title: Jazz (Queen album)

text: When "Loudersound" ranked every Queen album from best to worst, "Jazz" came fourth, as they felt it presented "some of the most satisfying moments in Queen's career." In a similar list of the band's greatest albums, "Ultimate Classic Rock" placed "Jazz" in third position. "Whenever discussions take place about Queen's incredible string of classic albums throughout the late '70s," they wrote, "1978's 'Jazz' is the one that often seems to get the shortest shrift, but tucked away behind its unusually nondescript cover art lies one of the band's finest albums. Never mind the reliable hit single double-whammy provided by 'Fat Bottomed Girls' and 'Bicycle Race,' "Jazz" is astonishingly deep with underrated Queen gems, ranging from Mercury's Eastern-spiced wig-out 'Mustapha,' to Deacon's head-banging beast 'If You Can't Beat Them, Join Them,' to Taylor's infectious disco tune 'Fun It'."


title: Jazz (Queen album)

text: "Rolling Stone" subsequently featured it on their list of "10 Classic Albums Rolling Stone Initially Panned", indicating they now regarded the album as a "classic." They poked fun at Marsh's original negative review of the album, quipping, "Sometimes a reviewer just seems to have a really, really low opinion of a band, which seems to be the case with Dave Marsh and Queen."


title: Jazz (Queen album)

text: In March 2011, a remastered and expanded reissue of the album was released. This was part of a new record deal between Queen and Universal Music, which meant Queen's association with EMI Records would come to an end after almost 40 years. All Queen albums were remastered and reissued in 2011. The deluxe edition contains five additional tracks on a separate EP. The second batch of albums (the band's middle five albums) were released in June 2011. The extra tracks included the single version of "Fat Bottomed Girls", an instrumental version of "Bicycle Race", a version of "Don't Stop Me Now" with "long lost guitars", a live version of "Let Me Entertain You", and an early acoustic take of "Dreamer's Ball".


title: Jazz (Queen album)

text: The 2011 reissue corrected the tape glitch at the beginning of "Fat Bottomed Girls" which had been present on all previous compact disc editions of the album (as well as 1997 compilation album "Queen Rocks"), however it also added a previously unused kick-drum part to the track "Jealousy", making the track sound drastically different from all previous releases.


title: Quagga

text: The quagga ( or ) (Equus quagga quagga) is a subspecies of the plains zebra that was endemic to South Africa until it was hunted to extinction in the late 19th century. It was long thought to be a distinct species, but early genetic studies have supported it being a subspecies of plains zebra. A more recent study suggested that it was the southernmost cline or ecotype of the species.


title: Quagga

text: The quagga is believed to have been around long and tall at the shoulder. It was distinguished from other zebras by its limited pattern of primarily brown and white stripes, mainly on the front part of the body. The rear was brown and without stripes, and appeared more horse-like. The distribution of stripes varied considerably between individuals. Little is known about the quagga's behaviour, but it may have gathered into herds of 30–50. Quaggas were said to be wild and lively, yet were also considered more docile than the related Burchell's zebra. They were once found in great numbers in the Karoo of Cape Province and the southern part of the Orange Free State in South Africa.


title: Quagga

text: After the European settlement of South Africa began, the quagga was extensively hunted, as it competed with domesticated animals for forage. Some were taken to zoos in Europe, but breeding programmes were unsuccessful. The last wild population lived in the Orange Free State; the quagga was extinct in the wild by 1878. The last captive specimen died in Amsterdam on 12 August 1883. Only one quagga was ever photographed alive, and only 23 skins exist today. In 1984, the quagga was the first extinct animal whose DNA was analysed. The Quagga Project is trying to recreate the phenotype of hair coat pattern by selectively breeding the genetically closest subspecies, which is Burchell's zebra.


title: Quagga

text: It has been historically suggested that the name "quagga" is derived from the Khoikhoi word for "zebra" (cf. Tshwa 'zebra'), thereby being an onomatopoeic word, resembling the quagga's call, variously transcribed as "kwa-ha-ha", "kwahaah", or "oug-ga". The name is still used colloquially for the plains zebra.


title: Quagga

text: The quagga was originally classified as a distinct species, "Equus quagga", in 1778 by Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert. Traditionally, the quagga and the other plains and mountain zebras were placed in the subgenus "Hippotigris". Much debate has occurred over the status of the quagga in relation to the plains zebra. The British zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock in 1902 was perhaps the first to suggest that the quagga was a subspecies of the plains zebra. As the quagga was scientifically described and named before the plains zebra, the trinomial name for the quagga becomes "E. quagga quagga" under this scheme, and the other subspecies of the plains zebra are placed under "E. quagga", as well.


title: Quagga

text: Historically, quagga taxonomy was further complicated because the extinct southernmost population of Burchell's zebra ("Equus quagga burchellii", formerly "Equus burchellii burchellii") was thought to be a distinct subspecies (also sometimes thought a full species, "E. burchellii"). The extant northern population, the "Damara zebra", was later named "Equus quagga antiquorum", which means that it is today also referred to as "E. q. burchellii", after it was realised they were the same taxon. The extinct population was long thought very close to the quagga, since it also showed limited striping on its hind parts. As an example of this, Shortridge placed the two in the now disused subgenus "Quagga" in 1934. Most experts now suggest that the two subspecies represent two ends of a cline.


title: Quagga

text: Different subspecies of plains zebras were recognised as members of "Equus quagga" by early researchers, though much confusion existed over which species were valid. Quagga subspecies were described on the basis of differences in striping patterns, but these differences were since attributed to individual variation within the same populations. Some subspecies and even species, such as "E. q. danielli" and "Hippotigris isabellinus", were based only on illustrations (iconotypes) of aberrant quagga specimens. One craniometric study from 1980 seemed to confirm its affiliation with the horse ("Equus ferus caballus"), but early morphological studies have been noted as being erroneous. Studying skeletons from stuffed specimens can be problematical, as early taxidermists sometimes used donkey and horse skulls inside their mounts when the originals were unavailable.


title: Quagga

text: The quagga is poorly represented in the fossil record, and the identification of these fossils is uncertain, as they were collected at a time when the name "quagga" referred to all zebras. Fossil skulls of "Equus mauritanicus" from Algeria have been claimed to show affinities with the quagga and the plains zebra, but they may be too badly damaged to allow definite conclusions to be drawn from them.


title: Quagga

text: The quagga was the first extinct animal to have its DNA analysed, and this 1984 study launched the field of ancient DNA analysis. It confirmed that the quagga was more closely related to zebras than to horses, with the quagga and mountain zebra ("Equus zebra") sharing an ancestor 3–4 million years ago. An immunological study published the following year found the quagga to be closest to the plains zebra. A 1987 study suggested that the mtDNA of the quagga diverged at a range of roughly 2 percent per million years, similar to other mammal species, and again confirmed the close relation to the plains zebra.


title: Quagga

text: Later morphological studies came to different conclusions. A 1999 analysis of cranial measurements found that the quagga was as different from the plains zebra as the latter is from the mountain zebra. A 2004 study of skins and skulls instead suggested that the quagga was not a distinct species, but a subspecies of the plains zebra. In spite of these findings, many authors subsequently kept the plains zebra and the quagga as separate species.


title: Quagga

text: A genetic study published in 2005 confirmed the subspecific status of the quagga. It showed that the quagga had little genetic diversity, and that it diverged from the other plains zebra subspecies only between 120,000 and 290,000 years ago, during the Pleistocene, and possibly the penultimate glacial maximum. Its distinct coat pattern perhaps evolved rapidly because of geographical isolation and/or adaptation to a drier environment. In addition, plains zebra subspecies tend to have less striping the further south they live, and the quagga was the most southern-living of them all. Other large African ungulates diverged into separate species and subspecies during this period, as well, probably because of the same climate shift.


title: Quagga

text: The simplified cladogram below is based on the 2005 analysis (some taxa shared haplotypes and could, therefore, not be differentiated):


title: Quagga

text: A 2018 genetic study of plains zebras populations confirmed the quagga as a member of that species. They found no evidence for subspecific differentiation based on morphological differences between southern populations of zebras, including the quagga. Modern plains zebra populations may have originated from southern Africa, and the quagga appears to be less divergent from neighbouring populations than the northernmost living population in northeastern Uganda. Instead, the study supported a north–south genetic continuum for plains zebras, with the Ugandan population being the most distinct. Zebras from Namibia appear to be the closest genetically to the quagga.


title: Quagga

text: The quagga is believed to have been long and tall at the shoulder. Based on measurements of skins, mares were significantly longer and slightly taller than stallions, whereas the stallions of extant zebras are the largest. Its coat pattern was unique among equids: zebra-like in the front but more like a horse in the rear. It had brown and white stripes on the head and neck, brown upper parts and a white belly, tail and legs. The stripes were boldest on the head and neck and became gradually fainter further down the body, blending with the reddish brown of the back and flanks, until disappearing along the back. It appears to have had a high degree of polymorphism, with some having almost no stripes and others having patterns similar to the extinct southern population of Burchell's zebra, where the stripes covered most of the body except for the hind parts, legs and belly. It also had a broad dark dorsal stripe on its back. It had a standing mane with brown and white stripes.


title: Quagga

text: The only quagga to have been photographed alive was a mare at the Zoological Society of London's Zoo. Five photographs of this specimen are known, taken between 1863 and 1870. On the basis of photographs and written descriptions, many observers suggest that the stripes on the quagga were light on a dark background, unlike other zebras. The German naturalist Reinhold Rau, pioneer of the Quagga Project, claimed that this is an optical illusion: that the base colour is a creamy white and that the stripes are thick and dark.


