title: Waffle House

text: According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Waffle House is one of the top four corporations, along with Walmart, The Home Depot, and Lowe's, for disaster response. Waffle House has an extensive disaster management plan with on-site and portable generators and positioned food and ice ahead of severe weather events such as a hurricane. This helps mitigate the effects of a storm on the power grid and the supply chains. The company prepares 'jump teams' of recovery staff and supplies, brought in from outside disaster-affected areas, so local staff can focus on helping their own homes and families. The ability of a Waffle House to remain open after a severe storm, possibly with a limited menu, is used by FEMA as a measure of disaster recovery known as the Waffle House index.


title: Waffle House

text: Waffle Houses have been the site of several shooting incidents. On April 22, 2018, in Nashville, Tennessee, a partially naked gunman armed with an AR-15 style rifle killed four people in the Nashville Waffle House shooting before he was disarmed by patron James Shaw Jr. and escaped. The shooter, 29-year-old Travis Reinking, was captured after a day-long manhunt.


title: Waffle House

text: Other shootings have taken place in Waffle House locations in New Albany, Indiana; Ohio; North Carolina; and Mississippi in 2017 and in Florida, Louisiana, and Missouri in 2018.


title: Waffle House

text: In 2018, there were two incidents at Waffle Houses where the employees called the police on unarmed African-American customers and the police deployed force against them. One 22-year-old wearing a tuxedo was choked by police officers, and another young woman was aggressively held down by police, revealing her breasts. This came at a time of heightened sensitivity over a number of incidents where police were called over customers of African-American background, at Starbucks and other locations in the United States.


title: Waffle House

text: On October 29, 2018, a rapper known as Young Greatness was shot to death outside a Waffle House in New Orleans. He was 34 years old.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Khushwant Singh (born Khushal Singh, 2 February 1915 – 20 March 2014) was an Indian author, lawyer, diplomat, journalist and politician. His experience in the 1947 Partition of India inspired him to write "Train to Pakistan" in 1956 (made into film in 1998), which became his most well-known novel.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Born in Punjab, Khushwant Singh was educated in Modern School, New Delhi, St. Stephen's College, and graduated from Government College, Lahore. He studied at King's College London and was awarded an LL.B. from University of London. He was called to the bar at the London Inner Temple. After working as a lawyer in Lahore High Court for eight years, he joined the Indian Foreign Service upon the Independence of India from British Empire in 1947. He was appointed journalist in the All India Radio in 1951, and then moved to the Department of Mass Communications of UNESCO at Paris in 1956. These last two careers encouraged him to pursue a literary career. As a writer, he was best known for his trenchant secularism, humour, sarcasm and an abiding love of poetry. His comparisons of social and behavioural characteristics of Westerners and Indians are laced with acid wit. He served as the editor of several literary and news magazines, as well as two newspapers, through the 1970s and 1980s. Between 1980 and 1986 he served as Member of Parliament in Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Khushwant Singh was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1974; however, he returned the award in 1984 in protest against Operation Blue Star in which the Indian Army raided Amritsar. In 2007 he was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, the second-highest civilian award in India.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Khushwant Singh was born in Hadali, Khushab District, Punjab (which now lies in Pakistan), in a Sikh family. He was the younger son of Sir Sobha Singh, who later witnessed against Bhagat Singh, and Veeran Bai. Births and deaths were not recorded in his time, and for him his father simply made up 2 February 1915 for his school enrollment at Modern School, New Delhi. But his grandmother Lakshmi Devi asserted that he was born in August, so he later set the date for himself as 15 August. Sobha Singh was a prominent builder in Lutyens' Delhi. His uncle Sardar Ujjal Singh (1895–1983) was previously Governor of Punjab and Tamil Nadu.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: His birth name, given by his grandmother, was Khushal Singh (meaning "Prosperous Lion"). He was called by a pet name "Shalee". At school his name earned him ridicule as other boys would mock him with an expression, "Shalee Shoolee, Bagh dee Moolee" (meaning, "This shalee or shoolee is the radish of some garden.") He chose Khushwant so that it rhymes with his elder brother's name Bhagwant. He declared that his new name was "self-manufactured and meaningless". However, he later discovered that there was a Hindu physician with the same name, and the number subsequently increased.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: He entered the Delhi Modern School in 1920 and studied there till 1930. There he met his future wife, Kanwal Malik, one year his junior. He studied Intermediate of Arts at St. Stephen's College in Delhi during 1930-1932. He pursued higher education at Government College, Lahore, in 1932, and got his BA in 1934 by a "third-class degree". Then he went to King's College London to study law, and was awarded an LL.B. from University of London in 1938. He was subsequently called to the bar at the London Inner Temple.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Khushwant Singh started his professional career as a practicing lawyer in 1939 at Lahore in the Chamber of Manzur Qadir and Ijaz Husain Batalvi. He worked at Lahore Court for eight years where he worked with some of his best friends and fans including Akhtar Aly Kureshy, Advocate, and Raja Muhammad Arif, Advocate. In 1947 he entered Indian Foreign Service for the newly independent India. He started as Information Officer of the Government of India in Toronto, Canada. He was Press Attaché and Public Officer for the Indian High Commission for four years in London and Ottawa. In 1951 he joined the All India Radio as a journalist. Between 1954 and 1956 he worked in Department of Mass Communication of the UNESCO at Paris. From 1956 he turned to editorial services. He founded and edited "Yojana", an Indian government journal in 1951–1953; "The Illustrated Weekly of India", a newsweekly;"The National Herald". He was also appointed as editor of Hindustan Times on Indira Gandhi's personal recommendation.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: During his tenure, "The Illustrated Weekly" became India's pre-eminent newsweekly, with its circulation raising from 65,000 to 400,000. After working for nine years in the weekly, on 25 July 1978, a week before he was to retire, the management asked Singh to leave "with immediate effect". A new editor was installed the same day. After Singh's departure, the weekly suffered a huge drop in readership. In 2016 Khushwant Singh enters Limca Book of Records as a tribute.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: From 1980 to 1986, Singh was a member of Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian parliament. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1974 for service to his country. In 1984, he returned the award in protest against the siege of the Golden Temple by the Indian Army. In 2007, the Indian government awarded Khushwant Singh the Padma Vibhushan.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: As a public figure, Khushwant Singh was accused of favouring the ruling Congress party, especially during the reign of Indira Gandhi. When Indira Gandhi announced nation-wide-emergency, he openly supported it and was derisively called an 'establishment liberal'.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Singh's faith in the Indian political system was shaken by the anti-Sikh riots that followed Indira Gandhi's assassination, in which major Congress politicians are alleged to be involved; but he remained resolutely positive on the promise of Indian democracy and worked via Citizen's Justice Committee floated by H. S. Phoolka who is a senior advocate of Delhi High Court.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Singh was a votary of greater diplomatic relations with Israel at a time when India did not want to displease Arab nations where thousands of Indians found employment. He visited Israel in the 1970s and was impressed by its progress.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Khushwant Singh was married to Kanwal Malik. Malik was his childhood friend who had moved to London earlier. They met again when he studied law at King's College London, and soon got married. They were married in Delhi, with Chetan Anand and Iqbal Singh as the only invitees. Muhammad Ali Jinnah also attended the formal service. They had a son, named Rahul Singh, and a daughter, named Mala. His wife predeceased him in 2001. Actress Amrita Singh is the daughter of his brother Daljit Singh's son – Shavinder Singh and Rukhsana Sultana. He stayed in "Sujan Singh Park", near Khan Market New Delhi, Delhi's first apartment complex, built by his father in 1945, and named after his grandfather. His grandniece Tisca Chopra is a noted TV and film actress.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Singh was a self-proclaimed agnostic, as the title of his 2011 book "Agnostic Khushwant: There is no God" explicitly revealed. He was particularly against organised religion. He was evidently inclined towards atheism, as he said, "One can be a saintly person without believing in God and a detestable villain believing in him. In my personalised religion, There Is No God!" He also once said, "I don't believe in rebirth or in reincarnation, in the day of judgement or in heaven or hell. I accept the finality of death." His last book "The Good, The Bad and The Ridiculous" was published in October 2013, following which he retired from writing. The book was his continued critique of religion and especially its practice in India, including the critique of the clergy and priests. It earned a lot of acclaim in India.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: Singh died of natural causes on 20 March 2014 at his Delhi residence, at the age of 99. The President, Vice-President and Prime Minister of India all issued messages honouring Singh. He was cremated at Lodhi Crematorium in Delhi at 4 in the afternoon of the same day. During his lifetime, Khushwant Singh was keen on burial because he believed that with a burial we give back to the earth what we have taken. He had requested the management of the Baháʼí Faith if he could be buried in their cemetery. After initial agreement, they had proposed some conditions which were unacceptable to Singh, and hence the idea was later abandoned. He was born in Hadali, Khushab District in the Punjab Province of modern Pakistan, in 1915. According to his wishes, some of his ashes were brought and scattered in Hadali.


title: Khushwant Singh

text: In 1943 he had already written his own obituary, included in his collection of short stories "Posthumous." Under the headline "Sardar Khushwant Singh Dead", the text reads:


title: Khushwant Singh

text: He was cremated and his ashes are buried in Hadali school, where a plaque is placed bearing the inscription:


title: David Yost

text: David Harold Yost (; born January 7, 1969) is an American actor and producer. He is best known for portraying Billy Cranston in "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers", "", "Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers" and "Power Rangers Zeo".


title: David Yost

text: Yost was born in Council Bluffs, Iowa. He moved around the United States while winning many national gymnastics competitions, most notably the state championships in Iowa and Montana. In 1987, he graduated from Amador Valley High School in Pleasanton, California. In 1991, he graduated from Graceland University in Lamoni, Iowa with a Bachelor of Arts in communication and dramatic arts.


title: David Yost

text: Yost moved to California with hopes of becoming an actor, and won the part of Billy Cranston (Blue Power Ranger) in the television series "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" three months after arriving. He starred in almost 200 episodes of the show's first four seasons. He was the only cast member to appear in every single episode of the original series; his character never changed his colors or passed on his power coins to successors like the rest of the original cast. Yost's most high-profile work was his appearance in "" (1995), which took in over $60 million at the box office. The film served as a non-canonical alternate opening for the third season.


