title: Maamanithan (film)

text: "Behindwoods" rated 2.75 out of 5 and wrote "Maamanithan is a beautiful family drama, watch it for Ilayaraja - YSR's blissful music and the performances." Hariharan Krishnan of "Film Companion" wrote "And then you have Somasundaram playing Ismail, Sethupathi's best friend and saviour of the abandoned family. Honestly what a relief it is to see a Muslim character given some importance in an Indian film. This kind of inclusivity had almost been given up as a lost cause. I sincerely hope that other filmmakers in the future take this lead and start developing more characters from the Muslim community. And then we have Jewel Mary playing Pilomy a tea vendor in the backwaters of Alleppey, who accommodates Radhakrishnan. What a radiant presence. She's one of the rare actors who just does not perform or exert herself to play her role. So, what could have been a well-crafted Hitchcockian drama of a small lower-middle-class family facing a crisis beyond their comprehension, loses track and becomes a rather confused affair. So, let's just blame it on the inconveniences caused by the pandemic of the last two years on a crew, which was ill-equipped also to handle their crisis, too." "India Herald" rated the film 3 out of 4 and wrote "Maamanithan has a sense of being the last of its kind. When it finally comes to a finish, it evolves into something more—a narrative that is softly moving."


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor particles a few nanometres in size, having optical and electronic properties that differ from those of larger particles as a result of quantum mechanics. They are a central topic in nanotechnology. When the quantum dots are illuminated by UV light, an electron in the quantum dot can be excited to a state of higher energy. In the case of a semiconducting quantum dot, this process corresponds to the transition of an electron from the valence band to the conductance band. The excited electron can drop back into the valence band releasing its energy as light. This light emission (photoluminescence) is illustrated in the figure on the right. The color of that light depends on the energy difference between the conductance band and the valence band, or the transition between discrete energy states when band structure is no longer a good definition in QDs.


title: Quantum dot

text: In the language of materials science, nanoscale semiconductor materials tightly confine either electrons or electron holes. Quantum dots are sometimes referred to as artificial atoms, emphasizing their singularity, having bound, discrete electronic states, like naturally occurring atoms or molecules. It was shown that the electronic wave functions in quantum dots resemble the ones in real atoms. By coupling two or more such quantum dots, an artificial molecule can be made, exhibiting hybridization even at room temperature.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dots have properties intermediate between bulk semiconductors and discrete atoms or molecules. Their optoelectronic properties change as a function of both size and shape. Larger QDs of 5–6 nm diameter emit longer wavelengths, with colors such as orange, or red. Smaller QDs (2–3 nm) emit shorter wavelengths, yielding colors like blue, and green. However, the specific colors vary depending on the exact composition of the QD.


title: Quantum dot

text: Potential applications of quantum dots include single-electron transistors, solar cells, LEDs, lasers, single-photon sources, second-harmonic generation, quantum computing, cell biology research, microscopy, and medical imaging. Their small size allows for some QDs to be suspended in solution, which may lead to their use in inkjet printing, and spin-coating. They have been used in Langmuir-Blodgett thin-films. These processing techniques result in less expensive and less time-consuming methods of semiconductor fabrication.


title: Quantum dot

text: There are several ways to fabricate quantum dots. Possible methods include colloidal synthesis, self-assembly, and electrical gating.


title: Quantum dot

text: Colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals are synthesized from solutions, much like traditional chemical processes. The main difference is the product neither precipitates as a bulk solid nor remains dissolved. Heating the solution at high temperature, the precursors decompose forming monomers which then nucleate and generate nanocrystals. Temperature is a critical factor in determining optimal conditions for the nanocrystal growth. It must be high enough to allow for rearrangement and annealing of atoms during the synthesis process while being low enough to promote crystal growth. The concentration of monomers is another critical factor that has to be stringently controlled during nanocrystal growth. The growth process of nanocrystals can occur in two different regimes, "focusing" and "defocusing". At high monomer concentrations, the critical size (the size where nanocrystals neither grow nor shrink) is relatively small, resulting in growth of nearly all particles. In this regime, smaller particles grow faster than large ones (since larger crystals need more atoms to grow than small crystals) resulting in the size distribution "focusing", yielding an improbable distribution of nearly monodispersed particles. The size focusing is optimal when the monomer concentration is kept such that the average nanocrystal size present is always slightly larger than the critical size. Over time, the monomer concentration diminishes, the critical size becomes larger than the average size present, and the distribution "defocuses".


title: Quantum dot

text: There are colloidal methods to produce many different semiconductors. Typical dots are made of binary compounds such as lead sulfide, lead selenide, cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, cadmium telluride, indium arsenide, and indium phosphide. Dots may also be made from ternary compounds such as cadmium selenide sulfide. Further, recent advances have been made which allow for synthesis of colloidal perovskite quantum dots.


title: Quantum dot

text: These quantum dots can contain as few as 100 to 100,000 atoms within the quantum dot volume, with a diameter of ