title: Brie

text: Brie, like Camembert, is a soft cheese. Its softness allows the rapid widespread growth of bacteria and moulds if the cheese is not stored correctly. It is recommended that soft cheeses such as brie be kept refrigerated. The optimal storage temperature for brie is or even lower. The cheese should be kept in a tightly sealed container, tightly wrapped wax paper or plastic wrap to avoid contact with moisture and food-spoilage bacteria which will reduce the shelf life and freshness of the product. Cheese producers specify a "best before date", and say that the quality of the cheese will degrade beyond then. Cheese with blue or green mould may not be safe to eat; the mould may also have spread invisibly to apparently unaffected parts.


title: Brie

text: Camembert is a similar soft cheese that is also made from cow's milk. Camembert is a much more recently developed cheese and is based on brie. However, there are differences such as its origin, typical market shape, size, and flavour. Brie originates from the Île-de-France while Camembert comes from Normandy. Traditionally, brie was produced in large wheels, 23 to 37 cm (9 to 14.5 in) in diameter, and thus ripened more slowly than the smaller Camembert cheeses. When sold, brie segments typically have been cut from the larger wheels (although some brie is sold as small, flat cylinders), and therefore its sides are not covered by the rind. By contrast, Camembert is ripened as a small round cheese 10 cm (4 in) in diameter by about 3 cm (1.25 in) thick and fully covered by rind. This ratio change between rind and paste makes Camembert slightly stronger when compared to a brie ripened for the same amount of time. Once the rind is cut on Camembert, the cheese typically has a more pungent aroma than does brie. In terms of taste, Camembert has a stronger, slightly sour, and sometimes chalky taste. The texture of Camembert is softer than that of brie, and if warmed, Camembert will become creamier, whereas brie warms without losing as much structure.


title: Marc Webb

text: Marc Preston Webb (born August 31, 1974) is an American music video director and filmmaker. Webb made his feature film directorial debut in 2009 with the romantic comedy "500 Days of Summer", and went on to direct "The Amazing Spider-Man" in 2012, which was dubbed the "Webb-Verse" by Marvel Studios in 2021. He also directed the drama films "Gifted" and "The Only Living Boy in New York".


title: Marc Webb

text: Webb was born in Bloomington, Indiana, the son of Margaret Ruth (née Stocker) and Norman Lott Webb, who works in math education at the University of Wisconsin. When he was eighteen months old, Webb's family moved to Madison, Wisconsin, where he was raised. He graduated from Madison West High School in 1992, and subsequently attended Colorado College, and the University of Wisconsin–Madison, from which he graduated with an English degree.


title: Marc Webb

text: Webb began his trade as an editor before turning his hand to directing music videos. He told "The Daily Beast": "The very first video I did was for a band called The Shame Idols in Birmingham, Alabama, and I paid for it on a credit card and my mom loaned me about $500 to finish it. It was actually about a superhero—a Catwoman-y type of thing. This woman who sewed the costume together, and we shot it on 16mm film. You can't see it anywhere and it's not on YouTube—and I'm glad it's not. The first video that got shown was a Blues Traveler video called "Canadian Rose," but I just did the concept stuff for it. Between 1999 and 2009, he directed videos for the likes of Good Charlotte, Evanescence, AFI, 3 Doors Down, Green Day, My Chemical Romance and Snow Patrol.


title: Marc Webb

text: His feature-length debut, "500 Days of Summer", starring Joseph Gordon-Levitt and Zooey Deschanel, was released in July 2009 to a positive critical reception. In January 2010, Columbia Pictures hired Webb to direct "The Amazing Spider-Man", a reboot of the "Spider-Man" film franchise, released in July 2012 and starring Andrew Garfield and Emma Stone. He returned to direct the sequel, "The Amazing Spider-Man 2", which was released on May 2, 2014. Developing the 2021 Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film "" for Marvel Studios, Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers officially dubbed the fictional universe of Webb's "Spider-Man" films as the Webb-Verse in his honor. In November 2021, it was also revealed that he, along with Sam Raimi, were brought on as creative consultants for the film.


title: Marc Webb

text: In February 2019, he signed on to direct the live-action reimagined version of the 2016 Japanese anime film "Your Name" before he was replaced on September 18, 2020 by Lee Isaac Chung. In May 2019, it was announced that Webb will direct a live-action adaptation of Disney's "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs".


title: Marc Webb

text: In 2013, Christopher Keyser and Webb pitched the mystery drama "The Society" to Showtime, but the network later decided to pass on the series. Netflix turned the pitch into a series instead; created by Keyser and executive produced by both Keyser and Webb, "The Society" premiered on May 10, 2019. In July 2019, it was announced that Webb and his Black Lamb production company signed a deal with ABC Studios. In March 2022, Webb signed on to direct the supernatural thriller "Day Drinker", written by Zach Dean.


title: Marc Webb

text: On June 8, 2018, Webb's girlfriend Jane Herman gave birth to a daughter, Georgia. The couple married on October 4, 2019. A son, Walter, was born on April 5, 2021.


title: Marc Webb

text: Webb's signature is a white lamb, which has appeared in a few of his videos. In Brand New's "Sic Transit Gloria... Glory Fades" video, the lamb appears on the door before Jesse Lacey enters the bar. It also appears on the shirt of a girl in the bar. In Yellowcard's "Ocean Avenue" and "Rough Landing, Holly" videos, the lamb appears on the briefcase Ryan Key carries around.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Tobacco smoking is the practice of burning tobacco and ingesting the resulting smoke. The smoke may be inhaled, as is done with cigarettes, or simply released from the mouth, as is generally done with pipes and cigars. The practice is believed to have begun as early as 5000–3000 BC in Mesoamerica and South America. Tobacco was introduced to Eurasia in the late 17th century by European colonists, where it followed common trade routes. The practice encountered criticism from its first import into the Western world onwards but embedded itself in certain strata of a number of societies before becoming widespread upon the introduction of automated cigarette-rolling apparatus.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Smoking is the most common method of consuming tobacco, and tobacco is the most common substance smoked. The agricultural product is often mixed with additives and then combusted. The resulting smoke is then inhaled and the active substances absorbed through the alveoli in the lungs or the oral mucosa. Many substances in cigarette smoke trigger chemical reactions in nerve endings, which heighten heart rate, alertness and reaction time, among other things. Dopamine and endorphins are released, which are often associated with pleasure.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: German scientists identified a link between smoking and lung cancer in the late 1920s, leading to the first anti-smoking campaign in modern history, albeit one truncated by the collapse of Nazi Germany at the end of World War II. In 1950, British researchers demonstrated a clear relationship between smoking and cancer. Evidence continued to mount in the 1960s, which prompted political action against the practice. Rates of consumption since 1965 in the developed world have either peaked or declined. However, they continue to climb in the developing world. As of 2008 to 2010, tobacco is used by about 49% of men and 11% of women aged 15 or older in fourteen low-income and middle-income countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Mexico, Philippines, Russia, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, Uruguay and Vietnam), with about 80% of this usage in the form of smoking. The gender gap tends to be less pronounced in lower age groups.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Many smokers begin during adolescence or early adulthood. During the early stages, a combination of perceived pleasure acting as positive reinforcement and desire to respond to social peer pressure may offset the unpleasant symptoms of initial use, which typically include nausea and coughing. After an individual has smoked for some years, the avoidance of withdrawal symptoms and negative reinforcement become the key motivations to continue.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: A 2009 study of first smoking experiences of seventh-grade students found out that the most common factor leading students to smoke is cigarette advertisements. Smoking by parents, siblings and friends also encourages students to smoke.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Smoking's history dates back to as early as 5000–3000 BC, when the agricultural product began to be cultivated in Mesoamerica and South America; consumption later evolved into burning the plant substance either by accident or with intent of exploring other means of consumption. The practice worked its way into shamanistic rituals. Many ancient civilizations – such as the Babylonians, the Indians, and the Chinese – burnt incense during religious rituals. Smoking in the Americas probably had its origins in the incense-burning ceremonies of shamans but was later adopted for pleasure or as a social tool. The smoking of tobacco and various hallucinogenic drugs was used to achieve trances and to come into contact with the spirit world. Also, to stimulate respiration, tobacco smoke enemas were used.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Eastern North American tribes would carry large amounts of tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item and would often smoke it in ceremonial pipes, either in sacred ceremonies or to seal bargains. Adults as well as children enjoyed the practice. It was believed that tobacco was a gift from the Creator and that the exhaled tobacco smoke was capable of carrying one's thoughts and prayers to heaven.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Apart from smoking, tobacco had uses as medicine. As a pain killer it was used for earache and toothache and occasionally as a poultice. Smoking was said by the desert Indians to be a cure for colds, especially if the tobacco was mixed with the leaves of the small Desert sage, "Salvia dorrii", or the root of Indian balsam or cough root, "Leptotaenia multifida", the addition of which was thought to be particularly good for asthma and tuberculosis.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In 1612, six years after the settlement of Jamestown, Virginia, John Rolfe was credited as the first settler to successfully raise tobacco as a cash crop. The demand quickly grew as tobacco, referred to as "brown gold", revived the Virginia joint stock company from its failed gold expeditions. In order to meet demands from the Old World, tobacco was grown in succession, quickly depleting the soil. This became a motivator to settle west into the unknown continent, and likewise an expansion of tobacco production. Indentured servitude became the primary labor force up until Bacon's Rebellion, from which the focus turned to slavery. This trend abated following the American Revolution as slavery became regarded as unprofitable. However, the practice was revived in 1794 with the invention of the cotton gin.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Frenchman Jean Nicot (from whose name the word nicotine is derived) introduced tobacco to France in 1560, and tobacco then spread to England. The first report of a smoking Englishman is of a sailor in Bristol in 1556, seen "emitting smoke from his nostrils". Like tea, coffee and opium, tobacco was just one of many intoxicants that was originally used as a form of medicine. Tobacco was introduced around 1600 by French merchants in what today is modern-day Gambia and Senegal. At the same time, caravans from Morocco brought tobacco to the areas around Timbuktu, and the Portuguese brought the commodity (and the plant) to southern Africa, establishing the popularity of tobacco throughout all of Africa by the 1650s.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Soon after its introduction to the Old World, tobacco came under frequent criticism from state and religious leaders. James VI and I, King of Scotland and England, produced the treatise "A Counterblaste to Tobacco" in 1604, and also introduced excise duty on the product. Murad IV, sultan of the Ottoman Empire 1623–40 was among the first to attempt a smoking ban by claiming it was a threat to public morals and health. The Chongzhen Emperor of China issued an edict banning smoking two years before his death and the overthrow of the Ming dynasty. Later, the Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty, would proclaim smoking "a more heinous crime than that even of neglecting archery". In Edo period Japan, some of the earliest tobacco plantations were scorned by the shogunate as being a threat to the military economy by letting valuable farmland go to waste for the use of a recreational drug instead of being used to plant food crops.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Religious leaders have often been prominent among those who considered smoking immoral or outright blasphemous. In 1634, the Patriarch of Moscow forbade the sale of tobacco, and sentenced men and women who flouted the ban to have their nostrils slit and their backs flayed. Pope Urban VIII likewise condemned smoking on holy places in a papal bull of 1624. Despite some concerted efforts, restrictions and bans were largely ignored. When James I of England, a staunch anti-smoker and the author of "A Counterblaste to Tobacco", tried to curb the new trend by enforcing a 4000% tax increase on tobacco in 1604 it was unsuccessful, as suggested by the presence of around 7,000 tobacco outlets in London by the early 17th century. From this point on for some centuries, several administrations withdrew from efforts at discouragement and instead turned tobacco trade and cultivation into sometimes lucrative government monopolies.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: By the mid-17th century most major civilizations had been introduced to tobacco smoking and in many cases had already assimilated it into the native culture, despite some continued attempts upon the parts of rulers to eliminate the practice with penalties or fines. Tobacco, both product and plant, followed the major trade routes to major ports and markets, and then on into the hinterlands. The English language term "smoking" appears to have entered currency in the late 18th century, before which less abbreviated descriptions of the practice such as "drinking smoke" were also in use.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Growth in the US remained stable until the American Civil War in 1860s, when the primary agricultural workforce shifted from slavery to sharecropping. This, along with a change in demand, accompanied the industrialization of cigarette production as craftsman James Bonsack created a machine in 1881 to partially automate their manufacture.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In Germany, anti-smoking groups, often associated with anti-liquor groups, first published advocacy against the consumption of tobacco in the journal "Der Tabakgegner" (The Tobacco Opponent) in 1912 and 1932. In 1929, Fritz Lickint of Dresden, Germany, published a paper containing formal statistical evidence of a lung cancer–tobacco link. During the Great Depression Adolf Hitler condemned his earlier smoking habit as a waste of money, and later with stronger assertions. This movement was further strengthened with Nazi reproductive policy as women who smoked were viewed as unsuitable to be wives and mothers in a German family. In the 20th century, smoking was common. There were social events like the smoke night which promoted the habit.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The anti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany did not reach across enemy lines during the Second World War, as anti-smoking groups quickly lost popular support. By the end of the Second World War, American cigarette manufacturers quickly reentered the German black market. Illegal smuggling of tobacco became prevalent, and leaders of the Nazi anti-smoking campaign were silenced. As part of the Marshall Plan, the United States shipped free tobacco to Germany; with 24,000 tons in 1948 and 69,000 tons in 1949. Per capita yearly cigarette consumption in post-war Germany steadily rose from 460 in 1950 to 1,523 in 1963. By the end of the 20th century, anti-smoking campaigns in Germany were unable to exceed the effectiveness of the Nazi-era climax in the years 1939–41 and German tobacco health research was described by Robert N. Proctor as "muted".


