title: Left-libertarianism

text: Scholars representing this school of left-libertarianism often understand their position in contrast to right-libertarians, who maintain that there are no fair share constraints on use or appropriation that individuals have the power to appropriate unowned things by claiming them (usually by mixing their labor with them) and deny any other conditions or considerations are relevant and that there is no justification for the state to redistribute resources to the needy or to overcome market failures. A number of left-libertarians of this school argue for the desirability of some state social welfare programs. Left-libertarians of the Carson–Long left-libertarianism school typically endorse the labor-based property rights that Steiner–Vallentyne left-libertarians reject, but they hold that implementing such rights would have radical rather than conservative consequences.


title: Left-libertarianism

text: Left-libertarians of the Steiner–Vallentyne type hold that it is illegitimate for anyone to claim private ownership of natural resources to the detriment of others. These left-libertarians support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources. Unappropriated natural resources are either unowned or owned in common and private appropriation is only legitimate if everyone can appropriate an equal amount or if private appropriation is taxed to compensate those who are excluded from natural resources.


title: Left-libertarianism

text: Criticism of left-libertarianism is mainly related to anarchism and includes allegations of utopianism, tacit authoritarianism and vandalism towards feats of civilization.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: William Clay Ford Jr. (born May 3, 1957) is an American businessman, serving as executive chairman of Ford Motor Company. The great-grandson of company founder Henry Ford, Ford joined the board in 1988 and has served as chairman since January 1999. Ford also served as the president, CEO, and COO until turning over those roles to former Boeing executive Alan Mulally in September 2006. Ford is also the vice chairman of the Detroit Lions NFL franchise. Ford serves as a chairman of the United States-Mexico Chamber of Commerce.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: Ford was born in Detroit, Michigan, the great-grandson of Henry Ford I and great-grandson of Harvey S. Firestone. His father was William Clay Ford Sr. and his mother is Martha Firestone. On his mother's side, his grandparents are Harvey S. Firestone Jr. and Elizabeth Parke. On his father's side, his grandparents are Edsel Ford I and Eleanor Lowthian Clay. Edsel Ford II, son of Henry Ford II and also a board member, is his first cousin. Ford has three sisters: Martha Morse (who has 3 children), Sheila Hamp (who has 3 children), and Elizabeth Kontulis. He, like his great-grandfather Henry Ford, is of mainly Irish, English, and Belgian descent.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: Ford graduated from the Hotchkiss School in Connecticut in 1975. He then attended Princeton University and graduated with an A.B. in history in 1979 after completing a 105-page long senior thesis titled "Henry Ford and Labor: A Reappraisal." While a student at Princeton, Ford was president of the Ivy Club and played on the Princeton rugby team. In 1984 he received an M.S. in management as a Sloan Fellow from the MIT Sloan School of Management.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: He joined Ford in 1979 and held a variety of positions, beginning in product development and on the financial staff, a grooming ground for future executives. He served several years as a mid-ranking executive in product development. He also briefly headed the Climate Control Division (since divested from the company as part of the Visteon spinoff). At the time of the Ford 2000 reorganization, he was in charge of heavy truck operations.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: Ford gave up an executive position in heavy truck program management to become chairman of the finance committee on the board of directors, a non-executive corporate governance position. He was elected chairman of the board in September 1998 and took office on January 1, 1999. Ford added the title of chief executive officer on October 30, 2001, following the ouster of then-CEO Jacques Nasser. With the retirement of Ford president and chief operating officer Jim Padilla in April 2006, Bill Ford assumed those roles as well. On September 5, 2006, Ford announced that he was stepping down as president and CEO, naming former Boeing senior executive Alan Mulally as his replacement. Ford continues as the company's executive chairman.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: At the time of his stepping down, Ford was ranked 264th on "Forbes"' list of top-earning CEOs, at $10 million per year.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: In 2000, he announced that the company would achieve a 25% improvement in fuel efficiency in the company's light truck fleet, including SUVs, by mid-decade.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: Under his direction, Ford Motor Company made technological progress toward improving fuel efficiency, with the introduction of the Hybrid Electric Escape, the most fuel-efficient SUV on the market, achieving 36 mpg (EPA) in city driving. The Escape's platform mates Mercury Mariner and Mazda Tribute were also scheduled to receive hybrid-electric powertrain options, along with other upcoming vehicles in the Ford product line including the Ford Fusion and Mercury Milan. Ford announced that half of the vehicle lineup would be available with advanced hybrid-electric powerplant options by 2010, although the Company's earlier pledge to build 250,000 hybrid vehicles a year by 2010 proved to be overly optimistic and had to be abandoned. Ford also continued to study Fuel Cell-powered electric powertrains and demonstrated hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine technologies, as well as developing the next-generation hybrid-electric systems. In addition to the Ford Escape, Hybrid Escape, Mercury Mariner, and Mazda Tribute, Ford marketed high efficiency crossover SUVs such as the Ford Freestyle, the Volvo XC70 and the Volvo XC90. Ford also developed new crossover SUVs, such as the Ford Edge, Lincoln MKX, and Mazda CX-7.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: Ford expanded its lineup of flexible-fuel vehicles, alternative fuel vehicles, and dual-fuel vehicles. Flexible fuel vehicles can operate on a range of fuel mixtures – such as ethanol-gasoline blends ranging from pure gasoline to E85 (85% ethanol, 15% gasoline). Alternative fuel vehicles operate on non-petroleum fuels, such as methanol, compressed natural gas (CNG), propane, and hydrogen. Dual fuel vehicles generally have two fuel tanks – one for compressed natural gas or propane, and another for regular gasoline – with a selector switch to choose between them. Vehicles using those fueling alternatives were in test fleets, for example as taxis and shuttle buses, and some were available for sale to the public. Ford was committed to sell 250,000 alternative and flexible fuel vehicles – the majority of which would be designed to operate on ethanol-gasoline blends such as E85 – in 2006.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: Speaking at conference in November 2000 in London, Ford suggested that the company might one day offer a service where it owns vehicles and makes them available to people when they need access to them.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: Market competition, health care, and raw material costs led Ford to announce a second restructuring for its North American operations in four years. Ford's restructuring plan, dubbed "The Way Forward", reversed a $1.6 billion loss during 2009 in its North American operations. The company returned to profitability in 2010.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: Ford has been a vocal advocate for improvements to be made in all modes of global transportation, having stated that governments and private industry would need to rethink transportation infrastructure and technology as the global population expands and the existing infrastructure is unable to keep pace. In January 2010, he announced the launch of a strategic investment firm, Fontinalis Partners, with the purpose of investing in innovative companies developing next-generation mobility solutions. Ford co-founded the firm with Ralph Booth (Chairman and CEO of Booth American Company and a media and telecom investor), Mark Schulz (former head of Ford Motor Company's international operations), Chris Cheever, and Chris Thomas.


title: William Clay Ford Jr.

text: Ford is married to Lisa Vanderzee Ford, and they have four children. He is first cousin to Alfred Ford.


title: We Baby Bears

text: We Baby Bears is an American animated television series developed by Manny Hernandez for Cartoon Network. It is a spin-off prequel of the animated series "We Bare Bears", which was created by Daniel Chong. Produced by Cartoon Network Studios, it premiered on January 1, 2022. On January 31, 2022, the series was renewed for a second season.


title: We Baby Bears

text: "We Baby Bears" follows Grizz, Panda, and Ice Bear as babies searching for a new home in a magical teleporting box.


title: We Baby Bears

text: Celebrity guest stars include: Anjali Bhimani, Rhys Darby, Janeane Garofalo, Young M.A., Jason Mantzoukas, Stephen Oyoung, Willow Smith, and Bernardo Velasco.


title: We Baby Bears

text: The series was first announced on May 30, 2019, which was slated to premiere on Cartoon Network in spring 2021 but was delayed to January 2022. A trailer was released on November 25, 2021, and the series premiered its first 10 episodes in a marathon on New Year's Day 2022. The series is rendered in an anime-esque style and features the bears going on various adventures in their magical box. Manny Hernandez, who served as supervising director on the original series, serves as the showrunner while Daniel Chong is involved as an executive producer.


title: We Baby Bears

text: The series had a crossover Halloween special with "Summer Camp Island", which premiered on October 8, 2022.


title: We Baby Bears

text: "We Baby Bears" had its first DVD release on October 25, 2022, consisting of 20 episodes from the first season.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: Oh Se-hun (; born April 12, 1994), also known mononymously as Sehun, is a South Korean rapper, singer, songwriter, actor, model and dancer. He is a member of the South Korean-Chinese boy group Exo, its sub-group Exo-K and sub-unit Exo-SC. Apart from his group's activities, Oh has also had supporting roles in various television dramas and films such as "Secret Queen Makers" (2018) and" Now, We Are Breaking Up" (2021), and starred in "Dokgo Rewind" (2018).