title: David Yost

text: After the show ended and "Power Rangers Zeo" began in the fourth season, Yost stayed on as Billy, but Billy's role within the show changed. Instead of his previous role as a Power Ranger, he became a technical advisor to the others. When asked about the change in a 2010 interview, Yost was evasive about how he'd personally felt about this but said he understood why the production team did it; he stated that Haim Saban was interested in the cast turnover of "Super Sentai" and believes that this was part of it. Yost left the show toward the end of the "Power Rangers Zeo" season. His character's final episode employed footage from previous episodes and voice work from an uncredited actor to conceal the fact that Yost was not present during the taping. A tribute to his character was seen in the closing credits of this episode.


title: David Yost

text: While it was originally believed that he had left the series due to insufficient pay, Yost later revealed in a 2010 interview that he left because he could no longer handle harassment by members of the production crew who targeted him over his sexual orientation. According to Yost, he was often called a "faggot", and the producers frequently questioned other cast members in private about his sexuality. Yost left late in the fourth season after a week of contemplation and thoughts of suicide instead of continuing work another six months into the . He stated that the co-workers involved with writing, filming, and producing the show considered him "not worthy" to be where he was and that he "could not be a superhero" because of his homosexuality.


title: David Yost

text: Scott Page-Pagter, a producer of the show starting with "Power Rangers Zeo", responded through TMZ that Yost actually left over a pay bonus being dropped but did not elaborate further or dispute any of Yost's claims about the outside reasons for leaving the show. Saban Entertainment made no official statement regarding the subject. After Yost left the show, he attempted to change his sexual orientation with conversion therapy for two years. Eventually, he had a nervous breakdown that resulted in his psychiatric hospitalization for five weeks. After he checked out, he moved to Mexico for a year and eventually accepted his sexuality.


title: David Yost

text: Yost starred as Josh White in the film "Scene of the Crime" (1996). He portrayed a Playboy photographer in the television film "After Diff'rent Strokes: When the Laughter Stopped" (2000). He was an associate producer for another television film, "" (2000). He first tried producing in 2001, working on the series "Alien Hunter" and "Temptation Island". He worked as the director of production for "Sci-Fi Lab", headed by the Sci-Fi Channel. He then became the manager of licensing for Geneon, where he sold television shows and films to such networks as Showtime, Starz, Encore, and Cartoon Network.


title: David Yost

text: In 2002, Yost performed in a play called "Fallen Guardian Angels" in Los Angeles for AIDS Project Los Angeles. The play was about six actors dealing with HIV in various situations. The proceeds went to benefit The Children's Hospitals AIDS Center. The entire production raised over $25,000 and Yost himself raised $5,000 for the hospital, as well as receiving good reviews from "LA Weekly Theater". In 2004, he worked as a field producer for the English documentary series "You Are What You Eat". He appeared at the Anime Festival Orlando in Florida in August 2010. He has participated in the NOH8 Campaign. He appeared at Power Morphicon 2012 and 2014 in Pasadena, California along with his former co-stars. Yost appeared alongside his friend and former Power Rangers co-star, Amy Jo Johnson in one of Johnson's Stageit webcast shows in 2014. As of 2015, Yost remains on the convention circuit.


title: David Yost

text: In 2016, Yost became co-owner of Affirmative Clothing along with Harlingen, Texas entrepreneurs Mason and Cris Andrade. Named after one of Billy's catch phrases, Affirmative has apparel with designs mostly inspired by "Power Rangers", which Yost and the Andrade brothers first sold on conventions they attended.


title: David Yost

text: In May 2018, shortly after Hasbro acquired the "Power Rangers" franchise, Yost (via Twitter) expressed his desire to help produce a "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" reunion film for Netflix. In September 2022, it was announced that Yost was returning to the Power Rangers franchise for a 30th anniversary special, accompanied by original Black Ranger actor Walter Emanuel Jones, which is set for a 2023 release.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: Cauliflower ear is an irreversible condition that occurs when the external portion of the ear is hit and develops a blood clot or other collection of fluid under the perichondrium. This separates the cartilage from the overlying perichondrium that supplies its nutrients, causing it to die and resulting in the formation of fibrous tissue in the overlying skin. As a result, the outer ear becomes permanently swollen and deformed, resembling a cauliflower.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: The condition is common in martial arts such as Brazilian jiu-jitsu, wrestling, boxing, kickboxing, judo or mixed martial arts and in full-contact sports such as rugby union.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: People presenting with possible auricular hematoma often have additional injuries (for example, head/neck lacerations) due to the frequently traumatic causes of auricular hematoma. The ear itself is often tense, fluctuant, and tender with throbbing pain. However, because of potentially more remarkable injuries often associated with auricular hematoma, auricular hematoma can easily be overlooked without directed attention.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: The most common cause of cauliflower ear is blunt trauma to the ear leading to a hematoma which, if left untreated, eventually heals to give the distinct appearance of cauliflower ear. The structure of the ear is supported by a cartilaginous scaffold consisting of the following distinct components: the helix, antihelix, concha, tragus, and antitragus. The skin that covers this cartilage is extremely thin with virtually no subcutaneous fat while also strongly attached to the perichondrium, which is richly vascularized to supply the avascular cartilage.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: Cauliflower ear can also present in the setting of nontraumatic inflammatory injury of auricular connective tissue such as in relapsing polychondritis (RP), a rare rheumatologic disorder in which recurrent episodes of inflammation result in destruction of cartilage of the ears and nose. Joints, eyes, audiovestibular system, cardiovascular system, and respiratory tract can also be involved.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: The components of the ear involved in cauliflower ear are the outer skin, the perichondrium, and the cartilage. The outer ear skin is tightly adherent to the perichondrium because there is almost no subcutaneous fat on the anterior of the ear. This leaves the perichondrium relatively exposed to damage from direct trauma and shear forces, created by a force pushing across the ear like a punch, and increasing the risk of hematoma formation. In an auricular hematoma, blood accumulates between the perichondrium and cartilage. The hematoma mechanically obstructs blood flow from the perichondrium to the avascular cartilage. This lack of perfusion puts the cartilage at risk for becoming necrotic and/or infected. If left untreated, disorganized fibrosis and cartilage formation will occur around the aforementioned cartilaginous components.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: Consequently, the concave pinna fills with disorganized connective tissue. The cartilage then deforms and kinks, resulting in the distinctive appearance somewhat resembling a cauliflower. Rapid evacuation of the hematoma restores close contact between the cartilage and perichondrium, thereby reducing the likelihood of deformity by minimizing the ischemia that would otherwise result from a remaining hematoma.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: Auricular hematoma most often occurs in the potential space between the helix and the antihelix (scapha) and extends anteriorly into the fossa triangularis. Less frequently, the hematoma may form in the concha or the area in and around the external auditory meatus. Importantly, an auricular hematoma can also occur on the posterior ear surface, or even both surfaces. Risk of necrotic tissue is greatest when both posterior and anterior surfaces are involved, although posterior surface involvement is less likely given its increased quantity of impact-dampening subcutaneous tissue.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: Perichondral hematoma and consequently cauliflower ear are diagnosed clinically. This means that the medical provider will make the diagnosis by using elements of the history of the injury (examples: participation in contact sports, trauma to the ear, previous similar episodes) and combine this with findings on physical exam (examples: tenderness to the area, bruising, deformation of the ear contours) to confirm the diagnosis and decide on the appropriate treatment for the patient.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: To assist with settling on the best form of treatment for cauliflower ear Yotsuyanagi et al. created a classification system for deciding when surgery is needed and to guide the best approach.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: Headgear called a "scrum cap" in rugby, or simply "headgear" or ear guard in wrestling and other martial arts, that protects the ears is worn to help prevent this condition. A specialty ear splint can also be made to keep the ear compressed, so that the damaged ear is unable to fill thus preventing cauliflower ear. For some athletes, however, a cauliflower ear is considered a badge of courage or experience.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: There are many types of treatment for the perichondral hematoma that can lead to cauliflower ear, but the current body of research is unable to identify a single best treatment or protocol. There is definitive evidence that the drainage of this hematoma is better for the prevention of cauliflower deformity when compared to conservative treatment, but the use of bandages and/or splinting after drainage requires more research.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: Because an acute hematoma can lead to cauliflower ear, prompt evacuation of the blood can prevent permanent deformity. There are many described techniques for the drainage of blood in the acute stage to prevent hematoma, including simple needle drainage, continuous suction devices, placing a wick, and incision and drainage. After the blood has been drained, the prevention of re-accumulation becomes the most pressing issue. This has been achieved with many techniques including: direct pressure dressings, in and out mattress sutures, buttons placed on sutures, thermoplastic splints, sutured cotton balls, and absorbable mattress sutures. The use of simple drainage becomes less useful after six hours from the injury and when there is recurrent trauma. In these cases it has been suggested that open surgical treatment is more effective in returning the cosmetic appearance and prevention of recurrence. The outer ear is prone to infections, so antibiotics are usually prescribed. Pressure can be applied by bandaging which helps the skin and the cartilage to reconnect. Clothes pegs, magnets, and custom molded ear splints can also be used to ensure adequate pressure is applied to the damaged area Without medical intervention the ear can sustain serious damage. Disruption of the ear canal is possible. The outer ear may wrinkle and can become slightly pale due to reduced blood flow; hence the common term "cauliflower ear". Cosmetic procedures are available that can possibly improve the appearance of the ear.


