reaction, even the slightest facial expression. She shines confidently in a self-deprecating role, and it's irresistible." Bilge Ebiri of "New York" magazine gave the film a positive review, saying "Why is it so wonderful? Because wit and charm matter, and "The DUFF" has a good deal of both. The cast will be stars, the gags will be immortal, and you'll still be watching this movie years from now." David Lewis of the "San Francisco Chronicle" gave the film three out of four stars, saying, "Sandel's film has heart, some good laughs and a decent message. In this age of cyberbullying, that's nothing to scoff at."


title: Power station

text: A power station, also referred to as a power plant and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Power stations are generally connected to an electrical grid.


title: Power station

text: Many power stations contain one or more generators, a rotating machine that converts mechanical power into three-phase electric power. The relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor creates an electric current.


title: Power station

text: The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. Most power stations in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity. Low-carbon power sources include nuclear power, and an increasing use of renewables such as solar, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric.


title: Power station

text: In early 1871 Belgian inventor Zénobe Gramme invented a generator powerful enough to produce power on a commercial scale for industry.


title: Power station

text: In 1878, a hydroelectric power station was designed and built by William, Lord Armstrong at Cragside, England. It used water from lakes on his estate to power Siemens dynamos. The electricity supplied power to lights, heating, produced hot water, ran an elevator as well as labor-saving devices and farm buildings.


title: Power station

text: In January 1882 the world's first public coal-fired power station, the Edison Electric Light Station, was built in London, a project of Thomas Edison organized by Edward Johnson. A Babcock & Wilcox boiler powered a steam engine that drove a generator. This supplied electricity to premises in the area that could be reached through the culverts of the viaduct without digging up the road, which was the monopoly of the gas companies. The customers included the City Temple and the Old Bailey. Another important customer was the Telegraph Office of the General Post Office, but this could not be reached through the culverts. Johnson arranged for the supply cable to be run overhead, via Holborn Tavern and Newgate.


title: Power station

text: In September 1882 in New York, the Pearl Street Station was established by Edison to provide electric lighting in the lower Manhattan Island area. The station ran until destroyed by fire in 1890. The station used reciprocating steam engines to turn direct-current generators. Because of the DC distribution, the service area was small, limited by voltage drop in the feeders. In 1886 George Westinghouse began building an alternating current system that used a transformer to step up voltage for long-distance transmission and then stepped it back down for indoor lighting, a more efficient and less expensive system which is similar to modern systems. The war of the currents eventually resolved in favor of AC distribution and utilization, although some DC systems persisted to the end of the 20th century. DC systems with a service radius of a mile (kilometer) or so were necessarily smaller, less efficient of fuel consumption, and more labor-intensive to operate than much larger central AC generating stations.


title: Power station

text: AC systems used a wide range of frequencies depending on the type of load; lighting load using higher frequencies, and traction systems and heavy motor load systems preferring lower frequencies. The economics of central station generation improved greatly when unified light and power systems, operating at a common frequency, were developed. The same generating plant that fed large industrial loads during the day, could feed commuter railway systems during rush hour and then serve lighting load in the evening, thus improving the system load factor and reducing the cost of electrical energy overall. Many exceptions existed, generating stations were dedicated to power or light by the choice of frequency, and rotating frequency changers and rotating converters were particularly common to feed electric railway systems from the general lighting and power network.


title: Power station

text: Throughout the first few decades of the 20th century central stations became larger, using higher steam pressures to provide greater efficiency, and relying on interconnections of multiple generating stations to improve reliability and cost. High-voltage AC transmission allowed hydroelectric power to be conveniently moved from distant waterfalls to city markets. The advent of the steam turbine in central station service, around 1906, allowed great expansion of generating capacity. Generators were no longer limited by the power transmission of belts or the relatively slow speed of reciprocating engines, and could grow to enormous sizes. For example, Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti planned what would have reciprocating steam engine ever built for a proposed new central station, but scrapped the plans when turbines became available in the necessary size. Building power systems out of central stations required combinations of engineering skill and financial acumen in equal measure. Pioneers of central station generation include George Westinghouse and Samuel Insull in the United States, Ferranti and Charles Hesterman Merz in UK, and many others.


title: Power station

text: In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine that transforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy. Most thermal power stations produce steam, so they are sometimes called steam power stations. Not all thermal energy can be transformed into mechanical power, according to the second law of thermodynamics; therefore, there is always heat lost to the environment. If this loss is employed as useful heat, for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration power plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant. In countries where district heating is common, there are dedicated heat plants called heat-only boiler stations. An important class of power stations in the Middle East uses by-product heat for the desalination of water.


title: Power station

text: The efficiency of a thermal power cycle is limited by the maximum working fluid temperature produced. The efficiency is not directly a function of the fuel used. For the same steam conditions, coal-, nuclear- and gas power plants all have the same theoretical efficiency. Overall, if a system is on constantly (base load) it will be more efficient than one that is used intermittently (peak load). Steam turbines generally operate at higher efficiency when operated at full capacity.


title: Power station

text: Besides use of reject heat for process or district heating, one way to improve overall efficiency of a power plant is to combine two different thermodynamic cycles in a combined cycle plant. Most commonly, exhaust gases from a gas turbine are used to generate steam for a boiler and a steam turbine. The combination of a "top" cycle and a "bottom" cycle produces higher overall efficiency than either cycle can attain alone.