title: Oh Se-hun

text: Oh was born in Jungnang-gu, Seoul, South Korea, on April 12, 1994. He graduated from the School of Performing Arts Seoul in February 2013. He has an older brother.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: Oh was first scouted by an SM Entertainment casting agent at 12 years old while he was out having lunch with friends, he was eventually cast into SM Entertainment in 2008. He went through four auditions in two years. On January 10, 2012, Oh became the fifth Exo member to be officially introduced to the public. The group made their debut with the extended play "Mama" in April 2012.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: In February 2016, Oh received a Weibo Star Award as voted by users of the Chinese social networking site Sina Weibo at the 5th Gaon Chart K-Pop Awards. In March 2016, Oh was cast as the male lead in the upcoming Korean-Chinese film "Catman", which was released in 2018. In July 2016, Oh was announced to be starring as the male lead in the upcoming Korean-Chinese web drama "Dear Archimedes", which began airing in 2019.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: In February 2018, Oh was cast in the action web drama "Dokgo Rewind" as the male lead. In May 2018, it was announced that Sehun will be starring in the web drama "Secret Queen Makers" which is produced by Lotte Duty Free. On September 14, 2018, Oh with fellow Exo member Chanyeol released a collaborative single, "We Young", for SM Station X 0.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: On June 28, 2019, it was confirmed that Oh and Chanyeol were preparing to debut as the group's second sub-unit Exo-SC. They released their first EP, "What a Life", on July 22, 2019.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: On May 24, 2020, Oh became the new brand spokesperson of "Dr. Jart+" in China. After becoming the brand's spokesperson, Dr. Jart+ achieved the highest sales ever during China's mid-year shopping festival and Oh's limited mask set sold 20 thousand pieces in nine minutes.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: In 2021, Oh starred in the fantasy movie "Catman" which was released and became one of the first works released in China that has a South Korean star involved after the Korean Wave restriction in China. Later the same year, he played a supporting role in the SBS drama "Now, We Are Breaking Up".


title: Oh Se-hun

text: In 2022, Oh made his cinema debut in the movie "". In March 2022, it was announced that Sehun would be playing the main role in the upcoming "TVING" original drama "Everything That We Loved".


title: Oh Se-hun

text: In 2017 and 2018, Oh attended Louis Vuitton's fashion shows in Paris. He was announced as the Best Dressed Man in Louis Vuitton's show consecutively for both the years, 2017 and 2018.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: In January 2017, "Vogue Korea" released a pictorial with Oh wearing products from the Moncler Gamme Bleu 2017 Collection. In December, Oh attended Moncler's Hong Kong flagship opening party.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: In 2018, Oh became the second South Korean male idol after G-Dragon to be featured on the cover of "Vogue Korea" for its 22nd anniversary. It became the best-selling issue since the magazine's inception in 1996. Oh became the ambassador for the Italian luxury fashion house Zegna's clothing line XXX alongside Chinese singer and actor William Chan.


title: Oh Se-hun

text: In January 2020, Oh attended Berluti's fashion show in Paris. He then modeled for the brand's 2020 Spring/Summer Menswear Collection, and the pictorial and fashion films were released through "W Korea"'s March issue.In September, Oh was announced as one of the three protagonists in Cartier's digital project, Pasha De Cartier. Oh was announced as the new face of Dior Men in October 2020. Oh was the first Man of Dior Global Ambassador in December 2021.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The Stefan–Boltzmann law describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature. Specifically, the Stefan–Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per unit time formula_1 (also known as the black-body "radiant emittance") is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body's thermodynamic temperature "T":


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The constant of proportionality "σ", called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, is derived from other known physical constants. Since 2019, the value of the constant is


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: where "k" is the Boltzmann constant, "h" is Planck's constant, and "c" is the speed of light in a vacuum. The radiance from a specified angle of view (watts per square metre per steradian) is given by


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: A body that does not absorb all incident radiation (sometimes known as a grey body) emits less total energy than a black body and is characterized by an emissivity, formula_5:


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The radiant emittance formula_1 has dimensions of energy flux (energy per unit time per unit area), and the SI units of measure are joules per second per square metre, or equivalently, watts per square metre. The SI unit for absolute temperature "T" is the kelvin. "formula_8" is the emissivity of the grey body; if it is a perfect blackbody, formula_9. In the still more general (and realistic) case, the emissivity depends on the wavelength, formula_10.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: Wavelength- and subwavelength-scale particles, metamaterials, and other nanostructures are not subject to ray-optical limits and may be designed to exceed the Stefan–Boltzmann law.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: In 1864, John Tyndall presented measurements of the infrared emission by a platinum filament and the corresponding color of the filament.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The proportionality to the fourth power of the absolute temperature was deduced by Josef Stefan (1835–1893) in 1877 on the basis of Tyndall's experimental measurements, in the article "Über die Beziehung zwischen der Wärmestrahlung und der Temperatur" ("On the relationship between thermal radiation and temperature") in the "Bulletins from the sessions" of the Vienna Academy of Sciences.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: A derivation of the law from theoretical considerations was presented by Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) in 1884, drawing upon the work of Adolfo Bartoli.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: Bartoli in 1876 had derived the existence of radiation pressure from the principles of thermodynamics. Following Bartoli, Boltzmann considered an ideal heat engine using electromagnetic radiation instead of an ideal gas as working matter.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The law was almost immediately experimentally verified. Heinrich Weber in 1888 pointed out deviations at higher temperatures, but perfect accuracy within measurement uncertainties was confirmed up to temperatures of 1535 K by 1897.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The law, including the theoretical prediction of the Stefan–Boltzmann constant as a function of the speed of light, the Boltzmann constant and Planck's constant, is a direct consequence of Planck's law as formulated in 1900.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: As of the 2019 redefinition of SI base units, which fixes the values of the Boltzmann constant "k", the Planck constant "h", and the speed of light "c", the Stefan–Boltzmann constant is exactly


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: With his law, Stefan also determined the temperature of the Sun's surface. He inferred from the data of Jacques-Louis Soret (1827–1890) that the energy flux density from the Sun is 29 times greater than the energy flux density of a certain warmed metal lamella (a thin plate). A round lamella was placed at such a distance from the measuring device that it would be seen at the same angular diameter as the Sun. Soret estimated the temperature of the lamella to be approximately 1900 °C to 2000 °C. Stefan surmised that ⅓ of the energy flux from the Sun is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so he took for the correct Sun's energy flux a value 3/2 times greater than Soret's value, namely 29 × 3/2 = 43.5.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: Precise measurements of atmospheric absorption were not made until 1888 and 1904. The temperature Stefan obtained was a median value of previous ones, 1950 °C and the absolute thermodynamic one 2200 K. As 2.57 = 43.5, it follows from the law that the temperature of the Sun is 2.57 times greater than the temperature of the lamella, so Stefan got a value of 5430 °C or 5700 K. This was the first sensible value for the temperature of the Sun. Before this, values ranging from as low as 1800 °C to as high as 13,000,000 °C were claimed. The lower value of 1800 °C was determined by Claude Pouillet (1790–1868) in 1838 using the Dulong–Petit law. Pouillet also took just half the value of the Sun's correct energy flux.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The temperature of stars other than the Sun can be approximated using a similar means by treating the emitted energy as a black body radiation. So:


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: where "L" is the luminosity, "σ" is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, "R" is the stellar radius and "T" is the effective temperature. This formula can then be rearranged to calculate the temperature:


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: where formula_20 is the solar radius, and so forth. They can also be rewritten in terms of the surface area "A" and radiant emittance formula_1:


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: With the Stefan–Boltzmann law, astronomers can easily infer the radii of stars. The law is also met in the thermodynamics of black holes in so-called Hawking radiation.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: Similarly we can calculate the effective temperature of the Earth "T" by equating the energy received from the Sun and the energy radiated by the Earth, under the black-body approximation (Earth's own production of energy being small enough to be negligible). The luminosity of the Sun, "L", is given by:


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: At Earth, this energy is passing through a sphere with a radius of "a", the distance between the Earth and the Sun, and the irradiance (received power per unit area) is given by


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The Earth has a radius of "R", and therefore has a cross-section of formula_29. The radiant flux (i.e. solar power) absorbed by the Earth is thus given by:


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: Because the Stefan–Boltzmann law uses a fourth power, it has a stabilizing effect on the exchange and the flux emitted by Earth tends to be equal to the flux absorbed, close to the steady state where:


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: where "T" is the temperature of the Sun, "R" the radius of the Sun, and "a" is the distance between the Earth and the Sun. This gives an effective temperature of 6 °C on the surface of the Earth, assuming that it perfectly absorbs all emission falling on it and has no atmosphere.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The Earth has an albedo of 0.3, meaning that 30% of the solar radiation that hits the planet gets scattered back into space without absorption. The effect of albedo on temperature can be approximated by assuming that the energy absorbed is multiplied by 0.7, but that the planet still radiates as a black body (the latter by definition of effective temperature, which is what we are calculating). This approximation reduces the temperature by a factor of 0.7, giving 255 K (−18 °C).


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The above temperature is Earth's as seen from space, not ground temperature but an average over all emitting bodies of Earth from surface to high altitude. Because of the greenhouse effect, the Earth's actual average surface temperature is about 288 K (15 °C), which is higher than the 255 K effective temperature, and even higher than the 279 K temperature that a black body would have.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: In the above discussion, we have assumed that the whole surface of the earth is at one temperature. Another interesting question is to ask what the temperature of a blackbody surface on the earth would be assuming that it reaches equilibrium with the sunlight falling on it. This of course depends on the angle of the sun on the surface and on how much air the sunlight has gone through. When the sun is at the zenith and the surface is horizontal, the irradiance can be as high as 1120 W/m. The Stefan–Boltzmann law then gives a temperature of


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: or 102 °C. (Above the atmosphere, the result is even higher: 394 K.) We can think of the earth's surface as "trying" to reach equilibrium temperature during the day, but being cooled by the atmosphere, and "trying" to reach equilibrium with starlight and possibly moonlight at night, but being warmed by the atmosphere.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The fact that the energy density of the box containing radiation is proportional to formula_34 can be derived using thermodynamics. This derivation uses the relation between the radiation pressure "p" and the internal energy density formula_35, a relation that can be shown using the form of the electromagnetic stress–energy tensor. This relation is:


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: after substitution of formula_45 Meanwhile, the pressure is the rate of momentum change per unit area. Since the momentum of a photon is the same as the energy divided by the speed of light,


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: where the 1/3 factor comes from the projection of the momentum transfer onto the normal to the wall of the container.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: Since the partial derivative formula_47 can be expressed as a relationship between only formula_48 and formula_39 (if one isolates it on one side of the equality), the partial derivative can be replaced by the ordinary derivative. After separating the differentials the equality becomes


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The law can be derived by considering a small flat black body surface radiating out into a half-sphere. This derivation uses spherical coordinates, with "θ" as the zenith angle and "φ" as the azimuthal angle; and the small flat blackbody surface lies on the xy-plane, where "θ" = /.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The quantity formula_59 is the power radiated by a surface of area A through a solid angle in the frequency range between and .