title: Cauliflower ear

text: In 19th-century Hong Kong opium dens, opium users would develop cauliflower ear from long periods sleeping on hard wooden pillows.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: Dmitry Sergeyevich Peskov (; born 17 October 1967) is a Russian diplomat and the press secretary for Russian President Vladimir Putin.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: Peskov was born in Moscow. His father, Sergey, headed the Soviet diplomatic mission in Pakistan. In 1989, Peskov graduated from the Institute of Asian and African Countries at the Moscow State University, specializing in History and Eastern studies. In the same year, Peskov joined the Soviet Foreign Ministry.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: In 1990, Peskov was appointed to the Soviet embassy in Ankara, Turkey, as an administrative assistant. He subsequently filled the positions of attaché and then third secretary at the embassy. In 1994, he was assigned to work in the Russian foreign ministry in Moscow. After two years there, he was posted back to Ankara in 1996 with the diplomatic rank of second, and then first secretary at the Russian embassy.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: In 2000, Peskov returned to Russia to work at the press service of the Russian president, serving in a number of positions, including a four-year term as the first deputy press secretary of the Russian president, from 2004 to 2008. Peskov has served as Putin's spokesman since April 2000. Peskov was named as prime minister Viktor Zubkov's press secretary on 25 April 2008, putting him in place to lead Vladimir Putin's press operations when he moved to the job of Prime Minister under Dmitry Medvedev's presidency. In May 2012, when Putin again became president, Peskov succeeded Natalya Timakova as the presidential spokesperson.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: During the 2011–2013 Russian protests in which riot police clubbed protestors, Peskov said that "protesters who hurt riot police should have their livers smeared on the asphalt", causing an outcry among opposition activists.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: In January 2016, Donald Trump's personal lawyer, Michael Cohen, sent an e-mail to Dmitry Peskov asking for help with a business deal in Moscow. The "Washington Post" called this the "most direct outreach documented by a top Trump aide to a similarly senior member of Putin’s government." After initial difficulties in addressing the email Peskov's office replied by email and telephone. Cohen denied this response when testifying to Congress but later said that he had lied, and the Moscow project had continued until at least June 2016.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: In November 2021, Peskov denied allegations that Russia was preparing for a possible invasion of Ukraine. In January 2022, Peskov accused the United States of "fomenting tensions" around Ukraine.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: Peskov denounced Russians who oppose the war as "traitors". On 27 March 2022, in a conversation with Ryan Chilcote on "PBS NewsHour", Peskov claimed the Russian military invading Ukraine was not targeting civilians or civilian infrastructure, only military infrastructure, suggesting that Ukrainian cities such as Mariupol were destroyed by the Ukrainians themselves, and that murdered civilians of that city were killed by fellow "Nazi" Ukrainians; Chilcote observed "in all fairness, you know everyone outside of Russia has been watching hundreds and hundreds of hours of footage that has come out of the country showing widespread targeting of civilian infrastructure, apartment buildings, theaters, hospitals." In the same interview, Peskov said on the usage of nuclear weapons: "[...] any outcome of the operation, of course, is not a reason for usage of a nuclear weapon. We have a security concept that very clearly states that only when there is a threat for existence of the state in our country, we can use and we will actually use nuclear weapons [...] Existence of the state, and special military operation in Ukraine, they have nothing to do with each other. [...] There was a part of [Putin's] statement warning different states not to interfere [...] and I think that everyone understands what he meant. [...] Non one is thinking about using, even about the idea of using nuclear weapons."


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: On 2 August 2022, Peskov said Nancy Pelosi's visit to Taiwan was leading to an "increase in tension" in the region and accused the United States of choosing "the path of confrontation", adding "We want to emphasise once again that we are absolutely in solidarity with China, its attitude towards the problem is understandable and absolutely justified."


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: On 13 September 2022, Peskov said there are no plans to announce a full or partial mobilization in Russia. On 21 September 2022, Putin announced a partial military mobilization. Peskov declined to deny reports that some anti-war protesters had been given draft papers. He noted that the delivery of subpoenas to detainees does not contradict the law. Nikolay Peskov, the son of Dmitry Peskov, told pranksters, who pretended to be recruitment officers, that he had no intention of going to war because he is "Mr. Peskov, and would solve the issue "on a different level."


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: On 30 September 2022, Russia annexed four regions of Ukraine after contested referendums supposedly indicating that a vast majority of the population there wanted the regions to become Russian territory. On 3 October 2022, Peskov said that the borders of two of the regions, namely Kherson and Zaporizhzhia, had not been determined yet, but Russia would "consult with the people who live in those regions".


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: On 26 October 2022, Peskov said, without providing evidence, that Ukraine was planning a terrorist sabotage act using a "dirty bomb"—or an explosive that contains radioactive waste material.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: On 28 February 2022, in relation to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the European Union blacklisted Peskov and had all his assets frozen. The United States imposed similar sanctions on 3 March, and Australia followed suit on 8 March. The United Kingdom imposed sanctions on 15 March.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: In July 2015, Peskov became engaged to the Olympic Champion ice dancer Tatiana Navka, with whom he has a daughter. Navka holds citizenship with both Russia and the United States. They married on 1 August 2015, after Peskov finalized the divorce with his second wife Ekaterina Solotsynskaya. A article stated that their marriage occurred in June 2015.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: His daughter, Elizaveta Peskova, is an assistant to far-right Aymeric Chauprade, a French Member of the European Parliament. After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Elizaveta posted the words ""no to war"" to her Instagram page, and deleted it shortly afterwards.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: His son Nikolay is a former conscript in Russia’s Strategic Rocket Forces. In 2017, Nikolay Peskov's opulent lifestyle was criticized by Russian opposition politician Alexei Navalny.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: On 12 May 2020, Peskov was admitted to hospital after testing positive for COVID-19. He recovered and was discharged on 25 May.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: Peskov's wife has real estate holdings worth more than $10 million. She heads two companies that have contracts with the Russian state.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: During his 2015 wedding, Peskov was photographed wearing an exclusive US$670,000 Richard Mille watch, greater than Peskov's declared income for all his years of service as a state employee. When this fact was discovered, this caused a media reaction, and Peskov replied that Navka had paid for the watch. Russian anti-corruption crusader Alexei Navalny said on 17 August that Peskov vacationed recently with his new wife off the coast of the Italian island of Sardinia on a €350,000 per week yacht called the "Maltese Falcon". Navalny cited data from yacht-tracking websites and social-media posts as evidence partially corroborating his source's claims, though he presented no direct proof that Peskov had set foot on the vessel.


title: Dmitry Peskov

text: Established in January 2014, registered in the British Virgin Islands (BVI) and beneficially owned by Navka, Carina Global Assets had assets of more than $1 million including an apartment and liquidated in November 2015.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: The Mazda MX-5 (NA) (sold in Japan as the and in North America as the Mazda MX-5 Miata) is the first generation of the Mazda MX-5 manufactured from 1989 to 1997. Inspired by the post-war era British sports cars, the MX-5 rejuvenated interest in roadsters after the demise of cars such as the MG B and Triumph Spitfire. Since its debut, the MX-5 has won numerous automotive awards and has become the world's best selling sports car.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: The MX-5 was unveiled at the Chicago Auto Show on February 10, 1989, with a price tag of . The MX-5, with production code NA, was made available for delivery to buyers worldwide in the following dates: May 1989 (as a 1990 model) in the US and Canada; September 1, 1989 in Japan; and 1990 in Europe. An optional hardtop was made available at the same time, in sheet moulding compound (SMC). Demand initially outstripped production, fueled by enthusiastic press reviews.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: In Japan, the car was not badged as a Mazda, as the company was in the process of launching different marques for deluxe models, similar to Nissan's Infiniti, Honda's Acura and Toyota's Lexus. Instead, the Mazda MX-5 was sold as the Eunos Roadster, and was joined by the MX-3/AZ-3/Eunos Presso (based on Japanese Mazda dealerships). The exterior dimensions and the engine displacement were also in compliance with Japanese Government compact car regulation.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: The body shell of the NA was all-steel with a lightweight aluminum hood. Overall dimensions were in length, in width, and in height. Without options, the NA weighed only . It had a . Suspension was an independent double wishbone on all four wheels, with an anti-roll bar at the front and rear. Four-wheel disc brakes, ventilated at the front, were behind alloy wheels with 185/60HR14 radial tires. The base model came with stamped steel wheels from the then-current 323/Protege.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: The original MX-5, with standard manual transmission, came with a DOHC inline four-cylinder engine, producing at 6,500 rpm, and of torque at 5,500 rpm. The engine employs an electronic fuel injection system using a vane-type air flow meter and an electronic ignition system with a camshaft angle sensor instead of a distributor. This engine, codenamed B6ZE(RS), was specifically designed for the MX-5 and featured a lightened crankshaft, flywheel, and aluminum sump with cooling fins. An MX-5 with the optional automatic transmission had its 1.6L engine tuned to develop peak torque at lower rpm's (136 Nm, 100 lbf-ft at 4000 rpm) to better mate with the automatic transmission gearing and torque requirements. This tuning resulted in a lower peak power of 78.5 kW (105 bhp) at 6500 rpm.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: The standard transmission was a 5-speed manual, derived from the one used in the Mazda 929/Luce (also rear-wheel drive). The gear shift was the subject of close attention during development, with engineers told to make it shift in as small a gear pattern as possible and with minimal effort. In Japan and the US, an optional automatic transmission was also offered. The Japanese and American markets also received an optional viscous limited-slip differential, although it was only available for cars with a manual transmission. To achieve the low introductory price, the base model was stripped. It had steel wheels, manual steering, roll-up windows, and no stereo or air conditioning. Power steering, air conditioning, and stereo were added as standard equipment in later years.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: Mazda reported that the 1990 NA would reach 0- in 8.6 seconds, with a top speed of . "Car and Driver" tested the NA for their September 1989 issue, achieving a 0- time of 9.2 seconds and a top speed of , with hardtop installed. "Motor Trend"'s July 1989 test gave a 0- time of 8.9 seconds. The NA with an automatic transmission reached 97 km/h (60 mph) in 9.9 seconds and had a top speed of 181 km/h (112 mph).


