title: Shotgun house

text: Elements of the shotgun style have recently been seen in a number of the compact, low-occupancy structures employed in the Solar Decathlon contests held periodically in Washington, DC. While some are erected from panels brought to the site, many such structures consist of enclosed single or multiple units designed specifically for road transports, with multiple modules connected on site, and compact linear structures often employ multiple-use "zones" rather than specifically private areas, while retaining a linear progression of spaces.


title: Shotgun house

text: In 2011, Louisville's daily newspaper "The Courier-Journal" reported that a local nonprofit agency devoted to building and renovating affordable housing was building new shotgun houses in a development in southwest Louisville.


title: Shotgun house

text: The shotgun house plays a large role in the folklore and culture of the south. Superstition holds that ghosts and spirits are attracted to shotgun houses because they may pass straight through them, and that some houses were built with doors intentionally misaligned to deter these spirits. They also often serve as a convenient symbol of life in the south. Elvis Presley was born in a shotgun house, Aaron Neville of The Neville Brothers grew up in one,


title: Shotgun house

text: and according to bluesman David Honeyboy Edwards, Robert Johnson died in one. Shortly before his death in May 1997, Jeff Buckley rented a shotgun house in Memphis and was so enamoured with it he contacted the owner about the possibility of buying it. "Dream Brother", David Browne's biography of Jeff and Tim Buckley, opens with a description of this shotgun house and Jeff's fondness of it.


title: Shotgun house

text: One of the more widely known references to a shotgun house is in the 1980 Talking Heads song "Once In A Lifetime". The first line of the song is "And you may find yourself living in a shotgun shack".


title: Shotgun house

text: The John Mellencamp song "Pink Houses" was inspired when he was driving along an overpass on the way home to Bloomington, Indiana from the Indianapolis airport. There was an old black man sitting outside his little pink shotgun house with his cat in his arms, completely unperturbed by the traffic speeding along the highway in his front yard. “He waved, and I waved back,” Mellencamp said in an interview with Rolling Stone. “That's how 'Pink Houses' started.”. In Bruce Springsteen's song "We Take Care of Our Own", from the album "Wrecking Ball", he refers to shotgun houses, singing "We take care of our own, from the shotgun shack to the Super Dome". Springsteen also references "shotgun shack" in "Reason to Believe" from his 1982 album "Nebraska", with the line, "In a whitewashed shotgun shack, an old man passes away / they take his body to the graveyard, and over him, they pray."


title: Power of 10

text: A power of 10 is any of the integer powers of the number ten; in other words, ten multiplied by itself a certain number of times (when the power is a positive integer). By definition, the number one is a power (the zeroth power) of ten. The first few non-negative powers of ten are:


title: Power of 10

text: In decimal notation the "n"th power of ten is written as '1' followed by "n" zeroes. It can also be written as 10 or as 1E"n" in E notation. See order of magnitude and orders of magnitude (numbers) for named powers of ten. There are two conventions for naming positive powers of ten, beginning with 10, called the long and short scales. Where a power of ten has different names in the two conventions, the long scale name is shown in parentheses.


title: Power of 10

text: The positive 10 power related to a short scale name can be determined based on its Latin name-prefix using the following formula:


title: Power of 10

text: Similar to the positive powers, the negative power of 10 related to a short scale name can be determined based on its Latin name-prefix using the following formula:


title: Power of 10

text: The number googol is 10. The term was coined by 9-year-old Milton Sirotta, nephew of American mathematician Edward Kasner. It was popularized in Kasner's 1940 book "Mathematics and the Imagination", where it was used to compare and illustrate very large numbers. Googolplex, a much larger power of ten (10 to the googol power, or 10), was also introduced in that book. (Read below)


title: Power of 10

text: Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers of very large and very small sizes compactly when precision is less important.


title: Power of 10

text: A number written in scientific notation has a significand (sometime called a mantissa) multiplied by a power of ten.


title: Power of 10

text: This is generally used to denote powers of 10. Where "n" is positive, this indicates the number of zeros after the number, and where the "n" is negative, this indicates the number of decimal places before the number.


title: Power of 10

text: The notation of "m"E"n", known as "E notation", is used in computer programming, spreadsheets and databases, but is not used in scientific papers.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: A massively multiplayer online game (MMOG or more commonly MMO) is an online video game with a large number of players, often hundreds or thousands, on the same server. MMOs usually feature a huge, persistent open world, although there are games that differ. These games can be found for most network-capable platforms, including the personal computer, video game console, or smartphones and other mobile devices.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: MMOs can enable players to cooperate and compete with each other on a large scale, and sometimes to interact meaningfully with people around the world. They include a variety of gameplay types, representing many video game genres.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The most popular type of MMOG, and the subgenre that pioneered the category, is the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG), which descended from university mainframe computer MUD and adventure games such as "Rogue" and "Dungeon" on the PDP-10. These games predate the commercial gaming industry and the Internet, but still featured persistent worlds and other elements of MMOGs still used today.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The first graphical MMOG, and a major milestone in the creation of the genre, was the multiplayer flight combat simulation game "Air Warrior" by Kesmai on the GEnie online service, which first appeared in 1986. Kesmai later added 3D graphics to the game, making it the first 3D MMO.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Commercial MMORPGs gained acceptance in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The genre was pioneered by the GemStone series on GEnie, also created by Kesmai, and "Neverwinter Nights", the first such game to include graphics, which debuted on AOL in 1991.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: As video game developers applied MMOG ideas to other computer and video game genres, new acronyms started to develop, such as MMORTS. "MMOG" emerged as a generic term to cover this growing class of games.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The debuts of "The Realm Online", "Meridian 59" (the first 3D MMORPG), "Castle Infinity" (the first kid-focused MMORPG),"Ultima Online", "Underlight" and "EverQuest" in the late 1990s popularized the MMORPG genre. The growth in technology meant that where Neverwinter Nights in 1991 had been limited to 50 simultaneous players (a number that grew to 500 by 1995), by 2000 a multitude of MMORPGs was each serving thousands of simultaneous players and led the way for games such as World of Warcraft and "EVE Online".


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Despite the genre's focus on multiplayer gaming, AI-controlled characters are still common. NPCs and mobs who give out quests or serve as opponents are typical in MMORPGs. AI-controlled characters are not as common in action-based MMOGs.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The popularity of MMOGs was mostly restricted to the computer game market until the sixth-generation consoles, with the launch of "Phantasy Star Online" on "Dreamcast" and the emergence and growth of online service Xbox Live. There have been a number of console MMOGs, including "EverQuest Online Adventures" (PlayStation 2), and the multiconsole "Final Fantasy XI". On PCs, the MMOG market has always been dominated by successful fantasy MMORPGs.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: MMOGs have only recently begun to break into the mobile phone market. The first, Samurai Romanesque set in feudal Japan, was released in 2001 on NTT DoCoMo's iMode network in Japan. More recent developments are CipSoft's TibiaME and Biting Bit's "MicroMonster" which features online and bluetooth multiplayer gaming. SmartCell Technology is in development of Shadow of Legend, which will allow gamers to continue their game on their mobile device when away from their PC.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Science fiction has also been a popular theme, featuring games such as "Mankind", "Anarchy Online", "Eve Online", "Star Wars Galaxies" and "The Matrix Online".