title: Power station

text: In 2018, Inter RAO UES and State Grid planned to build an 8-GW thermal power plant, which's the largest coal-fired power plant construction project in Russia.


title: Power station

text: Non-dispatchable plants include such sources as wind and solar energy; while their long-term contribution to system energy supply is predictable, on a short-term (daily or hourly) base their energy must be used as available since generation cannot be deferred. Contractual arrangements ("take or pay") with independent power producers or system interconnections to other networks may be effectively non-dispatchable.


title: Power station

text: All thermal power plants produce waste heat energy as a byproduct of the useful electrical energy produced. The amount of waste heat energy equals or exceeds the amount of energy converted into useful electricity. Gas-fired power plants can achieve as much as 65% conversion efficiency, while coal and oil plants achieve around 30–49%. The waste heat produces a temperature rise in the atmosphere, which is small compared to that produced by greenhouse-gas emissions from the same power plant. Natural draft wet cooling towers at many nuclear power plants and large fossil-fuel-fired power plants use large hyperboloid chimney-like structures (as seen in the image at the right) that release the waste heat to the ambient atmosphere by the evaporation of water.


title: Power station

text: However, the mechanical induced-draft or forced-draft wet cooling towers in many large thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, fossil-fired power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, geothermal, biomass and waste-to-energy plants use fans to provide air movement upward through down coming water and are not hyperboloid chimney-like structures. The induced or forced-draft cooling towers are typically rectangular, box-like structures filled with a material that enhances the mixing of the upflowing air and the down-flowing water.


title: Power station

text: In areas with restricted water use, a dry cooling tower or directly air-cooled radiators may be necessary, since the cost or environmental consequences of obtaining make-up water for evaporative cooling would be prohibitive. These coolers have lower efficiency and higher energy consumption to drive fans, compared to a typical wet, evaporative cooling tower.


title: Power station

text: Power plants can use an air-cooled condenser, traditionally in areas with a limited or expensive water supply. Air-cooled condensers serve the same purpose as a cooling tower (heat dissipation) without using water. They consume additional auxiliary power and thus may have a higher carbon footprint compared to a traditional cooling tower.


title: Power station

text: Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean or a lake, river, or cooling pond instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or once-through cooling system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping cooling water through the plant's heat exchangers. However, the waste heat can cause thermal pollution as the water is discharged. Power plants using natural bodies of water for cooling are designed with mechanisms such as fish screens, to limit intake of organisms into the cooling machinery. These screens are only partially effective and as a result billions of fish and other aquatic organisms are killed by power plants each year. For example, the cooling system at the Indian Point Energy Center in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually. Power Plant consultants in India


title: Power station

text: A further environmental impact is that aquatic organisms which adapt to the warmer discharge water may be injured if the plant shuts down in cold weather.


title: Power station

text: In recent years, recycled wastewater, or grey water, has been used in cooling towers. The Calpine Riverside and the Calpine Fox power stations in Wisconsin as well as the Calpine Mankato power station in Minnesota are among these facilities.


title: Power station

text: In a hydroelectric power station water flows through turbines using hydropower to generate hydroelectricity. Power is captured from the gravitational force of water falling through penstocks to water turbines connected to generators. The amount of power available is a combination of height and water flow. A wide range of Dams may be built to raise the water level, and create a lake for storing water.


title: Power station

text: Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use.


title: Power station

text: Solar energy can be turned into electricity either directly in solar cells, or in a concentrating solar power plant by focusing the light to run a heat engine.


title: Power station

text: A solar photovoltaic power plant converts sunlight into direct current electricity using the photoelectric effect. Inverters change the direct current into alternating current for connection to the electrical grid. This type of plant does not use rotating machines for energy conversion.


title: Power station

text: Solar thermal power plants use either parabolic troughs or heliostats to direct sunlight onto a pipe containing a heat transfer fluid, such as oil. The heated oil is then used to boil water into steam, which turns a turbine that drives an electrical generator. The central tower type of solar thermal power plant uses hundreds or thousands of mirrors, depending on size, to direct sunlight onto a receiver on top of a tower. The heat is used to produce steam to turn turbines that drive electrical generators.


title: Power station

text: Wind turbines can be used to generate electricity in areas with strong, steady winds, sometimes offshore. Many different designs have been used in the past, but almost all modern turbines being produced today use a three-bladed, upwind design. Grid-connected wind turbines now being built are much larger than the units installed during the 1970s. They thus produce power more cheaply and reliably than earlier models. With larger turbines (on the order of one megawatt), the blades move more slowly than older, smaller, units, which makes them less visually distracting and safer for birds.


title: Power station

text: Marine energy or marine power (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy or ocean power) refers to the energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the world's oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries.


title: Power station

text: The term marine energy encompasses both wave power — power from surface waves, and tidal power — obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water.


title: Power station

text: The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.