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In 1950, Richard Doll published research in the "British Medical Journal" showing a close link between smoking and lung cancer. Beginning in December 1952, the magazine "Reader's Digest" published "Cancer by the Carton", a series of articles that linked smoking with lung cancer.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In 1954, the British Doctors Study, a prospective study of some 40 thousand doctors for about 2.5 years, confirmed the suggestion, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related. In January 1964, the United States Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health likewise began suggesting the relationship between smoking and cancer.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: As scientific evidence mounted in the 1980s, tobacco companies claimed contributory negligence as the adverse health effects were previously unknown or lacked substantial credibility. Health authorities sided with these claims up until 1998, from which they reversed their position. The Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, originally between the four largest US tobacco companies and the Attorneys General of 46 states, restricted certain types of tobacco advertisement and required payments for health compensation; which later amounted to the largest civil settlement in United States history.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Social campaigns have been instituted in many places to discourage smoking, such as Canada's National Non-Smoking Week.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: From 1965 to 2006, rates of smoking in the United States declined from 42% to 20.8%. The majority of those who quit were professional, affluent men. Although the per-capita number of smokers decreased, the average number of cigarettes consumed per person per day increased from 22 in 1954 to 30 in 1978. This paradoxical event suggests that those who quit smoked less, while those who continued to smoke moved to smoke more light cigarettes. The trend has been paralleled by many industrialized nations as rates have either leveled-off or declined. In the developing world, however, tobacco consumption continues to rise at 3.4% in 2002. In Africa, smoking is in most areas considered to be modern, and many of the strong adverse opinions that prevail in the West receive much less attention. Today Russia leads as the top consumer of tobacco followed by Indonesia, Laos, Ukraine, Belarus, Greece, Jordan, and China.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: As a result of public pressure and the FDA, Walmart and Sam's club announced that they were raising the minimum age to purchase tobacco products, including all e-cigarettes, to 21 starting 1 July 2019.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the fresh leaves of plants in the genus "Nicotiana". The genus contains several species, of which "Nicotiana tabacum" is the most commonly grown. "Nicotiana rustica" follows second, containing higher concentrations of nicotine. The leaves are harvested and cured to allow the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves which can be attributed to sweet hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavors. Before packaging, the tobacco is often combined with other additives in order to increase the addictive potency, shift the product's pH, or improve the effects of smoke by making it more palatable. In the United States these additives are regulated to 599 substances. The product is then processed, packaged, and shipped to consumer markets.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The active substances in tobacco, especially cigarettes, are administered by burning the leaves and inhaling the vaporized gas that results. This quickly and effectively delivers substances into the bloodstream by absorption through the alveoli in the lungs. The lungs contain some 300 million alveoli, which amounts to a surface area of over 70 m (about the size of a tennis court). This method is not completely efficient as not all of the smoke will be inhaled, and some amount of the active substances will be lost in the process of combustion, pyrolysis. Pipe and Cigar smoke are not inhaled because of its high alkalinity, which are irritating to the trachea and lungs. However, because of its higher alkalinity (pH 8.5) compared to cigarette smoke (pH 5.3), non-ionized nicotine is more readily absorbed through the mucous membranes in the mouth. Nicotine absorption from cigar and pipe, however, is much less than that from cigarette smoke. Nicotine and cocaine activate similar patterns of neurons, which supports the existence of common substrates among these drugs.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The absorbed nicotine mimics nicotinic acetylcholine which when bound to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors prevents the reuptake of acetylcholine thereby increasing that neurotransmitter in those areas of the body. These nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are located in the central nervous system and at the nerve-muscle junction of skeletal muscles; whose activity increases heart rate, alertness, and faster reaction times. Nicotine acetylcholine stimulation is not directly addictive. However, since dopamine-releasing neurons are abundant on nicotine receptors, dopamine is released; and, in the nucleus accumbens, dopamine is associated with motivation causing reinforcing behavior. Dopamine increase, in the prefrontal cortex, may also increase working memory.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: When tobacco is smoked, most of the nicotine is pyrolyzed. However, a dose sufficient to cause mild somatic dependency and mild to strong psychological dependency remains. There is also a formation of harmane (an MAO inhibitor) from the acetaldehyde in tobacco smoke. This may play a role in nicotine addiction, by facilitating a dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens as a response to nicotine stimuli. Using rat studies, withdrawal after repeated exposure to nicotine results in less responsive nucleus accumbens cells, which produce dopamine responsible for reinforcement.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: As of 2000, smoking was practiced by around 1.22 billion people. At current rates of 'smoker replacement' and market growth, this may reach around 1.9 billion in 2025.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Smoking may be up to five times more prevalent among men than women in some communities, although the gender gap usually declines with younger age. In some developed countries smoking rates for men have peaked and begun to decline, while for women they continue to climb.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: As of 2002, about twenty percent of young teenagers (13–15) smoked worldwide. 80,000 to 100,000 children begin smoking every day, roughly half of whom live in Asia. Half of those who begin smoking in adolescent years are projected to go on to smoke for 15 to 20 years. As of 2019 in the United States, roughly 800,000 high school students smoke.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) states that "Much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use disproportionately affect the poor". Of the 1.22 billion smokers, 1 billion of them live in developing or transitional economies. Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in the developed world. In the developing world, however, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year as of 2002.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The WHO in 2004 projected 58.8 million deaths to occur globally, from which 5.4 million are tobacco-attributed, and 4.9 million as of 2007. As of 2002, 70% of the deaths are in developing countries. As of 2017, smoking causes one in ten deaths worldwide, with half of those deaths in the US, China, India and Russia.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Most smokers begin smoking during adolescence or early adulthood. Some studies also show that smoking can also be linked to various mental health complications. Smoking has elements of risk-taking and rebellion, which often appeal to young people. The presence of peers that smoke and media featuring high-status models smoking may also encourage smoking. Because teenagers are influenced more by their peers than by adults, attempts by parents, schools, and health professionals at preventing people from trying cigarettes are often unsuccessful.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Children of smoking parents are more likely to smoke than children with non-smoking parents. Children of parents who smoke are less likely to quit smoking. One study found that parental smoking cessation was associated with less adolescent smoking, except when the other parent currently smoked. A current study tested the relation of adolescent smoking to rules regulating where adults are allowed to smoke in the home. Results showed that restrictive home smoking policies were associated with lower likelihood of trying smoking for both middle and high school students.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Behavioural research generally indicates that teenagers begin their smoking habits due to peer pressure, and cultural influence portrayed by friends. However, one study found that direct pressure to smoke cigarettes played a less significant part in adolescent smoking, with adolescents also reporting low levels of both normative and direct pressure to smoke cigarettes. Mere exposure to tobacco retailers may motivate smoking behaviour in adults. A similar study suggested that individuals may play a more active role in starting to smoke than has previously been thought and that social processes other than peer pressure also need to be taken into account. Another study's results indicated that peer pressure was significantly associated with smoking behavior across all age and gender cohorts, but that intrapersonal factors were significantly more important to the smoking behavior of 12- to 13-year-old girls than same-age boys. Within the 14- to 15-year-old age group, one peer pressure variable emerged as a significantly more important predictor of girls' than boys' smoking. It is debated whether peer pressure or self-selection is a greater cause of adolescent smoking.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The reasons given by some smokers for this activity have been categorized as "addictive smoking", "pleasure from smoking", "tension reduction/relaxation", "social smoking", "stimulation", "habit/automatism", and "handling". There are gender differences in how much each of these reasons contribute, with females more likely than males to cite "tension reduction/relaxation", "stimulation" and "social smoking".