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: MMOGs emerged from the hard-core gamer community to the mainstream strongly in December 2003 with an analysis in the "Financial Times" measuring the value of the virtual property in the then-largest MMOG, EverQuest, to result in a per-capita GDP of 2,266 dollars which would have placed the virtual world of EverQuest as the 77th wealthiest nation, on par with Croatia, Ecuador, Tunisia or Vietnam.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: "World of Warcraft" is a dominant MMOG with 8-9 million monthly subscribers worldwide. The subscriber base dropped by 1 million after the expansion , bringing it to 9 million subscribers in 2010, though it remained the most popular Western title among MMOGs. In 2008, Western consumer spending on "World of Warcraft" represented a 58% share of the subscription MMOG market in 2009. The title has generated over $2.2 billion in cumulative consumer spending on subscriptions from 2005 through 2009.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Within a majority of the MMOGs created, there is virtual currency where the player can earn and accumulate money. The uses for such virtual currency are numerous and vary from game to game. The virtual economies created within MMOGs often blur the lines between real and virtual worlds. The result is often seen as an unwanted interaction between the real and virtual economies by the players and the provider of the virtual world. This practice () is mostly seen in this genre of games. The two seem to come hand in hand with even the earliest MMOGs such as "Ultima Online" having this kind of trade, real money for virtual things.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The importance of having a working virtual economy within an MMOG is increasing as they develop. A sign of this is CCP Games hiring the first real-life economist for its MMOG Eve Online to assist and analyze the virtual economy and production within this game.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The results of this interaction between the virtual economy, and our real economy, which is really the interaction between the company that created the game and the third-party companies that want a share of the profits and success of the game. This battle between companies is defended on both sides. The company originating the game and the intellectual property argue that this is in violation of the terms and agreements of the game as well as copyright violation since they own the rights to how the online currency is distributed and through what channels. The case that the third-party companies and their customers defend, is that they are selling and exchanging the time and effort put into the acquisition of the currency, not the digital information itself. They also express that the nature of many MMOGs is that they require time commitments not available to everyone. As a result, without external acquisition of virtual currency, some players are severely limited to being able to experience certain aspects of the game.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The practice of acquiring large volumes of virtual currency for the purpose of selling to other individuals for tangible and real currency is called gold farming. Many players who have poured in all of their personal effort resent that there is this exchange between real and virtual economies since it devalues their own efforts. As a result, the term 'gold farmer' now has a very negative connotation within the games and their communities. This slander has unfortunately also extended itself to racial profiling and to in-game and forum insulting.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The reaction from many of the game companies varies. In games that are substantially less popular and have a small player base, the enforcement of the elimination of 'gold farming' appears less often. Companies in this situation most likely are concerned with their personal sales and subscription revenue over the development of their virtual economy, as they most likely have a higher priority to the games viability via adequate funding. Games with an enormous player base, and consequently much higher sales and subscription income, can take more drastic actions more often and in much larger volumes. This account banning could also serve as an economic gain for these large games, since it is highly likely that, due to demand, these 'gold farming' accounts will be recreated with freshly bought copies of the game.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: In 2011, it was estimated that up to 100,000 people in China and Vietnam are playing online games to gather gold and other items for sale to Western players. While this 'gold farming' is considered to ruin the game for actual players, many rely on 'gold farming' as their main source of income.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: However single player in MMOs is quite viable, especially in what is called 'player vs environment' gameplay. This may result in the player being unable to experience all content, as many of the most significant and potentially rewarding game experiences are events that require large and coordinated teams to complete.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Most MMOGs also share other characteristics that make them different from other multiplayer online games. MMOGs host many players in a single game world, and all of those players can interact with each other at any given time. Popular MMOGs might have thousands of players online at any given time, usually on company-owned servers. Non-MMOGs, such as "Battlefield 1942" or "Half-Life" usually have fewer than 50 players online (per server) and are usually played on private servers. Also, MMOGs usually do not have any significant mods since the game must work on company servers. There is some debate if a high head-count is a requirement to be an MMOG. Some say that it is the size of the game world and its capability to support many players that should matter. For example, despite technology and content constraints, most MMOGs can fit up to a few thousand players on a single game server at a time.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: To support all those players, MMOGs need large-scale game worlds, and servers to connect players to those worlds. Some games have all of their servers connected so all players are connected in a shared universe. Others have copies of their starting game world put on different servers, called "shards", for a sharded universe. Shards got their name from Ultima Online, where in the story, the shards of Mondain's gem created the duplicate worlds.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Still, others will only use one part of the universe at any time. For example, "Tribes" (which is not an MMOG) comes with a number of large maps, which are played in rotation (one at a time). In contrast, the similar title "PlanetSide" allows all map-like areas of the game to be reached via flying, driving, or teleporting.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: MMORPGs usually have sharded universes, as they provide the most flexible solution to the server load problem, but not always. For example, the space simulation "Eve Online" uses only one large cluster server peaking at over 60,000 simultaneous players.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: It is challenging to develop the database engines that are needed to run a successful MMOG with millions of players. Many developers have created their own, but attempts have been made to create "middleware", software that would help game developers concentrate on their games more than technical aspects. One such piece of middleware is called BigWorld.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: An early, successful entry into the field was VR-1 Entertainment whose Conductor platform was adopted and endorsed by a variety of service providers around the world including Sony Communications Network in Japan; the Bertelsmann Game Channel in Germany; British Telecom's Wireplay in England; and DACOM and Samsung SDS in South Korea. Games that were powered by the Conductor platform included Fighter Wing, Air Attack, Fighter Ace, Evernight, Hasbro Em@ail Games (Clue, NASCAR and Soccer), Towers of Fallow, The SARAC Project, VR1 Crossroads and Rumble in the Void.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Typical MUDs and other predecessor games were limited to about 64 or 256 simultaneous player connections; this was a limit imposed by the underlying operating system, which was usually Unix-like. One of the biggest problems with modern engines has been handling the vast number of players. Since a typical server can handle around 10,000–12,000 players, 4000–5000 active simultaneously, dividing the game into several servers has up until now been the solution. This approach has also helped with technical issues, such as lag, that many players experience. Another difficulty, especially relevant to real-time simulation games, is time synchronization across hundreds or thousands of players. Many games rely on time synchronization to drive their physics simulation as well as their scoring and damage detection.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Although there is no specific limit to where an online multiplayer online game is considered massive, there are broad features that are often used as a metric. Garriott's famed 1997 definition referred to the fundamental architecture shift required to support tens of thousands of concurrent players, which required shifting from individual servers to data centers on multiple continents. Games may have MMO features like large worlds with online persistence but still not generally be considered an MMO, such as Grand Theft Auto V's online play, while other games like League of Legends have small individual sessions but the global infrastructure requirements often allow for classification as an MMO. The term is often used differently by players who tend to refer to their play experience versus game developers who refer to the engineering experience. MMO game developers tend to require tremendous investments in developing and maintaining servers around the globe, network bandwidth infrastructure often on the order of terabytes per second, and large engineering problems relating to managing data spread between multiple computer clusters.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Massively multiplayer online role-playing games, known as MMORPGs, are the most common type of MMOG. Some MMORPGs are designed as a multiplayer browser game in order to reduce infrastructure costs and utilise a thin client that most users will already have installed. The acronym "BBMMORPG"s has sometimes been used to describe these as "browser-based".


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Many games are categorized as MMOBBGs, Massively Multiplayer Online Bulletin Board Games, also called MMOBBRPGs. These particular types of games are primarily made up of text and descriptions, although images are often used to enhance the game.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: MMOFPS is an online gaming genre which features many simultaneous players in a first-person shooter fashion. These games provide large-scale, sometimes team-based combat. The addition of persistence in the game world means that these games add elements typically found in RPGs, such as experience points. However, MMOFPS games emphasize player skill more than player statistics, as no number of in-game bonuses will compensate for a player's inability to aim and think tactically.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Massively multiplayer online real-time strategy games, also known as "MMORTS", combine real-time strategy (RTS) with a persistent world. Players often assume the role of a general, king, or other types of figurehead leading an army into battle while maintaining the resources needed for such warfare. The titles are often based in a sci-fi or fantasy universe and are distinguished from single or small-scale multiplayer RTSes by the number of players and common use of a persistent world, generally hosted by the game's publisher, which continues to evolve even when the player is offline.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Steve Jackson Games' UltraCorps is an example of an MMO turn-based strategy game. Hundreds of players share the same playing field of conquest. In a "mega" game, each turn fleets are built and launched to expand one's personal empire. Turns are usually time-based, with a "tick" schedule usually daily. All orders are processed, and battles resolved, at the same time during the tick. Similarly, in "", vehicle driving and combat orders are submitted simultaneously by all players and a "tick" occurs typically once per 30 seconds. This allows each player to accurately control multiple vehicles and pedestrians in racing or combat.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Some MMOGs have been designed to accurately simulate certain aspects of the real world. They tend to be very specific to industries or activities of very large risk and huge potential loss, such as rocket science, airplanes, trucks, battle tanks, submarines etc. Gradually as simulation technology is getting more mainstream, so too various simulators arrive into more mundane industries.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The initial goal of "World War II Online" was to create a map (in northwestern Europe) that had real-world physics (gravity, air/water resistance, etc.), and ability for players to have some strategic abilities to its basic FPS/RPG role. While the current version is not quite a true simulated world, it is very complex and contains a large persistent world.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The MMOG genre of air traffic simulation is one example, with networks such as VATSIM and IVAO striving to provide rigorously authentic flight-simulation environments to players in both pilot and air traffic controller roles. In this category of MMOGs, the objective is to create duplicates of the real world for people who cannot or do not wish to undertake those experiences in real life. For example, flight simulation via an MMOG requires far less expenditure of time and money, is completely risk-free, and is far less restrictive (fewer regulations to adhere to, no medical exams to pass, and so on).


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Another specialist area is the mobile telecoms operator (carrier) business where billion-dollar investments in networks are needed but market shares are won and lost on issues from segmentation to handset subsidies. A specialist simulation was developed by Nokia called Equilibrium/Arbitrage to have over a two-day period five teams of top management of one operator/carrier play a "wargame" against each other, under extremely realistic conditions, with one operator an incumbent fixed and mobile network operator, another a new entrant mobile operator, a third a fixed-line/internet operator, etc. Each team is measured by outperforming their rivals by market expectations of that type of player. Thus each player has drastically different goals, but within the simulation, any one team can win. Also to ensure maximum intensity, only one team can win. Telecoms senior executives who have taken the Equilibrium/Arbitrage simulation say it is the most intense, and most useful training they have ever experienced. It is typical of business use of simulators, in very senior management training/retraining.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Examples of MMO simulation games include "World of Tanks", "War Thunder", "Motor City Online", "The Sims Online", and "".


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: A massively multiplayer online sports game is a title where players can compete in some of the more traditional major league sports, such as football (soccer), basketball, baseball, hockey, golf or American football. According to GameSpot.com, Baseball Mogul Online was "the world's first massively multiplayer online sports game". Other titles that qualify as MMOSG have been around since the early 2000s, but only after 2010 did they start to receive the endorsements of some of the official major league associations and players.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: MMOR means massively multiplayer online racing. Currently there are only a small number of racing-based MMOGs, including "iRacing", "Kart Rider", "Test Drive Unlimited", "Project Torque", "Drift City" and "Race or Die". Other notable MMORs included "Upshift Strikeracer", "Motor City Online" and "", all of which have since shut down. The "Trackmania" series is the world's largest MMO racing game and holds the world record for "Most Players in a Single Online Race". Although "" is more combat-based than racing, it is also considered an MMOR.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Many types of MMO games can be classified as casual, because they are designed to appeal to all computer users (as opposed to subgroup of frequent game buyers), or to fans of another game genre (such as collectible card games). Such games are easy to learn and require a smaller time commitment than other game types. Other popular casual games include simple management games such as "The Sims Online" or "Kung Fu Panda World."


