title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Dilmun was an important trading center from the late fourth millennium to 1800 BCE. Dilmun was very prosperous during the first 300 years of the second millennium. Dilmun's commercial power began to decline between 2000 BCE and 1800 BCE because piracy flourished in the Persian Gulf. In 600 BCE, the Babylonians and later the Persians added Dilmun to their empires.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Dilmun civilization was the centre of commercial activities linking traditional agriculture of the land with maritime trade between diverse regions as the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia in the early period and China and the Mediterranean in the later period (from the 3rd to the 16th century CE).


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II (c. 1370 BCE) recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. These letters were from a provincial official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni in Mesopotamia. The names referred to are Akkadian. These letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time. Following the collapse of the Kassite dynasty, Mesopotamian documents make no mention of Dilmun with the exception of Assyrian inscriptions dated to 1250 BCE which proclaimed the Assyrian king to be king of Dilmun and Meluhha. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun. There are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BCE indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. Dilmun was also later on controlled by the Kassite dynasty in Mesopotamia.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Dilmun, sometimes described as "the place where the sun rises" and "the Land of the Living", is the scene of some versions of the Sumerian creation myth, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, Utnapishtim (Ziusudra), was taken by the gods to live forever. Thorkild Jacobsen's translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it ""Mount Dilmun"" which he locates as a ""faraway, half-mythical place"".


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Dilmun is also described in the epic story of Enki and Ninhursag as the site at which the Creation occurred. The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother:


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals, whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Ninlil, the Sumerian goddess of air and south wind had her home in Dilmun. It is also featured in the Epic of Gilgamesh.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: However, in the early epic ""Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta"", the main events, which center on Enmerkar's construction of the ziggurats in Uruk and Eridu, are described as taking place in a world "before Dilmun had yet been settled".


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Gerrha (), was an ancient city of Eastern Arabia, on the west side of the Persian Gulf. More accurately, the ancient city of Gerrha has been determined to have existed near or under the present fort of Uqair. This fort is 50 miles northeast of al-Hasa in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. This site was first proposed by Robert Ernest Cheesman in 1924.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Gerrha and Uqair are archaeological sites on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Prior to Gerrha, the area belonged to the Dilmun civilization, which was conquered by the Assyrian Empire in 709 BCE. Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa 300 CE. The kingdom was attacked by Antiochus III the Great in 205-204 BCE, though it seems to have survived. It is currently unknown exactly when Gerrha fell, but the area was under Sassanid Persian control after 300 CE.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Gerrha was described by Strabo as inhabited by Chaldean exiles from Babylon, who built their houses of salt and repaired them by the application of salt water. Pliny the Elder (lust. Nat. vi. 32) says it was 5 miles in circumference with towers built of square blocks of salt.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Gerrha was destroyed by the Qarmatians in the end of the 9th century where all inhabitants were massacred (300,000). It was 2 miles from the Persian Gulf near current day Hofuf. The researcher Abdulkhaliq Al Janbi argued in his book that Gerrha was most likely the ancient city of Hajar, located in modern-day Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia. Al Janbi's theory is the most widely accepted one by modern scholars, although there are some difficulties with this argument given that Al Ahsa is 60 km inland and thus less likely to be the starting point for a trader's route, making the location within the archipelago of islands comprising the modern Kingdom of Bahrain, particularly the main island of Bahrain itself, another possibility.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Various other identifications of the site have been attempted, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville choosing Qatif, Carsten Niebuhr preferring Kuwait and C Forster suggesting the ruins at the head of the bay behind the islands of Bahrain.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Bahrain was referred to by the Greeks as Tylos, the centre of pearl trading, when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. From the 6th to 3rd century BCE Bahrain was included in Persian Empire by Achaemenians, an Iranian dynasty. The Greek admiral Nearchus is believed to have been the first of Alexander's commanders to visit this islands, and he found a verdant land that was part of a wide trading network; he recorded: "That in the island of Tylos, situated in the Persian Gulf, are large plantations of cotton tree, from which are manufactured clothes called "sindones", a very different degrees of value, some being costly, others less expensive. The use of these is not confined to India, but extends to Arabia." The Greek historian, Theophrastus, states that much of the islands were covered in these cotton trees and that Tylos was famous for exporting walking canes engraved with emblems that were customarily carried in Babylon. Ares was also worshipped by the ancient Baharna and the Greek empires.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: It is not known whether Bahrain was part of the Seleucid Empire, although the archaeological site at Qalat Al Bahrain has been proposed as a Seleucid base in the Persian Gulf. Alexander had planned to settle the eastern shores of the Persian Gulf with Greek empires, and although it is not clear that this happened on the scale he envisaged, Tylos was very much part of the Hellenised world: the language of the upper classes was Greek (although Aramaic was in everyday use), while Zeus was worshipped in the form of the Arabian sun-god Shams. Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The name Tylos is thought to be a Hellenisation of the Semitic, Tilmun (from Dilmun). The term Tylos was commonly used for the islands until Ptolemy's "Geographia" when the inhabitants are referred to as 'Thilouanoi'. Some place names in Bahrain go back to the Tylos era, for instance, the residential suburb of Arad in Muharraq, is believed to originate from "Arados", the ancient Greek name for Muharraq island.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Greek historian Strabo believed the Phoenicians originated from Eastern Arabia. Herodotus also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Eastern Arabia. This theory was accepted by the 19th-century German classicist Arnold Heeren who said that: "In the Greek geographers, for instance, we read of two islands, named Tyrus or Tylos, and Arad, Bahrain, which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians, and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples." The people of Tyre in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, and the similarity in the words "Tylos" and "Tyre" has been commented upon. However, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: With the waning of Seleucid Greek power, Tylos was incorporated into Characene or Mesenian, the state founded in what today is Kuwait by Hyspaosines in 127 BCE. A building inscriptions found in Bahrain indicate that Hyspoasines occupied the islands, (and it also mention his wife, Thalassia).


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: From the 3rd century BCE to arrival of Islam in the 7th century CE, Eastern Arabia was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties of the Parthians and Sassanids.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: By about 250 BCE, the Seleucids lost their territories to Parthians, an Iranian tribe from Central Asia. The Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in the southern coast of Persian Gulf.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: In the 3rd century CE, the Sassanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later. Ardashir, the first ruler of the Iranian Sassanians dynasty marched down the Persian Gulf to Oman and Bahrain and defeated Sanatruq (or Satiran), probably the Parthian governor of Eastern Arabia. He appointed his son Shapur I as governor of Eastern Arabia. Shapur constructed a new city there and named it Batan Ardashir after his father. At this time, Eastern Arabia incorporated the southern Sassanid province covering the Persian Gulf's southern shore plus the archipelago of Bahrain. The southern province of the Sassanids was subdivided into three districts of Haggar (Hofuf, Saudi Arabia), Batan Ardashir (al-Qatif province, Saudi Arabia), and Mishmahig (Muharraq, Bahrain; also referred to as Samahij) (In Middle-Persian/Pahlavi means "ewe-fish".) which included the Bahrain archipelago that was earlier called Aval. The name, meaning 'ewe-fish' would appear to suggest that the name /Tulos/ is related to Hebrew /ṭāleh/ 'lamb' (Strong's 2924).


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Christian name used for the region encompassing north-eastern Arabia was Beth Qatraye, or "the Isles". The name translates to 'region of the Qataris' in Syriac. It included Bahrain, Tarout Island, Al-Khatt, Al-Hasa, and Qatar.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: By the 5th century, Beth Qatraye was a major centre for Nestorian Christianity, which had come to dominate the southern shores of the Persian Gulf. As a sect, the Nestorians were often persecuted as heretics by the Byzantine Empire, but eastern Arabia was outside the Empire's control offering some safety. Several notable Nestorian writers originated from Beth Qatraye, including Isaac of Nineveh, Dadisho Qatraya, Gabriel of Qatar and Ahob of Qatar. Christianity's significance was diminished by the arrival of Islam in Eastern Arabia by 628. In 676, the bishops of Beth Qatraye stopped attending synods; although the practice of Christianity persisted in the region until the late 9th century.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The dioceses of Beth Qatraye did not form an ecclesiastical province, except for a short period during the mid-to-late seventh century. They were instead subject to the Metropolitan of Fars.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Oman and the United Arab Emirates comprised the ecclesiastical province known as Beth Mazunaye. The name was derived from 'Mazun', the Persian name for Oman and the United Arab Emirates.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: During Minaean rule, the capital was at Karna (now known as Sa'dah). Their other important city was Yathill (now known as Baraqish). The Minaean Kingdom was centered in northwestern Yemen, with most of its cities lying along Wādī Madhab. Minaean inscriptions have been found far afield of the Kingdom of Maīin, as far away as al-'Ula in northwestern Saudi Arabia and even on the island of Delos and Egypt. It was the first of the Yemeni kingdoms to end, and the Minaean language died around 100 CE .