title: Quagga

text: Living in the very southern end of the plains zebra's range, the quagga had a thick winter coat that moulted each year. Its skull was described as having a straight profile and a concave diastema, and as being relatively broad with a narrow occiput. Like other plains zebras, the quagga did not have a dewlap on its neck as the mountain zebra does. The 2004 morphological study found that the skeletal features of the southern Burchell's zebra population and the quagga overlapped, and that they were impossible to distinguish. Some specimens also appeared to be intermediate between the two in striping, and the extant Burchell's zebra population still exhibits limited striping. It can therefore be concluded that the two subspecies graded morphologically into each other. Today, some stuffed specimens of quaggas and southern Burchell's zebra are so similar that they are impossible to definitely identify as either, since no location data was recorded.


title: Quagga

text: The quagga was the southernmost distributed plains zebra, mainly living south of the Orange River. It was a grazer, and its habitat range was restricted to the grasslands and arid interior scrubland of the Karoo region of South Africa, today forming parts of the provinces of Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, Western Cape, and the Free State. These areas were known for distinctive flora and fauna and high amounts of endemism. Quaggas have been reported gathering into herds of 30–50, and sometimes travelled in a linear fashion. They may have been sympatric with Burchell's zebra between the Vaal and Orange rivers. This is disputed, and there is no evidence that they interbred. It could also have shared a small portion of its range with Hartmann's mountain zebra ("Equus zebra hartmannae").


title: Quagga

text: Little is known about the behaviour of quaggas in the wild, and it is sometimes unclear what exact species of zebra is referred to in old reports. The only source that unequivocally describes the quagga in the Free State is that of the British military engineer and hunter William Cornwallis Harris. His 1840 account reads as follows:


title: Quagga

text: The geographical range of the quagga does not appear to extend to the northward of the river Vaal. The animal was formerly extremely common within the colony; but, vanishing before the strides of civilisation, is now to be found in very limited numbers and on the borders only. Beyond, on those sultry plains which are completely taken possession of by wild beasts, and may with strict propriety be termed the domains of savage nature, it occurs in interminable herds; and, although never intermixing with its more elegant congeners, it is almost invariably to be found ranging with the white-tailed gnu and with the ostrich, for the society of which bird especially it evinces the most singular predilection. Moving slowly across the profile of the ocean-like horizon, uttering a shrill, barking neigh, of which its name forms a correct imitation, long files of quaggas continually remind the early traveller of a rival caravan on its march. Bands of many hundreds are thus frequently seen doing their migration from the dreary and desolate plains of some portion of the interior, which has formed their secluded abode, seeking for those more luxuriant pastures where, during the summer months, various herbs thrust forth their leaves and flowers to form a green carpet, spangled with hues the most brilliant and diversified.


title: Quagga

text: The practical function of striping in zebras has been debated and it is unclear why the quagga lacked stripes on its hind parts. A cryptic function for protection from predators (stripes obscure the individual zebra in a herd) and biting flies (which are less attracted to striped objects), as well as various social functions, have been proposed for zebras in general. Differences in hind quarter stripes may have aided species recognition during stampedes of mixed herds, so that members of one subspecies or species would follow its own kind. It has also been evidence that the zebras developed striping patterns as thermoregulation to cool themselves down, and that the quagga lost them due to living in a cooler climate, although one problem with this is that the mountain zebra lives in similar environments and has a bold striping pattern. A 2014 study strongly supported the biting-fly hypothesis, and the quagga appears to have lived in areas with lesser amounts of fly activity than other zebras.


title: Quagga

text: A 2020 study suggested that the sexual dimorphism in size, with quagga mares being larger than stallions, could be due to the cold and droughts that affects the Karoo plateau, conditions that were even more severe in prehistoric times, such as during ice ages (other plains zebras live in warmer areas). Isolation, cold, and aridity could thereby have affected quagga evolution, including coat colour and size dimorphism. Since plains zebra mares are pregnant or lactate for much of their lives, larger size could have been a selective advantage for quagga mares, as they would therefore have more food reserves when food was scarce. Dimorphism and coat colour could also have evolved through genetic drift due to isolation, but these influences are not mutually exclusive, and could have worked together.


title: Quagga

text: Quaggas have been identified in cave art attributed to the indigenous San people of Southern Africa. As it was easy to find and kill, the quagga was hunted by early Dutch settlers and later by Afrikaners to provide meat or for their skins. The skins were traded or exploited. The quagga was probably vulnerable to extinction due to its restricted range. Local farmers used them as guards for their livestock, as they were likely to attack intruders. Quaggas were said to be lively and highly strung, especially the stallions. Quaggas were brought to European zoos, and an attempt at captive breeding at London Zoo, but was halted when a lone stallion killed itself by bashing itself against a wall after losing its temper. On the other hand, captive quaggas in European zoos were said to be tamer and more docile than Burchell's zebra. One specimen was reported to have lived in captivity for 21 years and 4 months, dying in 1872.


title: Quagga

text: The quagga was long regarded a suitable candidate for domestication, as it counted as the most docile of the zebras. The Dutch colonists in South Africa had considered this possibility, because their imported work horses did not perform very well in the extreme climate and regularly fell prey to the feared African horse sickness. In 1843, the English naturalist Charles Hamilton Smith wrote that the quagga was 'unquestionably best calculated for domestication, both as regards strength and docility'. Some mentions have been given of tame or domesticated quaggas in South Africa. In Europe, two stallions were used to drive a phaeton by the sheriff of London in the early 19th century.


title: Quagga

text: In an attempt at domesticating the quagga, the British lord George Douglas, 16th Earl of Morton obtained a single male which he bred with a female horse of partial Arabian ancestry. This produced a female hybrid with stripes on its back and legs. Lord Morton's mare was sold and was subsequently bred with a black stallion, resulting in offspring that again had zebra stripes. An account of this was published in 1820 by the Royal Society. It is unknown what happened to the hybrid mare itself. This led to new ideas on telegony, referred to as pangenesis by the British naturalist Charles Darwin. At the close of the 19th century, the Scottish zoologist James Cossar Ewart argued against these ideas and proved, with several cross-breeding experiments, that zebra stripes could appear as an atavistic trait at any time.


title: Quagga

text: There are 23 known stuffed and mounted quagga specimens throughout the world, including a juvenile, two foals, and a foetus. In addition, a mounted head and neck, a foot, seven complete skeletons, and samples of various tissues remain. A 24th mounted specimen was destroyed in Königsberg, Germany, during World War II, and various skeletons and bones have also been lost.


title: Quagga

text: The quagga had disappeared from much of its range by the 1850s. The last population in the wild, in the Orange Free State, was extirpated in the late 1870s. The last known wild quagga died in 1878. The specimen in London died in 1872 and the one in Berlin in 1875. The last captive quagga, a female in Amsterdam's Natura Artis Magistra zoo, lived there from 9 May 1867 until it died on 12 August 1883, but its origin and cause of death are unclear. Its death was not recognised as signifying the extinction of its kind at the time, and the zoo requested another specimen; hunters believed it could still be found "closer to the interior" in the Cape Colony. Since locals used the term quagga to refer to all zebras, this may have led to the confusion. The extinction of the quagga was internationally accepted by the 1900 Convention for the Preservation of Wild Animals, Birds and Fish in Africa. The last specimen was featured on a Dutch stamp in 1988. The specimen itself was mounted and is kept in the collection of Naturalis Biodiversity Center in Leiden. It has been on display for special occasions.


title: Quagga

text: In 1889, the naturalist Henry Bryden wrote: "That an animal so beautiful, so capable of domestication and use, and to be found not long since in so great abundance, should have been allowed to be swept from the face of the earth, is surely a disgrace to our latter-day civilization."


title: Quagga

text: After the very close relationship between the quagga and extant plains zebras was discovered, Rau started the Quagga Project in 1987 in South Africa to create a quagga-like zebra population by selectively breeding for a reduced stripe pattern from plains zebra stock, with the eventual aim of introducing them to the quagga's former range. To differentiate between the quagga and the zebras of the project, they refer to it as "Rau quaggas". The founding population consisted of 19 individuals from Namibia and South Africa, chosen because they had reduced striping on the rear body and legs. The first foal of the project was born in 1988. Once a sufficiently quagga-like population has been created, participants in the project plan to release them in the Western Cape.


title: Quagga

text: Introduction of these quagga-like zebras could be part of a comprehensive restoration programme, including such ongoing efforts as eradication of non-native trees. Quaggas, wildebeest, and ostriches, which occurred together during historical times in a mutually beneficial association, could be kept together in areas where the indigenous vegetation has to be maintained by grazing. In early 2006, the third- and fourth-generation animals produced by the project were considered looking much like the depictions and preserved specimens of the quagga. This type of selective breeding is called breeding back. The practice is controversial, since the resulting zebras will resemble the quaggas only in external appearance, but will be genetically different. The technology to use recovered DNA for cloning has not yet been developed.


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: Under the Tuscan Sun is a 2003 American romantic comedy-drama film written, produced, and directed by Audrey Wells and starring Diane Lane. Based on Frances Mayes' 1996 memoir of the same name, the film is about a recently divorced writer who buys a villa in Tuscany on a whim, hoping it will lead to a change in her life. The film was nominated for the Art Directors Guild Excellence in Production Design Award, and Diane Lane received a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance.


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: Frances Mayes is a San Francisco writer whose seemingly perfect life takes an unexpected turn when she learns that her husband has been cheating on her. The husband, who had been working on his writing and had no income, ironically, was allowed to petition for alimony. As a one-time settlement, however, the agreement was for Frances to quit claim her 1/2 ownership of the home. The divorce—and the loss of her house to her ex-husband and his much-younger, pregnant new partner—leaves her depressed and unable to write. Her best friend Patti, who is expecting a child with her girlfriend Grace, is worried that Frances might never recover from the traumatic divorce. She urges Frances to take an Italian vacation to Tuscany using the ticket she purchased before she became pregnant. At first, Frances refuses, but after another depressing day in her gloomy temporary apartment, she decides that it's a good idea to get away for a while.


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: In Tuscany, her tour group stops in the small town of Cortona. After wandering through the charming streets, she notices a posting for a villa for sale in Cortona. She rejoins her tour group on the bus, and just outside town, the bus stops to allow a flock of sheep to cross the road. While they wait, Frances realizes that they've stopped directly in front of the very villa that she had seen for sale—something she believes is a sign. She asks the driver to stop, and she gets off the bus. Through a series of serendipitous events, she becomes the owner of a lovely yet dilapidated villa in beautiful Tuscany.