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: They are usually set in a world where the players can access the puzzles around the world. Most games that are MMOPGs are hybrids with other genres. "Castle Infinity" was the first MMOG developed for children. Its gameplay falls somewhere between puzzle and adventure.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: There are also massively multiplayer collectible card games: "Alteil", "Astral Masters" and "Astral Tournament". Other MMOCCGs might exist ("Neopets" has some CCG elements) but are not as well known.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Alternate reality games (ARGs) can be massively multiplayer, allowing thousands of players worldwide to co-operate in puzzle trials and mystery solving. ARGs take place in a unique mixture of online and real-world play that usually does not involve a persistent world, and are not necessarily multiplayer, making them different from MMOGs.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Massively multiplayer online music/rhythm games (MMORGs), sometimes called massively multiplayer online dance games (MMODGs), are MMOGs that are also music video games. This idea was influenced by "Dance Dance Revolution". "Audition Online" is another casual massively multiplayer online game and it is produced by T3 Entertainment.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Massively multiplayer online social games (MMOSGs) focus on socialization instead of objective-based gameplay. There is a great deal of overlap in terminology with "online communities" and "virtual worlds". One example that has garnered widespread media attention is Linden Lab's "Second Life", emphasizing socializing, worldbuilding and an in-world virtual economy that depends on the sale and purchase of user-created content. It is technically an MMOSG or Casual Multiplayer Online (CMO) by definition, though its stated goal was to realize the concept of the Metaverse from Neal Stephenson's novel "Snow Crash". Instead of being based around combat, one could say that it was based around the creation of virtual objects, including models and scripts. In practice, it has more in common with "Club Caribe" than "EverQuest". It was the first MMO of its kind to achieve widespread success (including attention from mainstream media); however, it was not the first (as "Club Caribe" was released in 1988). Competitors in this subgenre (non-combat-based MMORPG) include "Active Worlds", "There", "SmallWorlds", "Furcadia", "Whirled", "IMVU" and "Red Light Center".


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Many browser-based Casual MMOs have begun to spring up. This has been made easier because of maturing of "Adobe Flash" and the popularity of "Club Penguin", "Growtopia", and "The Sims Online".


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Massively multiplayer online combat games are realtime objective, strategy and capture the flag style modes.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: "Infantry Online" is an example multiplayer combat video game with sprite animation graphics, using complex soldier, ground vehicle and space-ship models on typically complex terrains developed by Sony online entertainment.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: Some recent attempts to build peer-to-peer (P2P) MMOGs have been made. "Outback Online" may be the first commercial one, however, so far most of the efforts have been academic studies. A P2P MMOG may potentially be more scalable and cheaper to build, but notable issues with P2P MMOGs include security and consistency control, which can be difficult to address given that clients are easily hacked. Some MMOGs such as Vindictus use P2P networking and client-server networking together.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: In April 2004, the United States Army announced that it was developing a massively multiplayer training simulation called "AWE" (asymmetric warfare environment). The purpose of "AWE" is to train soldiers for urban warfare and there are no plans for a public commercial release. Forterra Systems is developing it for the Army based on the "There" engine.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: In 2010, Bonnie Nardi published an ethnographic study on World of Warcraft examined with Lev Vygotsky's activity theory.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: As the field of MMOs grows larger each year, research has also begun to investigate the socio-informatic bind the games create for their users. In 2006, researchers Constance A. Steinkuehler and Dmitri Williams initiated research on such topics. The topic most intriguing to the pair was to further understand the gameplay, as well as the virtual world serving as a social meeting place, of popular MMOs.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: To further explore the effects of social capital and social relationships on MMOs, Steinkuehler and Williams combined conclusions from two different MMO research projects: sociocultural perspective on culture and cognition, and the other on media effects of MMOs. The conclusions of the two studies explained how MMOs function as a new form of a "third place" for informal social interactions much like coffee shops, pubs, and other typical hangouts. Many scholars, however, such as Oldenburg (1999), refute the idea of a MMOs serving as a "third place" due to inadequate bridging social capital. His argument is challenged by Putnam (2000) who concluded that MMOs are well suited for the formation of bridging social capital, tentative relationships that lack in depth, because it is inclusive and serves as a sociological lubricant that is shown across the data collected in both of the research studies.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: MMOs can also move past the "lubricant" stage and into the "superglue" stage known as bonding social capital, a closer relationship that is characterized by stronger connections and emotional support. The study concludes that MMOs function best as a bridging mechanism rather than a bonding one, similar to a "third place". Therefore, MMOs have the capacity and the ability to serve as a community that effectively socializes users just like a coffee shop or pub, but conveniently in the comfort of their home.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: British online gamers are outspending their German and French counterparts according to a study commissioned by Gamesindustry.com and TNS. The UK MMO-market is now worth £195 million in 2009 compared to the £165 million and £145 million spent by German and French online gamers.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: The US gamers spend more, however, spending about $3.8 billion overall on MMO games. $1.8 billion of that money is spent on monthly subscription fees. The money spent averages out to $15.10 between both subscription and free-to-play MMO gamers. The study also found that 46% of 46 million players in the US pay real money to play MMO games.


title: Massively multiplayer online game

text: "Today's Gamers MMO Focus Report", published in March 2010, was commissioned by TNS and gamesindustry.com. A similar study for the UK market-only ("UK National Gamers Survey Report") was released in February 2010 by the same groups.


title: The Anime Man

text: Joseph Tetsuro "Joey" Bizinger (born 28 September 1994), known online as The Anime Man, as well as his stage name , is an Australian-Japanese YouTuber, voice actor, songwriter, and podcaster. His video work focuses on Japanese popular culture, which consists of anime and manga reviews, and vlogs on Japanese culture and society. Bizinger is also known for his interviews with people in the Japanese entertainment industry, such as light novel authors, manga artists, and voice actors in anime.


title: The Anime Man

text: Bizinger was born in Sydney, New South Wales, on 28 September 1994. He is the son of a Japanese mother and an Australian father of German and Hungarian descent. Bizinger's mother wanted to ensure that he would retain his Japanese heritage by exclusively speaking in Japanese to him and showing him various Japanese anime on home video, with "Doraemon", "Sazae-san" and "Pokémon" being especially prevalent in his early childhood.


title: The Anime Man

text: At St Paul's Catholic College in Manly, Bizinger was the only student of Japanese descent in his class and therefore introduced a lot of his friends to anime. The growth of popularity in anime, alongside a school project, spurred him to make a website where he reviewed Japanese animation. He kept making the reviews even after the project ended, and continued to post the reviews until graduation. While studying there, he started to make YouTube videos to be posted on his website, but eventually decided to switch entirely to the platform.


title: The Anime Man

text: Bizinger attended the University of Sydney, where he graduated in 2016 with a degree in Computer Design Technology.


title: The Anime Man

text: Bizinger began his YouTube career after posting his first video, “Dubbed Anime Sucks!,” on 27 May 2013. With a mixture of vlogs and discussions about various anime and manga, Bizinger would hit his first big milestone, 100,000 subscribers, in 2015. This was soon followed on what is considered his break-out video, “7 Types of Anime Fans,” on 17 June 2015, which ran through the various archetypes that comprise the anime community; a week after its release, Bizinger had doubled his subscriber count. In February 2016, Bizinger created his second channel, Joey, which was initially created as a 'me' channel, but has since evolved into a channel where less polished or various content that does not fit in the main channel are placed.


title: The Anime Man

text: After graduating from university, in May 2016 Bizinger moved to Japan, where he had originally planned to work in information technology, but by then his YouTube channel had grown so successful that he could work on it full time. In January 2017, The Anime Man hit one million subscribers. From 2017 to 2018, Bizinger co-hosted a weekly SBS podcast titled, "The Anime Show", with Agnes Diego (Akidearest), which ran for 68 episodes that discussed anime, manga, and otaku culture.


title: The Anime Man

text: In 2018, Bizinger was a guest for four episodes in Abroad in Japan's "Journey Across Japan" series; in which he traveled on bike with British YouTuber Chris Broad, from Niigata to Itoigawa, Japan. The series documented local customs and daily life along the way, while also doing challenges to make it more interesting. In one of the challenges, Broad and Bizinger were able to make a television commercial using Morinaga in Jelly, to which Bizinger created the fictional character “Dr. Jelly.” Bizinger, along with Natsuki Aso, would continue to appear in the follow-up sequels to the series: "Escape to Fuji" (2020) and "The Lost Islands" (2021). In June 2021, the single "Too Much Volcano!" by Abroad in Japan, featuring Bizinger and Aso, was released on the iTunes Store and Spotify; the song and accompanying music video was recorded during the production of "The Lost Islands". The song peaked at 65 on the UK downloads charts on 25 June 2021.


title: The Anime Man

text: Bizinger also began his voice acting career in 2018, with a cameo role in the video game "Grisaia Phantom Trigger Vol. 4" and a narration role in an episode of "Pop Team Epic". In 2020, he also got the role as Music Elitist in the video game "No Straight Roads".


title: The Anime Man

text: In February 2020, Bizinger joined alongside two other Youtubers, Thai-British Garnt Maneetapho (Gigguk) and Connor Colquhoun (CDawgVA) from Wales, in creating and hosting a weekly audio and video podcast called "Trash Taste", where they discuss anime, manga, otaku culture, and their experiences while living in Japan. The first episode was released on 5 June 2020 and all episodes are available on YouTube and major podcast platforms. In February 2022, Bizinger created a third channel, The Anime Man VODs, which feature recordings of his Twitch livestreams.


title: The Anime Man

text: Bizinger produces music under his other alias Ikurru and released an album on 18 December 2019 entitled "A Picture Frame Full Of Memories", performing both piano and vocals. The album references his late grandfather Eishiro Suzuki. Bizinger has released two full-length albums as Ikurru, two EPs (including a collaborative EP with musician Grey Fox), and four standalone singles as of October 2021. Bizinger sings and raps in both English and Japanese in his music.


title: The Anime Man

text: On 4 November 2016, both he and fellow YouTuber Agnes Diego (Akidearest) announced that they were in a relationship.