title: Power station

text: Salinity gradient energy is called pressure-retarded osmosis. In this method, seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the difference between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is also pumped into the pressure chamber through a membrane, which increases both the volume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure differences are compensated, a turbine is spun creating energy. This method is being specifically studied by the Norwegian utility Statkraft, which has calculated that up to 25 TWh/yr would be available from this process in Norway. Statkraft has built the world's first prototype osmotic power plant on the Oslo fjord which was opened on 24 November 2009. In January 2014 however Statkraft announced not to continue this pilot.


title: Power station

text: Biomass energy can be produced from combustion of waste green material to heat water into steam and drive a steam turbine. Bioenergy can also be processed through a range of temperatures and pressures in gasification, pyrolysis or torrefaction reactions. Depending on the desired end product, these reactions create more energy-dense products (syngas, wood pellets, biocoal) that can then be fed into an accompanying engine to produce electricity at a much lower emission rate when compared with open burning.


title: Power station

text: It is possible to store energy and produce electrical power at a later time as in pumped-storage hydroelectricity, thermal energy storage, flywheel energy storage, battery storage power station and so on.


title: Power station

text: The world's largest form of storage for excess electricity, pumped-storage is a reversible hydroelectric plant. They are a net consumer of energy but provide storage for any source of electricity, effectively smoothing peaks and troughs in electricity supply and demand. Pumped storage plants typically use "spare" electricity during off peak periods to pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. Because the pumping takes place "off peak", electricity is less valuable than at peak times. This less valuable "spare" electricity comes from uncontrolled wind power and base load power plants such as coal, nuclear and geothermal, which still produce power at night even though demand is very low. During daytime peak demand, when electricity prices are high, the storage is used for peaking power, where water in the upper reservoir is allowed to flow back to a lower reservoir through a turbine and generator. Unlike coal power stations, which can take more than 12 hours to start up from cold, a hydroelectric generator can be brought into service in a few minutes, ideal to meet a peak load demand. Two substantial pumped storage schemes are in South Africa, Palmiet Pumped Storage Scheme and another in the Drakensberg, Ingula Pumped Storage Scheme.


title: Power station

text: The power generated by a power station is measured in multiples of the watt, typically megawatts (10 watts) or gigawatts (10 watts). Power stations vary greatly in capacity depending on the type of power plant and on historical, geographical and economic factors. The following examples offer a sense of the scale.


title: Power station

text: Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in China. As of 2022, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the largest onshore wind farm in the world, producing 8000 MW of power, followed by the Zhang Jiakou (3000 MW). As of January 2022, the Hornsea Wind Farm in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 1218 MW, followed by Walney Wind Farm in United Kingdom at 1026 MW.


title: Power station

text: , the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are led by Bhadla Solar Park in India, rated at 2245 MW.


title: Power station

text: Large coal-fired, nuclear, and hydroelectric power stations can generate hundreds of megawatts to multiple gigawatts. Some examples:


title: Power station

text: The rated capacity of a power station is nearly the maximum electrical power that the power station can produce.


title: Power station

text: Some power plants are run at almost exactly their rated capacity all the time, as a non-load-following base load power plant, except at times of scheduled or unscheduled maintenance.


title: Power station

text: In some cases a power plant produces much less power than its rated capacity because it uses an intermittent energy source.


title: Power station

text: Operators try to pull maximum available power from such power plants, because their marginal cost is practically zero, but the available power varies widely—in particular, it may be zero during heavy storms at night.


title: Power station

text: The cost of fuel to run a load following power plant may be relatively high, and the cost of fuel to run a peaking power plant is even higher—they have relatively high marginal costs.


title: Power station

text: Operators keep power plants turned off ("operational reserve") or running at minimum fuel consumption ("spinning reserve") most of the time.


title: Power station

text: Operators feed more fuel into load following power plants only when the demand rises above what lower-cost plants (i.e., intermittent and base load plants) can produce, and then feed more fuel into peaking power plants only when the demand rises faster than the load following power plants can follow.


title: Power station

text: Not all of the generated power of a plant is necessarily delivered into a distribution system. Power plants typically also use some of the power themselves, in which case the generation output is classified into "gross generation", and "net generation".


title: Power station

text: Gross generation or gross electric output is the total amount of electricity generated by a power plant over a specific period of time. It is measured at the generating terminal and is measured in kilowatt-hours (kW·h), megawatt-hours (MW·h), gigawatt-hours (GW·h) or for the largest power plants terawatt-hours (TW·h). It includes the electricity used in the plant auxiliaries and in the transformers.


title: Power station

text: Net generation is the amount of electricity generated by a power plant that is transmitted and distributed for consumer use. Net generation is less than the total gross power generation as some power produced is consumed within the plant itself to power auxiliary equipment such as pumps, motors and pollution control devices. Thus


title: Power station

text: Operating staff at a power station have several duties. Operators are responsible for the safety of the work crews that frequently do repairs on the mechanical and electrical equipment. They maintain the equipment with periodic inspections and log temperatures, pressures and other important information at regular intervals. Operators are responsible for starting and stopping the generators depending on need. They are able to synchronize and adjust the voltage output of the added generation with the running electrical system, without upsetting the system. They must know the electrical and mechanical systems to troubleshoot problems in the facility and add to the reliability of the facility. Operators must be able to respond to an emergency and know the procedures in place to deal with it.