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: In 1993, 1,500 LE (Limited Edition) cars were produced. This model featured red leather interior, upgraded stereo, Nardi shift knob, leather-wrapped steering wheel, cruise control, limited-slip differential, power windows, power mirrors, power steering, air conditioning, BBS wheels, Bilstein shocks, front and rear spoilers, ABS brakes, stainless sill plates, and Harley style peanut tank door speaker trim. All 1993 LE cars came in black.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: For the 1994 model year, the first-generation MX-5 was freshened with the introduction of the more powerful "BP-ZE" engine, dual airbags placed in a redesigned dashboard, the addition of a Mazda badge on the front fascia in the US and a limited-slip differential in some markets. The chassis was substantially braced to meet new side-impact standards, most visibly by adding a "track bar" between the seatbelt towers inside the car, but also to the front and rear subframes. Also, 1994 and 1995 were the only years in which Mazda offered a light metallic blue paint (Laguna Blue Mica), making these cars rare collectors cars to some. 1994 also saw the introduction of the "R" package, a sport-themed package with Bilstein shocks, stiffer sway bars, retuned springs, subtle front and rear underbody spoilers, and a Torsen LSD. Air conditioning was optional, but the "R" package was not available with power steering, leather, or an automatic transmission. It can also be identified by a red Miata badge on the rear instead of the usual black. No body style changes were made, however. Halfway through the 1997 model year the hazard light button was changed to a black button with red symbol as opposed to the earlier red button with white symbol.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: The new engine produced at 6,500 rpm and of torque at 5,500 rpm, which was then increased to at 6,500 rpm and of torque at 5,500 rpm for the 1996 model year. The base weight increased to . Performance was thus improved slightly, because the additional weight was more than offset by the extra power. In some markets such as Europe, the engine continued to be available as a lower-cost option, but was detuned to . This lower-powered model did not receive all the additional chassis bracing of the new . Japanese and U.S. models offered an optional Torsen LSD, which was far more durable than the previous viscous differential.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: There were a number of trim levels and special editions available, determined by local Mazda marketing departments. In the US, the base model was offered for US$13,995 at launch and was very basic, with manual windows, steel wheels, and without air conditioning or power steering. The "A Package" offered power steering, a leather-wrapped steering wheel, aluminum alloy wheels and cassette stereo. The "B Package" added power windows, along with cruise control and headrest speakers, while the "C Package" included a tan interior and top with leather seats. The "R Package" was for racing, and the annual special editions were formalized as "M Editions". These included all of the luxury options from the "C Package" as well as special paint and, sometimes, special wheels. In the UK, to celebrate Mazda's 24 hours of Le Mans win, Mazda brought out a special edition of the MX-5, with the winner's color scheme (see Mazda 787B) and came equipped with BBR (Brodie Brittain Racing) turbo conversion; the car is one of the most sought after special edition cars of the MX-5s.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: The first generation MX-5 was phased out after the 1997 model year (with the exception of 400 limited edition Berkeley models sold only in the UK in 1998 to mark the end of the NA), with the final 1,500 NAs produced for the US market being the "STO" ("Special Touring Option") versions.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: 250 examples sold from March '91, produced in British Racing Green with tan interior, to celebrate the 1st anniversary of the MX-5 in the UK. These have a numbered brass plaque on the passenger-side padded dashboard and on the front of the Owners Book, and are fitted with colour-matched 15" OZ alloy wheels from MSW (Mazda Sports Workshop) which are often mistaken for BBS, but which are unique to this model. Other features were power steering, central locking, a wooden steering wheel, hand-brake grip and gear knob, and a distinctive analogue clock. The engine is the standard 1.6L.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: Limited to 3,997 units in the United States / 1,051 in Canada, this edition of the MX-5 NA was offered only in British racing green with tan leather interior and tonneau cover and featured a wooden Nardi shift knob and handbrake lever, stainless steel door sills, air conditioning, CD player, cruise control, and headrest speakers.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: A US$250 option for the exclusive Sunburst Yellow color, limited to 1,519 units in the USA / 503 in Canada.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: Limited to 4,625 units, this edition was offered only in Brilliant Black with tan leather interior, Nardi shift knob and handbrake lever and special 14-inch BBS wheels.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: Limited to 1,505 units in the USA / 300 in Canada, this Limited Edition model was equipped similarly to the 1992 Black Miata, but with red leather interior, sport suspension, front and rear spoilers, rear skirt, air conditioning, headrest speakers and 14-inch BBS wheels.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: In 1993, Mazda partnered with the Chugoku Electric Power Company to produce an electric prototype called the "Energia Electric Vehicle." The prototype had a top speed of and had a range of . It was also significantly heavier, weighing .


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: Limited to 3,000 units for the USA, the M-Edition introduced the Montego Blue Mica exterior color and was equipped similarly to the 1992 Black Miata, but with power windows, power mirrors, a Torsen limited-slip differential and special M-Edition badges.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: While the R-Package was never officially a special edition, only 1841 were produced for the USA. The R-package was sold with the upgraded Torsen rear differential, stiffer springs and sway bars, Bilstein shock absorbers, front air dam, and rear spoiler. There was not any option for power steering, an automatic transmission, or leather seats. Air conditioning was optional.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: An upgrade to the 1994 M-Edition in Merlot Mica with adjustable headrests and 15-inch BBS wheels, this M-Edition MX-5 was limited to 3,500 units for the USA.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: A one-off concept featuring large fog lights and a smaller windshield with the side mirrors mounted on it.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: The 1996 M-Edition was in Starlight Blue Mica and added an alarm system and used 15-inch Enkei wheels. A total of 3,000 units were manufactured for the USA.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: Introduced at the 1996 New York International Auto Show, this concept was a fixed hardtop version of the MX-5.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: For the Canadian market, the Speedster Edition was the same color as the US-market's 1997 M-Edition in Marina Green Mica but had the 1996 M-Edition's Enkei wheels, "Speedster Edition" badging, and a Torsen LSD, but black cloth seats. Limited to 150 units in Canada.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: Advertised by Mazda USA as "Still The One" and limited to 1,500 units, the Special Touring Option (STO) was offered in Twilight Blue Mica and featured the exterior options of the 1996 M-Edition, but lacked the Torsen differential, cruise control, premium stereo, and hardtop (which elicited the other nickname of "Stuff Taken Off").


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: A small range of Eunos Roadster units were assembled by the M2 Incorporated. Founded in November 1991, M2, also known as "Mazda Too", was Mazda's new off-line planning / niche-house / Research & Development company back in the early '90s. The M2 Corp. employees had noble intentions — creating niche-mobiles derived from Mazda's volume products. Although M2's basic mission involved focusing on the "soft" aspects of vehicle design in an attempt to create more specifically targeted niche variants, the changes to the off-line cars would go well beyond mere cosmetics.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: Heading the M2 operation was Mr. Masakatsu Kato, original father of the Miata (Eunos Roadster) in Japan, as well as creator of several Mazda concept vehicles. Kato-san was assisted by Hirotaka Tachibana, development engineer responsible for the superb dynamics of the Mazda FC (second generation RX-7) and the NA Roadster. M2 Corp. was based out of Tokyo, Japan. M2-Corp was a 100% owned subsidiary of Mazda, and it was closed by Mazda in 1995. Mazda kept a similar program going with the Mazdaspeed vehicles, and then in the late '90s Mazdaspeed was absorbed into Mazda as a subsidiary company in Mazda Auto Tokyo. There were many types of M2 branded vehicles between 1991 and 1995, beginning with the 1001 up to the 1031 Cafe Racer (Dec-91).


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: M2 Corp. released the M2-1001 Roadster in December 1991. It was a special "Limited Production" Roadster variant that was a short production run of only 300 units, in a special Blue/Black Mica Paint, with a sticker price of $26,000. Prospective buyers were required to show up in person at M2's Tokyo headquarters to register for a lottery to place an order for this extremely limited Roadster.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: This upscale Roadster was M2's first turn-key, race-ready offering. A list of popular features, while not exhaustive, is as follows: functional front airdam with integrated fog lamps, vintage aero mirrors, 4-point roll bar, vintage gauge cluster, fixed back bucket seats, polished 3-spoke steering wheel, stiffer suspension package with M2 specific rates, polished aluminum strut brace, upgraded exhaust by HKS, intake system, 1.6 L motor with new aggressive pistons, upgraded camshaft, lightweight flywheel, LSD cooling intake, manual steering, manual windows (A/C was optional), racing pedals, centerless console with matching shortened radio bezel, aluminum gas filler cap, a more aggressive wheel & tire package (15- x 6-inch Panasport rims), and a rear spoiler (which became standard for the R package). The performance changes made to the Roadster would bump the power to at 7,000 rpm, and of torque at 5,500 rpm. Once released, it proved so popular that people were paying up to $35,000 for one.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: M2 Corp. released its second Roadster in November 1992, with a slightly different front bumper but all the same items as the previous 1001 Roadster. This one did not do as well as the 1001.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: M2-Corp released its third Roadster in February 1994, based on the original "Jinba Ittai" concept made by Toshihiko Hirai. This was billed as a track-ready Roadster. (The US saw a cheaper version known as the R-Package.) Offered in Chaste White or Brilliant Black only, this Roadster used the new 1.8 L powerplant with upgraded pistons, camshafts, and other similar goodies as the previous 1001 and 1002. This Roadster had an output of close to , and included 14-inch Eunos Factory Rims with a unique gunmetal paint with polished lip. The only real changes were a new set of lightweight side mirrors, MOMO Steering Wheel, centerless console, racing seats, racing tow hook, a set of lower lip spoilers (R-Package), and a newly designed "Duck-Tail" trunk lid with integrated spoiler. The M2-1028 trunk lid was made from aluminum and weighed only , a very light weight from the original lid of . It also came with a 6-point roll cage, but no soft-top, instead featuring a tarp that stretched over the cage. With optional FRP Hardtop with plexiglass rear window for more weight savings coming in at only .