title: World Bank Group

text: The World Bank Group (WBG) is a family of five international organizations that make leveraged loans to developing countries. It is the largest and best-known development bank in the world and an observer at the United Nations Development Group. The bank is headquartered in Washington, D.C. in the United States. It provided around $98.83 billion in loans and assistance to "developing" and transition countries in the 2021 fiscal year. The bank's stated mission is to achieve the twin goals of ending extreme poverty and building shared prosperity. Total lending as of 2015 for the last 10 years through Development Policy Financing was approximately $117 billion. Its five organizations are the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). The first two are sometimes collectively referred to as the World Bank.


title: World Bank Group

text: The World Bank's (the IBRD's and IDA's) activities focus on developing countries, in fields such as human development (e.g. education, health), agriculture and rural development (e.g. irrigation and rural services), environmental protection (e.g. pollution reduction, establishing and enforcing regulations), infrastructure (e.g. roads, urban regeneration, and electricity), large industrial construction projects, and governance (e.g. anti-corruption, legal institutions development). The IBRD and IDA provide loans at preferential rates to member countries, as well as grants to the poorest countries. Loans or grants for specific projects are often linked to wider policy changes in the sector or the country's economy as a whole. For example, a loan to improve coastal environmental management may be linked to the development of new environmental institutions at national and local levels and the implementation of new regulations to limit pollution.


title: World Bank Group

text: The WBG came into formal existence on 27 December 1946 following international ratification of the Bretton Woods agreements, which emerged from the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference (1–22 July 1944). It also provided the foundation of the Osiander Committee in 1951, responsible for the preparation and evaluation of the World Development Report. Commencing operations on 25 June 1946, it approved its first loan on 9 May 1947 (USD 250M to France for postwar reconstruction, in real terms the largest loan the Bank has issued to date).


title: World Bank Group

text: All of the 188 UN members and Kosovo that are WBG members participate at a minimum in the IBRD. As of May 2016, all of them also participate in some of the other four organizations (IDA, IFC, MIGA, and ICSID).


title: World Bank Group

text: Non-members are Andorra, Cuba, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Palestine, the Holy See (Vatican City), Taiwan, and North Korea.


title: World Bank Group

text: The Republic of China joined the World Bank on December 27, 1945. After the Chinese Civil War, the government fled to Taiwan and continued its membership in the WBG until April 16, 1980, when the People's Republic of China replaced the ROC. Since then, it uses the name "Taiwan, China".


title: World Bank Group

text: Excluded from the list are the following de facto states: Abkhazia, Artsakh, the Donetsk People's Republic, the Luhansk People's Republic, Northern Cyprus, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, Somaliland, South Ossetia, and Transnistria.


title: World Bank Group

text: Together with four affiliated agencies created between 1957 and 1988, the IBRD is part of the World Bank Group. The Group's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. It is an international organization owned by member governments; although it makes profits, they are used to support continued efforts in poverty reduction.


title: World Bank Group

text: Technically the World Bank is part of the United Nations system, but its governance structure is different: each institution in the World Bank Group is owned by its member governments, which subscribe to its basic share capital, with votes proportional to shareholding. Membership gives certain voting rights that are the same for all countries but there are also additional votes that depend on financial contributions to the organization. The President of the World Bank is nominated by the President of the United States and elected by the Bank's Board of Governors. As of 15 November 2009, the United States held 16.4% of total votes, Japan 7.9%, Germany 4.5%, the United Kingdom 4.3%, and France 4.3%. As changes to the Bank's Charter require an 85% supermajority, the U.S. can block any major change in the Bank's governing structure. Because the U.S. exerts formal and informal influence over the Bank as a result of its vote share, control over the Presidency, and the Bank's headquarters location in Washington, D.C., friends and allies of the U.S. receive more projects with more lenient terms.


title: World Bank Group

text: The term "World Bank" generally refers to just the IBRD and IDA, whereas the term "World Bank Group" or "WBG" is used to refer to all five institutions collectively.


title: World Bank Group

text: The World Bank Institute is the capacity development branch of the World Bank, providing learning and other capacity-building programs to member countries.


title: World Bank Group

text: The IBRD has 189 member governments, and the other institutions have between 153 and 184. The institutions of the World Bank Group are all run by a board of governors meeting once a year. Each member country appoints a governor, generally its Minister of Finance. Daily, the World Bank Group is run by a board of 25 executive directors to whom the governours have delegated certain powers. Each director represents either one country (for the largest countries), or a group of countries. Executive directors are appointed by their respective governments or the constituencies.


title: World Bank Group

text: The agencies of the World Bank are each governed by their Articles of Agreement that serves as the legal and institutional foundation for all their work.


title: World Bank Group

text: The activities of the IFC and MIGA include investment in the private sector and providing insurance, respectively.


title: World Bank Group

text: Traditionally, the Bank President has been a U.S. citizen nominated by the President of the United States, the bank's largest shareholder. The nominee is subject to confirmation by the executive directors, to serve a five-year, renewable term.


title: World Bank Group

text: On 5 April 2019, David Malpass was selected as the 13th World Bank Group President; his term began on 9 April 2019.


title: World Bank Group

text: The managing director of The World Bank is responsible for organizational strategy; budget and strategic planning; information technology; shared services; Corporate Procurement; General Services and Corporate Security; the Sanctions System; and the Conflict Resolution and Internal Justice System. The present MD, Shaolin Yang, assumed the office after Sri Mulyani resigned to become finance minister of Indonesia.


title: World Bank Group

text: After longstanding criticisms from civil society of the Bank's involvement in the oil, gas, and mining sectors, the World Bank in July 2001 launched an independent review called the "Extractive Industries Review" (EIR—not to be confused with Environmental Impact Report). The review was headed by an "Eminent Person", Dr. Emil Salim (former Environment Minister of Indonesia). Salim held consultations with a wide range of stakeholders in 2002 and 2003. The EIR recommendations were published in January 2004 in a final report, "Striking a Better Balance". The report concluded that fossil fuel and mining projects do not alleviate poverty, and recommended that World Bank involvement with these sectors be phased out by 2008 to be replaced by investment in renewable energy and clean energy. The World Bank published its Management Response to the EIR in September 2004 after extensive discussions with the board of directors. The Management Response did not accept many of the EIR report's conclusions, but the EIR served to alter the World Bank's policies on oil, gas, and mining in important ways, as the World Bank documented in a recent follow-up report. One area of particular controversy concerned the rights of indigenous peoples. Critics point out that the Management Response weakened a key recommendation that indigenous peoples and affected communities should have to provide 'consent for projects to proceed; instead, there would be 'consultation'. Following the EIR process, the World Bank issued a revised Policy on Indigenous Peoples.


title: World Bank Group

text: The World Bank has long been criticized by a range of non-governmental organizations and academics, notably including its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz, who is equally critical of the International Monetary Fund, the US Treasury Department, and the US and other developed country trade negotiators. Critics argue that the so-called free market reform policies—which the Bank advocates in many cases—in practice are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy"), in the wrong sequence, or in very weak, uncompetitive economies. World Bank loan agreements can also force procurements of goods and services at uncompetitive, non-free-market, prices. Other critical writers such as John Perkins, label the international financial institutions as 'illegal and illegitimate and a cog of coercive American diplomacy in carrying out financial terrorism.


title: World Bank Group

text: In "Masters of Illusion: The World Bank and the Poverty of Nations" (1996), Catherine Caufield argues that the assumptions and structure of the World Bank operation ultimately harm developing nations rather than promote them. Caufield first criticizes the highly homogenized and Western recipes of "development" the Bank holds. To the World Bank, different nations and regions are indistinguishable and ready to receive the "uniform remedy of development". The danger of this assumption is that to attain even small portions of success, Western approaches to life are adopted and traditional economic structures and values are abandoned. A second assumption is that poor countries cannot modernize without money and advice from abroad.


title: World Bank Group

text: Several intellectuals in developing countries have argued that the World Bank is deeply implicated in contemporary modes of donor and NGO-driven imperialism and that its intellectual contribution functions, primarily, to seek to blame the poor for their condition.


title: World Bank Group

text: Defenders of the World Bank contend that no country is forced to borrow its money. The Bank provides both loans and grants. Even the loans are concessional since they are given to countries that have no access to international capital markets. Furthermore, the loans, both to poor and middle-income countries, are below market-value interest rates. The World Bank argues that it can help development more through loans than grants because money repaid on the loans can then be lent for other projects.


title: World Bank Group

text: Criticism was also expressed towards the IFC and MIGA and their way of evaluating the social and environmental impact of their projects. Critics state that even though IFC and MIGA have more of these standards than the World Bank, they mostly rely on private-sector clients to monitor their implementation and miss an independent monitoring institution in this context. This is why an extensive review of the institutions' implementation strategy of social and environmental standards is demanded.


title: World Bank Group

text: The World Bank was the subject of a scandal with its then-President Paul Wolfowitz and his aide, Shaha Riza, in 2007.


title: World Bank Group

text: The World Bank's Integrity Vice Presidency (INT) is charged with the investigation of internal fraud and corruption, including complaint intake, investigation, and investigation reports.


title: World Bank Group

text: The Compliance Advisor/Ombudsman (CAO) criticized a loan the Bank made to the palm oil company Dinant after the 2009 Honduran coup d'état. There have been numerous killings of Campesinos in the region where Dinant was operating.


title: World Bank Group

text: Other controversial investments include loans to the Chixoy Hydroelectric Dam in Guatemala while it was under military dictatorship, and to Goldcorp (then Glamis Gold) for the construction of the Marlin Mine.


title: World Bank Group

text: In 2019, the Congressional-Executive Commission on China questioned the World Bank about a loan in Xinjiang, China, that was used to buy high-end security gear, including surveillance equipment. The Bank launched an internal investigation in response to the allegation. In August 2020, U.S. lawmakers questioned the continued disbursement of the loan.