title: Buddy Hield

text: Chavano Rainer "Buddy" Hield (born December 17, 1992) is a Bahamian professional basketball player for the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was named the Big 12 Conference Men's Basketball Player of the Year in 2015 and 2016, and in 2016, he received four major national player of the year awards—the John R. Wooden Award, the Naismith Award, "Sporting News" Player of the Year, and the Oscar Robertson Trophy. Hield was selected with the sixth overall pick in the 2016 NBA draft by the New Orleans Pelicans and was traded to the Sacramento Kings in 2017. He was dealt to the Indiana Pacers in 2022.


title: Buddy Hield

text: Hield grew up in Eight Mile Rock, a coastal region west of Freeport, in the West Grand Bahama district in the Bahamas. He was fifth of seven children of his mother Jackie Braynen. Hield received his nickname from his mother after Bud Bundy of the sitcom "Married... with Children".


title: Buddy Hield

text: Hield was first featured in high school by "The All Bahamian Brand", a basketball magazine from the Bahamas. Hield, as a young eighth-grader, was rated by the All Bahamian Brand as the best eighth-grader in the Bahamas and one to watch.


title: Buddy Hield

text: Hield showed his early ability to lead his team from a young age by taking his Jack Hayward High School basketball team to the championship of the Providence Holiday Tournament on a buzzer-beater and also leading his team to win the Grand Bahamas High School Championships. For his exploits, Hield was named an All Bahamian Brand All Bahamian Selection.


title: Buddy Hield

text: After his performances in The Bahamas, Hield was recruited to attend Sunrise Christian Academy in Bel Aire, a basketball prep school in a suburb of Wichita, Kansas. Former Wichita State assistant and then-Sunrise coach Kyle Lindsted recruited the 6-foot 4-inch (1.93 m) guard. In 2011, during Hield's junior year at Sunrise Christian he led the team to the National Association of Christian Athletes national championship, getting named the MVP of the tourney. In the 2011-2012 season, his senior year, Hield averaged 22.7 points on .491 shooting in 21.0 minutes per game.


title: Buddy Hield

text: As a freshman at Oklahoma, Hield scored 7.8 points per game, and was the recipient of the team's Most Inspirational Award. He was a second-team All-Big 12 selection as a sophomore as he averaged 16.5 points, 4.4 rebounds and 1.4 steals per game. He worked on his defense prior to his junior year and expanded his offensive game to more of a high-volume three-point shooter.


title: Buddy Hield

text: Hield averaged 17.4 points and 5.4 rebounds per game as a junior at Oklahoma and shot 41 percent from the field. He led Oklahoma to a 24–11 record and Sweet 16 berth. Despite being a potential 2015 NBA draft selection, he decided to return for his senior season. He was a First Team All-Big 12 selection and was named Big 12 Conference Men's Basketball Player of the Year.


title: Buddy Hield

text: Hield was listed on the Oscar Robertson Award preseason watchlist as well as the Naismith College Player of the Year preseason watchlist. Hield recorded a career high of 46 points in a triple overtime loss to Kansas on January 4, 2016, receiving a standing ovation from the opposing crowd after a postgame interview with Scott Van Pelt. His 46 points tied the record for most points scored by an opponent at Allen Fieldhouse. He was named to the 35-man midseason watchlist for the Naismith Trophy on February 11.


title: Buddy Hield

text: Following his senior year at Oklahoma, Hield won the John R. Wooden Award on April 7, 2016, as the best college basketball player for the 2015–16 season, in which he averaged 25 points, 5.7 rebounds, two assists per game, and led the nation in three-point shots.


title: Buddy Hield

text: On June 23, 2016, Hield was selected by the New Orleans Pelicans with the sixth overall pick in the 2016 NBA draft. On July 22, 2016, he signed with the Pelicans. On December 15, 2016, he had his best outing as a Pelican with 21 points and five three-pointers in a 102–95 win over the Indiana Pacers. On January 3, 2017, he was named Western Conference Rookie of the Month for December.


title: Buddy Hield

text: On February 20, 2017, Hield was traded, along with Tyreke Evans, Langston Galloway and 2017 first-round and second-round draft picks, to the Sacramento Kings for DeMarcus Cousins and Omri Casspi. He made his debut for the Kings three days later, scoring 16 points off the bench in a 116–100 win over the Denver Nuggets. He was named Western Conference Rookie of the Month for March. On April 11, he set a new career high with 30 points in a 129–104 win over the Phoenix Suns. At the season's end, he was named to the NBA All-Rookie First Team.


title: Buddy Hield

text: Hield began the 2017–18 season as a starter before switching to a bench role and becoming the team's sixth man after seven games. On November 25, 2017, Hield scored a season-high 27 points off the bench with a career-high seven 3-pointers in a 97–95 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. Hield shot 43.1 percent from 3-point range in 2017–18, which placed him ninth in the NBA among qualified players.


title: Buddy Hield

text: In December 2018, Hield had a seven-game streak with 20 points or more. On January 5, he scored 32 points and had a career-high eight 3-pointers in a 127–123 loss to the Warriors. On January 19, 2019, Hield made an off-balance, fadeaway 3-pointer just before time expired and scored 35 points in a 103–101 win over the Detroit Pistons. On March 23, he had 25 points and the franchise season record for 3-pointers in a 112–103 win over the Suns. He made 7 of 14 shots from beyond the arc, giving him 245 3-pointers for the season and surpassing the mark of 240 set by Peja Stojaković in 2003–04. In April, he broke Damian Lillard's NBA record (599) for most 3-pointers made in a player's first three seasons.