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: Note that the cosine appears because black bodies are "Lambertian" (i.e. they obey Lambert's cosine law), meaning that the intensity observed along the sphere will be the actual intensity times the cosine of the zenith angle.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: To derive the Stefan–Boltzmann law, we must integrate formula_61 over the half-sphere and integrate formula_62 from 0 to ∞.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The integral on the right is standard and goes by many names: it is a particular case of a Bose–Einstein integral, the polylogarithm, or the Riemann zeta function formula_67. The value of the integral is formula_68 (where formula_69 is the Gamma function), giving the result that, for a perfect blackbody surface:


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: Finally, this proof started out only considering a small flat surface. However, any differentiable surface can be approximated by a collection of small flat surfaces. So long as the geometry of the surface does not cause the blackbody to reabsorb its own radiation, the total energy radiated is just the sum of the energies radiated by each surface; and the total surface area is just the sum of the areas of each surface—so this law holds for all convex blackbodies, too, so long as the surface has the same temperature throughout. The law extends to radiation from non-convex bodies by using the fact that the convex hull of a black body radiates as though it were itself a black body.


title: Stefan–Boltzmann law

text: The total energy density "U" can be similarly calculated, except the integration is over the whole sphere and there is no cosine, and the energy flux (U c) should be divided by the velocity "c" to give the energy density "U":


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: Mohamed Naser Elsayed Elneny (; born 11 July 1992) is an Egyptian professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for club Arsenal and the Egypt national team.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: Elneny began his senior career in the Egyptian Premier League, before moving to Swiss club Basel in January 2013. He won eight honours at Basel, including the Swiss Super League in each of his four seasons. In January 2016, he was transferred to Arsenal.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: Elneny competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics for the Egyptian under-23 team, and played for the senior team at the 2017, 2019 and 2021 Africa Cup of Nations, as well as the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: Elneny played his youth football with Al Ahly. In 2008, he transferred to Al Mokawloon during the 2010–2011 season. Elneny advanced and became a regular in the starting team. Following the Port Said Stadium disaster in early February 2012, the Egyptian Premier League was stopped and all subsequent matches of the 2011–12 Egyptian Premier League were postponed. On 10 March 2012, the Egyptian Football Association announced their decision to cancel the remainder of the season.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: FC Basel had been watching Elneny for some time and invited him to their training camp in Estepona from 14 to 24 January 2013. Elneny played his unofficial debut on 18 January 2013 during the friendly match against Steaua București, a 1–1 draw. Elneny was able to impress Basel's trainer Murat Yakin during the training camp and on 29 January 2013, it was announced that he had signed a loan contract with Basel up until the end of June 2013. Elneny played his official debut for Basel in the 2012–13 Swiss Super League season on 10 February 2013 in the 3–0 home win against Sion as he was substituted in at half time.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: At the end of the Swiss Super League season 2012–13 Elneny won the Championship title and was Swiss Cup runner up with Basel. In the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League Basel advanced as far as the semi-finals, there being matched against the reigning UEFA Champions League holders Chelsea, but they were knocked out, losing both home and away ties, beaten 2–5 on aggregate.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: During May 2013 Basel announced that they had taken up the option of signing the Egyptian midfielder on a permanent basis. He signed a four-year contract up-until 30 June 2017. He scored his first goal for Basel, the last goal of the match, in the 4–2 home win at the St. Jakob-Park against Zurich on 16 April 2014. At the end of the 2013–14 Super League season Elneny won the league championship with Basel. They also reached the final of the 2013–14 Swiss Cup, but were beaten 2–0 by Zürich after extra time. During the 2013–14 Champions League season Basel reached the group stage and finished the group in third position. Thus they qualified for Europa League knockout phase and here they advanced as far as the quarter-finals. In their season 2013–14 Basel played a total of 68 matches (36 Swiss League fixtures, 6 Swiss Cup, 6 Champions League and 10 Europa League and 10 test matches). Elneny totaled 55 appearances, 32 League, 4 Cup, 6 Champions League and 6 Europa League as well 7 in the test games. He scored just that one goal in the league.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: The season 2014–15 was a very successful one for Elneny and FC Basel. The championship was won for the sixth time in a row that season and in the 2014–15 Swiss Cup they reached the final. But for the third season in a row, they finished as runners-up, losing 0–3 to FC Sion in the final. Basel entered the Champions League in the group stage and reached the knockout phase as on 9 December 2014 they managed a 1–1 draw at Anfield against Liverpool. But then Basel then lost to Porto in the Round of 16. Basel played a total of 65 matches (36 Swiss League fixtures, 6 Swiss Cup, 8 Champions League and 15 test matches). Under manager Paulo Sousa Elneny totaled 51 appearances, 29 in the Super League, 6 in the Cup and 7 in the Champions League, as well 9 in test games. He scored 5 goals in these matches.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: Despite the fact that Elneny left the club during the winter break, under their new trainer Urs Fischer Basel won the Swiss Super League championship at the end of the 2015–16 Super League season. For Elneny it was the fourth title, for the club it was the seventh in a row and their 19th championship title in total. During his time with the club, Elneny played a total of 169 games for Basel scoring a total of 13 goals. 91 of these games were in the Swiss Super League, 16 in the Swiss Cup, 37 in the UEFA competitions (Champions League and Europa League) and 25 were friendly games. He scored five goals in the domestic league, three in the cup, two in the Europa League and the other three were scored during the test games.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: On 13 January 2016, after a 3–3 draw against Liverpool, Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger confirmed the signing of Elneny from FC Basel. The following day, the transfer was officially confirmed by the club for an undisclosed fee reported to be somewhere between £5 million and £7.4 million. He was assigned the number 35 shirt for Arsenal. He made his debut for the club in a 2–1 win against Burnley in the fourth round of the FA Cup on 30 January, becoming the first Egyptian ever to play for Arsenal. Elneny scored his first Arsenal goal in the Champions League Round of 16 second leg defeat against FC Barcelona, and was later awarded Arsenal's Player of the Month award for March. He also starred in April combining well with Aaron Ramsey, winning the Arsenal's Player of the Month award for a second month. Elneny's only goal won him the goal of the season award for Arsenal.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: In the 2017–18 season, on 7 December 2017, Elneny scored his first goal at the Emirates Stadium (his second for Arsenal overall) in the Europa League Group Stage against FC BATE Borisov in a match which ended 6–0 to the home side. On 15 February, Elneny again produced a commendable display in the first leg of Arsenal's round of 32 Europa league tie against Östersunds FK. Elneny was subsequently rewarded man of the match for his effort in a 3–0 away victory.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: On 26 March 2018, Elneny renewed his contract with Arsenal. On 8 April 2018, Elneny was sent off against Southampton. In a tight game defender Jack Stephens tussled with Jack Wilshere and retaliation from Stephens resulted in referee Andre Marriner giving him a straight red. Wilshere escaped with just a yellow card but in the aftermath, Elneny received a red card after a shove on Cédric Soares, that was his first red card ever in his professional career. Arsenal held on to win 3–2.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: On 31 August 2019, Elneny joined Beşiktaş J.K. on a season-long loan deal with an optional buyout clause. On 14 September, Elneny was sent off in his debut in a 3–2 defeat against Gazisehir Gaziantep in the Turkish Super Lig. On 25 July 2020, he scored his first and only goal for the club in a 3-0 victory over Genclerbirligi.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: On 28 August 2020, Elneny was in the starting 11 in the 2020 FA Community Shield, which Arsenal clinched a 5–4 victory over Liverpool in the penalty shootout after the match was 1–1 after 90 minutes. On 1 November 2020, Elneny put in an excellent display at the base of Arsenal's midfield alongside Thomas Partey to render Bruno Fernandes and Paul Pogba ineffective and earn Arsenal a first league win at Old Trafford since 2006. Elneny was praised by manager, Mikel Arteta after the game. While being away with Egypt during the International break in November 2020, it was confirmed by the Egyptian Football Association that Elneny tested positive for COVID-19 but showed no symptoms. After his return, he scored his first goal of the season in a 4–2 victory over Dundalk in the Europa League on 10 December 2020. His stunning strike outside the box was voted as the runner-up of the Goal of the Month on Arsenal's official website, also later on winning goal of the season. Elneny then scored another screamer versus Olympiacos on 11 March 2021, to keep Arsenal in the tie. On 2 May 2021, Elneny scored his first Premier League goal for Arsenal with a volley from the edge of the box in a game against Newcastle United.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: Elneny helped the national under-23 team qualify for the 2012 Olympics, where he played in all four games as the team reached the last eight, and were knocked out by Japan.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: Elneny made his full international debut in a 2–1 loss against Sierra Leone in September 2011. He scored his first goal for Egypt in a 2–2 draw against Jamaica in a friendly on 4 June 2014.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: He was in the senior Egypt national squad for the Africa Cup of Nations 2017 in Gabon, where the nation finished as runners-up. He also helped the team qualify to the 2018 FIFA World Cup tournament in Russia, this is the third time for the Egyptians to participate in the competition after the 1934 and 1990 editions.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: Elneny was involved in the Amazon Original sports docuseries "", which documented the club by spending time with the coaching staff and players behind the scenes both on and off the field throughout their 2021–22 season.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: In July 2019, the body of a man, believed to be a thief attempting to steal electrical cables, was discovered on Elneny's property in El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Egypt. The body was discovered by his father, who immediately reported the incident to the police. It is believed that the man was electrocuted trying to steal the cables.