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: Brodie Brittain Racing (BBR) of Brackley, England, have had a long history of involvement with NA models in the UK, having supplied parts and equipment for a dealer supplied BBR Turbo version of the car between 1990 and 1991. This raised power output to , and produced of torque. The kit consisted of 68 parts and was covered by a full dealer warranty. They were supplied and fitted to around 750 UK spec cars, including for the 1991 'Le Mans' special edition, with a further 150 kits being supplied overseas. Two decades later in 2011, BBR now offer a turn-key refurbishment package for old NA MX-5's, again including a turbo charger kit. This now increases power output to , and produces of torque. The estimated top speed is now , with 0–97 (60 mph) approached in 5.5 seconds. The turbo charger used is a Garrett AiResearch GT25 ball bearing unit, and the package also includes an air-to-air intercooler, and a digital piggy-back ECU to control timing, fueling, and boost pressures. Subject to a satisfactory donor car, the refurbishment and turbo upgrade package includes rust treatment, a paint respray, new seats, wheels, and other trim. As of January 2011 the cost for a 'refreshed' BBR MX-5 Turbo is £7,500.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: In the United States, NA (and later model) turbo conversions are available from companies like Flyin' Miata. The conversions use mainly Garrett turbochargers (GT2560R) and are available as a kit or fully installed. Flyin' Miata also offers a CARB-legal kit as well.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: In 2018, Mazda began a factory restoration program for Eunos Roadster owners in Japan. The work is performed at the Hiroshima Factory where all Roadsters are built. The program offers a choice for each car to be fully restored to factory-spec using OEM parts, or selected restoration options. All work is then certified by TÜV Rheinland. When the program was announced over 600 owners applied for the restoration program. At the Japanese language website, not all NA series can be restored and conditions are listed.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: On September 27, 2018, Mazda unveiled the first fully restored Roadster: a 1992 V-Special in British racing green with tan leather interior. The car belongs to tomato farmer Keiji Nishimoto, who has owned it since new.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: The Automotive Researchers' and Journalists' Conference of Japan gave the program a Special Award for Classic Car Restoration Service at the 2018 RJC Car of the Year Awards.


title: Mazda MX-5 (NA)

text: On October 28, 2019, Mazda announced that they will introduce select reproduction parts for North American MX-5 Miata NA owners. All parts will be remanufactured using modern methods and materials while retaining the original look and feel of that era. Enkei will reproduce the original alloy wheels, but with a lighter weight and a more durable finish.


title: Illicium verum

text: Illicium verum is a medium-sized evergreen tree native to northeast Vietnam and southwest China. A spice commonly called star anise, staranise, star anise seed, star aniseed, star of anise, Chinese star anise, or badian that closely resembles anise in flavor is obtained from the star-shaped pericarps of the fruit of "I. verum" which are harvested just before ripening. Star anise oil is a highly fragrant oil used in cooking, perfumery, soaps, toothpastes, mouthwashes, and skin creams. Until 2012, when they switched to using a bacterial source, Roche Pharmaceuticals used up to 90% of the world's annual star anise crop to produce shikimic acid, a chemical intermediate used in the synthesis of oseltamivir (Tamiflu).


title: Illicium verum

text: The name "badian" appears to derive, via French "badiane", from the apparently descriptive Chinese name for it, 八角, pinyin: "bājiǎo", lit. "eight horns". However, a derivation from the Persian "bādiyān," "fennel", exists, with the Oxford English Dictionary indicating that its origin before that is unknown.


title: Illicium verum

text: Leaves are aromatic, simple and lanceolate, obovate-elliptic or elliptic, size of 5–15 cm × 2–5 cm, coriaceous to thickly coriaceous. The leaves are 5–15 cm × 1.5–5 cm, apex acute, lower side pubescent. Flowers are solitary, bisexual, pink to dark red, axillary or subterminal. The perianth has lobes 7–12, arranged spirally; stamens number of 11–20, arranged spirally, with short, thick filaments; carpels usually 8, free, arranged in a single whorl. Flower peduncle size is 1.5–4 cm, tepals number range from seven to twelve, and are broadly elliptic to broadly ovate, anthers size is 1–1.5 mm, pollen grains trisyncolpate.


title: Illicium verum

text: The fruit is a capsule-like follicetum, star-shaped, reddish- brown, consisting of six to eight follicles arranged in a whorl. Each follicle is boat-shaped, 1–2 cm long, rough and rigid, color reddish-brown, with 1 seed, opening along the ventral edge when ripe. carpels size of 10 mm long, boat-shaped; they are hard and wrinkled, containing one seed. Seeds are brown, compressed ovoid, smooth, shiny and brittle with approximate size of 8–9 mm × 6 mm.


title: Illicium verum

text: "Illicium anisatum" had smaller fruits that does not form a regular star due to the abortion of some carpels. Also fruit follicles are not swollen in the middle and had a more pointed apex. Also usually had more than 8 follicles and the fruit has weaker odour. The seeds in "Illicium anisatum" are flat or almost spherical.


title: Illicium verum

text: Star anise contains anethole, the same compound that gives the unrelated anise its flavor. Recently, star anise has come into use in the West as a less expensive substitute for anise in baking, as well as in liquor production, most distinctively in the production of the liqueur Galliano. Star anise enhances the flavour of meat.


title: Illicium verum

text: It is used as a spice in preparation of "biryani" and "masala chai" all over the Indian subcontinent. It is widely used in Chinese cuisine, and in Malay and Indonesian cuisines. It is widely grown for commercial use in China, India, and most other countries in Asia. Star anise is an ingredient of the traditional five-spice powder of Chinese cooking. It is also a major ingredient in the making of "phở", a Vietnamese noodle soup.


title: Illicium verum

text: It is also used in the French recipe of mulled wine, called "vin chaud" (hot wine). If allowed to steep in coffee, it deepens and enriches the flavor. The pods can be used in this manner multiple times by the pot-full or cup, as the ease of extraction of the taste components increases with the permeation of hot water.


title: Illicium verum

text: Star anise is the major source of the chemical compound shikimic acid, a primary precursor in the pharmaceutical synthesis of the antiinfluenza drug oseltamivir (Tamiflu). An industrial method for the production of shikimic acid using fermentation of "E. coli" bacteria was discovered in 2005, and applied in the 2009 swine flu pandemic to address Tamiflu shortages, also causing price increases for star anise as a raw material of shikimic acid. As of 2018, fermentation of "E. coli" was the manufacturing process of choice to produce shikimic acid for synthesis of Tamiflu. Study shows star anise can be used as anti quorum sensing and anti-biofilm agent in food matrix.


title: Illicium verum

text: Japanese star anise ("Illicium anisatum"), a similar tree, is highly toxic and inedible; in Japan, it has instead been burned as incense. Cases of illness, including "serious neurological effects, such as seizures", reported after using star anise tea, may be a result of deliberate economically motivated adulteration with this species. Japanese star anise contains the neurotoxin anisatin, which also causes severe inflammation of the kidneys (nephritis), urinary tract, and digestive organs when ingested.


title: Illicium verum

text: Swamp star anise "Illicium parviflorum" is a similar tree found in the Southern United States, and due to its toxicity, it should not be used for folk remedies or as a cooking ingredient.


title: Illicium verum

text: Joshi "et al." have used fluorescent microscopy and gas chromatography to distinguish the species, while Lederer "et al." employed thin layer chromatography with HPLC-MS/MS.


title: Linz

text: Linz ( , ; ) is the capital of Upper Austria and third-largest city in Austria. In the north of the country, it is on the Danube south of the Czech border. In 2018, the population was 204,846.


title: Linz

text: Linz is in the centre of Europe, lying on the Paris–Budapest west–east axis and the Malmö–Trieste north–south axis. The Danube is the main tourism and transport connection that runs through the city.


title: Linz

text: Approximately 29.27% of the city's wide area is grassland. A further 17.95% are covered with forest. All the rest areas fall on water (6.39%), traffic areas and land.


title: Linz

text: The city was founded by the Romans, who called it "Lentia". The name "Linz" was first recorded in AD 799.


title: Linz

text: It was a provincial and local government city of the Holy Roman Empire, and an important trading point connecting several routes, on either side of the river Danube from the east to the west and Bohemia and Poland from north to the Balkans and Italy to the south. Being the city where the Habsburg Emperor Friedrich III spent his last years, it was, for a short period of time, the most important city in the empire. It lost its status to Vienna and Prague after the death of the Emperor in 1493.


title: Linz

text: One important inhabitant of the city was the age of discovery-era astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler, who spent several years of his life in the city teaching mathematics. He discovered, on 15 May 1618, the distance-cubed-over-time-squared—or "third"—law of planetary motion. The local public university, Johannes Kepler University Linz, is named after him.


title: Linz

text: Another noted citizen was Anton Bruckner, who spent the years between 1855 and 1868 working as a local composer and organist in the Old Cathedral, Linz. The Brucknerhaus is named after him.


title: Linz

text: Adolf Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn (an Austrian town near the German border) and moved to Linz during his childhood. Hitler spent most of his youth in the Linz area, from 1898 until 1907, when he left for Vienna. The family lived first in the village of Leonding on the outskirts of town, and then on the "Humboldtstrasse" in Linz. After elementary education in Leonding, Hitler was enrolled in the "Realschule" (secondary or high school), as was the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. Notorious Holocaust architect Adolf Eichmann also spent his youth in Linz. Until the end of his life, Hitler considered Linz to be his hometown, and envisioned extensive architectural schemes for it – including a massive new "Führermuseum" to house his collection of looted art – wanting it to become the main cultural centre of the Third Reich, and to eclipse Vienna, a city he hated.


title: Linz

text: To make the city economically vibrant, Hitler initiated a major industrialization of Linz shortly before, and during, the Second World War.


title: Linz

text: Near the end of World War II, Hitler became enamoured of the musical compositions of Anton Bruckner, and, as a result, planned to convert the monastery of St. Florian in Linz – where Bruckner had played the organ, and where he was buried – into a repository of Bruckner's manuscripts.


title: Linz

text: Hitler evicted the monks from the building and personally paid for the restoration of the organ and the institution of a Bruckner study center there. He also paid for the Haas collection of Bruckner's works to be published, and himself purchased material for the proposed library.


title: Linz

text: Additionally, Hitler effected the founding of the Bruckner Symphony Orchestra, which began presenting concerts in Fall 1943. His plan for one of the bell towers in Linz to play a theme from Bruckner's Fourth Symphony never came to pass. In addition to an ordnance depot, Linz had a benzol (oil) plant which was bombed during the Oil Campaign on 16 October 1944. What was once the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp is east of Linz.


title: Linz

text: In May 2001, seven scientific publications, online presentations, and numerous lectures were made public as a result of these efforts. The culture of remembrance extended to the construction of monuments for the victims of National Socialism. Especially since 1988, numerous memorials have been created in public spaces.