title: Buddy Hield

text: On October 21, 2019, Hield signed a four-year contract extension. On December 26, Hield accused coaches and teammates of having "trust issues" after he was benched late in regulation of a game that the Kings eventually lost in double overtime to the Minnesota Timberwolves. He apologized to the entire team the next day for his remarks. Hield eventually lost his starting spot to Bogdan Bogdanović, but the switch produced a boost in his production and efficiency; in only his second game off the bench, on January 27, 2020, and again against the Timberwolves, Hield scored a career-high 42 points to lead the Kings to a 133–129 overtime victory. Afterwards, Hield dedicated the game to his idol Kobe Bryant, who died in a helicopter accident the day prior. On February 15, Hield won the Three-Point Contest at NBA All-Star Weekend in Chicago, topping Devin Booker 27–26 in the final round.


title: Buddy Hield

text: On December 23, 2020, Hield recorded 22 points, four rebounds, and three assists, alongside a game-winning, buzzer-beating tip-in, in a 124–122 overtime win against the Denver Nuggets. On February 28, 2021, Hield became the fastest player in history to make 1,000 3-pointers, needing 350 games only to reach the mark.


title: Buddy Hield

text: On July 29, 2021, it was reported that the Kings were moving towards a deal sending Hield to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for forwards Kyle Kuzma and Montrezl Harrell. The deal fell through as the Lakers ended up trading Kuzma and Harrell in a package to the Washington Wizards for Russell Westbrook.


title: Buddy Hield

text: On February 8, 2022, Hield, Tyrese Haliburton, and Tristan Thompson were traded to the Indiana Pacers in exchange for Justin Holiday, Jeremy Lamb, Domantas Sabonis, and a 2023 second-round pick. On February 11, Hield made his debut for the Pacers, starting alongside Haliburton in a 120–113 loss to the Cleveland Cavaliers, recording a near triple double with 16 points, eight assists and nine rebounds. On February 15, Hield scored a season-high 36 points while dishing out four assists in a 128–119 loss to the Milwaukee Bucks. On December 5, Hield became the second-fastest player in NBA history to reach 1,500 career three-pointers, only behind Steph Curry.


title: Buddy Hield

text: Hield traveled to the city of Tepic in Nayarit, Mexico from August 1 to 7, 2014 to represent the Bahamas national team in the 2014 Centrobasket, which is the regional basketball championship of FIBA Americas for the Central American and Caribbean subzone. Hield's coach in the tournament was Larry Eustachy. He averaged a tournament-leading 19.8 points per game and a team-high 6.0 rebounds.


title: Buddy Hield

text: In the days after Hurricane Dorian struck the Bahamas, Hield donated $105,000 to the Hurricane Dorian Relief fund and created a GoFundMe page to help raise an extra $1,000,000 to help families devastated by the hurricane there.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Cannabinoids () are several structural classes of compounds found in the cannabis plant primarily and most animal organisms (although insects lack such receptors) or as synthetic compounds. The most notable cannabinoid is the phytocannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (delta-9-THC), the primary intoxicating compound in cannabis. Cannabidiol (CBD) is a major constituent of temperate Cannabis plants and a minor constituent in tropical varieties. At least 113 distinct phytocannabinoids have been isolated from cannabis, although only four (i.e., THCA, CBDA, CBCA and their common precursor CBGA) have been demonstrated to have a biogenetic origin. It was reported in 2020 that phytocannabinoids can be found in other plants such as rhododendron, licorice and liverwort, and earlier in Echinacea.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Phytocannabinoids are multi-ring phenolic compounds structurally related to THC, but endocannabinoids are fatty acid derivatives. Nonclassical synthetic cannabinoids (cannabimimetics) include aminoalkylindoles, 1,5-diarylpyrazoles, quinolines, and arylsulfonamides as well as eicosanoids related to endocannabinoids.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Medical uses include the treatment of nausea due to chemotherapy, spasticity, and possibly neuropathic pain. Common side effects include dizziness, sedation, confusion, dissociation, and "feeling high".


title: Cannabinoid

text: Before the 1980s, cannabinoids were speculated to produce their physiological and behavioral effects via nonspecific interaction with cell membranes, instead of interacting with specific membrane-bound receptors. The discovery of the first cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s helped to resolve this debate. These receptors are common in animals. Two known cannabinoid receptors are termed CB and CB, with mounting evidence of more. The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) type.


title: Cannabinoid

text: The Endocannabinoid System (ECS) regulates many functions of the human body. The ECS plays an important role in multiple aspects of neural functions, including the control of movement and motor coordination, learning and memory, emotion and motivation, addictive-like behavior and pain modulation, among others.


title: Cannabinoid

text: CB receptors are found primarily in the brain, more specifically in the basal ganglia and in the limbic system, including the hippocampus and the striatum. They are also found in the cerebellum and in both male and female reproductive systems. CB receptors are absent in the medulla oblongata, the part of the brain stem responsible for respiratory and cardiovascular functions. CB1 is also found in the human anterior eye and retina.