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Some smokers argue that the depressant effect of smoking allows them to calm their nerves, often allowing for increased concentration. However, according to the Imperial College London, "Nicotine seems to provide both a stimulant and a depressant effect, and it is likely that the effect it has at any time is determined by the mood of the user, the environment and the circumstances of use. Studies have suggested that low doses have a depressant effect, while higher doses have stimulant effect."


title: Tobacco smoking

text: A number of studies have established that cigarette sales and smoking follow distinct time-related patterns. For example, cigarette sales in the United States of America have been shown to follow a strongly seasonal pattern, with the high months being the months of summer, and the low months being the winter months.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Similarly, smoking has been shown to follow distinct circadian patterns during the waking day—with the high point usually occurring shortly after waking in the morning, and shortly before going to sleep at night.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Tobacco smoking is the leading cause of preventable death and a global public health concern. There are 1.1 billion tobacco users in the world. One person dies every six seconds from a tobacco related disease.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Tobacco use leads most commonly to diseases affecting the heart and lungs, with smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), emphysema, and various types and subtypes of cancers (particularly lung cancer, cancers of the oropharynx, larynx, and mouth, esophageal and pancreatic cancer). Cigarette smoking increases the risk of Crohn's disease as well as the severity of the course of the disease. It is also the number one cause of bladder cancer. Cigarette smoking has also been associated with sarcopenia, the age-related loss of muscle mass and strength. The smoke from tobacco elicits carcinogenic effects on the tissues of the body that are exposed to the smoke. Regular cigar smoking is known to carry serious health risks, including increased risk of developing various types and subtypes of cancers, respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, periodontal diseases and teeth loss, and malignant diseases.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of over 7,000 toxic chemicals, 98 of which are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and 69 of which are known to be carcinogenic. The most important chemicals causing cancer are those that produce DNA damage, since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Cunningham et al. combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known genotoxic effect per microgram to identify the most carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke: acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide, and isoprene. In addition to the aforementioned toxic chemicals, flavored tobacco contains flavorings which upon heating release toxic chemicals and carcinogens such as carbon monoxide (CO), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), furans, phenols, aldehydes (such as acrolein), and acids, in addition to nitrogenous carcinogens, alcohols, and heavy metals, all of which are dangerous to human health. A comparison of 13 common hookah flavors found that melon flavors are the most dangerous, with their smoke containing four classes of hazards in high concentrations.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The World Health Organization estimates that tobacco caused 5.4 million deaths in 2004 and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century. Similarly, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide." Although 70% of smokers state their intention to quit only 3–5% are actually successful in doing so.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The probabilities of death from lung cancer before age 75 in the United Kingdom are 0.2% for men who never smoked (0.4% for women), 5.5% for male former smokers (2.6% in women), 15.9% for current male smokers (9.5% for women) and 24.4% for male "heavy smokers" defined as smoking more than 5 cigarettes per day (18.5% for women). Tobacco smoke can combine with other carcinogens present within the environment in order to produce elevated degrees of lung cancer.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The risk of lung cancer decreases almost from the first day someone quits smoking. Healthy cells that have escaped mutations grow and replace the damaged ones in the lungs. In the research dated December 2019, 40% of cells in former smokers looked like those of people who had never smoked.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Rates of smoking have generally leveled-off or declined in the developed world. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% in adults. In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Smoking alters the transcriptome of the lung parenchyma; the expression levels of a panel of seven genes (KMO, CD1A, SPINK5, TREM2, CYBB, DNASE2B, FGG) are increased in the lung tissue of smokers.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Passive smoking is the inhalation of tobacco smoke by individuals who are not actively smoking. This smoke is known as second-hand smoke (SHS) or environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) when the burning end is present, and third-hand smoke after the burning end has been extinguished. Because of its negative implications, exposure to SHS has played a central role in the regulation of tobacco products. Six hundred thousand deaths were attributed to SHS in 2004. It also has been known to produce skin conditions such as freckles and dryness.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In 2015, a meta-analysis found that smokers were at greater risk of developing psychotic disorder. Tobacco has also been described an anaphrodisiac due to its propensity for causing erectile dysfunction. There is a correlation between tobacco smoking and a reduced risk of Parkinson's disease.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In countries where there is a universally funded healthcare system, the government covers the cost of medical care for smokers who become ill through smoking in the form of increased taxes. Two broad debating positions exist on this front, the "pro-smoking" argument suggesting that heavy smokers generally do not live long enough to develop the costly and chronic illnesses which affect the elderly, reducing society's healthcare burden, and the "anti-smoking" argument suggests that the healthcare burden is increased because smokers get chronic illnesses younger and at a higher rate than the general population. Data on both positions has been contested. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published research in 2002 claiming that the cost of each pack of cigarettes sold in the United States was more than $7 in medical care and lost productivity. The cost may be higher, with another study putting it as high as $41 per pack, most of which however is on the individual and his/her family. This is how one author of that study puts it when he explains the very low cost for others: "The reason the number is low is that for private pensions, Social Security, and Medicare — the biggest factors in calculating costs to society — smoking actually saves money. Smokers die at a younger age and don't draw on the funds they've paid into those systems." Other research demonstrates that premature death caused by smoking may redistribute Social Security income in unexpected ways that affect behavior and reduce the economic well-being of smokers and their dependents. To further support this, whatever the rate of smoking consumption is per day, smokers have a greater lifetime medical cost on average compared to a non-smoker by an estimated $6000 Between the cost for lost productivity and health care expenditures combined, cigarette smoking costs at least 193 billion dollars (Research also shows that smokers earn less money than nonsmokers). As for secondhand smoke, the cost is over 10 billion dollars.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: By contrast, some non-scientific studies, including one conducted by Philip Morris in the Czech Republic called "Public Finance Balance of Smoking in the Czech Republic" and another by the Cato Institute, support the opposite position. Philip Morris has explicitly apologised for the former study, saying: "The funding and public release of this study which, among other things, detailed purported cost savings to the Czech Republic due to premature deaths of smokers, exhibited terrible judgment as well as a complete and unacceptable disregard of basic human values. For one of our tobacco companies to commission this study was not just a terrible mistake, it was wrong. All of us at Philip Morris, no matter where we work, are extremely sorry for this. No one benefits from the very real, serious and significant diseases caused by smoking."


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Between 1970 and 1995, per-capita cigarette consumption in poorer developing countries increased by 67 percent, while it dropped by 10 percent in the richer developed world. Eighty percent of smokers now live in less developed countries. By 2030, the World Health Organization (WHO) forecasts that 10 million people a year will die of smoking-related illness, making it the single biggest cause of death worldwide, with the largest increase to be among women. WHO forecasts the 21st century's death rate from smoking to be ten times the 20th century's rate ("Washingtonian" magazine, December 2007).


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The tobacco industry is known to be one of the largest global enterprises in the world. The six biggest tobacco companies made a combined profit of $35.1 billion (Jha et al., 2014) in 2010.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Famous smokers of the past used cigarettes or pipes as part of their image, such as Jean-Paul Sartre's Gauloises-brand cigarettes; Albert Einstein's, Douglas MacArthur's, Bertrand Russell's, and Bing Crosby's pipes; or the news broadcaster Edward R. Murrow's cigarette. Writers in particular seem to be known for smoking, for example, Cornell Professor Richard Klein's book "Cigarettes are Sublime" for the analysis, by this professor of French literature, of the role smoking plays in 19th and 20th century letters. The popular author Kurt Vonnegut addressed his addiction to cigarettes within his novels. British Prime Minister Harold Wilson was well known for smoking a pipe in public as was Winston Churchill for his cigars. Sherlock Holmes, the fictional detective created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, smoked a pipe, cigarettes, and cigars. The DC Vertigo comic book character John Constantine, created by Alan Moore, is synonymous with smoking, so much so that the first storyline by "Preacher" creator Garth Ennis centered around John Constantine contracting lung cancer. Professional wrestler James Fullington, while in character as "The Sandman", is a chronic smoker in order to appear "tough".