title: Linz

text: The city's confrontation with its Nazi past resulted in the renaming of many streets. In 1945, immediately after the end of the Nazi dictatorship, 39 streets in Linz were renamed, whereas from 1946 to 1987, only two streets were renamed. However, since 1988, 17 new traffic areas were named after victims of National Socialism or resistance fighters. In the recent past a number of Nazi victims and activists who fought Nazism were honored by the city. Simon Wiesenthal, who founded the first Jewish Documentation Center in Linz in 1945, received an award for his work in remembrance of victims of the Second World War.


title: Linz

text: In 1975, Linz upgraded the college founded in 1966 to become the country's highest form of academic institution, the Johannes Kepler University. It was established in a park centered around a pond in the northeast of the city.


title: Linz

text: The coat of arms of Linz developed from the seal image, which was used as emblem since 1242. It showed the open city gate flanked by two crenellated towers on rocky ground. From 1288 on, the gate was shown standing on water.


title: Linz

text: The coat of arms shows a red plate on which stands a castle with twin towers. Those towers are crowned with three crenellations. The towers include an open door; above the door the red-white-red shield of Austria is attached.


title: Linz

text: The gate and towers symbolise the medieval fortified city. The wavy bars indicate the position of the city near the River Danube. The Austrian shield is a reference to the former territorial city.


title: Linz

text: The urban area includes (parts of) 13 other municipalities with together 271,000 inhabitants. Linz is also part of the Linz-Wels-Steyr metropolitan area of Upper Austria, home to around one third of the state's population (460,000 people) and second-largest urban area in Austria. Linz has a total of about 157,000 jobs. However, only half of the vacant jobs can be covered by its inhabitants. This large job surplus causes a correspondingly high rate of commuting from the surrounding communities of Linz, resulting in extensive traffic problems.


title: Linz

text: Linz has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: "Cfb") or, following the 0 °C isotherm, a humid continental climate ("Dfb") with warm summers and quite cold winters. Because Linz is also continental influenced, it does snow there and even has sometimes a snow cover without melting for at least a week or more as temperatures in January (mostly) stay below the freezing point.


title: Linz

text: In 2018, Germans were the most frequent guests from other countries, followed by tourists from China (including Hong Kong and Macao), making Italians 3rd in comparison with the years before – the ranking is nearly equal to the overnight stays ranking which is listed in the following. Most of restaurants and cafés are closed on Sundays.


title: Linz

text: Linz is one of the main economic centres of Austria. Voestalpine is a large technology and capital goods group (founded as the "Hermann-Göring-Werke" during the Second World War), which is known for the LD- ("Linz-Donawitz") procedure for the production of steel. The former "Chemie Linz" chemical group has been split up into several companies. These companies have made Linz one of Austria's most important economic centres.


title: Linz

text: Furthermore, due to the fact that one of the four Donau-Harbors (Donauhäfen) in Austria is located in Linz, it constitutes an attractive location in regards to logistic and trading enterprises. Nonetheless, manufacturing plants can – for instance - be found at the waterfront as well. The economic importance of Linz was founded over centuries in trade. Moreover, the long-standing image of Linz as an industrial city was a result of the National Socialism. As a result of this large industrial enterprises are still located in Linz nowadays. Important examples are the Voestalpine AG or "Chemie Linz" – as already mentioned above. From an economical perspective they represent a large number of jobs and of course industry related enterprises.


title: Linz

text: The Meeting Industry Report Austria (mira) ranks Linz as the third most important destination for congresses in Austria, with a share of 7.4% in the total number of congresses, conferences and seminars held in Austria. Linz has more than 60 congress and event venues. With the Blue Meeting concept, the local tourism association has developed a conference format which focuses on individual needs of participants and adapts to the idea of green meetings, therefore supporting waste prevention, energy efficiency, climate-neutral travel and regional added value.


title: Linz

text: Thirteen malls can be found in Linz, three of which are situated in the city centre. Shopping centres include: Arkade, Atrium City Center, Shopping Mall Auwiesen, Shopping Mall Biesenfeld, Shopping Mall Industriezeile, Shopping Mall Kleinmünchen, Shopping Mall Muldenstraße, EuroCenter Oed, Shopping Mall Wegscheid, Infra Center, Lentia City, Passage, and PRO-Kaufland.


title: Linz

text: According to a study of Infrapool in Oktober 2010, the Linzer Landstraße is the busiest shopping street outside of Vienna. The weekly frequency is noted between 240,500 (Monday-Saturday, 8 a.m. until 7 p.m.) and 228,400 (8 a.m. until 6 p.m.) passers-by, which is the second highest value - only in 2005 more passers-by were detected. Further shopping streets in Linz:


title: Linz

text: There are eleven farmer's markets as well as one weekly flea market and two Christmas markets in Linz. One of these markets, the "Urfahraner Markt", takes place in spring and fall every year. Furthermore, there are annually Christmas and New Year's Markets. The aim of the market administration is to provide the population with a wide range of products, as well as operating the markets in an economical, suitable and customer oriented manner. Additionally, the annual market called "Linzer Marktfrühling" sets further accents and lures new customers with attractive offers.


title: Linz

text: Linz serves as an important transport hub for the region of both Upper Austria and, to a lesser degree, southern Bohemia.


title: Linz

text: Linz Airport lies about southwest of the town centre, in the municipality of Hörsching. The airport can be reached easily via federal highways B139 and B1. The bus line 601 connects the airport within 20 minutes with the centre of Linz. There is also a free shuttle service from Hörsching railway station. Direct flights include Frankfurt, Düsseldorf and Vienna with additional seasonal routes added during the summer and winter months, like for example Mallorca, Ibiza, Tenerife, several Greek islands (like Kos, Rhodes, Crete or Corfu) or Hurghada. Ryanair also flies to London Stansted Airport.


title: Linz

text: The city also has a central railway station () on Austria's main rail axis, the West railway, linking Vienna with western Austria, Germany and Switzerland. The Linz central station has been awarded eight times (from 2005 to 2011 and 2014) by Austrian Traffic Club as the most beautiful train station in Austria.


title: Linz

text: There are also varying types of river transport on the Danube, from industrial barges to tourist cruise ships.


title: Linz

text: Local public transport comprises the city tram network, the city trolleybus network and the city bus network, all operated by the Linz Linien division of Linz AG. The city tram network includes the Pöstlingbergbahn, a steeply graded tramway which climbs a small mountain at the northwest edge of the town.


title: Linz

text: The National Police Directorate forms the security authority for the city. The city's police commands function as law enforcement agencies.


title: Linz

text: In Linz, one of six Austrian professional fire brigades is located. Four volunteer fire brigades (Ebelsberg, Pichling, Pöstlingberg, St. Magdalena) and nine company fire brigades complement Linz' firemanship. Additionally, the national school of firemanship, which is subjected to the Upper Austrian fire-brigade federation, is located in Linz. In this school, all members of Upper Austrian fire brigades are being educated.


title: Linz

text: The main street "Landstraße" leads from the "Blumauerplatz" to "Taubenmarkt" (Pigeonmarket) near the main square. The main square (built in 1230), with an area of , is one of the largest converted squares in Europe. In the middle of the main square the high "Pestsäule" ("plague column", also known as "Dreifaltigkeitssäule" (Dreifaltigkeit means Holy Trinity)) was built to remember the people who died in the plague epidemics.


title: Linz

text: Around the main square are many historically relevant and architecturally interesting houses, such as the Old Town Hall, the Feichtinger House with its carillon, which changes the melody depending on the season, the Kirchmayr House, the Schmidtberger House or the bridgehead buildings, which house a part of the Linz Art University.


title: Linz

text: West of the main square there is the old quarter with many other historic buildings, such as Renaissance houses or older houses with a baroque face.


title: Linz

text: Near the Schloss/castle, being the former residence of emperor Friedrich the III—the oldest Austrian church is located: Sankt/Saint Martins church. It was built during early medieval Carolingian times.


title: Linz

text: Other attractions include the museums listed below, as well as several buildings which are illuminated in the evening (such as the Ars Electronica Center or the Lentos Art Museum), the Tobacco Factory, the Danube Lands, the port of Linz including Mural Harbor, the Voestalpine Stahlwelt or the District Urfahr. In the immediate vicinity is the Pöstlingberg, close to the baroque pilgrimage basilica, the Linz zoo, or the fairytale and dwarf kingdom of the Linzer Grottenbahn.


title: Linz

text: As many central European cities, the cityscape of Linz is characterised by small and several sacred buildings. The Mariä Empfängnis Dom or New Cathedral is the biggest church in Austria, not by height (it is roughly 2 metres shorter than the St. Stephen's Cathedral ("Stephansdom") in Vienna), but by capacity.


title: Linz

text: The historic centre is characterised by its medieval architectural style, whereas in those parts of the city that border with the historic centre the architecture is of neoclassical, neo-baroque and neo-renaissance styles. Even further from the historic centre there are living areas, such as "Franckviertel", "Froschberg", "Bindermichl" and "Kleinmünchen" southern of the Danube and "Alt-Urfahr" northern of the Danube. These areas are where residential buildings can be found that are still referred to as "Hitlerbauten" or "Hitler buildings", because they were built during the interwar period and the time of Nazi dictatorship. The residential area called "Gugl" became a well liked living area among the wealthy at around 1900, which is why there are numerous villas still there today.


title: Linz

text: Amongst the newer buildings is the Linz Hauptbahnhof station, which was designed by Wilhelm Holzbauer and added the Terminal Tower skyscraper as part of a mixed-use complex. Between 2005 und 2011 it was voted Austria's most beautiful railway station seven times in a row by the "Verkehrsclub Österreich". The Wissensturm ("Tower of knowledge") with a height of about 63 metres, houses the public library and the "Volkshochschule", an adult education centre. It was designed by Franz Kneidinger and Heinz Stögmüller and opened in 2007. Lentos Art Museum, which opened in 2003, was designed by Zürich-based architects Weber & Hofer and the Musiktheater (music theatre), which opened in 2013, was designed by Terry Pawson.