title: Mohamed Elneny

text: On 15 May 2021, Arsenal's sponsors Lavazza commenced "urgent talks" with the club after Elneny posted a tweet in support of Palestine during the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis. This resulted in a response from the Board of Deputies of British Jews.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: The Ender's Game" series (often referred to as the Ender" saga and also the Enderverse) is a series of science fiction books written by American author Orson Scott Card. The series started with the novelette "Ender's Game", which was later expanded into the novel of the same title. It currently consists of sixteen novels, thirteen short stories, 47 comic issues, an audioplay, and a film. The first two novels in the series, "Ender's Game" and "Speaker for the Dead", each won both the Hugo and Nebula Awards.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: The series is set in a future where mankind is facing annihilation by an aggressive alien society, an insect-like race known formally as "Formics", but more colloquially as "Buggers". The series protagonist, Andrew "Ender" Wiggin, is one of the child soldiers trained at Battle School (and eventually Command School) to be the future leaders for the protection of Earth.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: Starting with "Ender's Game", five novels and one novella have been released that tell the story of Ender. The first four have been described (and released as a box set) as "The Ender Quartet" and, together with "Ender in Exile", as "The Ender Quintet". Card first wrote "Ender's Game" as a novelette, but later expanded it into a novel.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: While the first novel concerned itself with armies and space warfare, "Speaker for the Dead", "Xenocide", and "Children of the Mind" are more philosophical in nature, dealing with the difficult relationship between the humans and the "Piggies" (or "Pequeninos"), and Andrew's (Ender's) attempts to stop another xenocide from happening.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: "", a novella, was released in October 2007. It is a parallel story set during Ender's first year in Battle School.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: "Ender in Exile," which is both sequel of Ender's Game and a prequel to "Speaker for the Dead" was released in November 2008. It involves Ender's journey to the first human colony on a former Formic world. Because of changes Card made to a few details of the story of that first colony ship and Ender's role as governor, it serves as a replacement for the last chapter of "Ender's Game". It also deals with his meeting a character from the parallel Shadow saga (effectively wrapping up a remaining plotline in the parallel series).


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: Starting with "Ender's Shadow", five novels and one novella have been released that tell the story of the people Ender left behind – this has been dubbed the "Shadow saga" (also known as the "Shadow Quintet").


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: "Ender's Shadow" is a parallel novel to "Ender's Game", telling many of the same events from the perspective of Bean, a mostly peripheral character in "Ender's Game", while the first three sequels, "Shadow of the Hegemon", "Shadow Puppets" and "Shadow of the Giant" tell the story of the struggle for world dominance after the Bugger War. This involves the Battle School children, as well as Ender's brother, Peter Wiggin, and Petra Arkanian going up against Achilles de Flandres (from Poke's crew).


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: A sequel novella to "Shadow of the Giant" named "Shadows in Flight" further introduces three of Bean's children who also have Anton's key turned.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: The Last Shadow (previously called Shadows Alive), was released in November 2021, takes place after both "Children of the Mind" and "Shadows in Flight", tying up the two series, and explaining some unanswered questions.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: Card and Aaron Johnston wrote a trilogy to cover the events of the First Formic War. Chronologically, this series comes before all other books in the "Ender's Game" series. "Earth Unaware" was released on July 17, 2012. "Earth Afire", was released on June 4, 2013, and "Earth Awakens" on June 10, 2014.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: On November 4, 2013, Johnston confirmed work on a second trilogy of novels covering the Second Formic War, with the manuscript for the first book due in 2014. The planned titles of the novels are (in order) "The Swarm", "The Hive", and "The Queens." "The Swarm", continuing the stories of Victor Delgado, Mazer Rackham, and Bingwen, was released on August 2, 2016. "The Hive" was released on June 11, 2019.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: According to an interview with Orson Scott Card at Southern Virginia University, Fleet School is "a new set of sequels to Ender's Game. It's for a young adult audience. It's what happens to Battle School after the International Fleet loses its purpose of war. It becomes what is called Fleet School, and it prepares kids to become commanders / explorers in the colonies that are going to be forming. We get to see that as the school administrators repurpose the school, the Battle Room is still there, but it's a whole different kind of education." On November 12, 2015, Orson Scott Card announced the title of the series and its first novel, "Children of the Fleet" was released on October 10, 2017.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: To date, there are 19 publications in the Ender's Game series, five novels and one novella in the Ender series, five novels and one novella in the Shadow Saga, five novels in the Formic Wars series, one novel in the Fleet School series and one collection of short stories. According to Card, there is no strictly preferred order of reading them, except that "Xenocide" should be read right before "Children of the Mind".


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: "First Meetings" is a collection of short stories whose settings range from before Ender's Game until after Shadows in Flight and was first released in 2002.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: In 2008 it was announced an Ender's Game video game was in the works. It was to be known as "Ender's Game: Battle Room" and was a planned digitally distributed video game for all viable downloadable platforms. It was under development by Chair Entertainment, which also developed the Xbox Live Arcade games "Undertow" and "Shadow Complex". Chair had sold the licensing of "Empire" to Card, which became a best-selling novel. Little was revealed about the game, save its setting in the Ender universe and that it would have focused on the Battle Room.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: In December, 2010, it was announced that the video game development had stopped and the project put on indefinite hold.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: Orson Scott Card and Amaze Entertainment also came to an agreement about a game adaption of the Ender's Game novel but the plans never became a reality.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: The film "Ender's Game" was released in the UK on October 25, 2013, and in the USA on November 1, 2013. The first script was based on two installments of the "Ender" series, "Ender's Game" and "Ender's Shadow", when optioned by Warner Brothers, but was adapted to focus exclusively on "Ender's Game" when purchased by Lionsgate. The cast includes Harrison Ford, Abigail Breslin, Ben Kingsley, and Asa Butterfield as Ender Wiggin. The film was directed by Gavin Hood."


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: Written by Jake Black, "The Authorized Ender Companion" is "the indispensable guide to the universe of "Ender's Game"."


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: Sections in this book include: The Ender Encyclopedia, Ender's Timeline, Ender's Family Tree by Andrew Lindsay, Getting Ender Right: A Look at the "Ender's Game" Screenplay Development by Aaron Johnston, and The Technology of "Ender's Game" by Stephen Sywak. The majority of the book consists of encyclopedia references to the events, characters, locations, and technology found in the "Ender's Game" series up to the publication of "Ender in Exile".


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: The book is notable for having new and behind the scenes information on certain topics such as Battle School Slang, The Look of the Formics, The History of Hyrum Graff, Ender and Valentine's Travels, and Mazer Rackham's Spaceship.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: "Ender's World" contains 14 essays from Science Fiction and Young Adult writers, as well as military strategists and others about various aspects of Ender's Game. The book includes an introduction by Orson Scott Card, who edited "Ender's World" and answers from many fan-submitted Enderverse questions from the Smart Pop Books Website. These essays are included in the compilation:


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: The Formics, also known as Buggers, are a fictional ant-like alien species from the Ender's Game series of science fiction novels by Orson Scott Card.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: According to the novel canon, the Formics attacked Earth 50 years before the novel begins. They attempted to colonise the planet and were barely fought off by a New Zealand soldier known as Mazer Rackham. The first book in the series, Ender's Game, largely stems from the human quest to defend themselves from this species, although the Formics ultimately turn out as victims, with the first attack being an accident due to differing biology.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: The term "Formic" is derived from "formica", the Latin word for "ant"; whereas "bugger" is a pejorative used by humans; yet it was not until 1999's "Ender's Shadow" that the term 'Formic' was first used, interchangeably with 'Bugger'. Later books used 'Formic' almost exclusively, as the more 'scientific' term. This leads to odd scenarios in the continuity of the books, such as Valentine referring to them as "Buggers" in "Ender's Game", chronologically next as "Formics" in "Ender in Exile", and again as "Buggers" in "Speaker for the Dead" and "Xenocide". The feature film adaptation of "Ender's Game" uses "Formics" exclusively.


title: Ender's Game (novel series)

text: The Formic species consists of hive-minded colonies directed by queens. In Ender's Game, Graff described them as being an insect that "could have evolved on earth, if things had gone a different way a billion years ago," and that their evolutionary ancestors could have looked similar to Earth's ants. While often described as "insectoid", the Formics are warm-blooded, developed an internal skeleton and shed most of their exoskeleton, evolved a complex system of internal organs, and they respire and perspire. If a queen dies, all the workers under her control lose their ability to function immediately; but in "Xenocide", implications exist that 'workers' can escape the influence of a queen. The Formic race is revealed to be trimorphic in "Shadows in Flight". Drones are much smaller and depend on a Hive Queen for survival, and their bodies are shaped to spend their lives clinging to her, until upon her death, they take flight to seek out a new queen. Drones are capable of individual thought and action as well as mind-to-mind communication, more limited than that of a queen; whereas queens communicate instantaneously and can even do so with other species. Formics live in vast underground colonies, usually without light, informing the assumption that Formics make use of sensory apparatus outside the range of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to humans. In the first novel they have artificial lighting; whereas in "Xenocide", Ender claims they rely on heat signature.


title: Amar Bose

text: Amar Gopal Bose (November 2, 1929 – July 12, 2013) was an American entrepreneur and academic. An electrical engineer and sound engineer, he was a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for over 45 years. He was also the founder and chairman of Bose Corporation.