title: Hiromu Arakawa

text: Born on May 8, 1973, in Tokachi, Hokkaidō, Japan, Arakawa was born and raised on a dairy farm with three elder sisters and a younger brother. Arakawa thought about being a manga artist ever "since [she] was little" and during her school years, she would often draw on textbooks. After graduating high school, she took oil painting classes once a month for seven years while working on her family's farm. During this time, she also created dōjinshi manga with her friends and drew yonkoma for a magazine.


title: Hiromu Arakawa

text: Arakawa moved to Tokyo in the summer of 1999. She began her career in the manga world as a Square Enix employee and assistant to Hiroyuki Etō, author of "Mahōjin Guru Guru". Her own career began with the publication of "Stray Dog" in Square Enix's "Monthly Shōnen Gangan" in 1999. "Stray Dog" won the ninth 21st Century "Shōnen Gangan" Award. She published one chapter of "Shanghai Yōmakikai" in "Monthly Shōnen Gangan" in 2000.


title: Hiromu Arakawa

text: In July 2001, Arakawa published the first chapter of "Fullmetal Alchemist" in "Monthly Shōnen Gangan". The series spanned 108 chapters, with the last one published in July 2010, and the series was collected in twenty-seven volumes. Some reviewers say that the combination of Arakawa's art style and the writing in "Fullmetal Alchemist" contribute to its dark thematic elements. "Fullmetal Alchemist" has been adapted into two anime series by Bones. When they were creating the first, Arakawa assisted them in its early development. However, she was not involved in the making of the script, so the anime has a different ending from the manga, which she developed further. The series won the 49th Shogakukan Manga Award in the "shōnen" category in 2004. When the anime adaptation was reaching its ending, Arakawa showed director Yasuhiro Irie her plans for the manga's ending, making both end in near dates. Most reviewers distinguish between the manga and anime, which they attribute to differences in style and subject matter. One review explains that the manga is more "emotional," whereas the anime is more whimsical. Arakawa's simple, dark style and plot choices contrast with the anime's "cartoony," colorful rendering. Reviews in general tend to ascribe the anime to children and the manga to teens and adults.


title: Hiromu Arakawa

text: Arakawa is married with three children. She gave birth to a daughter in 2007 and had her third child in January 2014.


title: Hiromu Arakawa

text: She is currently living in Tokyo and has published more works, including "Raiden-18", "Sōten no Kōmori" (also known as "Bat in Blue Sky"), and "Hero Tales". Arakawa has collaborated with the creation of "Hero Tales" with Studio Flag under the name of Huang Jin Zhou. In the anime adaptation of the series, Arakawa was responsible for the character designs. She has also drawn the cover from the Japanese edition of the novel "The Demon's Lexicon" authored by Sarah Rees Brennan.


title: Hiromu Arakawa

text: In April 2011, Arakawa began a series called "Silver Spoon" in Shogakukan's "Weekly Shōnen Sunday". Rather than writing another fantasy series like "Fullmetal Alchemist", Arakawa wanted to challenge herself by trying a more realistic story with "Silver Spoon". It quickly rose among Shogakukan's best-selling titles and an anime series by A-1 Pictures began airing in July 2013. Also in July 2013 she began her manga adaptation of Yoshiki Tanaka's "The Heroic Legend of Arslan" series of novels in Kodansha's "Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine".


title: Hiromu Arakawa

text: Arakawa started the manga series "Daemons of the Shadow Realm" in "Monthly Shōnen Gangan" on December 10, 2021.


title: Hiromu Arakawa

text: Arakawa states that Suihō Tagawa, the author of "Norakuro", is the "root of [her] style as an artist". She also learned composition and drawing during her time as assistant of . She also cites Rumiko Takahashi, Shigeru Mizuki, and "Kinnikuman" by Yudetamago as influences and is a fan of Mike Mignola's work. Reviewers consider "Fullmetal Alchemist" to have steampunk influences.


title: Bubble and squeak

text: Bubble and squeak is a British dish made from cooked potatoes and cabbage, mixed together and fried. The food writer Howard Hillman classes it as one of the "great peasant dishes of the world". The dish has been known since at least the 18th century, and in its early versions it contained cooked beef; by the mid-20th century the two vegetables had become the principal ingredients.


title: Bubble and squeak

text: The name of the dish, according to the "Oxford English Dictionary" (OED), alludes to the sounds made by the ingredients when being fried. The first recorded use of the name listed in the OED dates from 1762; "The St James's Chronicle", recording the dishes served at a banquet, included "Bubble and Squeak, garnish'd with Eddowes Cow Bumbo, and Tongue". A correspondent in "The Public Advertiser" two years later reported making "a very hearty Meal on fried Beef and Cabbage; though I could not have touched it had my Wife recommended it to me under the fashionable Appellation of "Bubble and Squeak"". In 1791 another London paper recorded the quarterly meeting of the Bubble and Squeak Society at Smithfield.


title: Bubble and squeak

text: The dish as it is made in modern times differs considerably from its first recorded versions, in which cooked beef was the main ingredient and potatoes did not feature. The earliest-known recipe is in Mrs Rundell's "A New System of Domestic Cookery", published in 1806. It consists wholly of cabbage and rare roast beef, seasoned and fried. This method is followed by William Kitchiner in his book "Apicius Redivivus, or The Cook's Oracle" (1817); in later editions he adds a couplet at the top of his recipe:


title: Bubble and squeak

text: Mrs Beeton's recipe in her "Book of Household Management" (1861) similarly combines cooked beef with cabbage (and, in her recipe, onions) but no potato. An 1848 recipe from the US is similar, but adds chopped carrots. In all of these, the meat and vegetables are served next to each other, and not mixed together.


title: Bubble and squeak

text: In 1872 a Lancashire newspaper offered a recipe for "delicious bubble and squeak", consisting of thinly-sliced beef fried with cabbage and carrot, but not potatoes, although by then they had been a major crop in Lancashire for decades. In the 1880s potatoes began to appear in recipes. In 1882 the "Household" column of "The Manchester Times" suggested:


title: Bubble and squeak

text: Potatoes featured in a recipe printed in a Yorkshire paper in 1892 but, as in earlier versions, the main ingredients were beef and cabbage.


title: Bubble and squeak

text: Possibly because of the scarcity of beef during food rationing in and after the Second World War, by the latter half of the 20th century the basic ingredients were widely considered to be cooked and mashed (or coarsely crushed) potato and chopped cooked cabbage. Those are the only two ingredients in Delia Smith's 1987 recipe. Clarissa Dickson Wright's 1996 version consists of crushed cooked potatoes, finely chopped raw onion, and cooked cabbage (or brussels sprouts), seasoned with salt and pepper, mixed together and shallow-fried until browned on the exterior. Like Smith, Dickson Wright specifies dripping (or lard) for frying, finding vegetable oil unsuitable for frying bubble and squeak, because the mixture will not brown adequately. Several other cooks find oil or butter satisfactory.


title: Bubble and squeak

text: Fiona Beckett (2008), like Smith and Dickson Wright, stipulates no ingredients other than potato and cabbage,


title: Bubble and squeak

text: but there are many published variants of the basic recipe. Gary Rhodes favours sliced brussels sprouts, rather than cabbage, with gently cooked sliced onions and mashed potato, fried in butter. He comments that although the basic ingredients of bubble and squeak and colcannon are similar, the two are very different dishes, the former being traditionally made from left-overs and fried to give a brown crust, and the latter "a completely separate dish of potato, spring onion and cabbage, served almost as creamed potatoes".


title: Bubble and squeak

text: Jeff Smith (1987) adds grated courgettes and chopped ham and bacon. Mark Hix (2005) adds cooked and chopped leeks and swede to the mix. Jamie Oliver (2007) adds chestnuts and "whatever veg you like – carrots, Brussels, swedes, turnips, onions, leeks or Savoy cabbage". Nigel Slater, in a 2013 recipe using Christmas leftovers, adds chopped goose, ham and pumpkin to the mixture.


title: Bubble and squeak

text: The mixture is then shallow fried, either shaped into round cakes or as a single panful, tortilla-style, and then sliced. The first method is suggested by Delia Smith, Hix and Slater; Rhodes finds both methods satisfactory; Dickson Wright, Oliver and Jeff Smith favour the whole-pan method.


title: Bubble and squeak

text: Bubble and squeak is familiar in Australia; a 1969 recipe adds peas and pumpkin to the basic mix. The dish is not common in the US but is not unknown; an American recipe from 1913 resembles Rundell's version, with the addition of a border of mashed potato. In 1983, American food writer Howard Hillman included bubble and squeak in his survey "Great Peasant Dishes of the World". More recently "Forbes" magazine ran an article about the dish in 2004. A Canadian newspaper in 1959 reported a minor controversy about the origins of the dish, with readers variously claiming it as Australian, English, Irish and Scottish. In 1995, another Canadian paper called the dish "universally beloved".


title: Bubble and squeak

text: The OED gives a secondary definition of "bubble and squeak": "figurative and in figurative contexts. Something resembling or suggestive of bubble and squeak, especially in consisting of a variety of elements". In 1825 a reviewer in "The Morning Post" dismissed a new opera at Covent Garden as "a sort of bubble and squeak mixture of English and Italian". The OED gives examples from the 18th to the 21st centuries, including, from Coleridge, "... the restless Bubble and Squeak of his Vanity and Discontent", and from D. H. Lawrence, "I can make the most lovely bubble and squeak of a life for myself". In cockney rhyming slang the phrase was formerly used for "beak" (magistrate) and more recently "Bubble" has been used for "Greek".