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: During Sabaean rule, trade and agriculture flourished, generating much wealth and prosperity. The Sabaean kingdom was located in Yemen, and its capital, Ma'rib, is located near what is now Yemen's modern capital, Sana'a. According to South Arabian tradition, the eldest son of Noah, Shem, founded the city of Ma'rib.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: During Sabaean rule, Yemen was called "Arabia Felix" by the Romans, who were impressed by its wealth and prosperity. The Roman emperor Augustus sent a military expedition to conquer the "Arabia Felix", under the command of Aelius Gallus. After an unsuccessful siege of Ma'rib, the Roman general retreated to Egypt, while his fleet destroyed the port of Aden in order to guarantee the Roman merchant route to India.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The success of the kingdom was based on the cultivation and trade of spices and aromatics including frankincense and myrrh. These were exported to the Mediterranean, India, and Abyssinia, where they were greatly prized by many cultures, using camels on routes through Arabia, and to India by sea.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: During the 8th and 7th century BCE, there was a close contact of cultures between the Kingdom of Dʿmt in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia and Saba. Though the civilization was indigenous and the royal inscriptions were written in a sort of proto-Ethiosemitic, there were also some Sabaean immigrants in the kingdom as evidenced by a few of the Dʿmt inscriptions.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Agriculture in Yemen thrived during this time due to an advanced irrigation system which consisted of large water tunnels in mountains, and dams. The most impressive of these earthworks, known as the Marib Dam, was built ca. 700 BCE and provided irrigation for about of land and stood for over a millennium, finally collapsing in 570 CE after centuries of neglect.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The first known inscriptions of Hadramaut are known from the 8th century BCE. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an Old Sabaic inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BCE, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada`'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies. When the Minaeans took control of the caravan routes in the 4th century BCE, however, Hadramaut became one of its confederates, probably because of commercial interests. It later became independent and was invaded by the growing Yemeni kingdom of Himyar toward the end of the 1st century BCE, but it was able to repel the attack. Hadramaut annexed Qataban in the second half of the 2nd century CE, reaching its greatest size. The kingdom of Hadramaut was eventually conquered by the Himyarite king Shammar Yahri'sh around 300 CE, unifying all of the South Arabian kingdoms.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The ancient Kingdom of Awsān in South Arabia (modern Yemen), with a capital at Ḥagar Yaḥirr in the wadi Markhah, to the south of the Wādī Bayḥān, is now marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is locally named Ḥajar Asfal.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Qataban was one of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms which thrived in the Beihan valley. Like the other Southern Arabian kingdoms, it gained great wealth from the trade of frankincense and myrrh incense, which were burned at altars. The capital of Qataban was named Timna and was located on the trade route which passed through the other kingdoms of Hadramaut, Saba and Ma'in. The chief deity of the Qatabanians was Amm, or "Uncle" and the people called themselves the "children of Amm".


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Himyarites rebelled against Qataban and eventually united Southwestern Arabia (Hejaz and Yemen), controlling the Red Sea as well as the coasts of the Gulf of Aden. From their capital city, Ẓafār, the Himyarite kings launched successful military campaigns, and had stretched its domain at times as far east as eastern Yemen and as far north as Najran Together with their Kindite allies, it extended maximally as far north as Riyadh and as far east as Yabrīn.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: During the 3rd century CE, the South Arabian kingdoms were in continuous conflict with one another. Gadarat (GDRT) of Aksum began to interfere in South Arabian affairs, signing an alliance with Saba, and a Himyarite text notes that Hadramaut and Qataban were also allied against the kingdom. As a result of this, the Aksumite Empire was able to capture the Himyarite capital of Thifar in the first quarter of the 3rd century. However, the alliances did not last, and Sha`ir Awtar of Saba unexpectedly turned on Hadramaut, allying again with Aksum and taking its capital in 225. Himyar then allied with Saba and invaded the newly taken Aksumite territories, retaking Thifar, which had been under the control of Gadarat's son Beygat, and pushing Aksum back into the Tihama. The standing relief image of a crowned man, is taken to be a representation possibly of the Jewish king Malkīkarib Yuhaʾmin or more likely the Christian Esimiphaios (Samu Yafa').


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Aksumite intervention is connected with Dhu Nuwas, a Himyarite king who changed the state religion to Judaism and began to persecute the Christians in Yemen. Outraged, Kaleb, the Christian King of Aksum with the encouragement of the Byzantine Emperor Justin I invaded and annexed Yemen. The Aksumites controlled Himyar and attempted to invade Mecca in the year 570 CE. Eastern Yemen remained allied to the Sassanids via tribal alliances with the Lakhmids, which later brought the Sassanid army into Yemen, ending the Aksumite period.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Persian king Khosrau I sent troops under the command of Vahriz (), who helped the semi-legendary Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan to drive the Aksumites out of Yemen. Southern Arabia became a Persian dominion under a Yemenite vassal and thus came within the sphere of influence of the Sassanid Empire. After the demise of the Lakhmids, another army was sent to Yemen, making it a province of the Sassanid Empire under a Persian satrap. Following the death of Khosrau II in 628, the Persian governor in Southern Arabia, Badhan, converted to Islam and Yemen followed the new religion.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Lihyan, also called Dadān or Dedan, was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the Arabian Peninsula and used Dadanitic language. The Lihyanite kingdom went through three different stages, the early phase of Lihyan Kingdom was around the 7th century BC, started as a Sheikdom of Dedan then developed into the Kingdom of Lihyan tribe.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Some authors assert that the Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma, and finally to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. Werner Cascel consider the Nabataean annexation of Lihyan was around 24 BC under the reign of the Nabataeans king Aretas IV.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Thamud () was an ancient civilization in Hejaz, which flourished kingdom from 3000 BCE to 200 BCE. Recent archaeological work has revealed numerous Thamudic rock writings and pictures. They are mentioned in sources such as the Qur'an, old Arabian poetry, Assyrian annals (Tamudi), in a Greek temple inscription from the northwest Hejaz of 169 CE, in a 5th-century Byzantine source and in Old North Arabian graffiti within Tayma. They are also mentioned in the victory annals of the Neo-Assyrian King, Sargon II (8th century BCE), who defeated these people in a campaign in northern Arabia. The Greeks also refer to these people as "Tamudaei", i.e. "Thamud", in the writings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Pliny. Before the rise of Islam, approximately between 400 and 600 CE, the Thamud completely disappeared.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The most organized of the Northern Arabian tribes, at the height of their rule in the 6th century BCE, the Kingdom of Qedar spanned a large area between the Persian Gulf and the Sinai. An influential force between the 8th and 4th centuries BCE, Qedarite monarchs are first mentioned in inscriptions from the Assyrian Empire. Some early Qedarite rulers were vassals of that empire, with revolts against Assyria becoming more common in the 7th century BCE. It is thought that the Qedarites were eventually subsumed into the Nabataean state after their rise to prominence in the 2nd century CE.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Achaemenid Arabia corresponded to the lands between Nile Delta (Egypt) and Mesopotamia, later known to Romans as Arabia Petraea. According to Herodotus, Cambyses did not subdue the Arabs when he attacked Egypt in 525 BCE. His successor Darius the Great does not mention the Arabs in the Behistun inscription from the first years of his reign, but does mention them in later texts. This suggests that Darius might have conquered this part of Arabia or that it was originally part of another province, perhaps Achaemenid Babylonia, but later became its own province.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Arabs were not considered as subjects to the Achaemenids, as other peoples were, and were exempt from taxation. Instead, they simply provided 1,000 talents of frankincense a year.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: They participated in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (479-480 BCE) while also helping the Achaemenids invade Egypt by providing water skins to the troops crossing the desert.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Nabataeans are not to be found among the tribes that are listed in Arab genealogies because the Nabatean kingdom ended a long time before the coming of Islam. They settled east of the Syro-African rift between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea, that is, in the land that had once been Edom. And although the first sure reference to them dates from 312 BCE, it is possible that they were present much earlier.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Petra (from the Greek "petra", meaning 'of rock') lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, east of Wadi `Araba in Jordan about south of the Dead Sea. It came into prominence in the late 1st century BCE through the success of the spice trade. The city was the principal city of ancient Nabataea and was famous above all for two things: its trade and its hydraulic engineering systems. It was locally autonomous until the reign of Trajan, but it flourished under Roman rule. The town grew up around its Colonnaded Street in the 1st century and by the middle of the 1st century had witnessed rapid urbanization. The quarries were probably opened in this period, and there followed virtually continuous building through the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: There is evidence of Roman rule in northern Arabia dating to the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE). During the reign of Tiberius (14–37 CE), the already wealthy and elegant north Arabian city of Palmyra, located along the caravan routes linking Persia with the Mediterranean ports of Roman Syria and Phoenicia, was made part of the Roman province of Syria. The area steadily grew further in importance as a trade route linking Persia, India, China, and the Roman Empire. During the following period of great prosperity, the Arab citizens of Palmyra adopted customs and modes of dress from both the Iranian Parthian world to the east and the Graeco-Roman west. In 129, Hadrian visited the city and was so enthralled by it that he proclaimed it a free city and renamed it "Palmyra Hadriana".


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Roman province of Arabia Petraea was created at the beginning of the 2nd century by emperor Trajan. It was centered on Petra, but included even areas of northern Arabia under Nabatean control.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Recently evidence has been discovered that Roman legions occupied Mada'in Saleh in the Hijaz mountains area of northwestern Arabia, increasing the extension of the "Arabia Petraea" province.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The desert frontier of Arabia Petraea was called by the Romans the Limes Arabicus. As a frontier province, it included a desert area of northeastern Arabia populated by the nomadic Saraceni.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: In Sassanid times, Arabia Petraea was a border province between the Roman and Persian empires, and from the early centuries CE was increasingly affected by South Arabian influence, notably with the Ghassanids migrating north from the 3rd century.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Greeks called Yemen "Arabia Felix" (Happy Arabia). The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the Roman Empire "Arabia Petraea" after the city of Petra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east Arabia Magna (Larger Arabia) or Arabia Deserta (Deserted Arabia).