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: Frances begins her new life with the help of a variety of interesting characters and unusual but gentle souls. She hires a crew of Polish immigrants to renovate the house. Over time, Frances also befriends her Italian neighbors and develops relationships with her Polish workers, the realtor who sold her the villa, and Katherine, an eccentric aging British actress who evokes the mystery and beauty of an Italian film star. Later, she is visited by the now very pregnant Patti, whose partner Grace has left her.


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: Frances meets and has a brief romantic affair with Marcello, but their relationship does not last. She is about to give up on happiness when one of her Polish workers, a teenager named Pawel, and a neighbor's young daughter come to her for help. Her father does not approve of him, due to his being Polish and not having a family, yet they are very much in love and want to get married. Frances persuades the girl's family to support their love, by proclaiming that she is Pawel's family, and the young lovers are soon married at the villa. During the wedding celebration, Ed, an American writer appears unexpectedly. The writer, whose novel Frances had previously edited and critiqued harshly, is traveling in Tuscany and heard about her residence there. Their attraction for each other points to a romantic future.


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: In November 1998, producer Tom Sternberg was filming the psychological thriller "The Talented Mr. Ripley" (1999) in Northern Italy. In the penultimate week of its seventeen-week shooting schedule, the crew was working in the Tuscan town of Pienza in the province of Siena. After finishing the shooting day, Sternberg, director Anthony Minghella and actor Matt Damon met Frances Mayes and her husband Ed at a nearby wine bar where the couple was picking out wine glasses. Astounded to meet the author, Sternberg had read Mayes's 1996 memoir "Under the Tuscan Sun" a year earlier but initially not considered it for film treatment. In March 2000, Sternberg met Mayes again in Los Angeles, where they were guests of the Tuscan Film Commission. Upon their reencounter, Sternberg reread the book and realized its potential as a film. Sternberg and executive producer Mark Gill gave the book to Audrey Wells and asked to hear her take on how to adapt it for the screen. Wells envisioned "Under The Tuscan Sun" to be a "lush, classical romantic comedy whose point is that if you stop looking for love, love will find you."


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: "Under the Tuscan Sun" opened well in the United States, where it came in second to "The Rundown" at the box office during the weekend of September 28, 2003, grossing $9,751,425 on 1,226 screens. This was more than half of its estimated $18 million budget. The film was a box office success, earning $43,610,723 domestically and a further $15,268,000 internationally, totaling $58,878,723 worldwide.


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics, although there was strong praise for Lane's performance. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 62% of critics gave the film a positive rating, based on 155 reviews, with an average score of 6.2/10. Its consensus states: "Though formulaic and superficial, "Under the Tuscan Sun" is redeemed by Lane's vibrant performance." On Metacritic, which uses a normalized rating system, the film holds a 52/100 rating, based on 34 reviews, indicating "mixed or average favourable reviews".


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" remarked that "it would be easy [...] to call the entire plot of "Under the Tuscan Sun" a mere excuse to show us beautiful things and Lane's reaction to them. [But] despite stiff competition from the natural surroundings, Lane's face is not just the witness to beauty but also the thing itself in this stunning-looking film." Roger Ebert, writing for the "Chicago Sun-Times", gave "Under the Tuscan Sun" three out of four stars. He called the film an "alluring example of yuppie porn, seducing audiences with a shapely little villa in Italy [...] What redeems the film is its successful escapism, and Lane's performance." Similarly "Boston Globe"s Ty Burr found that "Under the Tuscan Sun" "plays as a warmly soothing yuppie-makeover daydream, and it goes down like limoncello – sweet, not very good for you, but irresistible just the same."


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: Mike Clark from "USA Today" declared the film "a fun movie to sit through even when you don't always buy it [...] If the scenery and Lane's charm hook you early on, you'll probably go with the flow. And the movie is all Lane." "Seattle Times" critic Moira MacDonald felt that "despite the formulaic plot, which seems to belong on the Lifetime channel, Wells has a knack for witty dialogue that keeps things moving along [...] As escapism and as winsome travelogue, "Under the Tuscan Sun" works just fine." Red Reed, writing for "The Observer" was critical with the film's overplotted third act, but added: "File [it] under guilty pleasures, but I loved [the film] unconditionally [...] The epitome of what a feel-good movie is supposed to be but rarely is, this one is beautiful to look at and life-affirming to think about, and it doesn't have a pretentious bone in its head."


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: In her review for "Salon", Stephanie Zacharek was more cutting, saying: "For a movie about moving to Italy and bedding a hot Italian stallion, this sterile fantasy is about as sexy as a rusty olive oil can [...] "Under the Tuscan Sun" pretends to be juicy, but it doesn't allow any dribbles. It purports to make love all over us, but not without laying down lots of paper towels first."


title: Under the Tuscan Sun (film)

text: Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly" graded the film with a 'C+' rating, summarizing it as a "a golden vise of women's romance-pic clichés." "Los Angeles Times" critic Manohla Dargis wrote that "it’s a pleasure to watch Lane's delicately lived-in face tremble with feeling – it's the truest thing in the movie – but the character's desperation feels wrong, the worst kind of sellout [...] The movie pretends it’s peddling a vision of 'you-go-girl' independence in which it doesn't remotely believe."


title: Goddess

text: A goddess is a female deity. In many known cultures, goddesses are often linked with literal or metaphorical pregnancy or imagined feminine roles associated with how women and girls are perceived or expected to behave. This includes themes of spinning, weaving, beauty, love, sexuality, motherhood, domesticity, creativity, and fertility (exemplified by the ancient mother goddess cult). Many major goddesses are also associated with magic, war, strategy, hunting, farming, wisdom, fate, earth, sky, power, laws, justice, and more. Some themes, such as discord or disease, which are considered negative within their cultural contexts also are found associated with some goddesses. There are as many differently described and understood goddesses as there are male, shapeshifting, or neuter gods.


title: Goddess

text: In some faiths, a sacred female figure holds a central place in religious prayer and worship. For example, Shaktism, the worship of the female force that animates the world, is one of the three major sects of Hinduism.


title: Goddess

text: Polytheist religions, including Polytheistic reconstructionists, honor multiple goddesses and gods, and usually view them as discrete, separate beings. These deities may be part of a pantheon, or different regions may have tutelary deities.


title: Goddess

text: The noun "goddess" is a secondary formation, combining the Germanic "god" with the Latinate "-ess" suffix. It first appeared in Middle English, from about 1350. The English word follows the linguistic precedent of a number of languages—including Egyptian, Classical Greek, and several Semitic languages—that add a feminine ending to the language's word for "god".


title: Goddess

text: Inanna was the most worshipped goddess in ancient Sumer. She was later syncretised with the East Semitic goddess Ishtar. Other Mesopotamian goddesses include Ninhursag, Ninlil, Antu and Gaga.


title: Goddess

text: In pre-Islamic Mecca the goddesses Uzza, Manāt and al-Lāt were known as "the daughters of god". Uzzā was worshipped by the Nabataeans, who equated her with the Graeco-Roman goddesses Aphrodite, Urania, Venus and Caelestis. Each of the three goddesses had a separate shrine near Mecca. Uzzā, was called upon for protection by the pre-Islamic Quraysh. "In 624 at the battle called "Uhud", the war cry of the Qurayshites was, "O people of Uzzā, people of Hubal!" (Tawil 1993).


title: Goddess

text: According to Ibn Ishaq's controversial account of the Satanic Verses ("q.v."), these verses had previously endorsed them as intercessors for Muslims, but were abrogated. Most Muslim scholars have regarded the story as historically implausible, while opinion is divided among western scholars such as Leone Caetani and John Burton, who argue against, and William Muir and William Montgomery Watt, who argue for its plausibility.


title: Goddess

text: The Quran () warns of the vanity of trusting to the intercession of female deities, in particular "the daughters of god".


title: Goddess

text: The Celts honoured goddesses of nature and natural forces, as well as those connected with skills and professions such as healing, warfare and poetry. The Celtic goddesses have diverse qualities such as abundance, creation and beauty, as well as harshness, slaughter and vengeance. They have been depicted as beautiful or hideous, old hags or young women, and at times may transform their appearance from one state to another, or into their associated creatures such as crows, cows, wolves or eels, to name but a few. In Irish mythology in particular, tutelary goddesses are often associated with sovereignty and various features of the land, notably mountains, rivers, forests and holy wells.


title: Goddess

text: Surviving accounts of Germanic mythology and Norse mythology contain numerous tales of female goddesses, giantesses, and divine female figures in their scriptures. The Germanic peoples had altars erected to the "Mothers and Matrons" and held celebrations specific to these goddesses (such as the Anglo-Saxon "Mothers-night"). Various other female deities are attested among the Germanic peoples, such as Nerthus attested in an early account of the Germanic peoples, Ēostre attested among the pagan Anglo-Saxons, and Sinthgunt attested among the pagan continental Germanic peoples. Examples of goddesses attested in Norse mythology include Frigg (wife of Odin, and the Anglo-Saxon version of whom is namesake of the modern English weekday Friday), Skaði (one time wife of Njörðr), Njerda (Scandinavian name of Nerthus), that also was married to Njörðr during Bronze Age, Freyja (wife of Óðr), Sif (wife of Thor), Gerðr (wife of Freyr), and personifications such as Jörð (earth), Sól (the sun), and Nótt (night). Female deities also play heavily into the Norse concept of death, where half of those slain in battle enter Freyja's field Fólkvangr, Hel's realm of the same name, and Rán who receives those who die at sea. Other female deities such as the valkyries, the norns, and the dísir are associated with a Germanic concept of fate (Old Norse "Ørlög", Old English "Wyrd"), and celebrations were held in their honour, such as the Dísablót and Disting.