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The problem of smoking at home is particularly difficult for women in many cultures (especially Arab cultures), where it may not be acceptable for a woman to ask her husband not to smoke at home or in the presence of her children. Studies have shown that pollution levels for smoking areas indoors are higher than levels found on busy roadways, in closed motor garages, and during fire storms. Furthermore, smoke can spread from one room to another, even if doors to the smoking area are closed.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The ceremonial smoking of tobacco, and praying with a sacred pipe, is a prominent part of the religious ceremonies of a number of Native American Nations. "Sema", the Anishinaabe word for tobacco, is grown for ceremonial use and considered the ultimate sacred plant since its smoke is believed to carry prayers to the spirits. In most major religions, however, tobacco smoking is not specifically prohibited, although it may be discouraged as an immoral habit. Before the health risks of smoking were identified through controlled study, smoking was considered an immoral habit by certain Christian preachers and social reformers. The founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, Joseph Smith, recorded that on 27 February 1833, he received a revelation which discouraged tobacco use. This "Word of Wisdom" was later accepted as a commandment, and faithful Latter-day Saints abstain completely from tobacco. Jehovah's Witnesses base their stand against smoking on the Bible's command to "clean ourselves of every defilement of flesh" (2 Corinthians 7:1). The Jewish Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan (1838–1933) was one of the first Jewish authorities to speak out on smoking. In Ahmadiyya Islam, smoking is highly discouraged, although not forbidden. During the month of fasting however, it is forbidden to smoke tobacco. In the Baháʼí Faith, smoking tobacco is discouraged though not forbidden.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: On 27 February 2005 the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, took effect. The FCTC is the world's first public health treaty. Countries that sign on as parties agree to a set of common goals, minimum standards for tobacco control policy, and to cooperate in dealing with cross-border challenges such as cigarette smuggling. Currently the WHO declares that 4 billion people will be covered by the treaty, which includes 168 signatories. Among other steps, signatories are to put together legislation that will eliminate secondhand smoke in indoor workplaces, public transport, indoor public places and, as appropriate, other public places.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Many governments have introduced excise taxes on cigarettes in order to reduce the consumption of cigarettes. The World Health Organisation finds that:


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In 2002, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said that each pack of cigarettes sold in the United States costs the nation more than $7 in medical care and lost productivity, around $3400 per year per smoker. Another study by a team of health economists finds the combined price paid by their families and society is about $41 per pack of cigarettes.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Substantial scientific evidence shows that higher cigarette prices result in lower overall cigarette consumption. Most studies indicate that a 10% increase in price will reduce overall cigarette consumption by 3% to 5%. Youth, minorities, and low-income smokers are two to three times more likely to quit or smoke less than other smokers in response to price increases. Smoking is often cited as an example of an inelastic good, however, i.e. a large rise in price will only result in a small decrease in consumption.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Many nations have implemented some form of tobacco taxation. As of 1997, Denmark had the highest cigarette tax burden of $4.02 per pack. Taiwan only had a tax burden of $0.62 per pack. The federal government of the United States charges $1.01 per pack.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Cigarette taxes vary widely from state to state in the United States. For example, Missouri has a cigarette tax of only 17 cents per pack, the nation's lowest, while New York has the highest cigarette tax in the U.S.: $4.35 per pack. In Alabama, Illinois, Missouri, New York City, Tennessee, and Virginia, counties and cities may impose an additional limited tax on the price of cigarettes. Sales taxes are also levied on tobacco products in most jurisdictions.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In the United Kingdom, a packet of 20 cigarettes has a tax added of 16.5% of the retail price plus £4.90. The UK has a significant black market for tobacco, and it has been estimated by the tobacco industry that 27% of cigarette and 68% of handrolling tobacco consumption is non-UK duty paid (NUKDP).


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In Australia total taxes account for 62.5% of the final price of a packet of cigarettes (2011 figures). These taxes include federal excise or customs duty and Goods and Services Tax.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In June 1967, the US Federal Communications Commission ruled that programmes broadcast on a television station which discussed smoking and health were insufficient to offset the effects of paid advertisements that were broadcast for five to ten minutes each day. In April 1970, the US Congress passed the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act banning the advertising of cigarettes on television and radio starting on 2 January 1971.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992 expressly prohibited almost all forms of Tobacco advertising in Australia, including the sponsorship of sporting or other cultural events by cigarette brands.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: All tobacco advertising and sponsorship on television has been banned within the European Union since 1991 under the Television Without Frontiers Directive (1989). This ban was extended by the Tobacco Advertising Directive, which took effect in July 2005 to cover other forms of media such as the internet, print media, and radio. The directive does not include advertising in cinemas and on billboards or using merchandising – or tobacco sponsorship of cultural and sporting events which are purely local, with participants coming from only one Member State as these fall outside the jurisdiction of the European Commission. However, most member states have transposed the directive with national laws that are wider in scope than the directive and cover local advertising. A 2008 European Commission report concluded that the directive had been successfully transposed into national law in all EU member states, and that these laws were well implemented.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Some countries also impose legal requirements on the packaging of tobacco products. For example, in the countries of the European Union, Turkey, Australia and South Africa, cigarette packs must be prominently labeled with the health risks associated with smoking. Canada, Australia, Thailand, Iceland and Brazil have also imposed labels upon cigarette packs warning smokers of the effects, and they include graphic images of the potential health effects of smoking. Cards are also inserted into cigarette packs in Canada. There are sixteen of them, and only one comes in a pack. They explain different methods of quitting smoking. Also, in the United Kingdom, there have been a number of graphic NHS advertisements, one showing a cigarette filled with fatty deposits, as if the cigarette is symbolizing the artery of a smoker.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Some countries have also banned advertisement at point of sale. United Kingdom and Ireland have limited the advertisement of tobacco at retailers. This includes storing of cigarettes behind a covered shelf not visible to the public. They do however allow some limited advertising at retailers. Norway has a complete ban of point of sale advertising. This includes smoking products and accessories. Implementing these policies can be challenging, all of these countries experienced resistance and challenges from the tobacco industry. The World Health Organisation recommends the complete ban of all types of advertisement or product placement, including at vending machines, at airports and on internet shops selling tobacco. The evidence is as yet unclear as to the impact of such bans.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Many countries have a smoking age. In many countries, including the United States, most European Union member states, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, Israel, India, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica and Australia, it is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors and in the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Denmark and South Africa it is illegal to sell tobacco products to people under the age of 16. On 1 September 2007 the minimum age to buy tobacco products in Germany rose from 16 to 18, as well as in the United Kingdom where on 1 October 2007 it rose from 16 to 18. Underlying such laws is the belief that people should make an informed decision regarding the risks of tobacco use. These laws have a lax enforcement in some nations and states. In China, Turkey, and many other countries usually a child will have little problem buying tobacco products, because they are often told to go to the store to buy tobacco for their parents.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Several countries such as Ireland, Latvia, Estonia, the Netherlands, Finland, Norway, Canada, Australia, Sweden, Portugal, Singapore, Italy, Indonesia, India, Lithuania, Chile, Spain, Iceland, United Kingdom, Slovenia, Turkey and Malta have legislated against smoking in public places, often including bars and restaurants. Restaurateurs have been permitted in some jurisdictions to build designated smoking areas (or to prohibit smoking). In the United States, many states prohibit smoking in restaurants, and some also prohibit smoking in bars. In provinces of Canada, smoking is illegal in indoor workplaces and public places, including bars and restaurants. As of 31 March 2008 Canada has introduced a smoke-free law in all public places, as well as within 10 metres of an entrance to any public place. In Australia, smoke-free laws vary from state to state. Currently, Queensland has completely smoke-free indoor public places (including workplaces, bars, pubs and eateries) as well as patrolled beaches and some outdoor public areas. There are, however, exceptions for designated smoking areas. In Victoria, smoking is restricted in railway stations, bus stops and tram stops as these are public locations where second-hand smoke can affect non-smokers waiting for public transport, and since 1 July 2007 is now extended to all indoor public places. In New Zealand and Brazil, smoking is restricted in enclosed public places including bars, restaurants and pubs. Hong Kong restricted smoking on 1 January 2007 in the workplace, public spaces such as restaurants, karaoke rooms, buildings, and public parks (bars which do not admit minors were exempt until 2009). In Romania smoking is illegal in trains, metro stations, public institutions (except where designated, usually outside) and public transport. In Germany, in addition to smoking bans in public buildings and transport, an anti-smoking ordinance for bars and restaurants was implemented in late 2007. A study by the University of Hamburg (Ahlfeldt and Maennig 2010) demonstrates, that the smoking ban had, if any, only short run impacts on bar and restaurant revenues. In the medium and long run no negative effect was measurable. The results suggest either, that the consumption in bars and restaurants is not affected by smoking bans in the long run, or, that negative revenue impacts by smokers are compensated by increasing revenues through non-smokers.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: An indirect public health problem posed by cigarettes is that of accidental fires, usually linked with consumption of alcohol. Enhanced combustion using nitrates was traditionally used but cigarette manufacturers have been silent on this subject claiming at first that a safe cigarette was technically impossible, then that it could only be achieved by modifying the paper. Roll your own cigarettes contain no additives and are fire safe. Numerous fire safe cigarette designs have been proposed, some by tobacco companies themselves, which would extinguish a cigarette left unattended for more than a minute or two, thereby reducing the risk of fire. Among American tobacco companies, some have resisted this idea, while others have embraced it. RJ Reynolds was a leader in making prototypes of these cigarettes in 1983 and will make all of their U.S. market cigarettes to be fire-safe by 2010. Phillip Morris is not in active support of it. Lorillard (purchased by RJ Reynolds), the US' 3rd-largest tobacco company, seems to be ambivalent.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: The relationship between tobacco and other drug use has been well-established, however the nature of this association remains unclear. The two main theories are the phenotypic causation (gateway) model and the correlated liabilities model. The causation model argues that smoking is a primary influence on future drug use, while the correlated liabilities model argues that smoking and other drug use are predicated on genetic or environmental factors. One study published by the NIH found that tobacco use may be linked to cocaine addiction and marijuana use. The study stated that 90% of adults who used cocaine had smoked cigarettes before (this was for people ages 18–34). This study could support the gateway drug theory.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: Smoking cessation, referred to as "quitting", is the action leading towards abstinence of tobacco smoking. Methods of "quitting" include advice from physicians or social workers, cold turkey, nicotine replacement therapy, contingent vouchers, antidepressants, hypnosis, self-help (mindfulness meditation), and support groups. A meta-analysis from 2018, conducted on 61 RCT, showed that one year after people quit smoking with the assistance of first‐line smoking cessation medications (and some behavioral help), only a little under 20% of smokers remained sustained abstinence.