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Kindah was an Arab kingdom by the Kindah tribe, the tribe's existence dates back to the second century BCE. The Kindites established a kingdom in Najd in central Arabia unlike the organized states of Yemen; its kings exercised an influence over a number of associated tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settled authority. Their first capital was Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil, today known as Qaryat Al-Fāw.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Kindites were polytheistic until the 6th century CE, with evidence of rituals dedicated to the idols Athtar and Kāhil found in their ancient capital in south-central Arabia (present day Saudi Arabia). It is not clear whether they converted to Judaism or remained pagan, but there is a strong archaeological evidence that they were among the tribes in Dhū Nuwās' forces during the Jewish king's attempt to suppress Christianity in Yemen. They converted to Islam in mid 7th century CE and played a crucial role during the Arab conquest of their surroundings, although some sub-tribes declared apostasy during the "ridda" after the death of Muḥammad.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Ancient South Arabian inscriptions mention a tribe settling in Najd called "kdt", who had a king called "rbˁt" (Rabi'ah) from "ḏw ṯwr-m" (the people of Thawr), who had sworn allegiance to the king of Saba' and Dhū Raydān. Since later Arab genealogists trace Kindah back to a person called Thawr ibn 'Uqayr, modern historians have concluded that this "rbˁt ḏw ṯwrm" (Rabī'ah of the People of Thawr) must have been a king of Kindah ("kdt"); the Musnad inscriptions mention that he was king both of "kdt" (Kindah) and "qhtn" (Qaḥṭān). They played a major role in the Himyarite-Ḥaḑramite war. Following the Himyarite victory, a branch of Kindah established themselves in the Marib region, while the majority of Kindah remained in their lands in central Arabia.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The first Classical author to mention Kindah was the Byzantine ambassador Nonnosos, who was sent by the Emperor Justinian to the area. He refers to the people in Greek as "Khindynoi" (Greek Χινδηνοι, Arabic Kindah), and mentions that they and the tribe of "Maadynoi" (Greek: "Μααδηνοι", Arabic: "Ma'ad") were the two most important tribes in the area in terms of territory and number. He calls the king of Kindah "Kaïsos" (Greek: "Καισος", Arabic: "Qays"), the nephew of "Aretha" (Greek: "Άρεθα", Arabic: "Ḥārith").


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Sedentary Arabs who inhabited cities or rural areas (towns, villages or oases). In pre-Islamic Arabia, most sedentary Arabs were of Arabian origin.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Consisted of many major ancient tribes and clans which were mainly pastoral nomads. The ancestral lineage followed through males, since the tribes and clans were named after the male ancestors.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Solluba were a Ḥutaymi tribal group in the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula who were clearly distinguishable from the Arabs. The Solubba maintained a distinctive lifestyle as isolated nomads. The origin of the Solluba is obscure. They have been identified with the "Selappayu" in Akkadian records, and a clue to their origin is their use of desert kites and game traps, first attested to in around 7,000 BCE, which makes them the pre-Semitic inhabitants of Arabia.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Cambridge linguist and anthropologist Roger Blench sees the Solubba as the last survivors of Palaeolithic hunters and salt-traders who once dominated Arabia. Those were assimilated in the next wave of humans consisted of cattle herders in the 6th millennium BCE who introduced cows, wild donkeys, sheep, dogs, camels and goats. Those peoples may have engaged in trade across the Red Sea with speakers of Cushitic or Nilo-Saharan. In the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE, speakers of Semitic languages arrived from the Near East and marginalised and absorbed the rest.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Western travelers reported that the Bedouin did not consider the Solluba to be descendants of Qaḥṭān. One legend mentions that they originated from ancient Christian groups, possibly Crusaders who were taken into slavery by the Bedouin. Werner Caskel criticizes the Crusader origin theory and instead proposes that the term "Solluba" describes a host of groups hailing from different backgrounds: those of al-Ḥasā being of 12th- to 13th-century CE migrants from southern Persia, and the group to the west being composed of communities emerging after their defeat by the Wahhabis.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Another theory sees the Solubba as a former Bedouin group that lost their herds and fell in the eyes of other Bedouin.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Arab traditions relating to the origins and classification of the Arabian tribes is based on biblical genealogy. The general consensus among 14th-century Arabic genealogists was that Arabs were three kinds:


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Modern historians believe that these distinctions were created during the Umayyad period, to support the cause of different political factions.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The several different tribes throughout Arabian history are traditionally regarded as having emerged from two main branches: the Rabi`ah, from which amongst others the Banu Hanifa emerged, and the Mudhar, from which amongst others the Banu Kinanah (and later Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh) emerged.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia included pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism, ancient Semitic religions (religions predating the Abrahamic religions which themselves likewise originated among the ancient Semitic-speaking peoples), Abrahamic religions such as Christianity, Judaism, and Mandaeism, and Iranian religions such as Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, as well as Dharmic religions such as Buddhism. Arabian polytheism was, according to Islamic tradition, the dominant form of religion in pre-Islamic Arabia, based on veneration of deities and spirits. Worship was directed to various gods and goddesses, including Hubal and the goddesses al-Lāt, Al-'Uzzá and Manāt, at local shrines and temples, maybe such as the Kaaba in Mecca. Deities were venerated and invoked through a variety of rituals, including pilgrimages and divination, as well as ritual sacrifice. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in Meccan religion. Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to idols, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them in Islamic tradition.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Other religions were represented to varying, lesser degrees. The influence of the adjacent Roman and Aksumite resulted in Christian communities in the northwest, northeast and south of Arabia. Christianity made a lesser impact, but secured some conversions, in the remainder of the peninsula. With the exception of Nestorianism in the northeast and the Persian Gulf, the dominant form of Christianity was Miaphysitism. The peninsula had been a destination for Jewish migration since pre-Roman times, which had resulted in a diaspora community supplemented by local converts. Additionally, the influence of the Sasanian Empire resulted in Iranian religions being present in the peninsula. While Zoroastrianism existed in the eastern and southern Arabia, there was no existence of Manichaeism in Mecca. Buddhism is also but rarely practiced as well.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The art is similar to that of neighbouring cultures. Pre-Islamic Yemen produced stylized alabaster (the most common material for sculpture) heads of great aesthetic and historic charm.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The early 7th century in Arabia began with the longest and most destructive period of the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars. It left both the Byzantine and Sassanid empires exhausted and susceptible to third-party attacks, particularly from nomadic Arabs united under a newly formed religion. According to historian George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The demographic situation also favoured Arab expansion: overpopulation and lack of resources encouraged Arabs to migrate out of Arabia.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Before the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628, the Plague of Justinian had erupted (541-542), spreading through Persia and into Byzantine territory. The Byzantine historian Procopius, who witnessed the plague, documented that citizens died at a rate of 10,000 per day in Constantinople. The exact number; however, is often disputed by contemporary historians. Both empires were permanently weakened by the pandemic as their citizens struggled to deal with death as well as heavy taxation, which increased as each empire campaigned for more territory.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Despite almost succumbing to the plague, Byzantine emperor Justinian I (reigned 527–565) attempted to resurrect the might of the Roman Empire by expanding into Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula had a long coastline for merchant ships and an area of lush vegetation known as the Fertile Crescent which could help fund his expansion into Europe and North Africa. The drive into Persian territory would also put an end to tribute payments to the Sasanians, which resulted in an agreement to give of tribute to the Persians annually in exchange for a ceasefire.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: However, Justinian could not afford further losses in Arabia. The Byzantines and the Sasanians sponsored powerful nomadic mercenaries from the desert with enough power to trump the possibility of aggression in Arabia. Justinian viewed his mercenaries as so valued for preventing conflict that he awarded their chief with the titles of patrician, phylarch, and king – the highest honours that he could bestow on anyone. By the late 6th century, an uneasy peace remained until disagreements erupted between the mercenaries and their patron empires.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: The Byzantines' ally was a Christian Arabic tribe from the frontiers of the desert known as the Ghassanids. The Sasanians' ally; the Lakhmids, were also Christian Arabs, but from what is now Iraq. However, denominational disagreements about God forced a schism in the alliances. The Byzantines' official religion was Orthodox Christianity, which believed that Jesus Christ and God were two natures within one entity. The Ghassanids, as Monophysite Christians from Iraq, believed that God and Jesus Christ were only one nature. This disagreement proved irreconcilable and resulted in a permanent break in the alliance.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: Meanwhile, the Sassanid Empire broke its alliance with the Lakhmids due to false accusations that the Lakhmids' leader had committed treason; the Sasanians annexed the Lakhmid kingdom in 602. The fertile lands and important trade routes of Iraq were now open ground for upheaval.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: When the military stalemate was finally broken and it seemed that Byzantium had finally gained the upper hand in battle, nomadic Arabs invaded from the desert frontiers, bringing with them a new social order that emphasized religious devotion over tribal membership.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: By the time the last Byzantine-Sassanid war came to an end in 628, Arabia had started to unite under Muhammad's politico-religious leadership. The Muslims were able to launch attacks against both empires, which resulted in destruction of the Sassanid Empire and the conquest of Byzantium's territories in the Levant, the Caucasus, Egypt, Syria and North Africa.


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: "Within the lifetime of some of the children who met Muhammad and sat on the Prophet's knees, Arab armies controlled the land mass that extended from the Pyrenees Mountains in Europe to the Indus River valley in South Asia. In less than a century, Arabs had come to rule over an area that spanned five thousand miles."