title: Goddess

text: The Inca pantheon included: Pachamama, the supreme Mother Earth, Mama Killa, a moon goddess, and Mama Ocllo, a fertility goddess.


title: Goddess

text: The main goddesses in the Maya pantheon were Ixchel, a mother goddess, and the Maya moon goddess. The Goddess I presided over eroticism, human procreation, and marriage. Ixtab was the goddess of suicide.


title: Goddess

text: Most Modern Pagan traditions honour one or more goddesses. While some who follow Wicca believe in a duotheistic belief system, consisting of a single goddess and a single god, who in hieros gamos represent a united whole, others recognise only one or more goddesses.


title: Goddess

text: Within many forms of Wicca the Goddess has come to be considered as a universal deity, more in line with her description in the Charge of the Goddess, a key Wiccan text. In this guise she is the "Queen of Heaven", similar to Isis. She also encompasses and conceives all life, much like Gaia. Similarly to Isis and certain late Classical conceptions of Selene, she is the summation of all other goddesses, who represent her different names and aspects across the different cultures. The Goddess is often portrayed with strong lunar symbolism, drawing on various cultures and deities such as Diana, Hecate, and Isis, and is often depicted as the Maiden, Mother, and Crone triad popularised by Robert Graves (see Triple Goddess below). Many depictions of her also draw strongly on Celtic goddesses. Some Wiccans believe there are many goddesses, and in some forms of Wicca, notably Dianic Wicca, the Goddess alone is worshipped, and the God plays very little part in their worship and ritual.


title: Goddess

text: Goddesses or demi-goddesses appear in sets of three in a number of ancient European pagan mythologies; these include the Greek "Erinyes" (Furies) and "Moirai" (Fates); the Norse "Norns"; Brighid and her two sisters, also called Brighid, from Irish or Celtic mythology.


title: Goddess

text: Robert Graves popularised the triad of "Maiden" (or "Virgin"), "Mother" and "Crone", and while this idea did not rest on sound scholarship, his poetic inspiration has gained a tenacious hold. Considerable variation in the precise conceptions of these figures exists, as typically occurs in Neopaganism and indeed in pagan religions in general. Some choose to interpret them as three stages in a woman's life, separated by menarche and menopause. Others find this too biologically based and rigid, and prefer a freer interpretation, with the Maiden as birth (independent, self-centred, seeking), the Mother as giving birth (interrelated, compassionate nurturing, creating), and the Crone as death and renewal (holistic, remote, unknowable) — and all three erotic and wise.


title: Goddess

text: In African and African diasporic religions, goddesses are often syncretised with Marian devotion, as in Ezili Dantor (Black Madonna of Częstochowa) and Erzulie Freda (Mater Dolorosa). There is also Buk, an Ethiopian goddess still worshipped in the southern regions. She represents the fertile aspect of women. So when a woman is having her period not only does it signify her submission to nature but also her union with the goddess. Another Ethiopian goddess is Atete, the goddess of spring and fertility. Farmers traditionally leave some of their products at the end of each harvesting season as an offering while women sing traditional songs.


title: Goddess

text: A rare example of henotheism focused on a single Goddess is found among the Southern Nuba of Sudan. The Nuba conceive of the creator Goddess as the "Great Mother" who gave birth to earth and to mankind.


title: Goddess

text: Goddess Amaterasu is the chief among the Shinto gods, while there are important female deities Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto, Inari and Konohanasakuya-hime.


title: Goddess

text: Hinduism is a complex of various belief systems that sees many gods and goddesses as being representative of and/or emanative from a single source, Brahman, understood either as a formless, infinite, impersonal monad in the Advaita tradition or as a dual god in the form of Lakshmi-Vishnu, Radha-Krishna, Shiva-Shakti in Dvaita traditions. Shaktas, worshippers of the Goddess, equate this god with Devi, the Mother Goddess. Such aspects of one god as male god (Shaktiman) and female energy (Shakti), working as a pair are often envisioned as male gods and their wives or consorts and provide many analogues between passive male ground and dynamic female energy.


title: Goddess

text: For example, Brahma pairs with Sarasvati. Shiva likewise pairs with Parvati who later is represented through a number of Avatars (incarnations): Sati and the warrior figures, Durga and Kali. All goddesses in Hinduism are sometimes grouped together as the great goddess, Devi.


title: Goddess

text: The "Shaktis" took a further step. Their ideology, based mainly on tantras, sees Shakti as the principle of energy through which all divinity functions, thus showing the masculine as depending on the feminine. In the great shakta scripture known as the Devi Mahatmya, all the goddesses are aspects of one presiding female force—one in truth and many in expression—giving the world and the cosmos the galvanic energy for motion. It expresses through philosophical tracts and metaphor, that the potentiality of masculine being is actuated by the feminine divine. More recently, the Indian author Rajesh Talwar has critiqued Western religion and written eloquently on the sacred feminine in the context of the North Indian Goddess Vaishno Devi.


title: Goddess

text: Local deities of different village regions in India were often identified with "mainstream" Hindu deities, a process that has been called "Sanskritisation". Others attribute it to the influence of monism or "Advaita", which discounts polytheist or monotheist categorisation.


title: Goddess

text: While the monist forces have led to a fusion between some of the goddesses (108 names are common for many goddesses), centrifugal forces have also resulted in new goddesses and rituals gaining ascendance among the laity in different parts of Hindu world. Thus, the immensely popular goddess Durga was a pre-Vedic goddess who was later fused with Parvati, a process that can be traced through texts such as Kalika Purana (10th century), Durgabhaktitarangini (Vidyapati 15th century), Chandimangal (16th century) etc.


title: Goddess

text: Widely celebrated Hindu festival Navaratri is in the honour of the divine feminine Devi (Durga) and spans nine nights of prayer in the autumn, also referred as Sharada Navratri.


title: Goddess

text: According to Zohar, Lilith is the name of Adam's first wife, who was created at the same time as Adam. She left Adam and refused to return to the Garden of Eden after she mated with archangel Samael. Her story was greatly developed during the Middle Ages in the tradition of Aggadic midrashim, the Zohar and Jewish mysticism.


title: Goddess

text: The Zohar tradition has influenced Jewish folklore, which postulates God created Adam to marry a woman named Lilith. Outside of Jewish tradition, Lilith was associated with the Mother Goddess, Inanna – later known as both Ishtar and Asherah. In The Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh was said to have destroyed a tree that was in a sacred grove dedicated to the goddess Ishtar/Inanna/Asherah. Lilith ran into the wilderness in despair. She then is depicted in the Talmud and Kabbalah as first wife to God's first creation of man, Adam. In time, as stated in the Old Testament, the Hebrew followers continued to worship "False Idols", like Asherah, as being as powerful as God. Jeremiah speaks of his (and God's) displeasure at this behavior to the Hebrew people about the worship of the goddess in the Old Testament. Lilith is banished from Adam and God's presence when she is discovered to be a "demon" and Eve becomes Adam's wife.


title: Goddess

text: The veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus, as an especially privileged saint has continued since the beginning of the Catholic faith. Mary is venerated as the Mother of God, Queen of Heaven, Mother of the Church, the Blessed Virgin Mary, Star of the Sea, and other lofty titles.


title: Goddess

text: Marian devotion similar to this kind is also found in Eastern Orthodoxy and sometimes in Anglicanism, although not in the majority of denominations of Protestantism.


title: Goddess

text: In some Christian traditions (like the Orthodox tradition), Sophia is the personification of either divine wisdom (or of an archangel) that takes female form. She is mentioned in the first chapter of the Book of Proverbs. Sophia is identified by some as the wisdom imparting Holy Spirit of the Christian Trinity, whose names in Hebrew—Ruach and Shekhinah—are both feminine, and whose symbol of the dove was commonly associated in the Ancient Near East with the figure of the Mother Goddess.


title: Goddess

text: In mysticism, Gnosticism, as well as some Hellenistic religions, there is a female spirit or goddess named Sophia who is said to embody wisdom and who is sometimes described as a virgin. In Roman Catholic mysticism, Saint Hildegard celebrated Sophia as a cosmic figure both in her writing and art. Within the Protestant tradition in England, the 17th-century mystic universalist and founder of the Philadelphian Society Jane Leade wrote copious descriptions of her visions and dialogues with the "Virgin Sophia" who, she said, revealed to her the spiritual workings of the universe. Leade was hugely influenced by the theosophical writings of 16th-century German Christian mystic Jakob Böhme, who also speaks of Sophia in works such as "The Way to Christ". Jakob Böhme was very influential to a number of Christian mystics and religious leaders, including George Rapp and the Harmony Society.


title: Goddess

text: The members of most denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement believe in, although they do not directly worship, a Heavenly Mother who is the female counterpart of the Heavenly Father. Together they are referred to as Heavenly Parents. Adherents also believe that all humans, both women and men, have the potential to become gods through a process known as exaltation.


title: Goddess

text: At least since first-wave feminism in the United States, there has been interest in analyzing religion to see if and how doctrines and practices treat women unfairly, as in Elizabeth Cady Stanton's "The Woman's Bible". Again in second-wave feminism in the U.S., as well as in many European and other countries, religion became the focus of some feminist analysis in Judaism, Christianity, and other religions, and some women turned to ancient goddess religions as an alternative to Abrahamic religions ("Womanspirit Rising" 1979; "Weaving the Visions" 1989). Today both women and men continue to be involved in the Goddess movement (Christ 1997). The popularity of organisations such as the Fellowship of Isis attest to the continuing growth of the religion of the Goddess throughout the world.


title: Goddess

text: While much of the attempt at gender equity in mainstream Christianity (Judaism never recognised any gender for God) is aimed at reinterpreting scripture and degenderising language used to name and describe the divine (Ruether, 1984; Plaskow, 1991), there are a growing number of people who identify as Christians or Jews who are trying to integrate goddess imagery into their religions (Kien, 2000; Kidd 1996,"Goddess Christians Yahoo Group").