title: Cannabinoid

text: CB receptors are predominantly found in the immune system, or immune-derived cells with varying expression patterns. While found only in the peripheral nervous system, a report does indicate that CB is expressed by a subpopulation of microglia in the human cerebellum. CB receptors appear to be responsible for immunomodulatory and possibly other therapeutic effects of cannabinoid as seen in vitro and in animal models.


title: Cannabinoid

text: The classical cannabinoids are concentrated in a viscous resin produced in structures known as glandular trichomes. At least 113 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the "Cannabis" plant. To the right, the main classes of cannabinoids from "Cannabis" are shown.


title: Cannabinoid

text: All classes derive from cannabigerol-type (CBG) compounds and differ mainly in the way this precursor is cyclized. The classical cannabinoids are derived from their respective 2-carboxylic acids (2-COOH) by decarboxylation (catalyzed by heat, light, or alkaline conditions).


title: Cannabinoid

text: The best studied cannabinoids include tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN).


title: Cannabinoid

text: Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive component of the Cannabis plant. "Delta"-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-THC, THC) and Delta-8-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-THC), through intracellular CB activation, induce anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol synthesis produced naturally in the body and brain. These cannabinoids produce the effects associated with cannabis by binding to the CB cannabinoid receptors in the brain.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Cannabidiol (CBD) is mildly psychotropic. Evidence shows that the compound counteracts cognitive impairment associated with the use of cannabis. Cannabidiol has little affinity for CB and CB receptors but acts as an indirect antagonist of cannabinoid agonists. It was found to be an antagonist at the putative new cannabinoid receptor, GPR55, a GPCR expressed in the caudate nucleus and putamen. Cannabidiol has also been shown to act as a 5-HT receptor agonist. CBD can interfere with the uptake of adenosine, which plays an important role in biochemical processes, such as energy transfer. It may play a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal.


title: Cannabinoid

text: CBD shares a precursor with THC and is the main cannabinoid in CBD-dominant "Cannabis" strains. CBD has been shown to play a role in preventing the short-term memory loss associated with THC.


title: Cannabinoid

text: There is tentative evidence that CBD has an anti-psychotic effect, but research in this area is limited.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Cannabinol (CBN) is a mildly psychoactive cannabinoid that acts as a low affinity partial agonist at both CB1 and CB2 receptors. Through its mechanism of partial agonism at the CB1R, CBN is thought to interact with other kinds of neurotransmission (e.g., dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, and noradrenergic).


title: Cannabinoid

text: CBN was the first cannabis compound to be isolated from cannabis extract in the late 1800s. Its structure and chemical synthesis were achieved by 1940, followed by some of the first pre-clinical research studies to determine the effects of individual cannabis-derived compounds in vivo. Although CBN shares the same mechanism of action as other more well-known phytocannabinoids (e.g., delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol or D9THC), it has a lower affinity for CB1 receptors, meaning that much higher doses of CBN are required in order to experience physiologic effects (e.g., mild sedation) associated with CB1R agonism. Although scientific reports are conflicting, the majority of findings suggest that CBN has a slightly higher affinity for CB2 as compared to CB1. Although CBN has been marketed as a sleep aid in recent years, there is a lack of scientific evidence to support these claims, warranting skepticism on the part of consumers.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Cannabinoid production starts when an enzyme causes geranyl pyrophosphate and olivetolic acid to combine and form CBGA. Next, CBGA is independently converted to either CBG, THCA, CBDA or CBCA by four separate synthase, FAD-dependent dehydrogenase enzymes. There is no evidence for enzymatic conversion of CBDA or CBD to THCA or THC. For the propyl homologues (THCVA, CBDVA and CBCVA), there is an analogous pathway that is based on CBGVA from divarinolic acid instead of olivetolic acid.