title: Pre-Islamic Arabia

text: On 9 June 2020, the discovery of a 35-meter long triangular megalithic monument in Dumat al-Jandal dated back to VI millennium BC which presumably dedicated to ritual practices was published in the journal Antiquity. Archaeological researchers from France, Saudi Arabia and Italy, headed by Olivia Munoz believe that these findings illuminate a pastoralist nomadic lifestyle and a ritual used in prehistoric Arabia.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Kena: Bridge of Spirits is a 2021 action-adventure video game developed and published by Ember Lab. The story follows Kena, a young spirit guide who uses her magical abilities to help deceased people move from the physical to the spirit world. The game is presented through a third-person perspective. The player uses Kena's staff for attacking enemies, and her pulse ability for defending against attacks. They are tasked with collecting small spirit companions known as the Rot, who help to complete tasks and battle against enemies.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: The game's development was led by brothers Mike and Josh Grier, founders of Ember Lab. Having spent five years creating commercials and branded applications, the development team shifted to creating an original video game after 2016. They partnered with Sony Interactive Entertainment for a console-exclusive deal, and grew the team to 15 core employees. The game's art was created in collaboration with Vietnamese animation studio Sparx, and its fictional world is inspired by Eastern locations such as Japan and Bali. The original score was composed by Jason Gallaty, who collaborated with Balinese ensemble group Gamelan Çudamani to create gamelan music respectful to the culture.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: "Kena: Bridge of Spirits" was showcased at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2021. Following some delays, partly due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the game was released on September 21, 2021, for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows. It received generally positive reviews, with particular praise directed at its artistic design, original music, and the use of the Rot; critics were divided on the gameplay, narrative, and characters. It received several awards and nominations from video game publications and awards ceremonies.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: "Kena: Bridge of Spirits" is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective. The player controls Kena, a young spirit guide with magical abilities. In combat, the player uses Kena's staff for light, heavy, and charged attacks. An upgrade transforms the staff into a bow, which can be used to attack enemies, act as a grappling hook, or hit crystals to solve puzzles. When defending against enemies, the player can activate Kena's pulse ability, which acts as a shield and has a health meter that depletes when attacked; it serves to provide clues and activate objects, and an upgrade allows the player to dash forwards, which can be used to pass through barriers to the Spirit Realm, dodge attacks and stun enemies, and corporealize spirit enemies. Activating the pulse ability before an attack stuns the enemy. The player gains the ability to use Spirit Bombs, which can be used to float shimmering rocks for platforming or as an attack against enemies.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: The player is tasked with collecting small spirit companions known as the Rot. They can be directed to complete tasks, such as moving objects, taking certain shapes, or distracting enemies. The player must damage enemies to collect enough courage before the Rot can join battles. Directing the Rot to complete a task during battle will expend courage, which can be regained by continuing to attack enemies and collecting the dropped courage. The Rot can infuse the player's arrows or bombs to provide a stronger attack. The Rot can be customized with different hats, which are discovered by completing tasks or opening chests; when discovered, they become available at the Rot Hat Cart, where they are purchasable using Gems earned and discovered throughout the game world. The player earns karma by completing tasks and finding collectibles, which is used to unlock upgrades and abilities such as more powerful attacks or a stronger shield. Throughout the world, the player may discover spirit mail, which is used to unlock areas within the village and free the spirits within. The player may find locations to meditate; doing so will increase their overall health bar. The game utilizes the DualSense controller's haptic feedback for features such as Kena's spirit bow.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: In the world of "Kena: Bridge of Spirits", deceased people can remain between the physical and spirit worlds if they are traumatized or feel unfinished. The task of spirit guides is to understand their difficulties and help them to move on. In the game, a young spirit guide named Kena (Dewa Ayu Dewi Larassanti) travels to an abandoned village in search of the sacred Mountain Shrine. She collects small companions called the Rot, who help her throughout her journey. On the way to the village, she confronts a powerful masked spirit who reveals himself to be the cause of corruption in the forest, forcing it to decay and unleashing deadly monsters on the land. Kena insists she can help his spirit move on, but he refuses and leaves. In the village, Kena meets former elder Zajuro (Vlasta Vrána), who informs her she must help the trapped spirits before being granted passage to the shrine.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Kena follows the spirits of two young children, Saiya (Sam Cavallaro) and Beni (Joshua Vincent), whose older brother Taro (Tod Fennell) is a restless spirit struggling to move on. After discovering relics of Taro's memories, Kena defeats the corruption that has overtaken him. Taro tells her, after a sickness killed their parents and spread throughout the village, he took his siblings and sought help from Rusu (Alan Adelberg) but they were told to return to the village. On the journey back, Taro witnessed the explosion of the Mountain Shrine; its impact wiped out the village. As a spirit, he desperately searched for his siblings, but the corruption overwhelmed him. Kena tells Taro to forgive himself, and that his siblings need him; he embraces them, and their spirits move on.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Kena seeks to help the village's Woodsmith, Adira (Amber Goldfarb); on the way, she encounters the spirit of Adira's partner, Hana (Gita Miller). After Kena finds relics of Adira's memories, Adira tells her she and Hana had discovered how to focus the energy of the Mountain within the Village Heart, but it had started to fade. When the sickness began to spread throughout the village, Hana left to search for food and supplies, but never returned. To help Hana find her way home, Adira built a tower and put the Village Heart at the top of it; while doing so, the Mountain Shrine exploded, wiping her out. Kena tells Adira to forgive herself, and the work she built with Hana would forever be a part of the land; Adira and Hana embrace, and their spirits move on.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: To reach the Mountain Shrine, Kena attempts to help the powerful masked spirit, revealed to be the former village leader Toshi (Masashi Odate), but his corruption overpowers her. Kena finds relics of Toshi's past in the spirit realm and attempts to free him of corruption, but he overpowers her again and takes control of the Rot. She confronts him atop the mountain, where he fuses the Rot with corruption to create a giant corrupted Rot monster. Kena takes back the Rot and defeats the creature. Toshi tells Kena he sought answers after the village was overcome with sickness; Zajuro told him it was the natural cycle of the Rot God and they must find a new home, but Toshi refused. He confronted the Rot God atop the Mountain to inquire about the suffering inflicted upon his people. The Rot God did not answer, provoking Toshi to kill it and causing the explosion that wiped out the village and its inhabitants. Kena tells Toshi to forgive himself, and his and Zajuro's spirits move on. Kena bids farewell to the Rot, revealed to be fragments of the Rot God. The Rot combines to restore the spirit of the Rot God while Kena meditates on the Mountain Shrine.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: "Kena: Bridge of Spirits" was developed by Ember Lab, an independent studio based in Los Angeles. Founded in 2009 by brothers Mike and Josh Grier, the studio has worked on several animated commercials and branded game applications, and in 2016 released a viral short film based on "" titled "Terrible Fate". Following the release of "Terrible Fate", the development team felt creating a video game was the "natural next step". When they started developing the story for "Kena: Bridge of Spirits", Ember Lab considered an animated film or series; when they created the Rot, they realized a video game would be more appropriate, as the creatures provided a connection between gameplay and narrative.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Along with a small team, Mike used his experience with programming to create a prototype over several years, before employing staff with more extensive development experience. Once the prototype was complete, in March 2017 the team began pitching to potential publishing partners with assistance from industry veteran Tina Kowalewski. They found several publishers were familiar with their work on "Terrible Fate". Ember Lab signed a console-exclusive deal with Sony Interactive Entertainment in October 2017. The team grew to 15 core employees, with additional help outsourced to other studios. Mike Grier handled the creative elements of the studio, while Josh worked with the business and managerial side.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: In October 2020, former designer Brandon Popovich claimed Ember Lab did not fully compensate him for his work on the game and failed to honor promises made regarding equity and a promotion; an anonymous source issued similar claims, accusing the company of unpaid overtime and unfulfilled promises of a full-time position. Ember Lab responded, claiming it had records of all invoices being paid and denying any promises of equity or promotions.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: For the game's art, Ember Lab partnered with Vietnamese animation studio Sparx. The team visited the studio in Vietnam early in development to ensure a smooth process. Lead environment artist Julian Vermeulen, who worked with Mike Grier on the original prototype in 2016, worked with both studios. An early prototype used the Unity game engine, but later shifted to Unreal Engine 4. The majority of development took place on PlayStation 4; the team was unsure if they would be provided a development kit for the PlayStation 5, but Sony eventually approved. The team wanted to make a "rich experience" that could be completed in a weekend. The game's fictional world is inspired by several Eastern locations, including Japan and Bali. The symbols throughout the game are inspired by Japanese and South East Asian cultures. Combat designer James Beck, who started on the project as animator and lighting/shading artist before transitioning to combat, found working on character animations and enemy behavior simultaneously led to a more seamless integration.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: For some time during development, Kena had a separate spirit meter for each ability; however, the team ultimately wanted difficulty in combat to derive from enemies and their attacks rather than resource management—they wanted gameplay to be enjoyable with some depth, but ultimately simple for the player to understand. The ability to cancel animations during gameplay was seen as imperative as it allowed better pacing and responsiveness. Mike and Josh Grier often delayed game testing throughout development as they wanted to present a higher quality product to testers; they ultimately felt testing should have begun earlier in development.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Earlier prototypes of the game focused on the Rot as antagonists, and did not feature Kena. When the team created Kena, she was initially younger—around seven or eight years old—but they felt the story and themes required a more experienced and mature protagonist. She originally lacked many powers and relied more heavily on the Rot to complete tasks, which Mike Grier compared to the 2009 game "A Boy and His Blob". After exploring more concepts, the team made Kena strong on her own, but more powerful when teamed with the Rot. Lead character designer Vic Kun designed Kena's appearance to match the world while standing out. At one point, Kena had a long cape, but its animation was deemed too distracting and it was replaced with a shawl. Kun intended her clothes to feel asymmetrical, handmade, and practical. The original 3D prototype model of Kena was built by Rodrigo Gonçalves, who refined the real-time rendering on details such as the character's hair. For Kena's hair, the team discovered a blend between solid geometry (for effective lighting and defined shapes) and alpha planes (for individual hair details). Similar work was applied to Kena's clothing and staff, intended to reflect the character's tradition and devotion. The team created a digital library for Kena's facial expressions, hair, and hands, allowing a fast method to select different poses and ensure refinement and consistency in the character.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Kena is a young Asian girl. Josh Grier said the team "always planned for a unique lead character that gamers haven't seen before". Dewa Ayu Dewi Larassanti, who voices Kena, originally became involved in the project through her parents, who founded the Balinese ensemble group Gamelan Çudamani and worked with Ember Lab on the game's score; Larassanti performed on some of the songs. Larassanti was chosen for the role partly due to her connections to both Balinese and American cultures, having frequently traveled between the two countries as a child. She found the game's themes were aligned with her life experiences in Bali, and used her knowledge of Balinese culture from her father when interpreting Kena; for example, she would speak in a softer and more formal tone when interacting with her elders. Similarly, she treated the Rot akin to how Balinese people treat the Sesuhunan, the sacred spirits from whom they often ask for blessings and protection.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Larassanti found her studies—a major in world arts and cultures and a minor in ethnomusicology at the University of California, Los Angeles—helped with "opening [her] mind up" for the role. She regularly recorded with Ember Lab on weekends to avoid disruptions with class. Larassanti often rehearsed with her mother, a voice actress, before performing for the role; she used her mother's home recording studio to record her performance. She studied interactions between actors in games like "Grand Theft Auto", as well as static or fighting sounds from shows like "" and "The Legend of Korra". The physicality of the role led Larassanti to move while recording, often hitting the microphone or the walls of the recording booth. She would intentionally argue with her brother before recording combat sequences in order to make her performance more believable. She performed most of her recording in mid-2020.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: The game's characters were hand-animated using keyframe animation to add more detailed personality. The team wanted the player to feel connected to the Rot by using subtleties of emotion during the game, and use this bond for effective combat gameplay; the creatures were often the focus of development when achieving a specific tone. For his portrayal as Taro, Tod Fennell "made [his] voice a little more vulnerable" to contrast with the corrupted version of Taro (played by a different actor). When depicting Taro's pain and grief, Fennell recalled his feelings of "anger, vulnerability, sadness, and guilt" he felt at 23 when his mother died. He said, after losing a loved one, "it's really hard not to go over what you think you should or could have done differently". Fennell felt working with the smaller team at Ember Lab made the process of his performance more "accessible", and he was surprised by the length and content of the script compared to his previous video game work. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic preventing travel, Ember Lab sent recording equipment to Masashi Odate's home in Japan so he could record his lines for Toshi; while recording fight scenes, he was visited by a concerned security guard. For her role as Saiya, Sam Cavallaro took inspiration from her own life as a protective big sister. She recorded her lines while talking to the development team on Zoom.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: The game's original score was composed by Jason Gallaty. Gallaty listened to gamelan music for inspiration, and reached out to gamelan groups in 2017 to seek a collaboration, wanting to remain respectful to the culture. He originally reached out to Balinese ensemble group Gamelan Sekar Jaya, who referred him to Gamelan Çudamani. Çudamani's associate director and lead singer Emiko Saraswati Susilo was initially hesitant, not wanting traditional gamelan music to be featured in a video game, but agreed to collaborate after speaking to the team and resonating with the game's themes; she presented an "orientation" of Balinese culture to Gallaty and the development team, ensuring they would be respectful.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Gallaty and Mike Grier traveled to Bali to record with the group. Çudamani's founding director, Dewa Putu Berata, created original compositions based on footage and descriptions of the game. When Gallaty presented samples of sacred music, Berata would inform him if it was inappropriate, and instead create a new composition with a similar feeling. For one piece of music, Gallaty was inspired by an Indonesian funeral chant; upon discovering its origin, Susilo and Berata used it as inspiration for a new piece, not wanting to disrespect its original usage. The game features music with vocals from Larassanti, Susilo and Berata's daughter, who voices Kena; her performance was recorded "last-minute" while on tour in 2018. Despite being influenced by the films of Disney, the team avoided in-game musical performances to keep the game more grounded.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: The game was announced alongside its debut trailer on June 11, 2020, at PlayStation's "Future of Gaming" event, scheduled for release in late 2020 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows. In September 2020, Ember Lab delayed the game to Q1 2021, citing development delays as a result of working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic. In a Sony trailer at the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2021, the game's release window was noted in fine print as March 2021; Sony later removed the fine print from the trailer. During Sony's State of Play presentation in February 2021, a release date of August 24 was set alongside the release of a new trailer. In July 2021, Ember Lab delayed the game again to September 21, citing a need for more time to ensure the game was polished across all platforms. The final pre-release trailer was published on September 20, 2021. The game is a timed console exclusive, and the Windows release was exclusive to the Epic Games Store for one year; it was released on Steam on September 27, 2022. Players who purchase the PlayStation 4 version are able to upgrade for free to the PlayStation 5 version.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: "Kena: Bridge of Spirits" was showcased at the 2021 Tribeca Film Festival, allowing virtual attendees to play an hour-long demo; it competed for the inaugural Tribeca Games Award. The Tribeca Game Spotlight included a new trailer for the game, showcasing new gameplay. Reception to the game's demo was positive; critics compared it to "Pikmin", "The Legend of Zelda", and the films of Pixar. Lauren Morton of "PC Gamer" described the game as "a compact, confident action adventure in a world that belongs on a theater screen", and Sam Loveridge of "GamesRadar+" called it one of the most anticipated games of the year. On September 20, 2021, Ember Lab announced the game would feature a photo mode, allowing photographs to be taken in-game. A physical version of the game for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 was announced, released by Maximum Games on November 19, 2021. Following the game's release, Mike Grier said Ember Lab was considering possible expansions to the game's combat, and Josh Grier said they would consider releases on other platforms after launch. Josh Grier said the team was unsure if they would make a sequel, but they are willing to explore other mediums like television or film. Three Halloween-style Rot hats were added to the game for a limited time in October 2021, followed by three Christmas-style hats in December, and a tiger hat for Lunar New Year in February 2022.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: The game received a content update for its first anniversary on September 27, 2022, adding New Game+, accessibility features, selectable outfits for Kena, equipable charmstones that adjust gameplay, and a new game mode called the Spirit Guide Trials. The team wanted the outfits to take some player expertise to obtain, and remind the player of the characters they had met throughout the story; each outfit is based on a different set of characters and takes elements from each, such as Rusu's cape and Hana's satchel. The addition of the outfits allowed the animation team to revisit cloth physics, often requiring hand animation for specific poses. The outfits are unlocked as the player complex Spirit Guide Trials, which become available through story progression, and color variants of the outfits are unlocked by completing bonus objectives during the Spirit Guide Trials. Deluxe Edition owners received an exclusive outfit. The original soundtrack was remastered and expanded for the anniversary.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: "Kena: Bridge of Spirits" received "generally favorable reviews", according to review aggregator Metacritic. Mitchell Saltzman of "IGN" described it as "a wonderful first game from Ember Lab, combining its outstanding pedigree in art and animation with some really solid combat, fantastic world design, and a great balance of action, platforming, puzzle solving, and exploration". Giovanni Colantonio of "Digital Trends" called it an "exquisitely crafted adventure that fuses classic and modern game design concepts with ease", while Phil Hornshaw of "GameSpot" wrote it is "an exciting, often heartbreaking journey that will make you want to explore every corner and crevice to see all that you can". In a less positive review, "Kotaku"s Alex Walker described it as a "mechanically comforting and a constant visual pleasure, albeit lacking in a little ambition".