title: Amar Bose

text: In 2011, he donated a majority of the company to MIT in the form of non-voting shares to sustain and advance MIT's education and research mission.


title: Amar Bose

text: Bose was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to an Indian father, Noni Gopal Bose and an American mother, Charlotte Mechlin (1895-1973). His mother was a schoolteacher of French and German ancestry. His father was an Indian freedom revolutionary who, having been imprisoned for his political activities, fled Bengal in the 1920s in order to avoid further persecution by the British colonial police.


title: Amar Bose

text: Bose first displayed his entrepreneurial skills and his interest in electronics at age thirteen when, during the World War II years, he enlisted school friends as co-workers in a small home business repairing model trains and home radios, to supplement his family's income.


title: Amar Bose

text: After graduating from Abington Senior High School in Abington, Pennsylvania, Bose enrolled at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, graduating with a BS (Bachelor of Science) in Electrical Engineering in the early 1950s. Bose spent a year at Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium in Eindhoven, Netherlands; and a year as a Fulbright research student in New Delhi, India, where he met his future first wife. He completed his PhD in Electrical Engineering from MIT, writing a thesis on non-linear systems under the supervision of Norbert Wiener and Yuk-Wing Lee.


title: Amar Bose

text: Following graduation, Amar Bose became an assistant professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. During his early years as a professor, Bose bought a high-end stereo speaker system in 1956 and he was disappointed to find that speakers with impressive technical specifications failed to reproduce the realism of a live performance. This would eventually motivate his extensive speaker technology research, concentrating on key weaknesses in the high-end speaker systems available at the time. His research on acoustics led him to develop a stereo loudspeaker that would reproduce, in a domestic setting, the dominantly reflected sound field that characterizes the listening space of the audience in a concert hall. His focus on psychoacoustics later became a hallmark of his company's audio products.


title: Amar Bose

text: For initial capital to fund his company in 1964, Bose turned to angel investors, including his MIT thesis advisor and professor, Yuk-Wing Lee. Bose was awarded significant patents in two fields that continue to be important to the Bose Corporation. These patents were in the area of loudspeaker design and non-linear, two-state modulated, Class-D power processing.


title: Amar Bose

text: In the 1980s, Bose developed an electromagnetic replacement for automotive shock absorbers, intended to radically improve the performance of automotive suspension systems, absorbing bumps and road shock while controlling car body motions and sway.


title: Amar Bose

text: In 2007, Amar Bose was listed in Forbes 400 as the 271st richest man in the world, with a net worth of $1.8 billion. In 2009, he was no longer on the billionaires list, but returned to the list in 2011, with a net worth of $1.0 billion.


title: Amar Bose

text: The company Bose founded employed 11,700 people worldwide and produces products for home, car, and professional audio, as well as conducting basic research in acoustics and other fields. Bose never took his company public, and since the company is privately held Bose was able to pursue risky long-term research. In a 2004 interview in "Popular Science" magazine, he said: "I would have been fired a hundred times at a company run by MBAs. But I never went into business to make money. I went into business so that I could do interesting things that hadn't been done before."


title: Amar Bose

text: Bose said that his best ideas usually came to him in a flash. "These innovations are not the result of rational thought; it's an intuitive idea."


title: Amar Bose

text: He married Prema Bose but they later divorced. They had two children, Vanu and Maya. He had one grandchild, Kamala. Amar Bose did not practice any religion, though he used to meditate for a short while every day. Vanu Bose was the founder and CEO of Vanu Inc., a software-defined radio technology company.


title: Amar Bose

text: In addition to running his company, Bose remained a professor at MIT until 2001. He earned the Baker Teaching Award in 1963–64, and further teaching awards over the years. The Bose Award for Excellence in Teaching (1989), and later the Junior Bose Award (1995) were established in his honor, to recognize outstanding teaching in the MIT School of Engineering. Former students have stated that his classes helped them gain life skills and problem solving skills that have served them throughout their careers.


title: Amar Bose

text: Bose was the doctoral advisor to MIT professor Alan V. Oppenheim, who is well known for his work on digital signal processing and his books on signals and systems. Oppenheim dedicated one of his books to Bose and described him with these words: "What I learned from him about teaching, research, and life over the many decades of our relationship affected me in ways too numerous to describe. He set the highest standards in everything that he did, and his accomplishments as a teacher, an inventor, and an entrepreneur are legendary."


title: Amar Bose

text: In 2011, Bose donated a majority of the company's non-voting shares to MIT on the condition that the shares never be sold. Because these shares are non-voting, MIT does not participate in operations or governance of Bose Corporation.


title: Underworld

text: The underworld, also known as the netherworld or hell, is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions and myths, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld.


title: Underworld

text: The concept of an underworld is found in almost every civilization and "may be as old as humanity itself". Common features of underworld myths are accounts of living people making journeys to the underworld, often for some heroic purpose. Other myths reinforce traditions that entrance of souls to the underworld requires a proper observation of ceremony, such as the ancient Greek story of the recently dead Patroclus haunting Achilles until his body could be properly buried for this purpose. Persons having social status were dressed and equipped in order to better navigate the underworld.


title: Underworld

text: A number of mythologies incorporate the concept of the soul of the deceased making its own journey to the underworld, with the dead needing to be taken across a defining obstacle such as a lake or a river to reach this destination. Imagery of such journeys can be found in both ancient and modern art. The descent to the underworld has been described as "the single most important myth for Modernist authors".


title: Underworld

text: This list includes underworlds in various religious traditions, with links to corresponding articles:


title: Underworld

text: This list includes rulers or guardians of the underworld in various religious traditions, with links to corresponding articles.


title: River delta

text: A river delta is a landform shaped like a triangle, created by deposition of sediment that is carried by a river and enters slower-moving or stagnant water. This occurs where a river enters an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, reservoir, or (more rarely) another river that cannot carry away the supplied sediment. It is so named because its triangle shape resembles the Greek letter Delta. The size and shape of a delta is controlled by the balance between watershed processes that supply sediment, and receiving basin processes that redistribute, sequester, and export that sediment. The size, geometry, and location of the receiving basin also plays an important role in delta evolution.


title: River delta

text: River deltas are important in human civilization, as they are major agricultural production centers and population centers. They can provide coastline defense and can impact drinking water supply. They are also ecologically important, with different species' assemblages depending on their landscape position.


title: River delta

text: A river delta is so named because the shape of the Nile Delta approximates the triangular uppercase Greek letter delta. The triangular shape of the Nile Delta was known to audiences of classical Athenian drama; the tragedy "Prometheus Bound" by Aeschylus refers to it as the "triangular Nilotic land", though not as a "delta". Herodotus's description of Egypt in his "Histories" mentions the Delta fourteen times, as "the Delta, as it is called by the Ionians", including describing the outflow of silt into the sea and the convexly curved seaward side of the triangle. Despite making comparisons to other river-systems' deltas, Herodotus did not describe them as "deltas". The Greek historian Polybius likened the land between the Rhône and Isère rivers to the Nile Delta, referring to both as islands, but did not apply the word delta. According to the Roman geographer Strabo, the Cynic philosopher Onesicritus of Astypalaea, who accompanied Alexander the Great's conquests in India, reported that Patalene (the delta of the Indus River) was "a delta". (). The Roman author Arrian's "Indica" states that "the delta of the land of the Indians is made by the Indus river no less than is the case with that of Egypt".


title: River delta

text: As a generic term for the landform at the mouth of river, the word delta is first attested in the English-speaking world in the late 18th century, in the work of Edward Gibbon.


title: River delta

text: River deltas form when a river carrying sediment reaches a body of water, such as a lake, ocean, or a reservoir. When the flow enters the standing water, it is no longer confined to its channel and expands in width. This flow expansion results in a decrease in the flow velocity, which diminishes the ability of the flow to transport sediment. As a result, sediment drops out of the flow and is deposited as alluvium, which builds up to form the river delta. Over time, this single channel builds a deltaic lobe (such as the bird's-foot of the Mississippi or Ural river deltas), pushing its mouth into the standing water. As the deltaic lobe advances, the gradient of the river channel becomes lower because the river channel is longer but has the same change in elevation (see slope).


title: River delta

text: As the gradient of the river channel decreases, the amount of shear stress on the bed decreases, which results in the deposition of sediment within the channel and a rise in the channel bed relative to the floodplain. This destabilizes the river channel. If the river breaches its natural levees (such as during a flood), it spills out into a new course with a shorter route to the ocean, thereby obtaining a steeper, more stable gradient. Typically, when the river switches channels in this manner, some of its flow remains in the abandoned channel. Repeated channel-switching events build up a mature delta with a distributary network.


title: River delta

text: Another way these distributary networks form is from the deposition of mouth bars (mid-channel sand and/or gravel bars at the mouth of a river). When this mid-channel bar is deposited at the mouth of a river, the flow is routed around it. This results in additional deposition on the upstream end of the mouth-bar, which splits the river into two distributary channels. A good example of the result of this process is the Wax Lake Delta.


title: River delta

text: In both of these cases, depositional processes force redistribution of deposition from areas of high deposition to areas of low deposition. This results in the smoothing of the planform (or map-view) shape of the delta as the channels move across its surface and deposit sediment. Because the sediment is laid down in this fashion, the shape of these deltas approximates a fan. The more often the flow changes course, the shape develops as closer to an ideal fan, because more rapid changes in channel position result in more uniform deposition of sediment on the delta front. The Mississippi and Ural River deltas, with their bird's-feet, are examples of rivers that do not avulse often enough to form a symmetrical fan shape. Alluvial fan deltas, as seen by their name, avulse frequently and more closely approximate an ideal fan shape.