title: Goddess

text: The term "goddess" has also been adapted to poetic and secular use as a complimentary description of a non-mythological woman. The OED notes 1579 as the date of the earliest attestation of such figurative use, in "Lauretta the diuine Petrarches Goddesse".


title: Goddess

text: Shakespeare had several of his male characters address female characters as goddesses, including Demetrius to Helena in "A Midsummer Night's Dream" ("O Helen, goddess, nymph, perfect, divine!"), Berowne to Rosaline in "Love's Labour's Lost" ("A woman I forswore; but I will prove, Thou being a goddess, I forswore not thee"), and Bertram to Diana in "All's Well That Ends Well". Pisanio also compares Imogen to a goddess to describe her composure under duress in "Cymbeline".


title: Undergraduate degree

text: An undergraduate degree (also called first degree or simply degree) is a colloquial term for an academic degree earned by a person who has completed undergraduate courses. In the United States, it is usually offered at an institution of higher education, such as a college or university. The most common type of these undergraduate degrees are associate degree and bachelor's degree. Bachelor's degree typically takes at least three or four years to complete. In some other educational systems, undergraduate education is post-secondary education up to the level of a master's degree; this is the case for some science courses in Britain and some long-cycle medicine courses in Europe. These degrees can be categorised as basic or first professional degrees.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: In the United Kingdom, a bachelor's degree is the most common type of "undergraduate degree". Some master's degrees can be undertaken immediately after finishing secondary education; however, these courses are usually extended versions of bachelor's degree programs, taking an additional year to complete. Most bachelor's degrees take three years to complete, with some notable exceptions, such as Medicine taking five years. Often students can initially enroll in a 4-year program then leave after three years and be awarded a bachelor's degree. Lastly, the Undergraduate Advanced Diploma (UGAdvDip or UGAD) is a FHEQ Level 6 award and it is considered as equivalent to a "second bachelor’s degree" or a Graduate Diploma.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: In Italy, the "laurea" (formerly "laurea triennale", meaning "three-year "laurea"") is the most common type of "undergraduate degree". It is equivalent to a bachelor's degree and its normative time to completion is three years (note that In Italy "scuola secondaria superiore" or "Lyceum", high school, takes five years, so it ends at 19 years of age). Not to be confused with the old "laurea"—now called "laurea magistrale"—which typically used to last five or six years. To earn a "laurea", the student must complete a thesis, but a less demanding one than required for the old "laurea" (typically, a non-research thesis). There is not necessarily a "laurea" course for every discipline. For instance, for disciplines as Medicine or Jurisprudence only "laurea magistrale" courses are provided.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: First professional degrees sometimes contain the word "Doctor", but are still considered "undergraduate degrees" in most countries, including Canada. For example, the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) program in Canada is considered an "undergraduate degree". However, in the United States, most first professional degrees are considered graduate programs by the U.S. Department of Education and require students to already possess an "undergraduate degree" before admission. These degrees are not research doctorates and are therefore not equivalent to the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) Many countries offer bachelor's degrees that are equivalent to American graduate degrees. For example, the Doctor of Medicine and Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degrees offered in the U.S. are equivalent to the Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery (MBBS or MBChB) degree.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: In the United States and sometimes in Canada, an associate degree is a two-year degree. It is occasionally undertaken as the beginning of a four-year degree. Some two-year college systems have articulation agreements with four-year institutions in their state, which specify which courses transfer without problems.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Arizona General Education Curriculum certification (AGEC), awarded for the completion of an Associate of Arts, Associate of Science, or Associate of Business degree, indicates the completion of all bachelor's degree lower-level course work and permits the student to transfer to any of the three state universities and several private universities as a third-year student or "junior".


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Although an AGEC certification meets the requirements for the bachelor's degree Lower Level it may or may not meet any prerequisite requirements for any given degree program. Associate degrees with an AGEC certification are often custom tailored with electives to meet the prerequisite requirements for the program and university the student wishes to transfer to.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Virginia's community college has signed system-wide agreements, allowing students who graduate from one of the 23 community colleges with a transfer associate degree and a minimum grade point average to obtain guaranteed admission to more than 20 of the Commonwealth's four-year colleges and universities.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Argentine higher education system is based on the Spanish higher education system, which is basically a Continental education system (in contrast to the model in the English-speaking world). During the University Reform of 1918, a series of reforms that took place in the Universidad de Córdoba that further changed the Argentine educational system.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Education in Bolivia, as in many other areas of Bolivian life, has a divide between Bolivia's rural and urban areas. Rural illiteracy levels remain high, even as the rest of the country becomes increasingly literate. This disparity stems partly from the fact that many children living in rural area ation[dubious – discuss] are not necessarily attributable to lack of funding. Bolivia devotes 23% of its annual budget to educational expenditures, a higher percentage than in most other South American countries, albeit from a smaller national budget. A comprehensive, education reform has made some significant changes. Initiated in 1994, the reform decentralized educational funding in order to meet diverse local needs, improved teacher training and curricula, formalized and expanded intercultural bilingual education and changed the school grade system. Resistance from teachers’ unions, however, has slowed implementation of some of the intended reforms (Contreras and Talavera, 2003).


title: Undergraduate degree

text: For a better understanding of education levels in Brazil, it is necessary to understand the structure of the higher education in the country. The present Brazilian system is organized according to the law that establishes the guidelines and bases for national education – Law n. 9.394 of 20 December 1996.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The classification of institutions of higher education happens according to their academic organization, and the following names are possible: Universities, University Centers, Colleges and Integrated Schools, Colleges and Institutes and Centers of Technological Education.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The higher education courses have two different academic levels, known as Undergraduate or Post Graduation. These degrees, have subdivisions in which are distributed programs of higher education in Brazil, and they may be bachelors, licentiates, and associates, for Undergraduate levels.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: As for specializations, there are MBAs, Post-MBAs programs and for Post-graduation there are academic master's, professional master's degrees and doctorates. At the undergraduate level, there are still community colleges and further education courses.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: At the undergraduate level, the bachelor's degrees, licentiates and technologist, provide undergraduation diplomas, while colleges and Extension courses provide certificates of completion. The law formalizes a B.A., B.S., Licentiate or Technologist degrees, according to the student's education, and is prerequisite to begin a Postgraduate degree course.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: In the Postgrad, only students graduating from Stricto Sensu courses, that is, academic or professional master's and doctoral degrees and are given the titles of Master or Doctor, respectively. For students of the Lato Sensu – specializations, MBA programs and Post-MBA programs – is given certificates of completion and the title Specialist.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The National Polytechnic School (Spanish: Escuela Politécnica Nacional), also known as EPN, is a public university located in Quito, Ecuador.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: EPN is known for research and education in the applied science, astronomy, atmospheric physics, engineering and physical sciences. The Geophysics Institute monitors over the countries volcanoes in the Andes Mountains of Ecuador and in the Galápagos Islands. EPN adopted the polytechnic university model that stresses laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Oldest Observatory in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory and is located in Quito, Ecuador. The Quito Astronomical Observatory, which gives the global community a Virtual Telescope System that is connected via the Internet and allows the world to watch by streaming, is managed by EPN.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: volcanologists at the Geophysicics Institute with the task of monitoring all the seismic activity in the county. Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter magnitude scale. There are many geologists who study the eruptive activity for the volcanoes in the country and observe volcanic eruptions, especially Tungurahua whose volcanic activity restarted on 19 August 1999, and is ongoing , with several major eruptions since that period, the last starting on 1 February 2014.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Geophysics Institute at EPN monitors the Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Católica University was founded as a university football team for Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, a Catholic university in Quito. In 1962, they won the inter-university championship. Soon after, they became a football club on 26 June 1963, under "Liga Deportiva de la Universidad Católica".


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Universidad San Francisco de Quito is a liberal-arts, non-profit, private university located in Quito, Ecuador. It was the first totally private self-financed university in Ecuador and the first liberal-arts institution in the Andean region.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Academically, USFQ ranks as one of the three-top universities (category A) in the ranking of Ecuadorian universities (being the only totally private university to qualify for the highest category), issued by the Ecuadorian Council of Evaluation and Accreditation of High Education (). In 2009, it was ranked first in Ecuador in relation to the number of peer-reviewed scientific publications.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The university now enrolls 5,500 students, 4,500 of whom are undergraduates. The university each year has about 100 indigenous students and 1000 international students participate in USFQ academic programs. USFQ has developed a scholarship program for indigenous students, offering full scholarships to the best students of public high schools throughout Ecuador. Although USFQ receives no funding from the government of Ecuador, its faculty comprises one-half of all the people in that nation who hold a doctorate.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: USFQ main campus is located in Cumbayá, outside of Quito (capital city of Ecuador), where students use a library, education and research laboratories, classrooms, and seven restaurants. USFQ is the only university in the world that owns a campus in the Galapagos Islands, and a campus in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve (Tiputini Biodiversity Station), one of Earth's most biodiverse area.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Students can choose between 25 "traditional" universities (public or private) and 35 private ones. There is a single, transparent admission system used by 33 universities (all 25 "traditional" universities and eight private ones which joined in 2011). The test, called PSU, an acronym for University Selection Test ("Prueba de Selección Universitaria") is designed and evaluated by the University of Chile, while the system itself is managed by the Ministry of Education ("Ministerio de Educación").