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Reviewers particularly praised the game's artistic design; some critics were unsurprised considering Ember Lab's previous work, and several drew comparisons to the films of Pixar, DreamWorks Animation, and Studio Ghibli. "IGN"s Saltzman lauded the facial animation and character designs, and "PCMag"s Tony Polanco wrote they added personality to the characters. Ozzie Mejia of "Shacknews" considered the game's visuals among the best of the PlayStation 5, and Colantonio of "Digital Trends" wrote the developer was "pushing video game animation to its limits". Rachel Weber of "GamesRadar+" praised the enemy designs, noting they continued to feel alive even when duplicated. The detailed environments and variation of color in the art design was praised. Some critics noticed a discrepancy between the gameplay and cutscenes, with the latter produced at a lower frame rate; Alan Wen of "NME" considered this outdated, comparing it to PlayStation 2 games. "VentureBeat"s Mike Minotti lauded the art design but found it began to become "a little monotonous", while "Eurogamer"s Malindy Hetfeld questioned the use of Balinese and Japanese iconography due to the absence of explanation.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Several critics found the game's exploration and puzzles to be satisfying, imaginative, and rewarding, while others felt the puzzles became repetitive, or their solutions were too simple. Colantonio of "Digital Trends" appreciated the clear purpose of each tool and mechanic, and "GamesRadar+"s Weber thought the best puzzles in the game were the most challenging. "Push Square"s Stephen Tailby appreciated the game's progression and pacing, while "IGN"s Saltzman considered it more limiting in terms of player growth. Mejia of "Shacknews" felt the bow improved the game's traversal puzzles, but the bombs began to "feel awkward and clumsy". "GamesRadar+"s Weber found the explanation of the new skills unclear, and "Video Games Chronicle"s Jordan Middler wrote they added little to the combat sequences. Several critics lauded the challenge and satisfaction of the combat; "GameSpot"s Hornshaw called it "generally tough and exciting" and the addition of the Rot made it "feel fun and intelligent". Conversely, some reviewers found the combat basic or uninspired, and the dodge and parry to be inconsistent or useless; "Eurogamer"s Hetfeld said the difficulty was unbalanced between standard fights and boss battles. Reviewers praised the game's fast loading times on PlayStation 5 and the integration of the DualSense; on Windows, "PC Gamer"s Kemp noted some dips in frame rate during the game's second half.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: The game's Rot creatures were praised by critics, many of whom drew comparisons to the titular creatures of the "Pikmin" series. Several reviewers lauded the Rot's involvement in the game's combat; "GameSpot"s Hetfeld wrote the Rot "makes "Kena" stand apart from similar games", and "GamesRadar+"s Weber felt they "heighten every other aspect" of the game. Paul Tamburro of "GameRevolution" said the creatures demonstrated the developer's animation skills and appreciated their customization. "Push Square"s Tailby found the creatures enjoyable in all interactions, and "NME"s Wen considered them to have more personality than Kena. Conversely, Middler of "Video Games Chronicle" wrote the Rot "almost feels like an exercise in marketing".