title: Cannabinoid

text: In addition, each of the compounds above may be in different forms depending on the position of the double bond in the alicyclic carbon ring. There is potential for confusion because there are different numbering systems used to describe the position of this double bond. Under the dibenzopyran numbering system widely used today, the major form of THC is called Δ-THC, while the minor form is called Δ-THC. Under the alternate terpene numbering system, these same compounds are called Δ-THC and Δ-THC, respectively.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Most classical cannabinoids are 21-carbon compounds. However, some do not follow this rule, primarily because of variation in the length of the side-chain attached to the aromatic ring. In THC, CBD, and CBN, this side-chain is a pentyl (5-carbon) chain. In the most common homologue, the pentyl chain is replaced with a propyl (3-carbon) chain. Cannabinoids with the propyl side chain are named using the suffix "varin" and are designated THCV, CBDV, or CBNV, while those with the heptyl side chain are named using the suffix "phorol" and are designated THCP and CBDP.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Phytocannabinoids are known to occur in several plant species besides cannabis. These include "Echinacea purpurea", "Echinacea angustifolia", "Acmella oleracea", "Helichrysum umbraculigerum", and "Radula marginata". The best-known cannabinoids that are not derived from Cannabis are the lipophilic alkamides (alkylamides) from "Echinacea" species, most notably the cis/trans isomers dodeca-2E,4E,8Z,10E/Z-tetraenoic-acid-isobutylamide. At least 25 different alkylamides have been identified, and some of them have shown affinities to the CB-receptor. In some "Echinacea" species, cannabinoids are found throughout the plant structure, but are most concentrated in the roots and flowers. Yangonin found in the Kava plant has significant affinity to the CB1 receptor. Tea (Camellia sinensis) catechins have an affinity for human cannabinoid receptors. A widespread dietary terpene, beta-caryophyllene, a component from the essential oil of cannabis and other medicinal plants, has also been identified as a selective agonist of peripheral CB-receptors, "in vivo". Black truffles contain anandamide. Perrottetinene, a moderately psychoactive cannabinoid, has been isolated from different "Radula" varieties.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Most of the phytocannabinoids are nearly insoluble in water but are soluble in lipids, alcohols, and other non-polar organic solvents.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Cannabis plants can exhibit wide variation in the quantity and type of cannabinoids they produce. The mixture of cannabinoids produced by a plant is known as the plant's cannabinoid profile. Selective breeding has been used to control the genetics of plants and modify the cannabinoid profile. For example, strains that are used as fiber (commonly called hemp) are bred such that they are low in psychoactive chemicals like THC. Strains used in medicine are often bred for high CBD content, and strains used for recreational purposes are usually bred for high THC content or for a specific chemical balance.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Quantitative analysis of a plant's cannabinoid profile is often determined by gas chromatography (GC), or more reliably by gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Liquid chromatography (LC) techniques are also possible and, unlike GC methods, can differentiate between the acid and neutral forms of the cannabinoids. There have been systematic attempts to monitor the cannabinoid profile of cannabis over time, but their accuracy is impeded by the illegal status of the plant in many countries.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Cannabinoids can be administered by smoking, vaporizing, oral ingestion, transdermal patch, intravenous injection, sublingual absorption, or rectal suppository. Once in the body, most cannabinoids are metabolized in the liver, especially by cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxidases, mainly CYP 2C9. Thus supplementing with CYP 2C9 inhibitors leads to extended intoxication.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Some is also stored in fat in addition to being metabolized in the liver. Δ-THC is metabolized to 11-hydroxy-Δ-THC, which is then metabolized to 9-carboxy-THC. Some cannabis metabolites can be detected in the body several weeks after administration. These metabolites are the chemicals recognized by common antibody-based "drug tests"; in the case of THC or others, these loads do not represent intoxication (compare to ethanol breath tests that measure instantaneous blood alcohol levels), but an integration of past consumption over an approximately month-long window. This is because they are fat-soluble, lipophilic molecules that accumulate in fatty tissues.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Research shows the effect of cannabinoids might be modulated by aromatic compounds produced by the cannabis plant, called terpenes. This interaction would lead to the entourage effect.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Nabiximols (brand name Sativex) is an aerosolized mist for oral administration containing a near 1:1 ratio of CBD and THC. Also included are minor cannabinoids and terpenoids, ethanol and propylene glycol excipients, and peppermint flavoring. The drug, made by GW Pharmaceuticals, was first approved by Canadian authorities in 2005 to alleviate pain associated with multiple sclerosis, making it the first cannabis-based medicine. It is marketed by Bayer in Canada. Sativex has been approved in 25 countries; clinical trials are underway in the United States to gain FDA approval. In 2007, it was approved for treatment of cancer pain. In Phase III trials, the most common adverse effects were dizziness, drowsiness and disorientation; 12% of subjects stopped taking the drug because of the side effects.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Dronabinol (brand name Marinol) is a THC drug used to treat poor appetite, nausea, and sleep apnea. It is approved by the FDA for treating HIV/AIDS induced anorexia and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting.


title: Cannabinoid

text: The CBD drug Epidiolex has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treatment of two rare and severe forms of epilepsy, Dravet and Lennox-Gastaut syndromes.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Cannabinoids can be separated from the plant by extraction with organic solvents. Hydrocarbons and alcohols are often used as solvents. However, these solvents are flammable and many are toxic. Butane may be used, which evaporates extremely quickly. Supercritical solvent extraction with carbon dioxide is an alternative technique. Once extracted, isolated components can be separated using wiped film vacuum distillation or other distillation techniques. Also, techniques such as SPE or SPME are found useful in the extraction of these compounds.


title: Cannabinoid

text: The first discovery of an individual cannabinoid was made, when British chemist Robert S. Cahn reported the partial structure of Cannabinol (CBN), which he later identified as fully formed in 1940.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Two years later, in 1942, American chemist, Roger Adams, made history when he discovered Cannabidiol (CBD). Progressing from Adams research, in 1963 Israeli professor Raphael Mechoulam later identified the stereochemistry of CBD. The following year, in 1964, Mechoulam and his team identified the stereochemistry of Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).