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The test consists of two mandatory exams, one in Mathematics and one in Language. There are also two additional specific exams, Sciences (including Chemistry, Physics and Biology fields) and History, depending on which undergraduate program the student wishes to apply to. The cumulative grade point average achieved during secondary school is also taken into account in the final admission score, as well as the student's relative position in his class and two previous promotions. Every university assigns different weightings to the results of the various exams for the various programs offered. Some universities may require additional (non-PSU) tests or personal interviews for admission to some programs. In 2010, a total of 250,752 persons took both mandatory PSU tests.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The University of Chile () is the largest and oldest institution of higher education in Chile and one of the oldest in Latin America. Founded in 1842 as the replacement and continuation of the former colonial Royal University of San Felipe (1738)" (Spanish: Real Universidad de San Felipe)", the university is often called "Casa de Bello" (House of Bello) in honor of its first president, Andrés Bello. Notable alumni include two Nobel laureates (Pablo Neruda and Gabriela Mistral) and twenty Chilean presidents among many others.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Universidad de Chile was formally opened on 17 September 1843. During this period, the university consisted of five faculties ("facultades"): Humanities & Philosophy, Physics Sciences & Mathematics, Law & Political Sciences, Medicine, and Theology. By 1931, the number of colleges had increased to six: Philosophy & Education Sciences, Legal & Social Sciences, Biology & Medical Sciences, Physical & Mathematical Sciences, Agronomy & Veterinary, and Fine Arts.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Almost all of Chile's presidents graduated from the University of Chile, including all of those in the 20th century with the exception of Eduardo Frei Montalva (Pontifical Catholic University of Chile), General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, and former military dictator General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Higher education in Chile in colonial times dates to 19 August 1622, when the first university in Chile, "Santo Tomás de Aquino", was founded. On 28 July 1738, its name changed to "Real Universidad de San Felipe", in honor of King Philip V of Spain.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Pontifical Catholic University of Chile (UC or PUC) () is one of the six Catholic Universities existing in the Chilean university system and one of the two Pontifical Universities in the country, along with the Pontifical Catholic University of Valparaíso. It is also one of Chile's oldest universities and one of the most recognized educational institutions in Latin America. It ranks 1st in South America by QS ranking.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: UC was founded on 21 June 1888, by the Santiago archbishop, to offer training in traditional professions (law) and in technological and practical fields such as business, accounting, chemistry, and electricity. Its first chancellor was Monsignor Joaquín Larraín Gandarillas, and at the very beginning, the university only taught two subjects, law and mathematics. Since it is a Pontifical University, it has always had a strong and very close relationship with the Vatican. On 11 February 1930, Pope Pius XI declared it a pontifical university, and in 1931 it was granted full academic autonomy by the Chilean government. UC is a private, urban, multi-campus university. It is one of the eleven Chilean Catholic universities, and one of the twenty-five institutions within the Rectors' Council ("Consejo de Rectores"), the Chilean state-sponsored university system. It is part of the Universities of the Rectors' Council of Chilean Universities, and although it is not state-owned, a substantial part of its budget is given by state transferences under different concepts.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: UC's 18 faculties are distributed through four campuses in Santiago and one regional campus located in southern Chile. The technical training centers affiliated with the university are: DUOC, the Rural Life Foundations, the Baviera Foundation, the Catechetical Home and the San Fidel Seminary. These centers carry out technical-academic extension activities in rural and agricultural areas. Other UC activities are a Sports Club, a nationwide television network, and a Clinical Hospital dependent on the Faculty of Medicine.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: UC 's Graduates of the School of Architecture (one of the most prominent in Latin America) have also made important contributions to the country with such work as the Central Building ("Casa Central") of UC, and the National Library. Two of its most important alumni are the Jesuit Saint Alberto Hurtado and Eduardo Frei Montalva, a Chilean president. Both of them studied in the School of Laws. Sebastián Piñera, previous Chilean president, graduated from the university's School of Economics.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Pontifical Catholic University of Chile ranks among the first 10 Latin-American Universities according to the Shanghai ranking, and is 1st according to the QS ranking.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: These four campuses have a total of 223,326.06 m constructed in a 614,569.92 m area. The Villarrica campus has 1,664 m constructed in a 2,362.5 m area.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: UC was founded on 21 June 1888, by the Santiago Archbishop, to offer training in traditional professions (law) and in technological and practical fields such as business, accounting, chemistry, and electricity. Its first chancellor was Monsignor Joaquín Larraín Gandarillas, and at the very beginning, the university only taught two subjects, law and mathematics. Since it is a Pontifical University, it has always had a strong and very close relationship with the Vatican. On 11 February 1930, Pope Pius XI declared it a pontifical university, and in 1931 it was granted full academic autonomy by the Chilean government.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: UC is a private, urban, multi-campus university. It is one of the eleven Chilean Catholic universities, and one of the twenty-five institutions within the Rectors' Council ("Consejo de Rectores"), the Chilean state-sponsored university system. It is part of the Universities of the Rectors' Council of Chilean Universities, and although it is not state-owned, a substantial part of its budget is given by state transferences under different concepts.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: UC 's Graduates of the School of Architecture (one of the most prominent in Latin America) have also made important contributions to the country with such work as the Central Building ("Casa Central") of UC, and the National Library.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Two of its most important alumni are the Jesuit Saint Alberto Hurtado and Eduardo Frei Montalva, a Chilean president. Both of them studied in the School of Laws. Sebastián Piñera, previous Chilean president, graduated from the university's School of Economics.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Department of Industry and System Engineering is engaging Stanford Technology Venture Program of Stanford University on a collaboration on innovation and technology ventures.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: In December 2011, the schools of engineering of PUC and the University of Notre Dame signed an agreement to establish a dual graduate degree in civil engineering and the geological sciences, which now extends to other departments in both schools.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: In April 2013, PUC and the University of Notre Dame also signed a memorandum of understanding to strengthen scholarly engagement and expand their long-standing relationships. The agreement establishes an exchange program in which faculty, doctoral students and university representatives from each institution will visit, work, study and collaborate with the other institution.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Universidad Católica "Nuestra Señora de la Asunción" is a private university of Catholic obedience in Paraguay. It has 8 teaching facility centers.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Universidad Nacional de Asunción, abbreviated UNA, is a public university in Paraguay. Founded in 1889, it is the oldest and most traditional university in the country. When the university just started it had only the Faculties of Law, Medicine and Mathematics, and schools of Clerk, Pharmacy and Obstetrics. Nowadays the UNA has 12 faculties and 2 institutes in 74 careers that take place in different areas of knowledge, offering students the most comprehensive range of vocational training opportunities. The academic community is made up of about 40,000 students and 6,200 teachers.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: It also has several institutes and technology centers and research facilities that provide the academic community, both for conducting scientific research, and for the development of postgraduate studies, resulting in contributions to society. The university campus is spread throughout Paraguay, with centers in Pedro Juan Caballero, Caacupé, San Juan Bautista, Santa Rosa Misiones, Caazapá, Villarrica, Coronel Oviedo, Caaguazú, Paraguarí, Villa Hayes, San Pedro, San Estanislao, Cruce Los Pioneros (Boquerón) and Benjamín Aceval.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Education in Peru is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, which is in charge of formulating, implementing and supervising the national educational policy. According to the Constitution, education is compulsory and free in public schools for the initial, primary and secondary levels. It is also free in public universities for students who are unable to pay tuition and have an adequate academic performance. As of 2008, various institutions such as UNESCO, World Bank, and the Inter-American Development Bank have stated that Peru has the best education system in Latin America and that primary, secondary, and superior education attendance rates were the highest in Latin America.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has however placed Peru at the bottom of the ranking in all three categories (Math, science and reading) in 2012 compared to the 65 nations participating in the study of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Higher education in the form of universities began in Peru with the establishment of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos by the Royal Decree issued by King Carlos V on 12 May 1551. The institute opened as the Sala Capitular del Convento de Santo Domingo in 1553. In 1571, it obtained Papal approval and in 1574 it received the name of Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. The precursor to the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, the "Estudio General o Universidad", was established in Cusco by the Dominicans on 1 July 1548. This institution was responsible for teaching evangelists for the new lands, and taught scripture, theology, grammar, and the Quechuan language.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The National University of Saint Anthony the Abbot in Cuzco (UNSAAC) is a public university in Cusco, Peru and one of the oldest in the country. Its foundation was first proposed on 1 March 1692, at the urging and support of Pope Innocent XII. The document in which Pope Innocent XII sponsored the founding of the university was signed in Madrid, Spain by King Charles II on 1 June 1692, thus becoming Cusco's principal and oldest university. The university was authorized to confer the bachelors, licentiate, masters, and doctorate degrees.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Pontifical Catholic University of Peru (, PUCP) is a private university in Lima, Peru. It was founded in 1917 by Catholic priest Father Jorge Dintilhac SS.CC as Peru's first non-profit private institution of higher learning. Academically, PUCP ranks alternatively as first or second in Peru.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: In July 2012, after an Apostolic Visitation, begun earlier, in 2011, by Cardinal Peter Erdo, Archbishop of Esztergom-Budapest, Hungary, the Holy See withdrew from the university the right under canon law to use the titles "Catholic" and "Pontifical" in its name, but it was not possible because the legitimate law was the Peruvian Law. However, on Monday, 28 April 2014, the Rector of the university stated that,: "The Holy Father, Pope Francis, has formed a Commission of Cardinals with the mission of meeting to find a 'final, consensual solution,' in the framework of the Apostolic Constitution 'Ex Corde Ecclesiae,' ('From the Heart of the Church') to the outstanding issues" between the Vatican and the University." Besides Cardinal Erdo, the other two Cardinal Members of the Commission will be Cardinal Gerald Cyprien Lacroix, Archbishop of Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, and Cardinal Ricardo Ezzati Andrello, Archbishop of Santiago de Chile, Chile.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The University began activities in 1917 with two schools: Letters and Laws. In 1933, when the university had more than 500 students, the Schools of Engineering, and Political and Economical Sciences were established. In 1935, the School of Education was created. Later, in 1939, the Academy of Catholic Art was founded, with Adolf Winternitz as its director; the university is still one of only a small number to offer an arts major in Perú. During the 1960s, Gustavo Gutiérrez O.P., a Peruvian priest and an instructor at the university, developed the first principles of "Liberation Theology", promoting Marxist socialism and pan-Latin American solidarity.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: There are currently 16,000 undergraduate students pursuing 38 different specialties in 10 schools. Its main campus is located in the Lima district of San Miguel, with the newly built Mac Gregor complex. Outside the main campus there are other facilities such as the IC (Idiomas Católica), a language-learning center, the Confucius Institute PUCP, the cultural center (CCPUCP) located in the district of San Isidro. CENTRUM, a center for business studies featuring doctoral level and MBA programs and located in the district of Santiago de Surco, is also part of PUCP. Inside, there is a Pastoral Counseling Center (CAPU). The Student body is made up of 17,064 Undergraduates and 4,917 Postgraduates and 57 Doctoral students as of 2013, 1014 school year.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: Education in Uruguay is compulsory for a total of nine years, beginning at the primary level, and is free from the pre-primary through the university level. In 1996, the gross primary enrollment rate was 111.7 percent, and the net primary enrollment rate was 92.9 percent. Primary school attendance rates were unavailable for Uruguay as of 2001.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The University of the Republic (Uruguay), (abbreviated "UdelaR") is Uruguay's only public, state-owned university. It is the most important, oldest, and largest university in the country, with a student body of more than 130,000 students. It was founded on 18 July 1849, in Montevideo, where most of its buildings and facilities are still located. Its current Rector is Rodrigo Arim.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The process of founding the country's public university began on 11 June 1833, when a law proposed by then-Senator Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga was passed. It called for the creation of nine academic departments; the president of the Republic would pass a decree formally creating the departments once the majority of them were in operation. In 1836 the House of General Studies was formed, housing the departments of Latin, philosophy, mathematics, theology and jurisprudence.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: On 27 May 1838, Manuel Oribe passed a decree through which created the Greater University of the Republic. That decree had few practical effects, given the institutional instability of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay at that time.