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Mejia of "Shacknews" found the game's narrative to be powerful and emotional, noting it was "so touching that mechanical shortcomings can be forgiven". Colantonio of "Digital Trends" favorably compared the game's story to Hayao Miyazaki films like "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind" and "Princess Mononoke", considering it one of the game's best elements. "Push Square"s Tailby thought the narrative was predictable but "hits an optimistic yet bittersweet tone, akin to any number of animated films" from the last decade. Middler of "Video Games Chronicle" remarked a discrepancy in the game's story and the player's actions, and described the writing as a "something you'd see in a B-tier Illumination animation". Matusiak of "Gry-Online" and Wen of "NME" found the narrative unmemorable; similarly, Tamburro of "GameRevolution" considered it forgettable, noting the lack of emotion in its delivery of its themes of bereavement and loss were unaffecting. "PC Gamer"s Kemp said the story felt incomplete. Shubhankar Parijat of "GamingBolt" felt the backstory and details of the game's world told a better story than the main narrative.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: "GameSpot"s Hornshaw wrote the character interactions made each area of the world feel more alive. Mejia of "Shacknews" considered the character arcs to be "heartbreaking". Conversely, some reviewers thought the characters were undeveloped or uninteresting. "Kotaku"s Walker lauded the developer's skill in character animation, though "Push Square"s Tailby found some character designs to be "a bit lacking"; "Eurogamer"s Hetfeld wrote the Pixar-inspired character designs "made it difficult for me to tell if all these characters with Japanese names were in fact Japanese". Several reviewers criticized the lack of character development for the protagonist, Kena; "IGN"s Saltzman wanted to learn more, and "PC Gamer"s Kemp was curious enough about her story to keep playing. Some critics lauded the cast's performances—Antistar of "Jeuxvideo.com" praised Larassanti's performance as Kena, and Walker of "Kotaku" applauded Odate as Toshi—while others criticized the voice acting; "NME"s Kemp noted a preference for a silent protagonist and gibberish-speaking supporting characters.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Reviewers lauded the game's music. "Jeuxvideo.com"s Antistar appreciated its atmosphere and attention to detail, considering it unforgettable. Hornshaw of "GameSpot" described the score as "excellent" and "immersive", and Jordan Devore of "Destructoid" found it "tranquil" with "a few earworms". "GameRevolution"s Tamburro praised the reflection of the Balinese music on the game's cultural influence. Andrew Reiner of "Game Informer" "found [himself] humming along to the excellently composed low-key melodies". "Gry-Online"s Matusiak praised the atmospheric soundtrack, though noted a lack of effective sound design during combat.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: Several critics commented on the game's originality and its borrowing of successful elements from other popular games, with both favorable and unfavorable comparisons to "Beyond Good & Evil", "Jak and Daxter", and "The Legend of Zelda". Colantonio of "Digital Trends" found its familiar structural beats "warm" and "comforting", and Saltzman of "IGN" considered it "simple and formulaic, but it works elegantly". "Kotaku"s Walker compared the game to PlayStation-era platformers like "Spyro the Dragon" and "Ty the Tasmanian Tiger", though noted critical comparisons felt harsh for a first-time production from a small studio like Ember Lab. "Push Square"s Tailby appreciated the callback to PlayStation 2-era action platformers; similarly, Devore of "Destructoid" compared it to "a gorgeous, modern-day take on a tried-and-true older-era platformer", which he considered "basic". Antistar of "Jeuxvideo.com" noted a feeling of familiarity in the game, but appreciated its uniqueness in its personality. Ewan Wilson of "Polygon" wrote the "absence of any original identity" signaled a lack of imagination, highlighting particular similarities with Studio Ghibli and its films like "Princess Mononoke"; Wilson described the game as ""God of War" without the gruesome finishing moves ... "Ghost of Tsushima" without the expansive cast of characters ... "Horizon Zero Dawn" without the sprawling scope". Wen of "NME" hoped Ember Lab would continue to build on its inspirations for a more original project in future.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: "Kena: Bridge of Spirits" was awarded Game of the Year from "Houston Press", and was ranked among the year's best by "Ars Technica", "GameSpot", "GamesRadar+", and "USA Today". It was nominated for PlayStation Game of the Year at the 39th Annual Golden Joystick Awards. At The Game Awards 2021, it won Best Independent Game and Best Debut Indie Game; it was nominated for Best Art Direction and was included in the first round of 30 games selected for the audience-voted Players' Voice award. From "PlayStation Blog", the game won Independent Game of the Year and was fourth runner-up for Best Graphical Showcase. It won Best Indie at the inaugural Arab Game Awards, and was nominated for one award at the 49th Annie Awards, 18th British Academy Games Awards, 33rd GLAAD Media Awards, and 11th Annual New York Game Awards, two at the 22nd Game Developers Choice Awards, and four at the 25th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards. It led the nominees at the SXSW Gaming Awards with four nominations, of which it won one, and it won one of its two nominations at the Webby Awards. The main theme music, "Beneath Worlds", won Best Main Theme at the 20th Annual Game Audio Network Guild Awards.


title: Kena: Bridge of Spirits

text: "Kena: Bridge of Spirits" was the most-downloaded PlayStation 5 game of September 2021 in Europe, and the third-most in North America; the PlayStation 4 version was 16th in Europe. By October 2021, the game had broke-even; Josh Grier said Sony was "happy" with the results. In October 2021, it was the fifth-most-downloaded PlayStation 5 game in Europe and fifteenth in North America; in December, it was ninth in North America. For the year overall, it was the seventh-most-downloaded PlayStation 5 game in Europe, and the twentieth in North America. In January 2022, it ranked twelfth in Europe and eighteenth in North America; it ranked seventeenth in Europe in February, and thirteenth in Europe and nineteenth in North America in April.


title: Lil Mosey

text: Lathan Moses Stanley Echols (born January 25, 2002), known professionally as Lil Mosey, is an American rapper, singer, and songwriter. He rose to fame in late 2017 with the release of his single "Pull Up". Mosey's debut studio album "Northsbest" (2018) included his first "Billboard" Hot 100 charting single, "Noticed". His second studio album, "Certified Hitmaker" (2019), peaked at number 12 on the US "Billboard" 200, and contains his 2019 hit single "Stuck in a Dream". In 2020, Mosey released the highest-charting single of his career, "Blueberry Faygo", which peaked at number 8 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Lil Mosey

text: In April 2021, Mosey was charged with second degree rape in Lewis County, Washington. He is currently out on bail, and his trial is expected to start in December 2022.


title: Lil Mosey

text: Lathan Moses Stanley Echols was born on January 25, 2002, in Mountlake Terrace, Washington, to a white mother and a half-Puerto Rican, half-black father. He was raised by his mother in the north side of Seattle. He began rapping in his early teens and started his music career in the eighth grade. Echols first attended Mountlake Terrace High School, then transferred to Shorecrest High School in the tenth grade. He later dropped out of school following the success of his song "Pull Up", and went on to pursue his career, heading to Los Angeles to record.


title: Lil Mosey

text: In 2016, Lil Mosey uploaded his first song, titled "So Bad", to the music streaming service SoundCloud, quickly receiving 50,000 views. On November 13, 2016, Mosey competed and placed fourth at the Coast 2 Coast Live Seattle All Ages Edition.


title: Lil Mosey

text: "Pull Up" was Mosey's first released track and served as his debut commercial single. Its music video reached over 25 million views on YouTube in the first 16 months upon its release. On March 14, 2018, Mosey released his second commercial single "Boof Pack". Its music video was released on the WorldStarHipHop channel, and received over 13 million views on YouTube in just over a year after its release. Around four months later, he released "Noticed" as his third commercial single alongside a music video directed by Cole Bennett. The music video has gone on to become one of the most popular videos on Lyrical Lemonade, amassing over 275 million views to date. In the video, "Mosey and his friends live the good life as they relax in a luxury apartment, which overlooks a beautiful beach".


title: Lil Mosey

text: On October 19, 2018, he released his debut studio album titled "Northsbest", which includes all three of his previously released singles and eight other tracks. The only artist featured is BlocBoy JB, on "Yoppa", the album's fourth single, which was released two weeks before the album. "Northsbest" also spawned multiple songs that became sleeper hits after the album's release, such as "Kamikaze", "Burberry Headband" and "Greet Her". "Kamikaze", the album's opening track, was supported by a Lyrical Lemonade music video, which boosted its popularity. The music video has been viewed over 80 million times to date.


title: Lil Mosey

text: Mosey started off 2019 by releasing the single "Bust Down Cartier" on March 15. Produced by Mosey himself, it was added to the re-release of his debut studio album "Northsbest", titled "Northsbest (Extended)", with that being the only additional song. The song was supported by a Cole Bennett-directed music video on Lyrical Lemonade, which has garnered over 15 million views to date. Three months later, he released "G Walk", the lead single for his upcoming second studio album "Certified Hitmaker". The song features American singer Chris Brown. This was followed up by "Stuck in a Dream" on September 17, featuring fellow American rapper Gunna. The song peaked at number 62 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, overtaking the number 80 peak of "Noticed". The song's music video, which premiered on Mosey's official YouTube channel on the same day, has amassed over 40 million views to date.


title: Lil Mosey

text: On November 8, 2019, "Certified Hitmaker" was released, containing the two aforementioned singles as well as "Live This Wild", the album's third single which was released three days earlier. The album features additional guest appearances from rappers Trippie Redd and AJ Tracey.


title: Lil Mosey

text: On February 7, 2020, Mosey released the single "Blueberry Faygo", after it garnered traction and went viral after being leaked on streaming platform Spotify throughout 2019. The song debuted at number 62 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, tying with "Stuck in a Dream". It later became his highest-peaking song on the "Billboard" Hot 100, peaking at number 8 and charting well internationally. "Certified Hitmaker" was reissued on the same day to include "Blueberry Faygo", the only addition on the tracklist. The song's music video premiered a month later on Lyrical Lemonade, and has amassed over 275 million views since then. It has also gone on to become one of the most viewed music videos on the channel, together with "Noticed". This was notably Mosey's fourth collaboration with Cole Bennett, after 2018's "Noticed" and "Kamikaze", and 2019's "Bust Down Cartier".