title: Bubble and squeak

text: The term has been borrowed by authors of children's books as names for a pair of puppies and (by two different authors) pairs of mice.


title: Santino Fontana

text: Santino Fontana (born March 21, 1982) is an American actor and singer. He has received a Tony Award, two Drama Desk Awards, an Outer Critics Circle Award, Lortel Award, Obie Award, and Clarence Derwent Award in a mix of straight plays and musicals. A two-time Tony Award nominee and three-time Drama Desk Award nominee, Fontana won the 2019 Tony Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role in a Musical, Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Leading Role in a Musical, and Outer Critics Circle Award for his lead performance as Michael Dorsey in the stage adaptation of "Tootsie".


title: Santino Fontana

text: Fontana is known to film audiences as the voice of Prince Hans in Disney's 2013 animated film "Frozen".


title: Santino Fontana

text: Fontana has appeared on television as Greg Serrano on seasons 1 and 2 of "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend" and David Saperstein in "Shades of Blue" with Jennifer Lopez and Ray Liotta.


title: Santino Fontana

text: Fontana was born on March 21, 1982, in Stockton, California, to Sharon Marie Fontana (née Simarro; born 1951) and Ernest John Fontana (born 1948). His mother is an elementary school teacher and his father is an agronomist. He has one sister. He is of one quarter Spanish, one quarter Portuguese, and one half Italian descent. Fontana graduated from Richland High School in Richland, Washington. Fontana studied the arts at the Academy of Children's Theatre in his youth, located in Richland, Washington. As a teenager he studied Theatre Arts at Interlochen Arts Camp at Interlochen Center for the Arts. He is a graduate of the University of Minnesota/Guthrie Theater BFA Actor Training Program.


title: Santino Fontana

text: In 2005, as a member of the Essentials, Fontana co-wrote the musical comedy "Perfect Harmony", and originated the role of Philip Fellowes V. In 2006, he starred as Hamlet in The Guthrie Theatre's performance of the Shakespearean classic, before moving to New York City to star as Matt in the Off-Broadway revival of "The Fantasticks". His Broadway debut was "Sunday in the Park with George" in 2007. Fontana originated the role of Tony in the Broadway production of "Billy Elliot" from October 1, 2008 to July 4, 2009. He was awarded the 2010 Drama Desk Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play for his work in "Brighton Beach Memoirs". He starred as Prince Topher in Rodgers & Hammerstein's "Cinderella" on Broadway, for which he was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Leading Actor in a Musical.


title: Santino Fontana

text: In 2015, Fontana became the first guest artist to perform three times in the space of one year with the Tabernacle Choir on Temple Square where he met the cast of "Sesame Street". Fontana also joined the cast of the CW romantic musical comedy-drama "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend" that same year. On November 11, 2016, it was announced that Fontana was leaving the TV series after his one-year contract with the CW.


title: Santino Fontana

text: He starred as Michael Dorsey / Dorothy Michaels in the stage musical adaptation of the film "Tootsie", which premiered in Chicago at the Cadillac Palace Theatre from September 11 to October 14, 2018. The musical opened on Broadway on April 23, 2019 and closed on January 5, 2020. Direction was by Scott Ellis with music and lyrics by David Yazbek and book by Robert Horn. Fontana won the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical for the production.


title: Santino Fontana

text: In 2022, Fontana co-starred in the Hallmark Channel film "Just One Kiss" with actress Krysta Rodriguez.


title: Santino Fontana

text: Fontana began dating actress Jessica Hershberg in mid-2011. The couple met backstage at the Birdland jazz club, where both were performing. They became engaged in September 2014 and married in September 2015.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Rio Grande do Sul (, , ; "Great River of the South") is a state in the southern region of Brazil. It is the fifth-most-populous state and the ninth largest by area. Located in the southernmost part of the country, Rio Grande do Sul is bordered clockwise by Santa Catarina to the north and northeast, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the Uruguayan departments of Rocha, Treinta y Tres, Cerro Largo, Rivera and Artigas to the south and southwest, and the Argentine provinces of Corrientes and Misiones to the west and northwest. The capital and largest city is Porto Alegre. The state has the highest life expectancy in Brazil, and the crime rate is relatively low compared to the Brazilian national average. Despite the high standard of living, unemployment is still high in the state, as of 2017. The state has 5.4% of the Brazilian population and it is responsible for 6.6% of the Brazilian GDP.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The state shares a gaucho culture with its neighbors Argentina and Uruguay. Before the arrival of Portuguese and Spanish settlers, it was inhabited mostly by the Guarani and Kaingang peoples (with smaller populations of Charrúa and Minuane). The first Europeans there were Jesuits, followed by settlers from the Azores. In the 19th century it was the scene of conflicts including the Ragamuffin War and the Paraguayan War. Large waves of German and Italian migration have shaped the state as well.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Rio Grande do Sul is bordered to the northeast by the Brazilian State of Santa Catarina, to the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, on the southwest by Uruguay, and to the northwest by the Argentine provinces of Corrientes and Misiones.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The northern part of the state lies on the southern slopes of the elevated plateau extending southward from São Paulo across the states of Paraná and Santa Catarina, and is much broken by low mountain ranges whose general direction across the trend of the slope gives them the appearance of escarpments. A range of low mountains extends southward from the Serra do Mar of Santa Catarina and crosses the state into Uruguay. West of this range is a vast grassy plain devoted principally to stock-raising – the northern and most elevated part being suitable in pasturage and climate for sheep, and the southern for cattle. East of it is a wide coastal zone only slightly elevated above the sea; within it are two great estuarine lagoons, the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim, which are separated from the ocean by two sandy, partially barren peninsulas. The coast is one great sand beach, broken only by the outlet of the two lakes, called the Rio Grande, which affords an entrance to navigable inland waters and several ports. There are two distinct river systems in Rio Grande do Sul – that of the eastern slope draining to the lagoons, and that of the Río de la Plata basin draining westward to the Uruguay River.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The larger rivers of the eastern group are the Jacuí, Sinos, Caí, Gravataí and Camaquã, which flow into the Lagoa dos Patos, and the Jaguarão which flows into the Lagoa Mirim. All of the first named, except the Camaquã, discharge into one of the two arms or estuaries opening into the northern end of Lagoa dos Patos, which is called the Guaíba River, though technically it is not a river but a lake.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The Guaíba River is broad, comparatively deep and about long, and with the rivers discharging into it affords upwards of of fluvial navigation. The Jacuí is one of the most important rivers of the state, rising in the ranges of the Coxilha Grande of the north and flowing south and southeast to the Guaíba estuary, with a course of nearly It has two large tributaries, the Vacacaí from the south and the Taquari from the north, and many small streams. The Jaguarão, which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay, is navigable 42 km up to and beyond the town of Jaguarão.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In addition to the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim there are a number of small lakes on the sandy, swampy peninsulas that lie between the coast and these two, and there are others of a similar character along the northern coast. The largest lake is the Lagoa dos Patos (Lake of the Patos – an Indian tribe inhabiting its shores at the time of European discovery), which lies parallel with the coastline, northeast and southwest, and is about long exclusive of the two arms at its northern end, 40 58 km long respectively, and of its outlet, the Rio Grande, about 39 km long. Its width varies from 35 to 58 km. The lake is comparatively shallow and filled with sand banks, making its navigable channels tortuous and difficult. The Lagoa Mirim occupies a similar position farther south, on the Uruguayan border, and is about long by 10 to 35 km wide. It is more irregular in outline and discharges into Lagoa dos Patos through a navigable channel known as the São Gonçalo Channel. A part of the lake lies in Uruguayan territory, but its navigation, as determined by treaty, belongs exclusively to Brazil. Both of these lakes are evidently the remains of an ancient depression in the coastline shut in by sand beaches built up by the combined action of wind and current. They are of the same level as the ocean, but their waters are affected by the tides and are brackish only a short distance above the Rio Grande outlet.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Fully one-third of the state belongs to the Río de la Plata drainage basin. Of the many streams flowing northward and westward to the Uruguay, the largest are the Ijuí of the plateau region, the Ibicuí, which has its source near Santa Maria in the central part of the state and flows westward to the Uruguay a short distance above Uruguaiana, and the Quaraí River which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay. The Uruguay River itself is formed by the confluence of the Canoas and Pelotas rivers. The Pelotas, which has its source in the Serra do Mar on the Atlantic coast, and the Uruguay River forms the northern and western boundary line of the state down to the mouth of the Quaraí, on the Uruguayan frontier.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Rio Grande do Sul lies within the south temperate zone and is predominantly humid subtropical ("Cfa", according to the Köppen climate classification). The climate is subtropical highland ("Cfb") in the highest areas. There are four relatively well-defined seasons and rainfall is well distributed throughout the year, but occasional droughts can occur. The winter months, June to September, are characterized by heavy rains and by a cold southwesterly wind, called minuano, which sometimes lowers the temperature to below freezing, especially in the mountainous municipalities, where snowfalls can occur. The lowest official temperature registered in the state was in Bom Jesus, on August 1, 1955. In summer, the temperature rises to , and heat related injuries are not uncommon.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Several ecoregions cover portions of the state. In the northeastern corner of the state, between the Serra do Mar/Serra Geral and the Atlantic, lies the southern extension of the Serra do Mar coastal forests, a belt of evergreen tropical moist forests that extend north along the coastal strip as far as Rio de Janeiro state. The high plateau behind the Serra do Mar is occupied by the Araucaria moist forests, a subtropical forests characterized by evergreen, laurel-leaved forests interspersed with emergent Brazilian Pines "(Araucaria angustifolia)". The Alto Paraná Atlantic forests lie on the lower slopes of the plateau south and east of the Araucaria forests, including much of the lower basin of the Jacuí and its tributaries. These forests are semi-deciduous, with many trees losing their leaves in the winter dry season. The Atlantic Coast restingas, distinctive forests which grow on nutrient-poor coastal dunes, extend along the coast, as far as the Uruguayan border.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The southeastern portion of the state is covered by the Pampas, which extends south into Uruguay, in a plateau named Serras de Sudeste (Southeastern Mountain Ranges).