title: Undergraduate degree

text: The Universidad Católica del Uruguay Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga is one of the many private universities in the country, and has seven schools: Humanities, Management, Law, Engineering and Technologies, Nursing, Dental School and Psychology. Its main campus is located in Montevideo (alongside six others), and some lesser ones are located in Maldonado and Salto.


title: Muscle car

text: Muscle car is a description according to "Merriam-Webster Dictionary" that came to use in 1966 for "a group of American-made two-door sports coupes with powerful engines designed for high-performance driving." The "Britannica Dictionary" describes these as "an American-made two-door sports car with a powerful engine."


title: Muscle car

text: Although the term was unknown for another fifteen-plus years, General Motors is credited by some as introducing the first "intentional" muscle car in 1949, when it put its Rocket V8 from its full-sized luxury car 98 model into the considerably smaller and lighter Oldsmobile 88. The competition between American manufacturers started when Chrysler installed the Chrysler Hemi engine in the mid-range Chrysler Saratoga in 1951 that was normally installed in the full-sized luxury sedan Chrysler New Yorker. In 1952 Ford's luxury brand Lincoln introduced the Lincoln Y-Block V8 and the rivalry began, where the Lincoln Capri was entered in the Pan American Road Race in both 1952 and 1953, and taking first and second place in 1954. This was followed by both the Oldsmobile 88 and Chrysler Saratoga being raced in stock form at NASCAR races across the country.


title: Muscle car

text: By some accounts, the "muscle car" term proper was originally applied to mid-1960s and early 1970s special editions of mass-production cars which were designed for drag racing, though it shortly entered the general vocabulary through car magazines and automobile marketing and became used generically for "performance"-oriented street cars.


title: Muscle car

text: By some period definitions and perceptions, the term muscle car came to connote high performance at budget prices, where extremely powerful engines were put into relatively bare-bones intermediate cars at extremely affordable prices. This wave, exemplified by the 1968 Plymouth Road Runner and companion Dodge Super Bee, were meant to undercut more expensive, more stylish, and better-appointed cars by General Motors and Ford that had come to define the market, such as the Pontiac GTO (1964), 396 Chevrolet Chevelle (1965), 400 Buick Gran Sport (1965), 400 Oldsmobile 442 (1965), as well as 427 Mercury Comet Cyclone (1964) and 390 Mercury Cyclone (1966). The Dodge and Plymouth cars also continued the performance tradition started at Chrysler with the full-sized Chrysler 300L when production ended in 1965.


title: Muscle car

text: By some definitions – including those used by "Car and Driver" and "Road and Track" magazines cited below, pony cars such as the Ford Mustang, Chevrolet Camaro and the Plymouth Barracuda and their luxury companions Mercury Cougar, Pontiac Firebird and the Dodge Challenger in that large, influential, and lucrative 1960s-70s niche, could also qualify as "muscle cars" if outfitted with suitable high-performance equipment.


title: Muscle car

text: The definition of a muscle car is subjective and endlessly debated. Muscle cars often have many of the following characteristics:


title: Muscle car

text: High-power pony cars are sometimes considered muscle cars, however, personal luxury cars are often too expensive to be considered by some to be muscle cars. Sports cars are not considered muscle cars by some definitions. By some narrow definitions, muscle cars are an extension of the hot rodding philosophy of taking a small car and putting a large-displacement engine in it, for the purpose of increasing straight-line speed. However, that is repudiated by the much broader public acceptance and use of the term as exemplified by the "Car and Driver" and "Road and Track" magazine top muscle car lists below, which display a much broader interpretation of the term.


title: Muscle car

text: Muscle cars were originally referred to as "Supercars" in the United States, often (though not always) spelled with a capital S." From the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, "dragstrip bred" mid-size cars equipped with large V8 engines and rear-wheel drive were referred to as Supercars more often than muscle cars. An early example is the 1957 Rambler Rebel, which was described as a "potent mill turned the lightweight Rambler into a veritable supercar."


title: Muscle car

text: In 1966 the supercar became an "industry trend" as the four domestic automakers "needed to cash in on the supercar market" with eye-catching, heart-stopping cars. Examples of the use of the supercar description for the early muscle models include the May 1965 "Car Life" road test of the Pontiac GTO along with how "Hurst puts American Motors into the Supercar club with the 390 Rogue" (the SC/Rambler) to fight in "the Supercar street racer gang" market segment, with the initials "SC" signifying SuperCar.


title: Muscle car

text: The supercar market segment in the U.S. at the time included special versions of regular production models that were positioned in several sizes and market segments (such as the "economy supercar"), as well as limited edition, documented dealer-converted vehicles. However, the supercar term by that time "had been diluted and branded with a meaning that did not respect the unique qualities of the 'muscle car'."


title: Muscle car

text: Opinions on the origin of the muscle car vary, but the 1949 Oldsmobile Rocket 88, is cited as the first full-sized muscle car. The Rocket 88 was the first time a powerful V8 engine was available in a smaller and lighter body style (in this case the engine from the larger Oldsmobile 98 with the body from the six-cylinder Oldsmobile 76). The Rocket 88 produced at 3600 rpm and at 1800 rpm and won eight out of ten races in the 1950 NASCAR season. The Rocket 88's Oldsmobile 303 V8 engine (along with the Cadillac 331 engine, also introduced in 1949) are stated to have "launched the modern era of the high-performance V-8."


title: Muscle car

text: In 1955, the large-sized Chrysler C-300 - the first in a long, 15-year series of large, expensive, performance-first Chryslers - was introduced that produced from its V8 engine, and it was advertised as "America's Most Powerful Car". Capable of accelerating from 0 to in 9.8 seconds and reaching , the 1955 Chrysler 300 is also recognized as one of the best-handling cars of its era.


title: Muscle car

text: The compact-sized 1956 Studebaker Golden Hawk was powered by a Packard V8, the second most powerful engine to the Chrysler 300.


title: Muscle car

text: The Rambler Rebel, introduced by American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1957, is the first mid-sized car to be available with a big-block V8 engine. The Rebel followed most of the muscle car formula including "make 'em go fast as well as cheaply." It is therefore considered by some to be the first muscle car. With a V8 engine producing , its 0–60 mph acceleration of 7.5 seconds made it the fastest stock American sedan at the time. Only the fuel-injected Chevrolet Corvette beat it by half a second.


title: Muscle car

text: The popularity and performance of muscle cars grew in the early 1960s, as Mopar (Dodge, Plymouth, and Chrysler) and Ford battled for supremacy in drag racing. The 1961 Chevrolet Impala offered an SS package for $53.80, which consisted of a V8 engine producing along with upgraded brakes, tires, and suspension. The 1962 Dodge Dart 413 (nicknamed Max Wedge) had a V8 which produced and could cover the quarter-mile in under 13 seconds.


title: Muscle car

text: In 1963, two hundred Ford Galaxie "R-code" cars were factory-built specifically for drag racing, resulting in a full-size car that could cover the quarter-mile in a little over 12 seconds. Upgrades included fiberglass panels, aluminum bumpers, traction bars, and a Ford FE-based racing engine conservatively rated at . The road-legal version of the Galaxie 427 used the "Q-code" engine which produced . The following year, Ford installed the proven 427 "top-oiler" engine in the smaller and lighter Fairlane body, creating the Ford Thunderbolt. The Thunderbolt included several weight-saving measures (including acrylic windows and fibreglass/aluminium body panels and bumpers) and a stock Thunderbolt could cover the quarter-mile in 11.76 seconds. The Thunderbolt was technically road-legal, however, it was considered unsuitable even "for driving to and from the (drag)strip, let alone on the street in everyday use". A total of 111 Thunderbolts were built.


title: Muscle car

text: The General Motors competitor to the Thunderbolt was the Z-11 option package for the full-size Chevrolet Impala coupe, of which 57 examples were produced in 1963 only. The Z-11 Impala was powered by a version of the W-series big-block engine, which was officially rated at . With a compression ratio of 13.5:1, the engine required high-octane fuel. The RPOZ-11 package also included weight reduction measures such as an aluminum hood and fenders, the removal of sound-deadening material as well as the deletion of the heater and radio.


title: Muscle car

text: In 1964, a drag racing version of the Dodge 330 was created, called the "330 Lightweight". It was powered by a version of the which was official rated at , but rumored to have an actual power output higher than this. Weight reduction measures included an aluminium hood, lightweight front bumpers, fenders and doors, polycarbonate


title: Muscle car

text: side windows, and no sound deadening. Like other lightweights of the era, it came with a factory disclaimer: "Designed for supervised acceleration trials. Not recommended for general everyday driving because of the compromises in the all-round characteristics which must be made for this type of vehicle."