title: Lil Mosey

text: On June 26, Mosey released the single "Back at It", featuring fellow American rapper Lil Baby, in anticipation for the release of the album's deluxe edition. The second single of the deluxe, "Top Gone", was released on August 5, featuring Puerto Rican rapper Lunay. The deluxe edition of "Certified Hitmaker", marketed as "Certified Hitmaker (AVA Leak)", was released on August 14, 2020. It includes the two singles as well as three additional tracks.


title: Lil Mosey

text: On August 30, during an interview with The Hollywood Fix, Mosey teased a new project by playing a snippet of new music. The project was later announced to be a new mixtape titled "Universal". The mixtape will act as a transition between "Certified Hitmaker", and his upcoming third studio album: "The Land of Make Believe". On October 1, 2020, Mosey released a video on his YouTube channel celebrating the world premiere of FIFA 21, which doubles as the trailer for "Universal". In it, Mosey wears a custom jersey and performs a medley of his songs "Bands Out Tha Roof", "Blueberry Faygo", and "Live This Wild", respectively.


title: Lil Mosey

text: Throughout 2020, Mosey appeared on various artists' songs, most notably "Wrong" by Australian rapper The Kid Laroi, a song from his debut commercial mixtape "F*ck Love". The song's music video premiered on September 18 and was directed by American social media personality Logan Paul. It also starred American pornstar Lana Rhoades, which contributed to the video's popularity, having been viewed over 60 million times. Mosey also appeared on various other songs like "Lost Me", a song by American record label Internet Money, which also features fellow American rappers Iann Dior and Lil Skies, "Only The Team" by Jamaican record producer Rvssian, which also features fellow American rapper Lil Tjay, "Vicious" by Canadian singer Tate McRae, "Thug Kry" by fellow American rapper YG, "No Honorable Mentions" by fellow American rapper Trippie Redd, which also features American rapper Quavo, "Krabby Step", with fellow American rappers Tyga and Swae Lee, from the soundtrack for ""., as well as "Bussin' Out", a song by American producer DJ Scheme, which also features American singer Ty Dolla $ign.


title: Lil Mosey

text: On November 13, 2020, Mosey released "Jumpin Out the Face", as the originally intended lead single for his upcoming mixtape "Universal", along with an accompanying music video.


title: Lil Mosey

text: On January 25, 2021, his nineteenth birthday, Mosey celebrated by releasing "Holy Water", as the second single for "Universal". Two weeks later, he released the third single, "Enough", which coincided with a Valentine's Day release. On March 15, he released the fourth single, "Try Me". Its music video premiered the next day, and has been viewed over 13 million times. Soon after, on March 26, Mosey was featured on "Jetski", a single by American record label Internet Money. The song also features fellow American rapper Lil Tecca, with whom Mosey had been feuding with since 2019. Thus the song marked the squashing of their ongoing feud. Being Internet Money's first single of 2021, an accompanying music video was released a day later on Internet Money's official YouTube channel to promote the song, which has garnered over 20 million views to date. "Jetski" has gone on to become Mosey's most successful release post "Blueberry Faygo". After Mosey's rape allegations surfaced in April 2021, he took a three month hiatus from music, before returning with "How I Been" and "Problem Solvin" in July, which were two songs uploaded exclusively on his official YouTube channel. Two months later on September 1, he released a standalone single "Pass Out", his first song released without the backing of his label, Interscope Records. On November 9, Mosey uploaded a combined music video for "So Fast" and "Speed Racin", which were two songs from his second studio album "Certified Hitmaker", to commemorate the album's two year anniversary. Mosey then released the single "Not The Same God As Mine" on December 10, as his first official single post-allegations.


title: Lil Mosey

text: This was followed up by multiple standalone singles released in early 2022, including "Ain't It A Flex", "Falling", and "Breathin Again". On May 26, 2022, Mosey had a guest appearance on "Bipolar", a single by Argentine rapper LIT killah. On October 6, Mosey announced the release of an EP titled "UNI", marking the start of the rollout for "Universal". The 3-track EP was released two weeks later on October 19, containing the songs "Paid Up", "Drop Top", and "Sick Today". All three songs were followed up with individual music videos on Mosey's YouTube channel over the next two weeks. On November 7, Mosey announced the release of a second EP titled "VER". It was surprise released on November 29, containing three songs: "Backpack", "Matte Red/Sum He Said", and "Rocket". The third and final EP of the series, "SAL", is expected to be released in December.


title: Lil Mosey

text: His first signee was Jae Lynx, who released his debut single "Bad Girl Vibes" under the label on November 6, 2020. On January 14, 2021, Lynx released his second single "Regrets" with YNW BSlime.


title: Lil Mosey

text: Lil Mosey is known for his melodic flow and lyrics that are tailored to his life. When asked if the term "mumble rap" applies to him in an interview with Complex, Lil Mosey says "I wouldn't consider myself a mumble rapper, because I don't know what that is. But when I talk, I mumble." Although Lil Mosey does not consider his sound to be similar to Meek Mill's, he does consider the rapper an influence as in an interview with XXL Magazine, he describes how he would always listen to Meek Mill's song "Dreams and Nightmares" when he was younger. When asked in the same interview about what comparisons he has drawn, Mosey responded "Music-wise, they be comparing me to Drake".


title: Lil Mosey

text: Lil Mosey has toured with rappers Smooky MarGielaa, Lil Tjay, Polo G and Smokepurpp. In 2018, Lil Mosey was on tour with Juice Wrld and YBN Cordae, serving as the opening act for Juice Wrld's WRLD Domination Tour. He has also received a co-sign from Lil Xan, and he says his first real live performance as an established artist came when Lil Xan brought him on stage during his concert in Seattle. The rapper also performed at Rolling Loud in 2018. Lil Mosey has also toured with Sauve and Bandkidjay. He has given free performances, such as one in Seattle for a baby toy drive. He toured Europe, Canada and the US on the Certified Hitmaker Tour.


title: Lil Mosey

text: On April 2, 2021, Echols was charged with one count of second-degree rape in Lewis County, Washington, for engaging in sexual intercourse with an individual that was incapable of giving consent. He has pleaded not guilty. The charge stems from an alleged incident on the night of January 5, 2020, at a cabin in Randle, Washington, where Echols had hosted a party. Echols was not an adult at the time of the incident, as he turned 18 on January 25, 2020. In accordance with a pre-trial sexual assault protective order, Echols is ordered not to contact or come within 500 feet of the victim, and is prohibited from possessing firearms or using drugs. If convicted, Echols faces a minimum of 78 to 102 months and a maximum of life in prison.


title: Lil Mosey

text: Echols will be tried in a joint trial alongside co-defendants Francisco P. Prater and Joshua D. Darrow. Prater is accused of also raping the woman and Darrow is accused of restraining the victim as Echols and Prater raped her.


title: Lil Mosey

text: Upon being contacted by the Morton Police Department on January 6, 2020, the alleged victim told a detective that she attended the party with a friend and blacked out after drinking White Claw alcoholic beverages and champagne provided at the party. The woman stated that she could not clearly remember the events of the rest of the night, and could only remember walking in her underwear to an upstairs bedroom, being told by individuals that she had sex, and being told that there was video recording of the intercourse. However, she had no memory of the rape. She stated that upon waking up the following morning, she and the friend she came with left the cabin.


title: Lil Mosey

text: On January 9, 2020, the Morton Police Department interviewed the woman's friend, who stated that she had consensual sex with Echols in his car, during which she felt a pain in her legs. She stated that she had a "fuzzy" memory of what happened afterwards, but that the next thing she remembered was multiple men forcing themselves onto her, including a man identified as Francisco P. Prater saying "wake up, wake up, suck this dick, bitch." Francisco P. Prater was also charged with one count of second-degree rape, in tandem with Echols' rape charge. She also stated that she had bruises on her arm, neck, and inner knee that she did not know the origin of. In a later interview with police, the woman stated that she remembered waking up to Echols raping her in an upstairs bedroom after she had blacked out.


title: Lil Mosey

text: On April 21, 2021, a $50,000 warrant was issued for Echols' arrest after he failed to show up for a required court appearance at a preliminary hearing. After a deal was made between Echols and the Lewis County Prosecutor's Office to quash the warrant, Echols appeared in court on April 27. On July 13, Echols appeared at a pre-trial omnibus hearing. Prater was also charged with one count of second-degree rape in tandem with Echols' rape charge. Joshua D. Darrow was named as a third defendant in the rape case in July 2021. Darrow is currently out on unsecured bail and has also been issued a pre-trial sexual assault protective order.


title: Lil Mosey

text: Echols is currently out on $50,000 unsecured bail. The joint trial alongside co-defendants Prater and Darrow was expected to begin on January 24, 2022, which was then delayed to July 18 and then again delayed to December 12.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Miranda Bailey, M.D., F.A.C.S. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series "Grey's Anatomy". The character was created by series creator and producer Shonda Rhimes, and has been portrayed by actress Chandra Wilson since the show's inception in 2005. Wilson has reprised her role in the spin-off series "Private Practice" and "Station 19". Having appeared in 387 episodes total (372 on "Grey's Anatomy", 2 on "Private Practice", and 13 on "Station 19"), as of October 2021, Bailey is the most appearing character in the "Grey's Anatomy" franchise.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Introduced as a resident in general surgery at Seattle Grace Hospital, Bailey works her way up to the attending physician level, and is eventually named Chief of Surgery. Her relationship with the five surgical interns she is in charge of - Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) - is a focal point at the beginning of the series.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Miranda Bailey married Tucker Jones ten years prior to the beginning of Meredith Grey's internship. Her future Chief Richard Webber attended her wedding with his wife, Adele. She is a Wellesley College graduate.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: She is introduced to the interns as "The Nazi" in the first season premiere because of her tough personality and blunt attitude. When she was still a resident, Webber once pointed out that she disliked nearly every attending she worked under; the attendings take her seriously due to her formidable reputation as an excellent surgeon. Off the bat, she tells her interns to "not bother sucking up cause I already hate you and that's not going to change"; however, Miranda's more motherly and protective side is exhibited, as she is shown to care about not only her patients but also her colleagues. She is protective of her interns, as shown when she warns Derek to stay away from Meredith. Miranda stays beside Cristina's side as she recovers from surgery. It is later revealed that she has been married to her husband Tucker Jones (Cress Williams) for ten years and that she is pregnant. Her son is born during a bomb scare at Seattle Grace while her husband is being treated in surgery for injuries from a car crash. George O'Malley helped her through labor, and she thanked him by naming her son William George Bailey Jones (though he is nicknamed "Tuck").