title: Cannabinoid

text: Due to molecular similarity and ease of synthetic conversion, CBD was originally believed to be a natural precursor to THC. However, it is now known that CBD and THC are produced independently in the Cannabis plant from the precursor CBG.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Endocannabinoids are substances produced from within the body that activate cannabinoid receptors. After the discovery of the first cannabinoid receptor in 1988, scientists began searching for endogenous ligand for the receptors.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Anandamide was the first such compound identified as arachidonoyl ethanolamine. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bliss and -"amide". It has a pharmacology similar to THC, although its structure is quite different. Anandamide binds to the central (CB) and, to a lesser extent, peripheral (CB) cannabinoid receptors, where it acts as a partial agonist. Anandamide is about as potent as THC at the CB receptor. Anandamide is found in nearly all tissues in a wide range of animals. Anandamide has also been found in plants, including small amounts in chocolate.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Two analogs of anandamide, 7,10,13,16-docosatetraenoylethanolamide and "homo"-γ-linolenoylethanolamine, have similar pharmacology. All of these compounds are members of a family of signalling lipids called "N"-acylethanolamines, which also includes the noncannabimimetic palmitoylethanolamide and oleoylethanolamide, which possess anti-inflammatory and anorexigenic effects, respectively. Many "N"-acylethanolamines have also been identified in plant seeds and in molluscs.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Another endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, binds to both the CB and CB receptors with similar affinity, acting as a full agonist at both. 2-AG is present at significantly higher concentrations in the brain than anandamide, and there is some controversy over whether 2-AG rather than anandamide is chiefly responsible for endocannabinoid signalling "in vivo". In particular, one "in vitro" study suggests that 2-AG is capable of stimulating higher G-protein activation than anandamide, although the physiological implications of this finding are not yet known.


title: Cannabinoid

text: In 2001, a third, ether-type endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether (noladin ether), was isolated from porcine brain. Prior to this discovery, it had been synthesized as a stable analog of 2-AG; indeed, some controversy remains over its classification as an endocannabinoid, as another group failed to detect the substance at "any appreciable amount" in the brains of several different mammalian species. It binds to the CB cannabinoid receptor ("K" = 21.2 nmol/L) and causes sedation, hypothermia, intestinal immobility, and mild antinociception in mice. It binds primarily to the CB receptor, and only weakly to the CB receptor.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Discovered in 2000, NADA preferentially binds to the CB receptor. Like anandamide, NADA is also an agonist for the vanilloid receptor subtype 1 (TRPV1), a member of the vanilloid receptor family.


title: Cannabinoid

text: A fifth endocannabinoid, virodhamine, or "O"-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (OAE), was discovered in June 2002. Although it is a full agonist at CB and a partial agonist at CB, it behaves as a CB antagonist "in vivo". In rats, virodhamine was found to be present at comparable or slightly lower concentrations than anandamide in the brain, but 2- to 9-fold higher concentrations peripherally.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Lysophosphatidylinositol is the endogenous ligand to novel endocannabinoid receptor GPR55, making it a strong contender as the sixth endocannabinoid.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Endocannabinoids serve as intercellular 'lipid messengers', signaling molecules that are released from one cell and activating the cannabinoid receptors present on other nearby cells. Although in this intercellular signaling role they are similar to the well-known monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine, endocannabinoids differ in numerous ways from them. For instance, they are used in retrograde signaling between neurons. Furthermore, endocannabinoids are lipophilic molecules that are not very soluble in water. They are not stored in vesicles and exist as integral constituents of the membrane bilayers that make up cells. They are believed to be synthesized 'on-demand' rather than made and stored for later use.


title: Cannabinoid

text: As hydrophobic molecules, endocannabinoids cannot travel unaided for long distances in the aqueous medium surrounding the cells from which they are released and therefore act locally on nearby target cells. Hence, although emanating diffusely from their source cells, they have much more restricted spheres of influence than do hormones, which can affect cells throughout the body.


title: Cannabinoid

text: The mechanisms and enzymes underlying the biosynthesis of endocannabinoids remain elusive and continue to be an area of active research.


title: Cannabinoid

text: A review by Matties et al. (1994) summed up the phenomenon of gustatory enhancement by certain cannabinoids. The sweet receptor (Tlc1) is stimulated by indirectly increasing its expression and suppressing the activity of leptin, the Tlc1 antagonist. It is proposed that the competition of leptin and cannabinoids for Tlc1 is implicated in energy homeostasis.


title: Cannabinoid

text: Conventional neurotransmitters are released from a ‘presynaptic’ cell and activate appropriate receptors on a ‘postsynaptic’ cell, where presynaptic and postsynaptic designate the sending and receiving sides of a synapse, respectively. Endocannabinoids, on the other hand, are described as retrograde transmitters because they most commonly travel ‘backward’ against the usual synaptic transmitter flow. They are, in effect, released from the postsynaptic cell and act on the presynaptic cell, where the target receptors are densely concentrated on axonal terminals in the zones from which conventional neurotransmitters are released. Activation of cannabinoid receptors temporarily reduces the amount of conventional neurotransmitter released. This endocannabinoid-mediated system permits the postsynaptic cell to control its own incoming synaptic traffic. The ultimate effect on the endocannabinoid-releasing cell depends on the nature of the conventional transmitter being controlled. For instance, when the release of the inhibitory transmitter GABA is reduced, the net effect is an increase in the excitability of the endocannabinoid-releasing cell. On the converse, when release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate is reduced, the net effect is a decrease in the excitability of the endocannabinoid-releasing cell.


title: Cannabinoid

text: The runner's high, the feeling of euphoria that sometimes accompanies aerobic exercise, has often been attributed to the release of endorphins, but newer research suggests that it might be due to endocannabinoids instead.