title: Muscle car

text: Also using the 426 Hemi racing engine was the limited production 1965 Plymouth Satellite 426 Hemi. In 1966, the racing version of the 426 Hemi was replaced by a detuned "Street Hemi" version, also with a size of 426 cu in and an official power rating of ). The 1966 Plymouth Satellite 426 Hemi could run a 13.8-second quarter-mile at and had a base price of $3,850.


title: Muscle car

text: Although muscle cars sold in relatively small volumes, manufacturers valued the halo effect of the publicity created by these models. Competition between manufacturers led to a horsepower war that peaked in 1970, with some models advertising as much as .


title: Muscle car

text: The Pontiac GTO, a car that captured the public mind and strongly influenced the muscle car era, was introduced in 1964 as an optional package for the intermediate-size Pontiac Tempest. The GTO was developed by Pontiac division president John DeLorean and was initially powered by a V8 engine producing . The success of the GTO led other GM divisions to develop muscle cars based on intermediate-sized platforms: the 1964 Oldsmobile 442, 1964 Chevrolet Chevelle SS, and 1965 Buick Gran Sport.


title: Muscle car

text: The AMC V8 engine was enlarged to in 1968, which produced and was first used in the 1968 AMC Rebel SST, AMC Javelin Go-package, and AMC AMX. AMC was a car manufacturing company that made these two incredible cars. AMC only made small economy cars until they hired Dick Teague as a designer, who later became the vice president. AMC wasn't known for being in the top competitors for manufacturing cars, but when they came out with the AMX and the Javelin they became one of the top competitors.


title: Muscle car

text: As the 1960s progressed, optional equipment and luxury appointments increased in many popular models of "performance-oriented" cars. With the added weight and power-consuming accessories and features, engines had to be more powerful to maintain performance levels, and the cars became more expensive. In response, some "budget" muscle cars began to appear, such as the 1967 Plymouth GTX, the 1968 Plymouth Road Runner, and the 1968 Dodge Super Bee. In 1969, the Plymouth Road Runner was awarded "Motor Trend" magazine's Car of the Year. With optional performance parts such as intake and exhaust manifolds, upgraded carburetor, and drag-racing tires, the Road Runner had a quarter-mile time of 14.7 seconds at . In this customized form, the cost of the Road Runner was US$3,893.


title: Muscle car

text: The Plymouth Barracuda was a pony car that could be turned into a muscle car with the addition of the famed Chrysler , available as an option beginning in 1968, after debuting in street form two years earlier in the Plymouth Belvedere, Dodge Coronet, and Dodge Charger. Originally based on the smaller compact car body and chassis of the Plymouth Valiant, the Barracuda was also available with a V8 engine producing . It could run a quarter-mile in 13.33 seconds at on the drag strip. The base price was $2,796.00; the price as tested by "Hot Rod" was $3,652. The related 1970 Plymouth Duster was powered by a V8 engine producing . Performance figures were 0 to in 6.0 seconds and the quarter-mile time of in 14.7 seconds at .


title: Muscle car

text: The Chevrolet L72 big-block engine became available in the mid-sized Chevrolet Chevelle in 1969 as the COPO 427 option. The 427 Chevelle could run a 13.3 sec. quarter-mile at. Chevrolet rated the engine at , but the NHRA claimed power output to be . The following year, the "Chevelle SS 454" model was introduced, which used the Chevrolet LS6 big-block engine rated at , the highest factory rating at that time.


title: Muscle car

text: The fastest muscle car produced by American Motors was the mid-sized 1970 AMC Rebel "The Machine", which was powered by a engine producing . The Rebel had a 0– time of 6.8 seconds and a quarter-mile run in 14.4 seconds at .


title: Muscle car

text: The popularity of muscle cars declined through the early 1970s, due to factors including the Clean Air Act, the fuel crisis and increasing insurance costs. The 1973 oil crisis resulted in rationing of fuel and higher prices. Muscle cars quickly became unaffordable and impractical for many people. In addition, the automobile insurance industry levied surcharges on all high-powered models.


title: Muscle car

text: Before the Clean Air Act of 1970, a majority of muscle cars came optioned with high-compression engines (some engines were as high as 11:1), which required high-octane fuel. Before the oil embargo, 100-octane fuel was common. However, following the passage of the Clean Air Act of 1970, octane ratings were lowered to 91 (due in part to the removal of lead). Manufacturers reduced the compression ratio of engines, resulting in reduced performance. Simultaneously, efforts to combat air pollution focused Detroit's attention on emissions control rather than increased power outputs.


title: Muscle car

text: Muscle car performance began a resurgence in the early 1980s with high output V8 engines introduced for the Ford Mustang GT, Chevrolet Camaro Z28, and Pontiac Firebird Formula/Trans Am. Initially using four-barrel carburetors, engine performance and fuel economy were increased by the mid-1980s using electronic fuel injection systems and advanced engine management controls. Muscle car performance began to reappear on intermediate two-door coupés such as the Chevrolet Monte Carlo SS and Buick Regal. The Buick Regal used turbocharged V6 engines on the Grand National, Turbo-T, T-Type, and GNX models which rivaled the performance of V8 engines.


title: Muscle car

text: The few muscle cars remaining in production by the mid-1990s included the fourth generation Mustang, fourth generation Camaro, and fourth generation Firebird.


title: Muscle car

text: For the 2004 model year, the Pontiac GTO was relaunched in the United States as a rebadged captive import version of the Holden Monaro. The model was to recreate the past versions, but the new version "was nothing like the old aggressive and evocative model from the 60s" and it was discontinued in 2006.


title: Muscle car

text: For 2005, Chrysler introduced muscle car heritage to high-performance V8-powered versions of four-door sedans, the Dodge Charger and Chrysler 300C, using nameplates traditionally used for two-door muscle cars.


title: Muscle car

text: For 2005, the fifth-generation Ford Mustang, designed to resemble the original first-generation Mustang, brought back the aggressive lines and colors of the original.


title: Muscle car

text: For the 2006 model year, GM relaunched the Chevrolet Monte Carlo SS with the first V8 engine on the Monte Carlo in 15 Years. The same V8 was used on the Monte Carlo's W-Body sister cars like the Pontiac Grand Prix GXP, Buick Lacrosse Super, and the Chevrolet Impala SS. All Monte Carlo production ended on June 19, 2007, because of declining sales of coupe models in general as well as Chevrolet's plan to reintroduce a new Camaro.


title: Muscle car

text: For 2008, Chrysler re-introduced the Dodge Challenger, which features styling links to the 1970 first-generation Challenger and was claimed by the Chrysler CEO to be "a modern take on one of the most iconic muscle cars".


title: Muscle car

text: A year later, running on that same sentiment, Chevrolet released the 2009 Camaro, which bears some resemblance to the 1969 first-generation Camaro.


title: Muscle car

text: The first Australian-designed car to be marketed as a performance model was the 1963 Holden EH S4 model, of which 120 road cars were produced so that the model could be eligible to compete at the 1963 Armstrong 500 motor race at Bathurst. The EH S4 was powered by an upgraded version of the standard six-cylinder engine, enlarged to and producing . In 1964, the Ford Falcon (XM) became available with an enlarged "Super Pursuit" version of the standard six-cylinder engine, which produced .


title: Muscle car

text: In 1965, the Chrysler Valiant AP6 became the first Australian car to be available with a V8 engine. This optional engine was the version of the Chrysler LA engine, which produced and was imported from the United States. The first Australian-designed Ford to be available with a V8 was the 1966 Ford Falcon (XR), with a version of the Ford Windsor engine (imported from the United States), which produced . The first Holden to be available with a V8 was the 1968 Holden HK, with a version of the Chevrolet small-block V8 (imported from the United States) which produced . Later that year, a version of the engine became available in the Holden HK Monaro GTS 327 coupe.


title: Muscle car

text: The pinnacle of 1970s Australian muscle cars were the 1971–1972 Ford Falcon GTHO, Holden Monaro 350, and Chrysler Valiant Charger R/T (the smaller Holden Torana GTR was also a successful performance car of the era, but it is not considered a muscle car due to its prioritisation of lighter weight over outright power output). The Ford Falcon (XY) GTHO Phase III model was powered by a version of the Ford Cleveland V8 engine, officially rated at , but estimated to produce between . The Holden HQ Monaro GTS 350 was powered by a version of the Chevrolet small-block V8 producing . The Chrysler Valiant Charger R/T E49 model was powered by a version of the Chrysler Hemi-6 six-cylinder engine producing .


title: Muscle car

text: In 1972, production of Australian muscle cars came to an abrupt halt when the Supercar scare caused Ford, Holden, and Chrysler to cease development of upcoming performance models, due to government pressure. The few Australian muscle car models produced after 1972 consist of the limited production 1977–1978 Holden Torana (LX) A9X option and the 1978–1979 Ford Falcon (XC) Cobra model, both created as homologation models for Group C touring car racing.


title: Muscle car

text: In Argentina, Chevrolet and Dodge produced two highly acclaimed models of muscle cars. The first was the producer of the third American generation of the Chevrolet Nova, which in this country was renamed Chevy. This model was initially presented in a 4-door sedan version that maintained many physical features of the Nova coupe version, which would also be produced and marketed in Argentina a few years later. While Dodge produced in Argentina a series of vehicles based on the fourth generation of the Dodge Dart and that received the name of Línea Dodge (Dodge Line). This vehicle presented sedan and coupe versions, which in turn were a local redesign of the Dart model and which, depending on its level of equipment, received different names (Polara, Coronado, RT and GTX). In return for these brands, both Ford and the national producer IKA would respond with the production of two high-performance sedans, such as the Argentine version of the Ford Falcon and a derivative of the Rambler American model, called IKA Torino, which, in addition to its sedan version, would present a coupe version which would end up being highly acclaimed and popularized in the Argentine automotive field.