title: Linz

text: The city is now home to a vibrant music and arts scene that is well-funded by the city and the state of Upper Austria. Between Lentos Art Museum and the "Brucknerhaus", is the "Donaulände", which is also referred to as "Kulturmeile" ("culture mile"). This is a park alongside the river, which is used mainly by young people to relax and meet in summer. It is also used for the Ars Electronica Festival in early September and the "Stream Festival", which takes place annually. In June, July and August the "Musikpavillon" is placed in the park where musical groups of different styles perform on Thursdays, Fridays, Saturdays and Sundays free of charge.


title: Linz

text: Linz has other culture institutions, such as the Posthof, which is near the harbour, and the Stadtwerkstatt, which is by the river Danube. The Pflasterspektakel, an international street art festival, takes place each year in July in and around the Landstraße and the main square.


title: Linz

text: On 1 December 2014 Linz was accepted into the international network of UNESCO "Creative Cities" (UCCN) as a "City of Media Arts". Currently 69 cities worldwide are members of the "Creative Cities network", which is divided into seven thematic categories: literature, film, music, folk art, design, media art and gastronomy. The title goes to cities which enrich urban life and successfully involve society in electronic art forms through the sponsorship and integration of media art. Seven more cities can call themselves "City of Media Arts": Enghien-les-Bains, Lyon, Sapporo, Dakar, Gwangju, Tel Aviv-Yafo and York.


title: Linz

text: The aim is therefore to maintain and represent the cultural diversity. The 69 cities share their experiences and think about ways to cope with globalization. To create the most intensive discourse possible with the other creative cities, Linz has to do a self-evaluation after a few years. After three years the UNESCO evaluated whether Linz has fulfilled certain measures in the field of media art and may continue to use the title.


title: Linz

text: The Ars Electronica Center can be considered as the centre of media art and attracts every year during its festival national and international guests to Linz.


title: Linz

text: The latest project developed by Linz in the context of the City of Media Arts project is the Valie Export Center, which is located in the Tabakfabrik (tobacco factory) and carried out in cooperation with the University of Art and Design Linz. It serves as an international research hub for media and performance art. Beyond that, it comprises the legacy as well as the archives of the most renowned media artist coming from Linz, Valie Export, who has received numerous national as well as international prizes. Along with the Ars Electronica archives, Linz hosts two internationally renowned archives for media art. These archives serve as a starting point for an artistic and a scientific interaction with media and performance art both in Austria and around the world.


title: Linz

text: Since 2009, the Open Commons Linz initiative has made available a wide variety of "free" data: geo-data and statistical information having to do with city life, local government, recreation and tourism. An associated effort is the Hotspot initiative that has installed 202 hotspots providing free WLAN, as well as Public Server, the municipal cloud available to all citizens registered in Linz. Linz is thus at the forefront in Europe when it comes to universal access to open data.


title: Linz

text: Linz houses 43 galleries and exhibit rooms, 13 cultural centres, one club centre, as well as four educational institutes.


title: Linz

text: The Brucknerhaus, a famous concert hall in Linz is named after Anton Bruckner. It is situated just some 200 metres away from the "Lentos". It is home to the "Bruckner Orchestra", and is frequently used for concerts, as well as balls and other events. It is also the venue of the "Linz Fest" which takes place annually in May as well as one of the venues during the Ars Electronica Festival in early September. In June, July and August the "Musikpavillon" is placed in the park where musical groups of different styles perform on Thursdays, Fridays, Saturdays and Sundays free of charge.


title: Linz

text: The Musiktheater (music theatre) was opened in April 2013 and is considered to be one of the most modern opera houses in Europe. It offers five stages of varying sizes; the big hall ("Großer Saal") with 1,200 seats, the BlackBox with up to 270 seats, the BlackBoxLounge with up to 150 seats, the orchestra hall ("Orchestersaal") with up to 200 seats and another stage in the foyer ("FoyerBühne"). Performances at the Musiktheater include operas and typically Austrian operettas, ballets and musicals.


title: Linz

text: The ensemble of the Landestheater (regional theatre) Linz used to perform musical productions as well as theatre productions at a venue located on the "Promenade" in the inner city of Linz (this venue is still referred to simply as "Landestheater"). Since the opening of the new Musiktheater, only theatre performances take place at the "Promenade" venue, whereas musical productions are shown in the Musiktheater. The Landestheater Linz is especially renowned for its theatre for young audiences called u\hof:.


title: Linz

text: The "Kapu" is a venue for various contemporary music styles, such as hip hop, noise rock and crust and also houses a cinema and a recording studio.


title: Linz

text: The "Posthof" is one of the biggest event centres in Linz with three rooms offering up to 630 seats or standing room for about 1,200 people respectively in the big hall. The programme focuses on contemporary art and covers concerts, theatre, cabaret, dance and literature. Artists from Linz are regularly invited in order to improve the local cultural scene; e.g. bands from Linz get the opportunity to play as pre-bands alongside nationally and internationally known artists. Altogether a total of about 250 events take place at the "Posthof" each year with a total number of visitors of about 80.000.


title: Linz

text: The "Stadtwerkstatt" is an independent association for culture and was founded in 1979. Its headquarters is located in the Urfahr district on the north bank of the Danube close to the Ars Electronica Centre and serves as venue for music events and other artistic and cultural activities. Situated at the same address is the Stadtwerkstatt's own Café Strom café/bar.


title: Linz

text: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote his Symphony No. 36 (1783) in Linz for a concert to be given there, and the work is known today as the "Linz Symphony". He reportedly also composed his Piano Sonata 13 in B flat while in Linz, although it was published in Vienna.


title: Linz

text: Anton Bruckner was born in Ansfelden near Linz and spent several years working as a conductor and organist in Linz, where he also started to compose. The first version of Bruckner's Symphony No. 1 in C minor is known as the Linz version. The Brucknerhaus, a concert hall in Linz as well as its annual international Brucknerfest are named after him.


title: Linz

text: The history of cinema and film begins in Linz in September 1896, when, as part of a variety programme, a film programme was shown in "Roithner's vaudeville" for the first time in Upper Austria. Until the next screening of a film it took until 20 March 1897, when Johann Bläser's travelling cinema guested in the "Hotel of the Golden Ship".


title: Linz

text: Until the opening of the first cinemas with regular programme, it took till the end of the year 1908. At that time, Karl Lifka opened his "Lifka's Grand Théâtre électrique" in that building, where already the very first film showing took place. Subsequently, the second cinema of Linz was opened a few months later.


title: Linz

text: As the owner of travelling cinemas, Johann Bläser, got settled in Linz, he bought the "Hotel of the Golden Ship", and installed a cinema in it, the "Bio-Kinematograph".


title: Linz

text: The third stationary cinema, called "Kino Kolloseum", in town was founded around 1910 by the vaudeville operator Karl Roithner. Its first location was the former festival hall at Hessenplatz.


title: Linz

text: The Linz International Short Film Festival is the first film festival in Upper Austria to focus on international short films. It launched in October 2018 at the Moviemento in Linz, showing 114 films over four days. The concept goes back to the festival director Parisa Ghasemi.


title: Linz

text: In September 2007 the "Wissensturm", next to the central station, was completed. There the Main Library and the adult education centre are housed. In the same year the expansion of the National Library on Schillerplatz began.


title: Linz

text: The Main Library is the largest public library in Upper Austria. The library has a stock of 220,000 media, of which approximately 60,000 audiovisual media, as well as numerous magazines. The library also offers public Internet access and computers for surfing. The public library focuses on supporting reading. Thus in addition, regularly events such as readings, workshops or reading consultations take place.


title: Linz

text: In Linz there are both traditional restaurants and old wine taverns, as well as modern and exotic cuisine. The influence of 140 nations can be felt in Linz's culinary offerings. A coalition of over 40 restaurants, cafes and among other locations bars are called "hotspots". Moreover, Linz has several à la carte restaurants and Gault Millau gourmet restaurants.


title: Linz

text: Typical dishes in Linz include not only the famous Linzer torte but also knödel and strudel in many different kinds of variations. Another specialty is the erdäpfelkäs, a spread made from mashed potatoes and cream. Some well-known chefs from Linz are Lukas Erich, who cooks in the "Verdi" and Georg Essig from the "Der neue Vogelkäfig".


title: Linz

text: The project "Linz 1938/1918", which started on 29 June 2018, commemorates the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic (1918) and 80 years of "political union" (1938). With this installation in the public space, presented in the city center, Linz fulfills its responsibility and commitment to maintaining peace with its declaration, making a contribution to dealing with the past. The idea is to reach people who have little relation to the years of 1918 or 1938.


title: Linz

text: Among Linz's grammar schools is Linz International School Auhof (LISA), it is one of four IB (International Baccalaureate) schools in Austria. At the school, English is the main language for instruction.


title: Linz

text: Lakes and public swimming pools: Pichlinger See, Pleschinger See, Weikerlsee, Biesenfeldbad, Hummelhofbad, Parkbad, Schörgenhubbad. One of the first public swimming pools was the former "Fabriksarm", a Danube branch stream (from Parkbad to Winterhafen) that was filled up in 1890. Afterwards a makeshift at the "Obere Donaulände" was built, which existed until a flood in 1954. In 1901 the "Städtische Schwimmschule" (city swimming school) was built at the place of the former Parkbad.


title: Linz

text: Especially in densely built-up inner-city areas smaller parks are highly important for the inhabitants of Linz, the parks act as green oases. Along the main axis of the city centre of Linz, the highway, several such small gardens are located. These are on the one handside the Landhaus Park, which has been redesigned as part of an underground car park construction until 2009, whereby the old trees have been preserved. In addition, Hessenplatz or—park is located in the city centre of Linz. Hessenplatz was the centre of Neustadtviertel in 1884. Just off the highway Schiller Park is located, which replaced the Trainkaserne in 1909, and the Volksgarten, which was created in 1829 by an entrepreneur and bought up in 1857 by the city.


title: Linz

text: The Donausteig is a non Alpine Austrian-Bavarian long-distance hiking trail, which is long and is divided into 23 stages. Since the summer of 2010 it mainly leads alongside both banks of the Danube, from Passau through Linz and St. Nikola to Grein. The trail mainly runs through nature and leads to a number of viewpoints.