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: During the Brazilian Colonial period, the province of South Rio Grande was the scene of small wars and border skirmishes between Portugal and Spain for the region, the Sacramento Colony, and the Guarani Missions. It was also a focal point for internal rebellions in the 19th and the early 20th centuries.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: According to the treaty of Tordesillas, the region was to be part of the Spanish possessions in South America. However, the Spanish were much more interested in the Pacific Coast, where gold, silver, and gems were quickly found. Even in the Atlantic coast, their attention was on the River Plate where they built the seaport of Buenos Aires, on its right bank. Consequently, Spanish settlement followed the course of the River Plate and its tributaries, especially the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, largely ignoring the Rio Grande do Sul area. The Spanish introduced livestock which escaped into the plains and attracted gauchos to the area.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The first Spanish to settle in the region that is now Paraguay, northwestern Argentina (Corrientes, Misiones), and Rio Grande do Sul were Jesuit missionary priests who came with the idea of converting the indigenous population to Catholic Christianity. To that end, they founded missionary villages known in Spanish as "misiones" or "reducciones", populated by Guarani Indians.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In the early 17th century, the Jesuits founded missions to the east of the Uruguay river, and in the northwest of modern Rio Grande do Sul.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The missions were destroyed and their Guarani inhabitants were enslaved in large raids by bandeirantes between 1636 and 1638; however, in 1687, the Jesuits were back in the region, having refounded seven reductions, the Misiones Orientales. The region remained under Spanish sovereignty, though in practice the Jesuits operated quite independently as consequence of the spanish laws, up to the late 17th century. But in 1680, the Portuguese founded Colônia do Sacramento on the northern bank of the River Plate, in what is now Uruguay. War ensued and was intermittent until the independence of Uruguay in 1828.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The logistics of defending Colônia against the Spanish resulted in a government effort to settle Rio Grande do Sul's coastal region with Brazilian and Portuguese colonists. In 1737, a fortified village (today the city of Rio Grande) was built at the entrance of Lagoa dos Patos. In 1752, a group of Azorean settlers founded Porto Alegre; to the west, Rio Pardo was also founded. Towards the middle of the century, Brazilians and Portuguese arrived to the west of the region, clashing with the Jesuits and the Guaranis. Up to 1756, the Guaranis fought back, under the leadership of Sepé Tiaraju, who was popularly canonized as São Sepé (Saint Sepé). However, the Portuguese and Brazilians eventually crushed the resistance, destroyed the missions, and the region came definitely into Portuguese hegemony.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In 1738 the territory (which included the present state of Santa Catarina) became the Capitania d'el Rei and was made a dependency of Rio de Janeiro. Territorial disputes between Spain and Portugal led to the occupation by the Spaniards of the town of Rio Grande (then the capital of the capitania) and neighboring districts from 1763 to 1776, when they reverted to the Portuguese. The capture of Rio Grande in 1763 caused the removal of the seat of government to Viamão at the head of Lagoa dos Patos; in 1773 Porto dos Cazaes, renamed Porto Alegre, became the capital. These historic acts were planned and directed by Manuel Sepúlveda, who used the fictitious name or pseudonym José Marcelino de Figueiredo, to hide his identity. In 1801 news of war between Spain and Portugal led to the capture of the Sete Povos and some frontier posts.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In 1777, the Santo Ildefonso Treaty granted the coastal region to Portugal, and the Missões to Spain; but, in practice, both regions were populated by Portuguese and Brazilian settlers. In 1801, the Badajoz treaty handed the Misiones (Missões) to the Portuguese; only the borders between modern Uruguay and Rio Grande do Sul remained in dispute.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The districts of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande had been separated in 1760 for military convenience, and in 1807 the latter was elevated to the category of a "capitania-geral", with the designation of "Sao Pedro do Rio Grande", independent of Rio de Janeiro, and with Santa Catarina as a dependency. In 1812 Rio Grande and Santa Catarina were organized into two distinct comarcas, the latter becoming an independent province in 1822 when the Empire of Brazil was organized.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In 1816, the Portuguese captured Uruguay, which became a Province of Brazil (Província Cisplatina). This situation outlasted Brazil's independence from Portugal in 1822; in 1825, however, Juan Antonio Lavalleja proclaimed the independence of Uruguay; war followed, until in 1828 Brazil recognized Uruguayan independence.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Populating Rio Grande do Sul was a constant concern of the Portuguese. To that end, the metropolitan Crown distributed land in the form of enormous latifundia.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In those large latifundia, cattle raising was the predominant economic activity. The Guaranis, under Jesuit rule, had started raising cattle in the Missões. The destruction of the Missões left astray immense herds, which went feral. Thus the newcomers from São Paulo and Santa Catarina settled by re-domesticating these feral herds, called "gado xucro".


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The Azorean settlers, on the other hand, mainly introduced wheat crops in much smaller properties. Up to the beginning of the 19th century, wheat was the main export product of Rio Grande do Sul.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: However, the introduction of charqueadas in the Southern coast, following the 1777 drought in Ceará, opened new opportunities to husbandry, as from them on, instead of moving herds by land to São Paulo, cattle could be sold in the relatively nearby region of Pelotas, to be slaughtered and processed there, and further transported by sea to Santos, Rio de Janeiro, and other Brazilian harbours. The cheap jerky was commonly used as food for the enslaved laborers in other parts of Brazil.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Up to 1830, political unrest in Argentina and Uruguay favoured the jerky producers of Pelotas. But with order restored in these countries, competition by Argentinian and Uruguayan jerky producers became a concern. The jerky industry of the Plata was favored by the superior quality of Argentinian and Uruguayan pastures, by their better seaports, and by their use of free labor, instead of slavery. Consequently, the regional elites soon started to demand customs protection for the gaúcho jerky against the product of the Rio de la Plata; on the failure of the Imperial government to address those concerns, political demands of greater autonomy, and ideas of a federal relationship towards the rest of Brazil were put forth.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: These escalated into full rebellion in 1835. In 1834, the Imperial government issued an "Ato Adicional", allowing for elected Provincial legislative assemblies. The first gaúcha Legislative Assembly, inaugurated in April 1835, quickly confronted the Provincial President (appointed by the Regency on behalf of the Emperor, who was a minor). Rebellion broke out in the province on September 20, 1835; giving up hope of redress of the situation by the Imperial Government, the gaúchos proclaimed independence of the Riograndense Republic on September 11, 1836.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The ensuing Farroupilha Revolution (known locally as "Guerra dos Farrapos") lasted ten years. The rebels stormed Porto Alegre, but were driven out from there in June 1836. From then on, the Empire was able to control most of the coastal region, achieving decisive strategic advantage from this. However, in 1839, the rebels were still able to invade Santa Catarina, where they proclaimed a Juliana Republic, in a federal relationship with Rio Grande do Sul (during the Santa Catarina campaign, Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the rebels for a while before he returned to Europe and eventually became a hero in his native Italy). The Empire soon retook initiative, though, and from them on the rebels fought in the defensive.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In 1842, the Empire assigned a new Provincial governor and military commander, the Baron, later Duke of Caxias. The inability of the rebels to secure contact with the world through a seaport, the dwindling economy of the Province, combined with Caxias' superior capabilities as military commander, led to the fall, in 1843, of important rebel strongholds, Caçapava do Sul, Bagé, and Alegrete. Economically exhausted and militarily defeated, the rebels accepted Caxias' terms of surrender. A general amnesty was declared, the rebellious officials were incorporated into the Imperial Army, slaves enrolled in the rebel Army were freed. Additionally, the Empire imposed a 25% tax on foreign jerky imports.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The province suffered greatly in the struggle, but recovered quickly, not only due to the import tax protection, but mainly due to renewed instability in Argentina and Uruguay: Rosas' government in Argentina continually interfered in Uruguayan affairs until 1851, and Buenos Aires was blockaded by the French and the English from 1845 to 1848.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: At mid-19th century, Rio Grande do Sul was repeatedly involved in war between Brazil and its neighbours. Those included war against Argentina and Uruguay (deposal of Juan Manuel Rosas, Argentinian dictator, and Manuel Ceferino Oribe y Viana, Uruguayan president, 1852) and intervention in Uruguay (deposal of Atanasio Cruz Aguirre, 1864). This, in turn, led to Paraguayan intervention, and the Paraguayan War, known in Portuguese as Guerra do Paraguai.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In the war against Rosas, 75% of the Brazilian troops were gaúchos. As the only Brazilian boundaries actually facing foreign armies able to project the Empire's power, Rio Grande do Sul and its gaúchos quickly developed a reputation as soldiers.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: During this long and bloody war against Paraguay, Rio Grande do Sul remained usually a secondary front. But in 1865 a Paraguayan division invaded the state, occupying Uruguaiana by August 5. By August 16, troops of the Triple Alliance put siege to Uruguaiana, and by September 17, an ultimatum was delivered to General Estigarribia, commander of the Paraguayan division. Having no possibility of breaking the siege or defending the position, the Paraguayans surrendered, under conditions, the following day.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: But if the territory of Rio Grande do Sul was spared most action, its dwellers provided a very significant part of the Brazilian troops: about 34,000 soldiers, more than 25% of the Brazilian army. This military characteristic of Rio Grande do Sul lasted long after the Paraguayan War: In 1879, of a standing army of less than 15,000, more than 5,000 were in Rio Grande do Sul. On the other hand, during the late Empire, more Brazilian generals were from Rio Grande do Sul than from any other province. In 1889, of 25 generals born in Brazil, four were from Rio Grande do Sul; and of the three born abroad, two were born in Uruguay but made their careers in Rio Grande do Sul.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Political agitation was frequent in Rio Grande do Sul, but no important revolution occurred after the Ponche Verde Treaty in 1845 until the presidency at Rio de Janeiro of General Floriano Peixoto, whose ill-considered interference with state governments led to the revolt of 1892–94, under Gumercindo Saraiva.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: After the Paraguayan War, Rio Grande do Sul underwent important changes in its economy. Railways connected the countryside to Porto Alegre and Rio Grande. Together with the introduction of steam ships, this reduced the costs and duration of transportation, facilitating the province's exports. New cattle breeds were introduced, and barbed wire was used to demarcate properties.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: As a consequence, the population of the province doubled between 1872 and 1890, from 434,813 inhabitants to 897,455. This was partly due to immigration: about 60,000 immigrants, mostly from Italy, and, in lesser numbers, from Germany, came to Rio Grande do Sul during this period. Most of the Italians settled in the Serra Gaúcha, and most of the Germans in the valleys of the Jacuí, Sinos, and Caí, as small landed proprietors, and agricultural producers. In the area of German settlements, a messianic movement, the Muckers (German for false Saints) erupted in 1874, and was smashed by the Brazilian Army.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Also during this period, the Liberal Party established its hegemony over the province, meaning control of the provincial legislature, the National Guard in Rio Grande do Sul, and most of the municipal governments. Before the War of the Triple Alliance, the Conservative and Liberal parties had alternated in local power, following the national tendency. But, from 1872 on, the Liberals, under the leadership of Gaspar Silveira Martins, were able to retain provincial power, even when the Conservatives won at national level.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In this struggle the revolutionaries occupied Santa Catarina and Paraná, capturing Curitiba, but were eventually overthrown through their inability to obtain munitions of war. An incident in this struggle was the death of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, one of the most brilliant officers of the Brazilian navy and one of the chiefs of the naval revolt of 1893–94, who was killed in a skirmish on the Uruguayan border towards the end of the conflict.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In 1923, civil war again exploded between supporters of State President Borges de Medeiros and opposition linked to the Partido Libertador and Assis Brasil.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In 1930, State President Getúlio Vargas, after unsuccessfully running in the presidential elections against the candidate of São Paulo, Júlio Prestes, led a revolt against the Federal government, and succeeded in overthrowing it. This eventually led to the Vargas dictatorship in 1937 and the period known as the Estado Novo. What is now the Rio Grande do Sul Military Brigade fought on the side of the state leadership and, as a result, was never reformed. In fact, the Brigade remains the only state militia in Brazil. (The Military Police is the federal force that polices in the other states.) A poignant example of the Brigade's quasi-autonomy is the participation of its servicemen in both the coup attempt of 1961 and the military coup in 1964.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 10,860,000 people residing in the state. The population density was .