title: River delta

text: Most large river deltas discharge to intra-cratonic basins on the trailing edges of passive margins due to the majority of large rivers such as the Mississippi, Nile, Amazon, Ganges, Indus, Yangtze, and Yellow River discharging along passive continental margins. This phenomenon is due mainly to three factors: topography, basin area, and basin elevation. Topography along passive margins tend to be more gradual and widespread over a greater area enabling sediment to pile up and accumulate over time to form large river deltas. Topography along active margins tend to be steeper and less widespread, which results in sediments not having the ability to pile up and accumulate due to the sediment traveling into a steep subduction trench rather than a shallow continental shelf.


title: River delta

text: There are many other lesser factors that could explain why the majority of river deltas form along passive margins rather than active margins. Along active margins, orogenic sequences cause tectonic activity to form over-steepened slopes, brecciated rocks, and volcanic activity resulting in delta formation to exist closer to the sediment source. When sediment does not travel far from the source, sediments that build up are coarser grained and more loosely consolidated, therefore making delta formation more difficult. Tectonic activity on active margins causes the formation of river deltas to form closer to the sediment source which may affect channel avulsion, delta lobe switching, and auto cyclicity. Active margin river deltas tend to be much smaller and less abundant but may transport similar amounts of sediment. However, the sediment is never piled up in thick sequences due to the sediment traveling and depositing in deep subduction trenches.


title: River delta

text: Deltas are typically classified according to the main control on deposition, which is a combination of river, wave, and tidal processes, depending on the strength of each. The other two factors that play a major role are landscape position and the grain size distribution of the source sediment entering the delta from the river.


title: River delta

text: Fluvial-dominated deltas are found in areas of low tidal range and low wave energy. Where the river water is nearly equal in density to the basin water, the delta is characterized by "homopycnal flow", in which the river water rapidly mixes with basin water and abruptly dumps most of its sediment load. Where the river water has higher density than basin water, typically from a heavy load of sediment, the delta is characterized by "hyperpycnal flow" in which the river water hugs the basin bottom as a density current that deposits its sediments as turbidites. When the river water is less dense than the basin water, as is typical of river deltas on an ocean coastline, the delta is characterized by "hypopycnal flow" in which the river water is slow to mix with the denser basin water and spreads out as a surface fan. This allows fine sediments to be carried a considerable distance before settling out of suspension. Beds in a hypocynal delta dip at a very shallow angle, around 1 degree.


title: River delta

text: Fluvial-dominated deltas are further distinguished by the relative importance of the inertia of rapidly flowing water, the importance of turbulent bed friction beyond the river mouth, and buoyancy. Outflow dominated by inertia tend to form Gilbert type deltas. Outflow dominated by turbulent friction is prone to channel bifurcation, while buoyancy-dominated outflow produces long distributaries with narrow subaqueous natural levees and few channel bifurcations.


title: River delta

text: The modern Mississippi River delta is a good example of a fluvial-dominated delta whose outflow is buoyancy-dominated. Channel abandonment has been frequent, with seven distinct channels active over the last 5000 years. Other fluvial-dominated deltas include the Mackenzie delta and the Alta delta.


title: River delta

text: A Gilbert delta (named after Grove Karl Gilbert) is a type of fluvial-dominated delta formed from coarse sediments, as opposed to gently-sloping muddy deltas such as that of the Mississippi. For example, a mountain river depositing sediment into a freshwater lake would form this kind of delta.


title: River delta

text: While some authors describe both lacustrine and marine locations of Gilbert deltas, others note that their formation is more characteristic of the freshwater lakes, where it is easier for the river water to mix with the lakewater faster (as opposed to the case of a river falling into the sea or a salt lake, where less dense fresh water brought by the river stays on top longer). Gilbert himself first described this type of delta on Lake Bonneville in 1885. Elsewhere, similar structures occur, for example, at the mouths of several creeks that flow into Okanagan Lake in British Columbia and forming prominent peninsulas at Naramata, Summerland, and Peachland.


title: River delta

text: In wave dominated deltas, wave-driven sediment transport controls the shape of the delta, and much of the sediment emanating from the river mouth is deflected along the coast line. The relationship between waves and river deltas is quite variable and largely influenced by the deepwater wave regimes of the receiving basin. With a high wave energy near shore and a steeper slope offshore, waves will make river deltas smoother. Waves can also be responsible for carrying sediments away from the river delta, causing the delta to retreat. For deltas that form further upriver in an estuary, there are complex yet quantifiable linkages between winds, tides, river discharge, and delta water levels.


title: River delta

text: Erosion is also an important control in tide-dominated deltas, such as the Ganges Delta, which may be mainly submarine, with prominent sandbars and ridges. This tends to produce a "dendritic" structure. Tidal deltas behave differently from river-dominated and wave-dominated deltas, which tend to have a few main distributaries. Once a wave-dominated or river-dominated distributary silts up, it is abandoned, and a new channel forms elsewhere. In a tidal delta, new distributaries are formed during times when there is a lot of water around – such as floods or storm surges. These distributaries slowly silt up at a more or less constant rate until they fizzle out.


title: River delta

text: A tidal freshwater delta is a sedimentary deposit formed at the boundary between an upland stream and an estuary, in the region known as the "subestuary". Drowned coastal river valleys that were inundated by rising sea levels during the late Pleistocene and subsequent Holocene tend to have dendritic estuaries with many feeder tributaries. Each tributary mimics this salinity gradient from their brackish junction with the mainstem estuary up to the fresh stream feeding the head of tidal propagation. As a result, the tributaries are considered to be "subestuaries". The origin and evolution of a tidal freshwater delta involves processes that are typical of all deltas as well as processes that are unique to the tidal freshwater setting. The combination of processes that create a tidal freshwater delta result in a distinct morphology and unique environmental characteristics. Many tidal freshwater deltas that exist today are directly caused by the onset of or changes in historical land use, especially deforestation, intensive agriculture, and urbanization. These ideas are well illustrated by the many tidal freshwater deltas prograding into Chesapeake Bay along the east coastline of the United States. Research has demonstrated that the accumulating sediments in this estuary derive from post-European settlement deforestation, agriculture, and urban development.


title: River delta

text: Other rivers, particularly those on coasts with significant tidal range, do not form a delta but enter into the sea in the form of an estuary. Notable examples include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Tagus estuary.


title: River delta

text: In rare cases the river delta is located inside a large valley and is called an inverted river delta. Sometimes a river divides into multiple branches in an inland area, only to rejoin and continue to the sea. Such an area is called an "inland delta", and often occurs on former lake beds. The term was first coined by Alexander von Humboldt for the middle reaches of the Orinoco River, which he visited in 1800. Other prominent examples include the Inner Niger Delta, Peace–Athabasca Delta, the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, and the Sistan delta of Iran. The Danube has one in the valley on the Slovak-Hungarian border between Bratislava and Iža.


title: River delta

text: In some cases, a river flowing into a flat arid area splits into channels that evaporate as it progresses into the desert. The Okavango Delta in Botswana is one example. See endorrheic basin.


title: River delta

text: The generic term "mega delta" can be used to describe very large Asian river deltas, such as the Yangtze, Pearl, Red, Mekong, Irrawaddy, Ganges-Brahmaputra, and Indus.


title: River delta

text: The formation of a delta is complicated, multiple, and cross-cutting over time, but in a simple delta three main types of bedding may be distinguished: the bottomset beds, foreset/frontset beds, and topset beds. This three part structure may be seen in small scale by crossbedding.


title: River delta

text: Human activities in both deltas and the river basins upstream of deltas can radically alter delta environments. Upstream land use change such as anti-erosion agricultural practices and hydrological engineering such as dam construction in the basins feeding deltas have reduced river sediment delivery to many deltas in recent decades. This change means that there is less sediment available to maintain delta landforms, and compensate for erosion and sea level rise, causing some deltas to start losing land. Declines in river sediment delivery are projected to continue in the coming decades.


title: River delta

text: The extensive anthropogenic activities in deltas also interfere with geomorphological and ecological delta processes. People living on deltas often construct flood defences which prevent sedimentation from floods on deltas, and therefore means that sediment deposition can't compensate for subsidence and erosion. In addition to interference with delta aggradation, pumping of groundwater, oil, and gas, and constructing infrastructure all accelerate subsidence, increasing relative sea level rise. Anthropogenic activities can also destabilise river channels through sand mining, and cause saltwater intrusion. There are small-scale efforts to correct these issues, improve delta environments and increase environmental sustainability through sedimentation enhancing strategies.


title: River delta

text: While nearly all deltas have been impacted to some degree by humans, the Nile Delta and Colorado River Delta are some of the most extreme examples of the devastation caused to deltas by damming and diversion of water.


title: River delta

text: Historical data documents show that during the Roman Empire and Little Ice Age (times where there was considerable anthropogenic pressure), there was significant sediment accumulation in deltas. The industrial revolution has only amplified the impact of humans on delta growth and retreat.


title: River delta

text: Ancient deltas are a benefit to the economy due to their well sorted sand and gravel. Sand and gravel is often quarried from these old deltas and used in concrete for highways, buildings, sidewalks, and even landscaping. More than 1 billion tons of sand and gravel are produced in the United States alone. Not all sand and gravel quarries are former deltas, but for ones that are, much of the sorting is already done by the power of water.


title: River delta

text: Urban areas and human habitation tends to locate in lowlands near water access for transportation and sanitation. This makes deltas a common location for civilizations to flourish due to access to flat land for farming, freshwater for sanitation and irrigation, and sea access for trade. Deltas often host extensive industrial and commercial activities as well as agricultural land which are often in conflict. Some of the world's largest regional economies are located on deltas such as the Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta, European Low Countries and the Greater Tokyo Area.