title: Tobacco smoking

text: In the United States, about 70% of smokers would like to quit smoking, and 50% report having made an attempt to do so in the past year. In recent years, especially in Canada and the United Kingdom, many smokers have switched to use electronic cigarettes in order to quit smoking tobacco.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Varicella vaccine, also known as chickenpox vaccine, is a vaccine that protects against chickenpox. One dose of vaccine prevents 95% of moderate disease and 100% of severe disease. Two doses of vaccine are more effective than one. If given to those who are not immune within five days of exposure to chickenpox it prevents most cases of disease. Vaccinating a large portion of the population also protects those who are not vaccinated. It is given by injection just under the skin. Another vaccine, known as zoster vaccine, is used to prevent diseases caused by the same virus – the varicella zoster virus.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends routine vaccination only if a country can keep more than 80% of people vaccinated. If only 20% to 80% of people are vaccinated it is possible that more people will get the disease at an older age and outcomes overall may worsen. Either one or two doses of the vaccine is recommended. In the United States two doses are recommended starting at twelve to fifteen months of age. , twenty-three countries recommend all non-medically exempt children receive the vaccine, nine recommend it only for high risk groups, three additional countries recommend use in only parts of the country, while other countries make no recommendation. Not all countries provide the vaccine due to its cost. In the United Kingdom, Varilrix, a live viral vaccine is approved from the age of 12 months.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Minor side effects may include pain at the site of injection, fever, and rash. Severe side effects are rare and occur mostly in those with poor immune function. Its use in people with HIV/AIDS should be done with care. It is not recommended during pregnancy; however, the few times it has been given during pregnancy no problems resulted. The vaccine is available either by itself or along with the MMR vaccine, in a version known as the MMRV vaccine. It is made from weakened virus.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: A live attenuated varicella vaccine, the Oka strain, was developed by Michiaki Takahashi and his colleagues in Japan in the early 1970s. American vaccinologist Maurice Hilleman's team developed a chickenpox vaccine in the United States in 1981, based on the "Oka strain" of the varicella virus. The chickenpox vaccine first became commercially available in 1984. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Varicella vaccine is 70% to 90% effective for preventing varicella and more than 95% effective for preventing severe varicella. Follow-up evaluations have taken place in the United States of children immunized that revealed protection for at least 11 years. Studies were conducted in Japan which indicated protection for at least 20 years.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: People who do not develop enough protection when they get the vaccine may develop a mild case of the disease when in close contact with a person with chickenpox. In these cases, people show very little sign of illness. This has been the case of children who get the vaccine in their early childhood and later have contact with children with chickenpox. Some of these children may develop a mild chickenpox also known as breakthrough disease.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Another vaccine, known as zoster vaccine, is simply a larger-than-normal dose of the same vaccine used against chickenpox, and is used in older adults to reduce the risk of shingles (also called herpes zoster) and postherpetic neuralgia, which are caused by the same virus. The live zoster (shingles) vaccine is recommended for adults aged 60 years and older. A recombinant zoster (shingles) vaccine is recommended for adults aged 50 years and older.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: The long-term duration of protection from varicella vaccine is unknown, but there are now persons vaccinated twenty years ago with no evidence of waning immunity, while others have become vulnerable in as few as six years. Assessments of duration of immunity are complicated in an environment where natural disease is still common, which typically leads to an overestimation of effectiveness.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Some vaccinated children have been found to lose their protective antibody in as little as five to eight years. However, according to the World Health Organization (WHO): "After observation of study populations for periods of up to 20 years in Japan and 10 years in the United States, more than 90% of immunocompetent persons who were vaccinated as children were still protected from varicella." However, since only one out of five Japanese children were vaccinated, the annual exposure of these vaccinees to children with natural chickenpox boosted the vaccinees' immune system. In the United States, where universal varicella vaccination has been practiced, the majority of children no longer receive exogenous (outside) boosting, thus, their cell-mediated immunity to VZV (varicella zoster virus) wanes – necessitating booster chickenpox vaccinations. As time goes on, boosters may be necessary. Persons exposed to the virus after vaccination tend to experience milder cases of chickenpox if they develop the disease.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Catching "wild" chickenpox as a child has been thought to commonly result in lifelong immunity. Indeed, parents have deliberately ensured this in the past with "pox parties". Historically, exposure of adults to contagious children has boosted their immunity, reducing the risk of shingles. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and corresponding national organizations are carefully observing the failure rate which may be high compared with other modern vaccineslarge outbreaks of chickenpox having occurred at schools which required their children to be vaccinated.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Prior to the widespread introduction of the vaccine in the United States in 1995 (1986 in Japan and 1988 in Korea), there were around 4,000,000 cases per year in the United States, mostly in children, with typically 10,500–13,000 hospital admissions (range, 8,000–18,000), and 100–150 deaths each year. Most of the deaths were among young children.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: During 2003, and the first half of 2004, the CDC reported eight deaths from varicella, six of whom were children or adolescents. These deaths and hospital admissions have substantially declined in the US due to vaccination, though the rate of shingles infection has increased as adults are less exposed to infected children (which would otherwise help protect against shingles). Ten years after the vaccine was recommended in the US, the CDC reported as much as a 90% drop in chickenpox cases, a varicella-related hospital admission decline of 71% and a 97% drop in chickenpox deaths among those under 20.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Vaccines are less effective among high-risk patients, as well as being more dangerous because they contain attenuated live virus. In a study performed on children with an impaired immune system, 30% had lost the antibody after five years, and 8% had already caught wild chickenpox in that five-year period.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Herpes zoster (shingles) most often occurs in the elderly and is only rarely seen in children. The incidence of herpes zoster in vaccinated adults is 0.9/1000 person-years, and is 0.33/1000 person-years in vaccinated children; this is lower than the overall incidence of 3.2–4.2/1000 person-years.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Adult shingles cases may increase after introduction of varicella vaccine, but evidence is unclear. While research using computer models has tended to support the hypothesis that vaccination programs would increase incidence of zoster in the short term, the evidence from epidemiological studies is mixed, and increases observed in zoster incidence in some studies may not be related to vaccination programs, as the incidence increases prior to the varicella vaccine program being initiated.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Regarding herpes zoster, the CDC stated in 2014: "Chickenpox vaccines contain weakened live VZV, which may cause latent (dormant) infection. The vaccine-strain VZV can reactivate later in life and cause shingles. However, the risk of getting shingles from vaccine-strain VZV after chickenpox vaccination is much lower than getting shingles after natural infection with wild-type VZV."