title: Linz

text: From the end of April until the beginning of October, the Design-Ship MS "Linzerin" offers a harbour tour of 100 minutes, three times a day (Tuesday until Sunday). The starting point of the tour is the Linzer Donaupark, and the tour goes along the Linzer Kulturmeile, passes the Brucknerhaus and ends at the waterfront mouth of ÖSWAG Schiffswerft Linz.


title: Linz

text: Linz is in the urban forest area ranking in front of Graz, even if only 500 hectares are owned by the city itself. These are sustainably managed and maintained, with 87 hectares of usable, 46 hectares of protection, 30 hectares of recreational and 353 hectares of welfare function. The latter represents the main function of the Linzer Wald. 18 percent of the city, which covers a total of , is forested and occupies up to of forest, more than in 2004. This is the reason why it is called Stadt-Wald, city-forest.


title: Linz

text: There are 302 Sport Clubs in Linz. 224 of those are a part of the three major umbrella organizations ASKÖ (108 Clubs with about 48,500 members), UNION (67 clubs with about 40,500 members) and ASVÖ (49 clubs with about 19,000 members). One of the more well-known clubs is LASK - they moved to Paschinger Waldstadion in the meantime—as well as "SK VÖEST Linz" — now called Blau-Weiß. Furthermore, the popularity of the ice hockey club "EHC Black Wings Linz" has increased, in particular after they won the championship in the seasons 2002/03 and 2011/12.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Some of the settled communities developed into distinctive civilizations. Information about these communities is limited and has been pieced together from archaeological evidence, accounts written outside of Arabia, and Arab oral traditions which were later recorded by Islamic historians. Among the most prominent civilizations were the Thamud civilization, which arose around 3000 BCE and lasted to around 300 CE, and the earliest Semitic civilization in the eastern part was Dilmun, which arose around the end of the fourth millennium and lasted to around 600 CE. Additionally, from the second half of the second millennium BCE, Southern Arabia was the home to a number of kingdoms such as the Sabaeans, Minaeans, and Eastern Arabia was inhabited by Semitic speakers who presumably migrated from the southwest, such as the so-called Samad population. From 106 CE to 630 CE northwestern Arabia was under the control of the Roman Empire, which renamed it Arabia Petraea. A few nodal points were controlled by Iranian Parthian and Sassanian empires.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Pre-Islamic religions in Arabia included Arabian indigenous polytheistic beliefs, ancient Semitic religions (religions predating the Abrahamic religions which themselves likewise originated among the ancient Semitic-speaking peoples), various forms of Christianity, Judaism, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, and rarely Buddhism.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Scientific studies of Pre-Islamic Arabs starts with the Arabists of the early 19th century when they managed to decipher epigraphic Old South Arabian (10th century BCE), Ancient North Arabian (6th century BCE) and other writings of pre-Islamic Arabia. Thus, studies are no longer limited to the written traditions, which are not local due to the lack of surviving Arab historians' accounts of that era; the paucity of material is compensated for by written sources from other cultures (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, etc.), so it was not known in great detail. From the 3rd century CE, Arabian history becomes more tangible with the rise of the Ḥimyarite, and with the appearance of the Qaḥṭānites in the Levant and the gradual assimilation of the Nabataeans by the Qaḥṭānites in the early centuries CE, a pattern of expansion exceeded in the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. Sources of history include archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and oral traditions later recorded by Islamic scholars—especially in the pre-Islamic poems—and "the Ḥadīth", plus a number of ancient Arab documents that survived into medieval times when portions of them were cited or recorded. Archaeological exploration in the Arabian Peninsula has been sparse but fruitful; and many ancient sites have been identified by modern excavations. The most recent detailed study of pre-Islamic Arabia is "Arabs and Empires Before Islam", published by Oxford University Press in 2015. This book collects a diverse range of ancient texts and inscriptions for the history especially of the northern region during this time period.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The ʿĀd nation were known to the Greeks and Egyptians. Claudius Ptolemy's "Geographos" (2nd century CE) refers to the area as the "land of the Iobaritae" a region which legend later referred to as Ubar.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The origin of the Midianites has not been established. Because of the Mycenaean motifs on what is referred to as Midianite pottery, some scholars including George Mendenhall, Peter Parr, and Beno Rothenberg have suggested that the Midianites were originally Sea Peoples who migrated from the Aegean region and imposed themselves on a pre-existing Semitic stratum. The question of the origin of the Midianites still remains open.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The history of Pre-Islamic Arabia before the rise of Islam in the 610s is not known in great detail. Archaeological exploration in the Arabian peninsula has been sparse; indigenous written sources are limited to the many inscriptions and coins from southern Arabia. Existing material consists primarily of written sources from other traditions (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, etc.) and oral traditions later recorded by Islamic scholars. Many small kingdoms prospered from Red sea and Indian Ocean trade. Major kingdoms included the Sabaeans, Awsan, Himyar and the Nabateans.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The first known inscriptions of the Kingdom of Hadhramaut are known from the 8th century BC. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an Old Sabaic inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BC, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada`'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of 4th millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective "Dilmun" refers to a type of axe and one specific official; in addition, there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Sabaeans were an ancient people speaking an Old South Arabian language who lived in what is today Yemen, in south west Arabian Peninsula; from 2000 BC to the 8th century BC. Some Sabaeans also lived in D'mt, located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, due to their hegemony over the Red Sea. They lasted from the early 2nd millennium to the 1st century BC. In the 1st century BC it was conquered by the Himyarites, but after the disintegration of the first Himyarite empire of the Kings of Saba' and dhu-Raydan the Middle Sabaean Kingdom reappeared in the early 2nd century. It was finally conquered by the Himyarites in the late 3rd century.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The ancient Kingdom of Awsan with a capital at Hagar Yahirr in the wadi Markha, to the south of the wadi Bayhan, is now marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is locally named Hagar Asfal. Once it was one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia. The city seems to have been destroyed in the 7th century BC by the king and mukarrib of Saba Karib'il Watar, according to a Sabaean text that reports the victory in terms that attest to its significance for the Sabaeans.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Himyar was a state in ancient South Arabia dating from 110 BC. It conquSeehandelsweg nach Indien in c. 25 BC, Qataban in c. 200 AD and Hadramaut c. 300 AD. Its political fortunes relative to Saba changed frequently until it finally conquered the Sabaean Kingdom around 280 AD. It was the dominant state in Arabia until 525 AD. The economy was based on agriculture.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Foreign trade was based on the export of frankincense and myrrh. For many years it was also the major intermediary linking East Africa and the Mediterranean world. This trade largely consisted of exporting ivory from Africa to be sold in the Roman Empire. Ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast, and the state also exerted a considerable amount of political control of the trading cities of East Africa.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Nabataean origins remain obscure. On the similarity of sounds, Jerome suggested a connection with the tribe Nebaioth mentioned in "Genesis", but modern historians are cautious about an early Nabatean history. The Babylonian captivity that began in 586 BC opened a power vacuum in Judah, and as Edomites moved into Judaean grazing lands, Nabataean inscriptions began to be left in Edomite territory (earlier than 312 BC, when they were attacked at Petra without success by Antigonus I). The first definite appearance was in 312 BC, when Hieronymus of Cardia, a Seleucid officer, mentioned the Nabateans in a battle report. In 50 BC, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus cited Hieronymus in his report, and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade."


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Petra or Sela was the ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to press forward into southern Judaea. This migration, the date of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the shores of the Gulf of Aqaba and the important harbor of Elath. Here, according to Agatharchides, they were for a time very troublesome, as wreckers and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and the East, until they were chastised by the Ptolemaic rulers of Alexandria.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Lakhmid Kingdom was founded by the Lakhum tribe that immigrated out of Yemen in the 2nd century and ruled by the Banu Lakhm, hence the name given it. It was formed of a group of Arab Christians who lived in Southern Iraq, and made al-Hirah their capital in (266). The founder of the dynasty was 'Amr and the son Imru' al-Qais converted to Christianity. Gradually the whole city converted to that faith. Imru' al-Qais dreamt of a unified and independent Arab kingdom and, following that dream, he seized many cities in Arabia.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Ghassanids were a group of South Arabian Christian tribes that emigrated in the early 3rd century from Yemen to the Hauran in southern Syria, Jordan and the Holy Land where they intermarried with Hellenized Roman settlers and Greek-speaking Early Christian communities. The Ghassanid emigration has been passed down in the rich oral tradition of southern Syria. It is said that the Ghassanids came from the city of Ma'rib in Yemen. There was a dam in this city, however one year there was so much rain that the dam was carried away by the ensuing flood. Thus the people there had to leave. The inhabitants emigrated seeking to live in less arid lands and became scattered far and wide. The proverb "They were scattered like the people of Saba" refers to that exodus in history. The emigrants were from the southern Arab tribe of Azd of the Kahlan branch of Qahtani tribes.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The sedentary people of pre-Islamic Eastern Arabia were mainly Aramaic, Arabic and to some degree Persian speakers while Syriac functioned as a liturgical language. In pre-Islamic times, the population of Eastern Arabia consisted of Christianized Arabs (including Abd al-Qays), Aramean Christians, Persian-speaking Zoroastrians and Jewish agriculturalists. According to Robert Bertram Serjeant, the Baharna may be the Arabized "descendants of converts from the original population of Christians (Aramaeans), Jews and ancient Persians (Majus) inhabiting the island and cultivated coastal provinces of Eastern Arabia at the time of the Arab conquest". Other archaeological assemblages cannot be brought clearly into larger context, such as the Samad Late Iron Age.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Zoroastrianism was also present in Eastern Arabia. The Zoroastrians of Eastern Arabia were known as "Majoos" in pre-Islamic times. The sedentary dialects of Eastern Arabia, including Bahrani Arabic, were influenced by Akkadian, Aramaic and Syriac languages.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Dilmun civilization was an important trading centre which at the height of its power controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. The Sumerians regarded Dilmun as holy land. Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the Middle East. The Sumerians described Dilmun as a paradise garden in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The Sumerian tale of the garden paradise of Dilmun may have been an inspiration for the Garden of Eden story. Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BCE, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective "Dilmun" is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official; in addition there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.