title: River delta

text: The Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, which spans most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India empties into the Bay of Bengal, is the world's largest delta.


title: River delta

text: The Selenga River delta in the Russian republic of Buryatia is the largest delta emptying into a body of fresh water, in its case Lake Baikal.


title: River delta

text: Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had large amounts of water. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below are pictures of a few.


title: Divyenndu

text: Divyendu Sharma (born 19 June 1983), better known as Divyenndu, is an Indian actor and model best known for his roles of Nishant aka Liquid in "Pyar Ka Punchnama", Narayan Sharma in "", Sundar Tripathi in the film "Batti Gul Meter Chalu" and Munna Bhaiya in Amazon Prime Video series "Mirzapur".


title: Divyenndu

text: Divyenndu was born on 19 June 1983 in Delhi. He is a graduate in political science from Delhi University's Kirori Mal College. He has three years of theatre experience in Delhi after which he pursued a two-year diploma in acting from FTII, Pune. He was previously seen in a number of ads for brands like Virgin Mobile, Birla Sun Life and Fidelity Mutual Funds. He is married to Akanksha Sharma.


title: Divyenndu

text: In 2019, Divyenndu dropped his surname citing numerology and his belief that, in a country like India, it's important to remove the many caste divisions. His official documents, however, use his full name.


title: Divyenndu

text: He first appeared in a sight role in Madhuri Dixit's comeback movie after "Aaja Nachle". His debut Bollywood movie was "Pyar Ka Punchnama", where he played a character called Liquid. For his role in the film, he won the Screen Award for Most Promising Newcomer – Male. He also played the role of the poet Omi in David Dhawan's remake of "Chashme Baddoor".


title: The Underground Railroad (miniseries)

text: The Underground Railroad is an American fantasy historical drama streaming television limited series created and directed by Barry Jenkins based on the 2016 novel of the same name by Colson Whitehead. The series premiered on Amazon Prime Video on May 14, 2021.


title: The Underground Railroad (miniseries)

text: The series won the Golden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Film, received a Peabody Award, and garnered several other nominations including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited or Anthology Series.


title: The Underground Railroad (miniseries)

text: A fictional story of people attempting an escape from slavery in the southern United States in the 1800s utilizing a key plot element that employs the literary style of magic realism. In reality, "The Underground Railroad" was a network of abolitionists, hidden routes, and safe houses that helped enslaved African-Americans escape to freedom in the early to mid-1800s. In the novel and the series, it is an actual railroad complete with engineers, conductors, tracks, and tunnels. Cora, an enslaved woman from Georgia, joins newcomer Caesar to ride the subterranean train to freedom.


title: The Underground Railroad (miniseries)

text: On September 16, 2016, it was announced that Barry Jenkins was set to adapt Colson Whitehead's novel "The Underground Railroad" into a limited series. Jenkins was expected to produce the series alongside Adele Romanski. Production companies involved with the series were set to include Plan B Entertainment. On March 27, 2017, it was reported that Amazon Video had given the production a script-to-series commitment. On June 5, 2018, it was announced that Amazon given the production a formal greenlight and that Jenkins would direct all eleven episodes of the series. In June 2019, Nicholas Britell announced he would serve as composer on the series.


title: The Underground Railroad (miniseries)

text: In April 2019, Thuso Mbedu, Chase W. Dillon, Aaron Pierre and Joel Edgerton joined the cast of the series. In August 2019, Damon Herriman and William Jackson Harper joined the cast of the series in recurring roles. In September 2019, Lucius Baston joined the cast of the series in a recurring role. In October 2019, Amber Gray joined the cast of the series in a recurring role. In November 2019, Jim Klock joined the cast of the series in a recurring role. In January 2020, Lily Rabe joined the cast of the series in a recurring role. In February 2020, Fred Hechinger and the rest of the cast was announced.


title: The Underground Railroad (miniseries)

text: Filming began in August 2019 in Savannah, Georgia, and production lasted 116 days before concluding on September 22, 2020.


title: The Underground Railroad (miniseries)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 94% based on 106 critic reviews, with an average rating of 8.9/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "With a superb ensemble and Barry Jenkins' singular eye, "The Underground Railroad" delicately translates its source material into a powerfully humane series that is as challenging as it is necessary." Metacritic gave the series a weighted average score of 92 out of 100 based on 37 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: The Underground Railroad (miniseries)

text: Reviewing the series for "Rolling Stone", Alan Sepinwall gave a rating of 4/5 and described the series as "an imperfect take on a painful, sprawling subject. But its emotional highs and lows are stronger than anything you are likely to find on TV this year, just as those images are more gorgeous and nightmarish." Stephen Robinson of "The A.V. Club" gave the series an A and said, "Jenkins has assembled an amazing cast, including William Jackson Harper as Cora's love interest, Royal, and Lily Rabe, who chills the screen as Ethel, the wife of a North Carolina abolitionist (Damon Herriman)."