title: Varicella vaccine

text: The WHO recommends one or two doses with the initial dose given at 12 to 18 months of age. The second dose, if given, should occur at least one to three months later. The second dose, if given, provides the additional benefit of improved protection against all varicella. This vaccine is a shot given subcutaneously (under the skin). It is recommended for all children under 13 and for everyone 13 or older who has never had chickenpox.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: In the United States, two doses are recommended by the CDC. For a routine vaccination, the first dose is administered at 12 to 15 months of age and a second dose at age 4–6 years. However, the second dose can be given as early as 3 months after the first dose. If an individual misses the timing for the routine vaccination, the individual is eligible to receive a catch-up vaccination. For a catch-up vaccination, individuals between 7 and 12 years old should receive a two-dose series 3 months apart (a minimum interval of 4 weeks). For individuals 13–18 years old, the catch-up vaccination should be given 4 to 8 weeks apart (a minimum interval of 4 weeks). The varicella vaccine did not become widely available in the United States until 1995.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: In the UK, the vaccine is only recommended for those who are in close contact with someone who is particularly vulnerable to chickenpox. As there is an increased risk of shingles in adults due to possible lack of contact with chickenpox-infected children providing a natural boosting to immunity, and the fact that chickenpox is usually a mild illness, the National Health Service cites concerns about unvaccinated children catching chickenpox as adults when it is more dangerous.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: The varicella vaccine is not recommended for seriously ill people, pregnant women, people who have tuberculosis, people who have experienced a serious allergic reaction to the varicella vaccine in the past, people who are allergic to gelatin, people allergic to neomycin, people receiving high doses of steroids, people receiving treatment for cancer with x-rays or chemotherapy, as well as people who have received blood products or transfusions during the past five months. Additionally, the varicella vaccine is not recommended for people who are taking salicylates (e.g. aspirin). After receiving the varicella vaccine, the use of salicylates should be avoided for at least six weeks. The varicella vaccine is also not recommended for individuals who have received a live vaccine in the last four weeks, because live vaccines that are administered too soon within one another may not be as effective. It may be usable in people with HIV infections who have a good blood count and are receiving appropriate treatment. Specific antiviral medication, such as acyclovir, famciclovir, or valacyclovir, are not recommended 24 hours before and 14 days after vaccination.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Serious side effects are very rare. From 1998 to 2013, only one vaccine-related death was reported: an English child with pre-existent leukemia. On some occasions, severe reactions such as meningitis and pneumonia have been reported (mainly in inadvertently vaccinated immunocompromised children) as well as anaphylaxis.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: The possible mild side effects include redness, stiffness, and soreness at the injection site, as well as fever. A few people may develop a mild rash, which usually appears around the injection site.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: There is a short-term risk of developing herpes zoster (shingles) following vaccination. However, this risk is less than the risk due to a natural infection resulting in chickenpox. Most of the cases reported have been mild and have not been associated with serious complications.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Approximately 5% of children who receive the vaccine develop a fever or rash. Adverse reaction reports for the period 1995 to 2005 found no deaths attributed to the vaccine despite approximately 55.7 million doses being delivered.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Cases of vaccine-related chickenpox have been reported in patients with a weakened immune system, but no deaths.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: The literature contains several reports of adverse reactions following varicella vaccination, including vaccine-strain zoster in children and adults.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: The varicella zoster vaccine is made from the Oka/Merck strain of live attenuated varicella virus. The Oka virus was initially obtained from a child with natural varicella, introduced into human embryonic lung cell cultures, adapted to and propagated in embryonic guinea pig cell cultures, and finally propagated in a human diploid cell line originally derived from fetal tissues (WI-38). Takahashi and his colleagues used the Oka strain to develop a live attenuated varicella vaccine in Japan in the early 1970s. This strain was further developed by pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co. and GlaxoSmithKline. American vaccinologist Maurice Hilleman's team at Merck then used the Oka strain to prepare a chickenpox vaccine in 1981.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Japan was among the first countries to vaccinate for chickenpox. The vaccine developed by Hilleman was first licensed in the United States in 1995. Routine vaccination against varicella zoster virus is also performed in the United States, and the incidence of chickenpox has been dramatically reduced there (from four million cases per year in the pre-vaccine era to approximately 390,000 cases per year ).


title: Varicella vaccine

text: As of 2019, standalone varicella vaccines are available in all 27 European Union member countries, and 16 countries also offer a combined measles, mumps, rubella and varicella vaccine (MMRV). Twelve European countries (Austria, Andorra, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg and Spain) have universal varicella vaccination (UVV) policies, though it is only six of these countries have made it available at no cost via government funding. EU member states that have not implemented UVV cite reasons such as "a perceived low disease burden and low public health priority," the cost and cost-effectiveness, the possible risk of herpes zoster when vaccinating older adults, and rare fevers leading to seizures after the first dose of the MMRV vaccine. "Countries that implemented UVV experienced decreases in varicella incidence, hospitalizations and complications, showing overall beneficial impact."


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Varicella vaccination is recommended in Canada for all healthy children aged 1 to 12, as well as susceptible adolescents and adults 50 years of age and younger; "may be considered for people with select immunodeficiency disorders; and "should be prioritized" for susceptible individuals, including "non-pregnant women of childbearing age, Household contacts of immunocompromised individuals, Members of a household expecting a newborn, Health care workers, Adults who may be exposed occupationally to varicella (for example, people who work with young children), Immigrants and refugees from tropical regions, People receiving chronic salicylate therapy (for example, acetylsalicylic acid [ASA])," and others.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Australia has adopted recommendations for routine immunization of children and susceptible adults against chickenpox.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: Other countries, such as the United Kingdom, have targeted recommendations for the vaccine, e.g., for susceptible health care workers at risk of varicella exposure. In the UK, varicella antibodies are measured as part of the routine of prenatal care, and by 2005 all National Health Service personnel had determined their immunity and been immunized if they were non-immune and have direct patient contact. Population-based immunization against varicella is not otherwise practised in the UK.


title: Varicella vaccine

text: The Roman Catholic Church is opposed to abortion. Nevertheless, the Pontifical Academy for Life stated in 2017 that "clinically recommended vaccinations can be used with a clear conscience and that the use of such vaccines does not signify some sort of cooperation with voluntary abortion". On 21 December 2020, the Vatican's doctrinal office, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, further clarified that it is "morally " for Catholics to receive vaccines derived from fetal cell lines or in which such lines were used in testing or development, because "passive material cooperation in the procured abortion from which these cell lines originate is, on the part of those making use of the resulting vaccines, remote" and "does not and should not in any way imply that there is a moral endorsement of the use of cell lines proceeding from aborted fetuses".


title: Paraguay national football team

text: The Paraguay national football team () represents Paraguay in men's international football competitions, and are controlled by the Paraguayan Football Association (Asociación Paraguaya de Fútbol). Paraguay is a member of CONMEBOL. The Albirroja has qualified for eight FIFA World Cup competitions (1930, 1950, 1958, 1986, 1998, 2002, 2006 and 2010), with their best performance coming in 2010 when they reached the quarter-finals. A regular participant at the Copa América, Paraguay have been crowned champions of the competition on two occasions (in 1953 and 1979). Paraguay's highest FIFA World Rankings was 8th (March 2001) and their lowest was 103 (May 1995). Paraguay was awarded second place with Best Move of the Year in 1996 for their rise in the FIFA Rankings.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: The national team's most successful period was under the coaching of Argentine Gerardo Martino, who was awarded with the South American Coach of the Year in 2007 and took Paraguay to the quarter-finals stage of the FIFA World Cup competition for the first time in history (in 2010) and also to the final of the 2011 Copa América, where Paraguay finished as runners-up. In Paraguay's entire history at the FIFA World Cup, only Carlos Gamarra and José Luis Chilavert hold the distinction of being selected as part of the All-Star Team, being for the 1998 edition. Paulo da Silva holds the most appearances for the national team with 148 matches and Roque Santa Cruz is the all-time leading goal scorer with 32 goals. Denis Caniza, who was present with the national team from 1996 to 2010, is the only player to have represented Paraguay in four consecutive FIFA World Cup competitions (1998, 2002, 2006, 2010).