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Bailey adjusts to becoming a parent and reconciling this with her desire to continue her career as a surgeon. Her professional confidence was shaken and questioned by other surgeons when Izzie Stevens cut Denny Duquette's LVAD wire and Denny subsequently died. Christina kept Burke's secret about his disabled hand, and Bailey felt that she wasn't in control of her interns and that she was ultimately responsible for these incidents. Dr. Richard Webber, Chief of Surgery, comforts her saying "You raised them like babies, and some of them turn out just like you". Disillusioned by how little she can help patients as a surgeon, Bailey pushes to open a free clinic at Seattle Grace. Izzie helps pay for it from a multi-million dollar bequest from Denny Duquette, whom she had loved. Bailey loses the post of Chief Resident to Callie Torres.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: In season 4, Bailey decides to back up Callie Torres in her post of Chief Resident, which the Chief observes. He says that he made a mistake in not choosing Bailey in the first place. Realizing that she cannot balance her responsibilities as chief resident and direct the clinic, Bailey chooses Izzie Stevens for the position in order to have more time for her family and her career.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Bailey realizes that she has become somewhat bored with General Surgery and may need a change of specialty. She became drawn to Pediatric surgery after working on a number of pediatric cases and working closely with Arizona Robbins, a pediatric surgeon, who convinces her to apply for a pediatric fellowship. Chief Webber, who had taught her general surgery and previously offered her a position as an attending surgeon, is unhappy with Bailey's decision to leave the specialty he trained her for, and discourages her at every opportunity, giving her an uninspiring letter of recommendation and purchasing a surgical robot to lure her back to General Surgery. Ultimately, Bailey decides to continue to pursue her career in general surgery after her husband threatens her with divorce if she accepts the fellowship offer. Bailey accepts the position as an attending general surgeon and divorces her husband for presenting her with the ultimatum, stating she will not have the time to learn a new specialty as a single mother. When Izzie Stevens is diagnosed with cancer that has a 5% survival rate, Bailey supports Stevens through her rounds of chemo and cancer treatments.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: In season 6, after declining a fellowship in Pediatrics, Bailey starts as an Attending in General Surgery. She begins a relationship with an anesthesiologist from Mercy West, Ben Warren, who joined the staff after the merger between Seattle Grace and Mercy West. In the final of the season, a gunman enters the hospital, believing that the staff had failed his wife. He shoots several people, including resident Charles Percy. Due to an order to shut down the elevators, Dr. Bailey is unable to get Charles to an operating room to perform the surgery he needs. Charles dies in Miranda's lap. As Miranda comforts him, Charles says, "You [Bailey] were always my favorite, I thought you should know".


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Distraught by these experiences, Bailey takes time off to visit her parents with her son. On her return in the first episode of the season 7, she breaks up with Ben. Mary Portman, the patient with whom she bonded with while trying to save Charles, returns for her scheduled surgery, which appears to go well, but she does not wake up, and the cause is never discovered. Miranda starts on a quest to cure fistulas and encounters a nurse, Eli, whom she starts dating.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Bailey is offended when Meredith violates the rules of the Alzheimer's clinical trial in order to help the Chief's wife. She resents Meredith because the Chief resigns as head of surgery due to this. Bailey resumes control of Ellis Grey's Diabetes trial, and Webber pushes her to forgive Meredith and choose her as staff for the trial. She breaks off her relationship with Eli, not wanting to pursue it further, and renews her relationships with Ben the anesthesiologist. She eventually moves in with him, but he gains a surgical internship in California.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: They become engaged nonetheless, and new interns at Seattle Grace-Mercy West refer to her as BCB ("Booty Call Bailey"): whenever Ben is in town she is giddy and has sex with him as much as possible. On the way to her wedding, Bailey is pulled in to perform surgery on Richard's wife, Adele. After saving Adele, she returns to the venue and marries Ben. She launches a genome mapping program, and Meredith is the first one to test it.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: In season 9, an investigation takes place on Bailey after three of her patients contracted an infection and died. It concludes that Bailey was an asymptomatic carrier of the MRSA bacteria and transmitted the infection via a new brand of gloves that the hospital had used that were shown to be permeable. Despite being cleared of wrongdoing, after the investigation, Bailey shuts everyone out for some time, because feeling that she is dirty and contaminated. She blamed Dr. Webber the most for abandoning her and avoids him altogether. Eventually, her husband, Ben, flies to Seattle to get her out of the genome lab. Ben says that he has dropped out of residency to spend more time with her and Tuck. Bailey is not impressed by this decision and starts exhibiting some odd behaviors, later she is diagnosed with OCD after what happened with the CDC investigation. Though initially resistant to see a therapist and take medication, Bailey is able to resume her surgical career.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: In season 14, Bailey is promoted to Chief of Surgery. She gets very upset when Ben shows interest as a firefighter, after the finale of season 13 when Dr. Edwards sets fire in Grey Sloan Memorial to defend herself from the rapist. Later that season, Miranda Bailey gets hospitalized due to a heart attack.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: In Season 15, Bailey takes a stress sabbatical and has Alex Karev become interim chief of surgery. She returns to her job several months later.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: In Season 16, Bailey fires Meredith after she commits insurance fraud to save one of her patients. Shortly after, she is told by Maggie that she is both pregnant with her second child and perimenopausal. In the fall finale of Season 16, Bailey suffers a miscarriage. Bailey also fosters a teenage boy, Joey Phillips.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: In Season 17, as Grey-Sloan treats patients for COVID-19, Bailey feels guilty as she has just moved her parents into a local nursing home. Her guilt magnifies after her mother is hospitalized with the virus. Bailey sings to her mother as she succumbs to the disease, and decides to go back to work shortly after, resisting attempts by Richard and Jackson to convince her to take personal time.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: In Season 18, while the hospital is undergoing investigations due to the failing residency class, Bailey quits and gives her Chief of Surgery position to Meredith.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Shonda Rhimes wrote the character of Bailey to be a petite blonde-haired white woman with curls as "it would be unexpected to have this sweet-looking person open her mouth and say tough things." However, Wilson's audition went so well that she was offered the part, and the character was rewritten. Sandra Oh was originally going to audition for the part of Dr. Bailey. Of her role, Wilson said: "I thought it was endearing; endearing as the word 'Nazi' can be." Wilson explained how she plays Bailey:


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Bailey has been characterized as "straightforward", "tough", and "quick-witted" by "Grey's Anatomy" executives. Reflecting on her character, Chandra Wilson said: "I think a strength and a weakness for her is her ego. The strength part is great because it really does make her a really good physician. She's really good at her job and she continues to evolve and she continues to look at ways to be 'value added' at the hospital and is incredibly independent. That independence has certainly gotten in the way of her personal relationships. It's gotten in the way of her being a team player on many occasions."


title: Miranda Bailey

text: "USA Today" TV critic wrote in 2006 that Emmy voters could consider Chandra Wilson because she adds "warmth and humor to Bailey without making her go all squishy." Reviewing the show's fourth season, Patrick Luce of Monsters and Critics found Bailey "one of the most interesting characters to watch" as "she had to deal with losing a promotion to Sara Ramírez’s Dr. Torres; her own marriage trouble; and the continued stress of balancing being a mom and being a doctor." He also appreciated the fact that people got to see "a softer side" of her while she kept "all the biting satire and sarcasm that made the character great." Shawna Malcom of the "Los Angeles Times" deemed Bailey and Sam her favorite pairing of the "Grey's Anatomy" and "Private Practice" crossover, praising: "The grief he gave her about becoming a pediatric surgeon … the grief she gave him for letting ex-wife Naomi go and wind up in the arms of Archer … the fist bump. I say again, the fist bump! Together, Chandra Wilson and Taye Diggs are hilarious and touching and all sorts of fabulous. Here’s hoping this isn’t the last we ever see of this unexpectedly dynamic duo." Fellow "Los Angeles Times" critic, Carina MacKenzie, welcomed Bailey's "flirtation" with Ben (Jason George) because it was "nice to see her fun, flirty side" presented with a bit of humor after the deterioration of her relationship with Tucker. Margaret Lyons of "New York Magazine" was happy with the evolution of Bailey and Torres' friendship in the first half of the ninth season, calling it "the one bright spot": "They joke, they tease each other, they offer sage love advice to one another, now that they're both on their second marriages." "Entertainment Weekly" included Bailey in its list of the "30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses". AOL TV named her one of the 100 Most Memorable Female TV Characters.


title: Miranda Bailey

text: Chandra Wilson has received multiple nominations for her portrayal of Dr. Miranda Bailey. She won a 2007 Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance in the show's third season. She has been nominated each year from 2006 to 2009 at the Emmy Awards for "Supporting Actress in a Drama Series", losing in 2007 to co-star Katherine Heigl in the role of Izzie Stevens for the performance in the episode "Oh, the Guilt". She has also been praised for her performance in "Grey's Anatomy" at the Screen Actors Guild Awards, receiving three nominations along with the other cast members for "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series" each year from 2006 to 2008, with the 2007 Awards marking a victory.


title: Panathinaikos B.C.

text: Panathinaikos B.C. (), also known simply as Panathinaikos, is the professional basketball team of the major Athens-based multi-sport club Panathinaikos A.O. It is owned by the billionaire Giannakopoulos family.