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) counted 8,776,000 white people (81%), 1,495,000 brown (Multiracial) people (14%), 529,000 black people (5%), 43,000 Amerindian people (0.4%), 11,000 Asian people (0.1%).


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: According to a genetic study from 2013, Brazilians in Rio Grande do Sul have an average of 73% European, 14% African and 13% Amerindian ancestry.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: People of Portuguese – mostly Azorean – background predominate in the coastal region. The Southwest, on the other hand, was originally populated by Pampeano Indians. Like the other Gauchos from the La Plata Basin the population there was a result from the mixture of Spanish and Portuguese men with Amerindian women with a possible predominant Spanish ancestry and also a significant African contribution, resulting in a population that is 81.20% White.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: These theoretical speculations about Spanish predominance among the population of Southwestern Rio Grande do Sul are widely presumed, but they contradict the historical and modern genetic knowledge about the region. In fact, there was always some Spanish colonial presence there, however in practice restricted to Jesuit religious initiatives towards the Amerindian populations, which had limited genetic impact in the demographic composition of aboriginal populations. On the other hand, it is broadly accepted that it is northern Uruguay that always has had an important Luso-Brazilian influence, which in fact impacts to this day the mixed Spanish-Portuguese language of northern Uruguay along the border with Brazil (borderlands).


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: People of German descent predominate in the Sinos Valley (Novo Hamburgo, São Leopoldo, Nova Hartz, Dois Irmãos, Morro Reuter, etc.) and in the center-eastern part of the State (Santa Cruz do Sul). People of Italian descent predominate in the mountains (Serra Gaúcha: Caxias do Sul, Bento Gonçalves, Farroupilha, Garibaldi, etc.). The Northern and Northwestern parts of the State also have significant numbers of people of both Italian and German descent. There are sizeable communities of Poles and Ukrainians across the state, notably in the northwest. People of African ancestry are concentrated in the capital city and in some cities in the litoral, such as Pelotas and Rio Grande.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: According to Argentine demographer Miguel Ángel García, Italian immigrants were 60% of the total immigration to Rio Grande do Sul and according to French historian Jean Roche as of 1950 people of German descent made up 21.6% of the state's population.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The region that is now Rio Grande do Sul was originally settled by Amerindian peoples, mostly Guaraní and Kaingangs and, to a lesser extent, Charrúas and Minuanes. European presence in the region started in 1627 with Spanish Jesuits. The Jesuits established Indian Reductions in the region; those reductions where populated exclusively by Amerindians, mainly Guarani, and certainly not by Europeans, either Spanish or Portuguese. Portuguese Jesuits established Indian Reductions in 1687 and dominated the region. Most of the Indians of the region became Catholics and went to live among the Jesuits. These reductions were destroyed by the Bandeirantes from São Paulo in the 18th century, who wanted to enslave the Indians. The Portuguese settlement in Rio Grande do Sul was largely increased between 1748 and 1756, with the arrival of two thousand immigrants from the Azores Islands, Portugal. They settled many parts of the state, including the nowadays capital, Porto Alegre. Blacks were 50 percent of Rio Grande do Sul's population in 1822. This proportion decreased to 25 percent in 1858 and to only 5.2 percent in 2005. Most of them were brought from Angola to work as slaves in the charqueadas.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: German immigrants first arrived to Southern Brazil in 1824. They were attracted to Brazil to protect the country from invasions of the neighboring countries and to populate the empty interior of the southern region. The first city to be settled by them was São Leopoldo. In the next five decades, around 28 thousand Germans were brought to the region to work as small farmers in the countryside.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Italian immigrants started arriving in Rio Grande do Sul in 1875. They were mostly poor peasants from Trentino and Veneto, Northern Italy, who were attracted to Southern Brazil to get their own farms. Italian immigration to the region lasted until 1914, with a total of 100,000 Italians settling there in this period. Most of the immigrants worked as small farmers, mainly cultivating grapes in the Serra Gaúcha part of the state.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: Other European immigrants migrated to Rio Grande do Sul, mostly from Eastern Europe. The Jewish Colonization Association assisted Russian-Jewish immigrants to settle on agricultural land in the state. A memoir of one such immigrant community, "Filipson, Memórias da primeira colônia judaica no Rio Grande do Sul" ("Filipson: Memories of the First Jewish Colony in Rio Grande do Sul"), was published by Frida Alexandr in 1967.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: European genomic ancestry predominates throughout Brazil at 80%, except for the Southern Region (which includes Rio Grande do Sul), where it reaches 90%. "A new portrayal of each ethnicity contribution to the DNA of Brazilians, obtained with samples from the five regions of the country, has indicated that, on average, European ancestors are responsible for nearly 80% of the genetic heritage of the population. The variation between the regions is small, with the possible exception of the South, where the European contribution reaches nearly 90%. The results, published by the scientific magazine 'American Journal of Human Biology' by a team of the Catholic University of Brasília, show that, in Brazil, physical indicators such as skin colour, colour of the eyes and colour of the hair have little to do with the genetic ancestry of each person, which has been shown in previous studies".


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: As of 2013, there were fewer than 30,000 Nisei in Rio Grande do Sul. Japanese immigrant families from São Paulo State began arriving in Rio Grande do Sul in the 1930s. In 1956, the first 23 official immigrants came to the state, and 26 families arrived at Rio Grande in the years from 1956 through 1963. In 2013, Peter B. Clarke, author of "Japanese New Religions in Global Perspective", wrote that "Nowadays we cannot speak of a Japanese colony in RS."


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: According to the 2010 Brazilian Census, most of the population (68.8%) is Roman Catholic, other religious groups include Protestants or evangelicals (18.3%), Spiritists (0.8%), Nones 5.3%, and people with other religions (4.4).


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 43%, followed by the service sector at 41%. Agriculture represents 16% of GDP (2004). Rio Grande do Sul exports: footwear 18%, soybeans 14%, tobacco 13.6%, vehicles 8%, frozen meat 7.2%, chemicals 6.8%, and leather 5% (2002).


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: One of the most prosperous Brazilian states, Rio Grande do Sul is known especially for its grain production, viticulture, ranching, and for its considerable industrial output.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In 1827, emigrants from Idar-Oberstein discovered the world's most important agate deposit in Rio Grande do Sul. As early as 1834, the first delivery of agate from Rio Grande do Sul had been made to Idar-Oberstein. The Brazilian agate exhibited very even layers, much more even than those seen in the local agates. This made them especially good for making engraved gems.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In agriculture, the state stands out in the production of soybeans, maize, wheat, rice, tobacco, grape, apple, cassava and yerba mate, in addition to also producing oat, barley, orange, peach, fig, tangerine, persimmon and strawberry.


title: Rio Grande do Sul

text: In 2020, the South Region produced 32% of the national total of cereals, vegetables and oilseeds. There were 77.2 million tons, second place in Brazil, losing only to the Midwest. Rio Grande do Sul (14.3%) was the 3rd largest producer in the country.