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Soon after the introduction of football in Paraguay by Williams Paats, the Liga Paraguaya de Futbol (today Asociación Paraguaya de Fútbol) was created in 1906. The first national football team was organized in 1910 when an invitation by the Argentine club Hércules of Corrientes was received to play a friendly match. Members of that first national team where F. Melián, G. Almeida, A. Rodríguez, M. Barrios, P. Samaniego, J. Morín, Z. Gadea, D. Andreani, C. Mena Porta, B. Villamayor, M. Rojas and E. Erico. The match ended in a 0–0 draw.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Because of the increasing number of invitations to play matches and international tournaments, the Asociación Paraguaya de Fútbol decided to officially create the national team and select the striped red and white jerseys that until this date remain as the official colours (taken from the Paraguayan flag). In late 1919, Paraguay accepted the invitation to play the 1921 Copa América and in order to prepare for that occasion a number of friendly matches were played between 1919 and the start of the tournament in 1921. The first of those friendly matches was a 5–1 loss against Argentina, and it marked the first international game by the Paraguayan national football team. When the 1921 Copa América finally arrived, Paraguay surprised everybody by beating then three-time South American champions Uruguay by 2–1, being this the first match in an official competition for the Paraguayan football team. Paraguay eventually finished fourth in the tournament and became a regular participant of the tournament for the next editions.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: In 1930, Paraguay participated in the first World Cup, organized by Uruguay. In the first round, Paraguay debuted and lost to the United States (0–3), to then defeat Belgium (1–0) with a goal by Luis Vargas Peña. Only one team was to advance from the group stage, and the U.S. left Paraguay behind.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: After strong participations in the Copa América tournaments of 1929, 1947 and 1949 (where Paraguay finished in second place), Paraguay was ready for their next World Cup competition.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: The return to the World Cup was in 1950, where Paraguay faced Sweden and Italy in Group 3. Paraguay failed to advance to the next round after a 2–2 draw against Sweden and a 2–0 loss against Italy.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: The first big success came in 1953 when Paraguay won the Copa América disputed in Peru. In their road to the championship, Paraguay defeated Chile (3–0), Bolivia (2–1) and Brazil (2–1); and tied against Ecuador (0–0), Peru (2–2) and Uruguay (2–2). Since Paraguay and Brazil were tied in points at the end of the tournament, a final playoff match was played between them, with Paraguay winning the final by 3–2. Key players of the campaign included Ángel Berni, Heriberto Herrera and Rubén Fernández. The coach was Manuel Fleitas Solich.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: For the 1958 World Cup, Paraguay surprisingly qualified ahead of Uruguay (beating them 5–0 in the decisive game) with a team that contained a formidable attacking lineup with stars such as Juan Bautista Agüero, José Parodi, Jorge Lino Romero, Cayetano Ré and Florencio Amarilla. In their first game in Sweden, Paraguay were 3–2 up against France in a game they lost 7–3. A 3–2 win over Scotland and a 3–3 draw with Yugoslavia saw Paraguay finish third in their group.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: The departure of several of their stars for European football (mainly Spain) resulted in a weakening of Paraguay's football fortunes somewhat, but they were only edged out by Mexico in the 1962 qualifiers.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay fell short in subsequent World Cup qualifying campaigns, but Copa América success (and that of one of its premier clubs Olimpia in the Copa Libertadores) in 1979 shored up Paraguay as a solid player on the continent.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: The 1979 Copa América was won by Paraguay after finishing first in Group C (which had Uruguay and Ecuador as well) with two wins and two draws. In the semi-finals, Paraguay defeated Brazil by an aggregate score of 4–3. In the finals, Paraguay defeated Chile by an aggregate score of 3–1 to claim its second continental crown. Players such as Romerito, Carlos Alberto Kiese, Alicio Solalinde, Roberto Paredes, Hugo Ricardo Talavera and Eugenio Morel where an important part of the team, coached by Ranulfo Miranda.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay ended a 28-year absence from the World Cup in 1986 with a team starring Roberto Fernández in goal; Cesar Zabala, Rogelio Delgado and Juan Bautista Torales in defence; Jorge Amado Nunes and Vladimiro Schettina in midfield; midfield playmaker Romerito and strikers Roberto Cabañas, Ramón Ángel María Hicks and Rolando Chilavert (the older brother of José Luis Chilavert). In first round matches, Paraguay defeated Iraq (1–0, goal scored by Romerito) and then tied Mexico (1–1, goal scored by Romerito) and Belgium (2–2, both goals scored by Roberto Cabañas). They reached the second round where they were beaten 3–0 by England.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: In 1992, Paraguay won the South American Pre-Olympic tournament, which guaranteed a spot in the 1992 Summer Olympics football competition. In the Olympics, Paraguay finished second in its group and were eliminated by Ghana in the quarter-finals. The most important aspect of that Paraguay team was the emergence of new young players like Carlos Gamarra, Celso Ayala, José Luis Chilavert, Francisco Arce and José Cardozo, which became part of the "golden generation" that led Paraguay to three straight World Cups and good performances in continental competitions, establishing Paraguay as one of the top teams in South America alongside Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay concluded the qualifiers for the 1998 World Cup in second position, one point below Argentina.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Coached by the Brazilian Paulo César Carpegiani, the "Albirroja" returned to the World Cup finals for the first time since 1986. The squad featured experienced players. Paraguay were drawn into Group D, alongside Bulgaria, Nigeria and Spain.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay drew their first two matches 0–0, against Bulgaria and Spain. They then faced to face Nigeria, who has already qualified for the second round after winning their first two matches. Paraguay won 3–1 and finished in second position in the group.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay met France in the second round on 28 June. France were without Zinedine Zidane, and were held 0–0 by Paraguay for 90 minutes. In the 114th minute of extra-time, Laurent Blanc scored to eliminate Paraguay on the golden goal rule. Defender Carlos Gamarra and goalkeeper and captain José Luís Chilavert were selected as part of the 1998 All-Star Team.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay were hosts of the 1999 Copa América, played in four cities throughout the country. Head coach Ever Hugo Almeida selected an experienced squad, with the majority of the players having been present at the 1998 World Cup. Grouped with Bolivia, Japan and Peru, the Albirroja played their first match of the competition, drawing 0–0 against Bolivia. On 2 July, Paraguay faced Japan and sealed a 4–0 victory. In Paraguay's third and last group-stage fixture against Peru, Paraguay won 1–0. The "Albirroja" topped the group with seven points. Paraguay were drawn against Uruguay at the quarter-final stage. The match was decided via a penalty shootout, which saw Paraguay defeated 5–3. Following the conclusion of the competition, striker Roque Santa Cruz was awarded with the 1999 Paraguayan Footballer of the Year award.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: In the 2001 Copa America, head coach Sergio Markarián selected a squad of mostly domestic based players. Paraguay were drawn against Peru, Mexico and Brazil. In their opening fixture on 12 July, the fixture ended 3–3. On 15 July, Paraguay drew 0–0 with Mexico in their second group stage fixture. Paraguay then faced Brazil on 18 July in their last group stage fixture. Brazil won 3–1 and eliminated Paraguay, who had obtained just two points at the competition.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay began its 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign in March 2000, suffering a 2–0 away defeat against Peru. One month later, they defeated Uruguay 1–0. On 3 June 2000, Paraguay secured a 3–1 home victory against Ecuador, before Paraguay were defeated 3–1 away against Chile. On 18 July 2000, Paraguay earned a 2–1 home victory against Brazil. Paraguay then drew the next two fixtures. Paraguay then earned four consecutive wins — against Venezuela, Colombia (2–0), Peru (5–1), and Uruguay (1–0) — to move into second position in qualifying.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay fell 2–1 away against Ecuador. Paraguay defeated Chile 1–0. Paraguay were defeated 2–0 away against Brazil. Paraguay defeated Bolivia 5–1 at home. One month later Paraguay drew Argentina 2–2. Paraguay maintained second position in the table. Paraguay were then defeated 3–1 away against Venezuela and 4–0 against Colombia. Paraguay finished in fourth position after Round 18, with 30 points, qualifying for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Both José Saturnino Cardozo and Carlos Humberto Paredes were in the top 10 leading goal scorers of the qualifiers. Cardozo ranking fifth, with six goals in fourteen matches, and Paredes ranking tenth, having scored five goals in sixteen matches.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay came into the 2002 FIFA World Cup tournament with most of their players from France 98, as José Luís Chilavert would captain the Albirroja at the tournament. Cesare Maldini's appointing as coach in January 2002 had caused controversy as domestic managers were overlooked (prompting the managers union to try to unsuccessfully expel him for immigration breaches).