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) is the combined presence of Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) and Korsakoff syndrome. Due to the close relationship between these two disorders, people with either are usually diagnosed with WKS as a single syndrome. It mainly causes vision changes, ataxia and impaired memory.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: The cause of the disorder is thiamine (vitamin B) deficiency. This can occur due to Wernicke encephalopathy, eating disorders, malnutrition, and alcohol abuse. These disorders may manifest together or separately. WKS is usually secondary to prolonged alcohol abuse.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Wernicke encephalopathy and WKS are most commonly seen in people with an alcohol use disorder. Failure in diagnosis of WE and thus treatment of the disease leads to death in approximately 20% of cases, while 75% are left with permanent brain damage associated with WKS. Of those affected, 25% require long-term institutionalization in order to receive effective care.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: The syndrome is a combined manifestation of two namesake disorders, Wernicke encephalopathy and alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome. It involves an acute Wernicke-encephalopathy phase, followed by the development of a Korsakoff syndrome phase.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: This triad of symptoms results from a deficiency in vitamin B which is an essential coenzyme. The aforementioned changes in mental state occur in approximately 82% of patients' symptoms of which range from confusion, apathy, inability to concentrate, and a decrease in awareness of the immediate situation they are in. If left untreated, WE can lead to coma or death. In about 29% of patients, ocular disturbances consist of nystagmus and paralysis of the lateral rectus muscles or other muscles in the eye. A smaller percentage of patients experience a decrease in reaction time of the pupils to light stimuli and swelling of the optic disc which may be accompanied by retinal hemorrhage. Finally, the symptoms involving stance and gait occur in about 23% of patients and result from dysfunction in the cerebellum and vestibular system. Other symptoms that have been present in cases of WE are stupor, low blood pressure (hypotension), elevated heart rate (tachycardia), as well as hypothermia, epileptic seizures and a progressive loss of hearing.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: About 19% of patients have none of the symptoms in the classic triad at first diagnosis of WE; however, usually one or more of the symptoms develops later as the disease progresses.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: The DSM-V classifies Korsakoff syndrome under Substance/Medication-Induced Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorders, specifically alcohol-induced amnestic confabulatory. The diagnostic criteria defined as necessary for diagnosis includes prominent amnesia, forgetting quickly, and difficulty learning. Presence of thiamine deficient encephalopathy can occur in conjunction with these symptoms.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Despite the assertion that alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome must be caused by the use of alcohol, there have been several cases where it has developed from other instances of thiamine deficiency resulting from gross malnutrition due to conditions such as stomach cancer, anorexia nervosa, and gastrectomy.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Several cases have been documented where Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome has been seen on a large scale. In 1947, 52 cases of WKS were documented in a prisoner of war hospital in Singapore where the prisoners' diets included less than 1 mg of thiamine per day. Such cases provide an opportunity to gain an understanding of what effects this syndrome has on cognition. In this particular case, cognitive symptoms included insomnia, anxiety, difficulties in concentration, loss of memory for the immediate past, and gradual degeneration of mental state; consisting of confusion, confabulation, and hallucinations. In other cases of WKS, cognitive effects such as severely disrupted speech, giddiness, and heavy-headedness have been documented. In addition to this, it has been noted that some patients displayed an inability to focus, and the inability of others to catch patients' attention.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: In a study conducted in 2003 by Brand et al. on the cognitive effects of WKS, the researchers used a neuropsychological test battery which included tests of intelligence, speed of information processing, memory, executive function and cognitive estimation. They found that subjects with WKS showed impairments in all aspects of this test battery but most noticeably, on the cognitive estimation tasks. This task required subjects to estimate a physical quality such as size, weight, quantity or time (e.g. What is the average length of a shower?), of a particular item. Patients with WKS performed worse than normal control participants on all of the tasks in this category. The patients found estimations involving time to be the most difficult, whereas quantity was the easiest estimation to make. Additionally, the study included a category for classifying "bizarre" answers, which included any answer that was far outside of the normal range of expected responses. WKS patients did give answers that could fall into such a category and these included answers such as 15s or 1 hour for the estimated length of a shower, or 4 kg or 15 tonnes as the weight of a car.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: As mentioned previously, the amnesic symptoms of WKS include both retrograde and anterograde amnesia. The retrograde deficit has been demonstrated through an inability of WKS patients to recall or recognize information for recent public events. The anterograde memory loss is demonstrated through deficits in tasks that involve encoding and then recalling lists of words and faces, as well as semantic learning tasks. WKS patients have also demonstrated difficulties in perseveration as evidenced by a deficit in performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. The retrograde amnesia that accompanies WKS can extend as far back as twenty to thirty years, and there is generally a temporal gradient seen, where earlier memories are recalled better than more recent memories. It has been widely accepted that the critical structures that lead to the memory impairment in WKS are the mammillary bodies, and the thalamic regions. Despite the aforementioned memory deficits, non-declarative memory functions appear to be intact in WKS patients. This has been demonstrated through measures that assess perceptual priming.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Other studies have shown deficits in recognition memory and stimulus-reward associative functions in patients with WKS. The deficit in stimulus-reward functions was demonstrated by Oscar-Berman and Pulaski who presented patients with reinforcements for certain stimuli but not others, and then required the patients to distinguish the rewarded stimuli from the non-rewarded stimuli. WKS patients displayed significant deficits in this task. The researchers were also successful in displaying a deficit in recognition memory by having patients make a yes/no decision as to whether a stimulus was familiar (previously seen) or novel (not previously seen). The patients in this study also showed a significant deficit in their ability to perform this task.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: People with WKS often show confabulation, spontaneous confabulation being seen more frequently than provoked confabulation. Spontaneous confabulations refer to incorrect memories that the patient holds to be true, and may act on, arising spontaneously without any provocation. Provoked confabulations can occur when a patient is cued to give a response, this may occur in test settings. The spontaneous confabulations viewed in WKS are thought to be produced by an impairment in source memory, where they are unable to remember the spatial and contextual information for an event, and thus may use irrelevant or old memory traces to fill in for the information that they cannot access. It has also been suggested that this behaviour may be due to executive dysfunction where they are unable to inhibit incorrect memories or because they are unable to shift their attention away from an incorrect response.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: WKS is usually found in people who have used alcohol chronically. Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome results from thiamine deficiency. It is generally agreed that Wernicke encephalopathy results from severe acute deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B), whilst Korsakoff's psychosis is a chronic neurologic sequela of Wernicke encephalopathy. The metabolically active form of thiamine is thiamine pyrophosphate, which plays a major role as a cofactor or coenzyme in glucose metabolism. The enzymes that are dependent on thiamine pyrophosphate are associated with the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and catalyze the oxidation of pyruvate, α-ketoglutarate and branched chain amino acids. Thus, anything that encourages glucose metabolism will exacerbate an existing clinical or sub-clinical thiamine deficiency.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: As stated above, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome in the United States is usually found in malnourished chronic alcoholics, though it is also found in patients who undergo prolonged intravenous (IV) therapy without vitamin B supplementation, gastric stapling, intensive care unit (ICU) stays, hunger strikes, or people with eating disorders. In some regions, physicians have observed thiamine deficiency brought about by severe malnutrition, particularly in diets consisting mainly of polished rice, which is thiamine-deficient. The resulting nervous system ailment is called beriberi. In individuals with sub-clinical thiamine deficiency, a large dose of glucose (either as sweet food, etc. or glucose infusion) can precipitate the onset of overt encephalopathy.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome in people with chronic alcohol use particularly is associated with atrophy/infarction of specific regions of the brain, especially the mammillary bodies. Other regions include the anterior region of the thalamus (accounting for amnesic symptoms), the medial dorsal thalamus, the basal forebrain, the median and dorsal raphe nuclei, and the cerebellum.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: One as-yet-unreplicated study has associated susceptibility to this syndrome with a hereditary deficiency of transketolase, an enzyme that requires thiamine as a coenzyme.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: The fact that gastrointestinal surgery can lead to the development of WKS was demonstrated in a study that was completed on three patients who recently undergone a gastrectomy. These patients had developed WKS but were not alcoholics and had never suffered from dietary deprivation. WKS developed between 2 and 20 years after the surgery. There were small dietary changes that contributed to the development of WKS but overall the lack of absorption of thiamine from the gastrointestinal tract was the cause. Therefore, it must be ensured that patients who have undergone gastrectomy have a proper education on dietary habits, and carefully monitor their thiamine intake. Additionally, an early diagnosis of WKS, should it develop, is very important.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Strong evidence suggests that ethanol interferes directly with thiamine uptake in the gastrointestinal tract. Ethanol also disrupts thiamine storage in the liver and the transformation of thiamine into its active form. The role of alcohol consumption in the development of WKS has been experimentally confirmed through studies in which rats were subjected to alcohol exposure and lower levels of thiamine through a low-thiamine diet. In particular, studies have demonstrated that clinical signs of the neurological problems that result from thiamine deficiency develop faster in rats that have received alcohol and were also deficient in thiamine than rats who did not receive alcohol. In another study, it was found that rats that were chronically fed alcohol had significantly lower liver thiamine stores than control rats. This provides an explanation for why alcoholics with liver cirrhosis have a higher incidence of both thiamine deficiency and WKS.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: The vitamin thiamine also referred to as Vitamin B1, is required by three different enzymes to allow for conversion of ingested nutrients into energy. Thiamine can not be produced in the body and must be obtained through diet and supplementation. The duodenum is responsible for absorbing thiamine. The liver can store thiamine for 18 days. Prolonged and frequent consumption of alcohol causes a decreased ability to absorb thiamine in the duodenum. Thiamine deficiency is also related to malnutrition from poor diet, impaired use of thiamine by the cells and impaired storage in the liver. Without thiamine the Kreb's Cycle enzymes pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH) and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (alpha-KGDH) are impaired. The impaired functioning of the Kreb's Cycle results in inadequate production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or energy for the cells functioning. Energy is required by the brain for proper functioning and use of its neurotransmitters. Injury to the brain occurs when neurons that require high amounts of energy from thiamine dependent enzymes are not supplied with enough energy and die.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: In addition to the damage seen in these areas there have been reports of damage to cortex, although it was noted that this may be due to the direct toxic effects of alcohol as opposed to thiamine deficiency that has been attributed as the underlying cause of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: The amnesia that is associated with this syndrome is a result of the atrophy in the structures of the diencephalon (the thalamus, hypothalamus and mammillary bodies), and is similar to amnesia that is presented as a result of other cases of damage to the medial temporal lobe. It has been argued that the memory impairments can occur as a result of damage along any part of the mammillo-thalamic tract, which explains how WKS can develop in patients with damage exclusively to either the thalamus or the mammillary bodies.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Diagnosis of Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome is by clinical impression and can sometimes be confirmed by a formal neuropsychological assessment. Wernicke encephalopathy typically presents with ataxia and nystagmus, and Korsakoff's psychosis with anterograde and retrograde amnesia and confabulation upon relevant lines of questioning.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Frequently, secondary to thiamine deficiency and subsequent cytotoxic edema in Wernicke encephalopathy, patients will have marked degeneration of the mammillary bodies. Thiamine (vitamin B) is an essential coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism and is also a regulator of osmotic gradient. Its deficiency may cause swelling of the intracellular space and local disruption of the blood-brain barrier. Brain tissue is very sensitive to changes in electrolytes and pressure and edema can be cytotoxic. In Wernicke this occurs specifically in the mammillary bodies, medial thalami, tectal plate, and periaqueductal areas. People with the condition may also exhibit a dislike for sunlight and so may wish to stay indoors with the lights off. The mechanism of this degeneration is unknown, but it supports the current neurological theory that the mammillary bodies play a role in various "memory circuits" within the brain. An example of a memory circuit is the Papez circuit.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: As described, Korsakoff syndrome usually follows or accompanies Wernicke encephalopathy. If treated quickly, it may be possible to prevent the development of WKS with thiamine treatments. This treatment is not guaranteed to be effective and the thiamine needs to be administered adequately in both dose and duration. A study on Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome showed that with consistent thiamine treatment there were noticeable improvements in mental status after only 2–3 weeks of therapy. Thus, there is hope that with treatment Wernicke encephalopathy will not necessarily progress to WKS.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: In order to reduce the risk of developing WKS it is important to limit the intake of alcohol in order to ensure that proper nutrition needs are met. A healthy diet is imperative for proper nutrition which, in combination with thiamine supplements, may reduce the chance of developing WKS. This prevention method may specifically help heavy drinkers who refuse to or are unable to quit.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: A number of proposals have been put forth to fortify alcoholic beverages with thiamine to reduce the incidence of WKS among those heavily abusing alcohol. To date, no such proposals have been enacted.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Daily recommendations of thiamine requirements are 0.66 mg per of food energy intake – approximately equivalent to 1.2 mg for men and 1.1 mg for women.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: The onset of Wernicke encephalopathy is considered a medical emergency, and thus thiamine administration should be initiated immediately when the disease is suspected. Prompt administration of thiamine to patients with Wernicke encephalopathy can prevent the disorder from developing into Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, or reduce its severity. Treatment can also reduce the progression of the deficits caused by WKS, but will not completely reverse existing deficits. WKS will continue to be present, at least partially, in 80% of patients. Patients with WE should be given a minimum dose of 500 mg of thiamine hydrochloride, delivered by infusion over a 30-minute period for two to three days. If no response is seen then treatment should be discontinued but for those patients that do respond, treatment should be continued with a 250 mg dose delivered intravenously or intramuscularly for three to five days unless the patient stops improving. Such prompt administration of thiamine may be a life-saving measure. Banana bags, a bag of intravenous fluids containing vitamins and minerals, is one means of treatment.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: WKS occurs more frequently in men than women and has the highest prevalence in the ages 55–65. Approximately 71% are unmarried.


title: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: Internationally, the prevalence rates of WKS are relatively standard, being anywhere between zero and two percent. Despite this, specific sub-populations seem to have higher prevalence rates including people who are homeless, older individuals (especially those living alone or in isolation), and psychiatric inpatients. Additionally, studies show that prevalence is not connected to alcohol consumption per capita. For example, in France, a country that is well known for its consumption and production of wine, prevalence was only 0.4% in 1994, while Australia had a prevalence of 2.8%.