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay were drawn into Group B with Spain, South Africa and Slovenia. The Albirroja would face South Africa in their opening group stage match on 2 June, with a match that tied at 2–2. Paraguay faced Spain in their next fixture on 7 June. Spain defeated Paraguay 3–1. In Paraguay's third group stage fixture against Slovenia, Paraguay won the match at 3–1. Although Paraguay and South Africa had finished with four points each, the Albirroja progressed due to goal difference.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay were then drawn against Germany at the round of 16 stages. Germany, who had been the more dominant side throughout the match, scored in the 88th minute to win the match, ending Paraguay's tournament.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Coach Carlos Jara Saguier took a relatively young squad to the 2004 Copa América, with the majority of players tied to clubs of the Primera División Paraguaya. Paraguay had been drawn into Group C, with Brazil, Costa Rica and Chile. A penalty sealed Paraguay's 1–0 victory in their first group-stage match against Costa Rica. Paraguay earned a 1–1 draw with Chile in the following match. In Paraguay's fixture against Brazil, Paraguay earned a 2–1 victory, which saw Paraguay top the group as undefeated, with seven points. Paraguay were drawn against Uruguay in the quarter-finals. A 3–1 Uruguay victory eliminated Paraguay from the competition.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay began the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification with three wins in their first four fixtures in 2003. After losing 4–1 to Peru, Paraguay notched consecutive wins against Uruguay (4–1), Chile (1–0) to reach first position of the table. In 2004, Paraguay drew 0–0 against Brazil and lost 2–1 to Bolivia. Paraguay got their only win of 2004 against Venezuela a 1–0. Paraguay ended the year with a 1–0 defeat against Uruguay. In 2005, Paraguay lost to Ecuador and then defeated Chile 2–1. In their next fixture, Brazil defeated Paraguay 4–1. Paraguay defeated Bolivia 4–1, and Argentina 1–0 for Paraguay's first official victory over Argentina. They defeated Venezuela 1–0. In round 18, Paraguay were defeated 1–0 at home against Colombia. Paraguay concluded the qualifiers in fourth position, qualifying for their third consecutive World Cup. José Cardozo finished second in goals scored with seven.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Head coach Aníbal Ruiz took with him 8 European based players and 11 South American based players, including captain Carlos Gamarra, to Germany for the 2006 tournament. This was Paraguay's third consecutive FIFA World Cup tournament, and the team had experienced players within the side.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay were drawn into Group B alongside England, Sweden and Trinidad and Tobago. Paraguay faced England in their opening group stage match on 10 June. England managed to hold onto a 1–0 lead to earn a victory. They faced Sweden on 15 June in a match which Sweden eliminated Paraguay after just two group-stage matches without the Albirroja scoring a single goal. Paraguay's only compensation came in their third and last group stage fixture on against Trinidad and Tobago on 20 June, Paraguay's 2–0 victory. Paraguay finished third in their group. Paraguay's group stage elimination made them the only South American national team which did not advance beyond the first round. Upon the conclusion of Paraguay's 2006 FIFA World Cup campaign, Aníbal Ruiz resigned as head coach and Raúl Vicente Amarilla was assigned as the interim coach.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay's national squad underwent a major transition after Germany 2006 because of the retirement of key players including José Luis Chilavert. In 2007, Argentine Gerardo "Tata" Martino was designated as head-coach.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Gerardo Martino took with him a relatively experienced squad to Venezuela, with Darío Verón, Claudio Morel Rodríguez, Carlos Bonet, Julio Manzur, Paulo da Silva, Aureliano Torres, Roque Santa Cruz and captain Julio César Cáceres all re-appearing for the national team, and newcomers Enrique Vera, Óscar Cardozo and the Argentine-born Jonathan Santana were appearing for Paraguay in their first major tournaments. The competition also proved to be one of the last national team involvements from veteran Nelson Cuevas. Paraguay were drawn into Group C, alongside Argentina, Colombia, and the USA. In Paraguay's first fixture, they would defeat Colombia 5–0 after a hat-trick from Roque Santa Cruz and a double from Salvador Cabañas. In Paraguay's second fixture against the US, Édgar Barreto opened the scoring in the 29th minute just before the USA's Ricardo Clark would level the scores in the 35th minute. Paraguay would win the match 3–1 after a goal from Óscar Cardozo and a 92nd minute free kick from Salvador Cabañas would seal the game for the Albirroja. With both Paraguay and Argentina having obtained six points and qualifying from beyond their Group C, the two teams faced in their last group stage fixture with a less strengthened side, Roque Santa Cruz, Édgar Barreto, Cristian Riveros and Paolo da Silva all commencing on the bench as Nelson Cuevas would gain his first appearance of the competition and Aldo Bobadilla would play a full 90-minutes of the fixture, replacing Justo Villar for the second time in the tournament. A 79th minute Javier Mascherano goal was enough to seal a 1–0 victory for Argentina, as Paraguay advanced to the knock-out stages to face Mexico. Mexico had already beaten Brazil in the group stage and had finished in first place of their respective Group B with seven points. After Paraguayan goal keeper Aldo Bobadilla had earned a straight red card in the 3rd minute, Paraguay conceded a penalty in the 5th minute and eventually found themselves down 3–0 at half-time. Mexico would score another three more goals, thrashing Paraguay 6–0 and ending their Copa América campaign.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay commenced their 2010 World Cup qualifying campaign with a 0–0 away draw against Peru. Paraguay followed this draw with four consecutive wins — against Urugauay (1–0), Ecuador (5–1), Chile (3–0), and Brazil (2–0). These victories placed Paraguay in first position of the CONMEBOL table in four matches, and Paraguay remained in first position of the CONMEBOL table for nine consecutive rounds (from round 4 to round 12). Paraguay lost for the first time in qualifying in a 4–2 away defeat against Bolivia.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay travelled to Argentina. 1–1 was how it finished. Days later, a 2–0 home victory against Venezuela as Paraguay remained in first position of the CONMEBOL table. Paraguay then earned two 1–0 victories against Colombia and Peru. The results keeping Paraguay in first place of the CONMEBOL table as 2008 concluded. Paraguay's qualification campaign in 2009 commenced with a 2–0 away loss against Uruguay and a 1–1 away draw against Ecuador, By June, Paraguay suffered a 2–0 home defeat at the hands of Chile, Paraguay were defeated 2–1 away against Brazil. In the last four matches of the qualification campaign, where which three of the four fixtures would be played at home, Paraguay earned a 1–0 home victory against Bolivia. Qualification was secured in the next fixture against Argentina on 9 September, when Paraguay won 1–0. Paraguay concluded the qualification campaign with a 2–1 away victory against Venezuela and a 2–0 home loss against Colombia. Paraguay concluded the qualification campaign with 33 points, as Salvador Cabañas finished in sixth position of the leading goal scorers, having scored six goals.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay had an experienced side with Roque Santa Cruz, Édgar Barreto, Carlos Bonet, Enrique Vera, Cristian Riveros, Nelson Valdez and Paulo da Silva. Paraguay had qualified for their fourth consecutive FIFA World Cup, and the 2010 edition proved to be a record fourth consecutive World Cup for Denis Caniza. The final squad consisted of 9 European based players.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay were drawn into Group F alongside Italy, Slovakia and New Zealand. Paraguay faced Italy in their opening match and drew 1–1, after taking the lead in the 39th minute. They then beat Slovakia 2–0 and played out a 0–0 draw with New Zealand, to finish first in the group.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay were drawn against Japan in the second round, and won a penalty shoot-out 5–3 after a 0–0 draw. The win meant that Paraguay advanced to the last eight for the first time.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: The Albirroja were drawn against Spain at the quarter-final stage. Paraguayan goalkeeper Justo Villar saved a penalty kick, but Spain scored in the 83rd minute to win 1–0, and went on to win the tournament. After the match, Gerardo Martino stated that he would be leaving his position at the end of his contract.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: At the 2011 Copa America, Paraguay were drawn into Group B with Brazil, Venezuela and Ecuador. Paraguay drew their opening group stage match 0–0 with Ecuador. Paraguay leveled with Brazil 2–2, as Paraguay would settle for their second draw of the tournament. Paraguay played out a 3–3 draw with Venezuela. Paraguay concluded the group stage phase with three points from three matches, as the group's third-place finisher and the competition's second-best third-place finisher in the group stage.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay were drawn against Brazil at the quarter final stages. The match was decided via a penalty shoot out. Paraguay won the penalty shoot out 2–0. Paraguay then faced Venezuela in the semi-final. Paraguay won 5–3 via their second consecutive penalty shoot out, to send Paraguay to the final. Paraguay faced Uruguay in the final, the first time that Paraguay reached the final since the 1979 Copa América. Paraguay lost 3–0. Paraguayan goalkeeper Justo Villar was awarded as the Best goalkeeper of the tournament. Gerardo Martino resigned soon afterwards as coach of the Albirroja.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Francisco Arce took charge of the national team for the qualifiers. In Rounds 1 and 2 in October 2011, Paraguay were defeated 2–0 away. Four days later, Paraguay drew with Uruguay 1–1. Paraguay earned their first win of the qualifiers when they defeated Ecuador 2–1. Fourth position was the highest ranking that Paraguay achieved throughout the qualifiers, as the national team faced a series of losses.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay were defeated 2–0 against Chile and 3–1 to Bolivia. Francisco Arce departed as coach in 2012 after Paraguay's loss against Bolivia, and was replaced by Gerardo Pelusso. Paraguay were defeated 3–1 against Argentina, 2–0 against Venezuela, and 2–0 against Colombia. This string of losses placed Paraguay at the bottom of the table.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay ended their losing streak when they defeated Peru 1–0, only their second win of the qualifiers. Paraguay's then tied Uruguay 1–1. Paraguay were defeated 4–1 against Ecuador.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: In Round 13, Paraguay lost 2–1 to Chile in a match where Roque Santa Cruz's goal brought his tally to 26 which made him the all-time leading goal scorer of the Paraguayan national team's history. By this time, Gerardo Pelusso had departed and coach Víctor Genes would ultimately be in charge until the qualifiers were concluded. Paraguay next defeated Bolivia 4–0. However, a 5–2 defeat against Argentina officially eliminated Paraguay from qualifying.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay's last two matches in October 2013 saw then face Venezuela and Colombia. The match concluded 1–1. In Paraguay's last fixture of the qualifiers in Round 18, they lost to Colombia 2–1. Paraguay finished in ninth position of the table, having gained just 12 points from three wins and having been defeated ten times. The 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign proved to be unsuccessful. Throughout the duration of the qualifiers, Paraguay changed coaches three times.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay's campaign in the 2015 Copa América was much more successful than their qualifying campaign to Brazil. In this competition, Paraguay made it to the semi-finals, defeating Brazil in quarter-finals via penalty shootouts, after the score being 1–1, although they were eliminated by Argentina, by a score of 6–1.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Prior to the competition, the Paraguayan press had labeled Roque Santa Cruz, Nelson Haedo, Paulo da Silva and Justo Villar as histórics, being the only four experienced and veteran players in the squad selected for the competition. Santa Cruz suffered an injured and was later replaced by Antonio Sanabria.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Following an unsuccessful campaign, Ramón Díaz announced his resignation as coach of the Albirroja in a press conference at the Estadio Defensores del Chaco after returning to the country. He had already received criticism from former Albirroja great José Luís Chilavert, who stated that the team was managed based on "friendship" in the federation due to corruption and opined that Díaz is more of an office person. José Cardozo, former Albirroja leading goal scorer and current coach of Chiapas in Mexico, also expressed his dissatisfaction with the Albirroja. He stated that: "There are players that do not even know our national anthem" and "We used to play until we would suffer severe injuries, and we performed because we loved the Albirroja. Today, someone has pain in their stomach and does not want to train". "Carlos Gamarra and Francisco Arce played many times with busted ankles, and I once played with a damaged knee" remembered Cardozo. Former Albirroja World Cup veteran Celso Ayala spoke to HOY.com and mentioned that "Any team beats us. In the Albirroja, we've stopped kicking, blocking and heading. Uruguay, for instance, never forgets about its roots, and we have to be like them".


title: Paraguay national football team

text: Paraguay traditionally wears red and white shirts and blue shorts and socks and away colours are originally blue but they wear all white since they wear manufactured by German brand Puma after their termination from the Adidas brand. They never used their away colours when they were playing in the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa.


title: Paraguay national football team

text: The following players were called up for the friendly matches against Peru and Colombia on 16 and 19 November 2022, respectively.


title: Mothra

text: Mothra is one of Toho's most popular monsters and second only to Godzilla in her total number of film appearances. Polls taken during the early 1990s indicated that Mothra was particularly popular among women who were, at the time, the largest demographic among Japan's movie-going audience, a fact that prompted the filming of 1992's "Godzilla vs. Mothra", which was the best-attended Toho film since "King Kong vs. Godzilla". IGN listed Mothra as #3 on their "Top 10 Japanese Movie Monsters" list, while "Complex" listed the character as #7 on its "The 15 Most Badass Kaiju Monsters of All Time" list.


title: Mothra

text: Though Mothra is generally portrayed as female, male individuals of her species have also been featured in the franchise, including Mothra Leo in the "Rebirth of Mothra" trilogy, and a male Mothra larva who appears alongside his non-identical twin in ""


title: Mothra

text: The name is the suffixation of "-ra" to the English word "moth"; since the Japanese language does not have dental fricatives, it is approximated "Mosura" in Japanese. The "ra" suffix follows the precedent set by Godzilla ("Gojira"), which in turn is derived from , which serves to indicate the character's enormous size.


title: Mothra

text: During its promotion of "Mothra vs. Godzilla" for the American market, American International Pictures entitled the movie "Godzilla vs. the Thing", probably to avoid legal action from Columbia Pictures, which had released the original "Mothra".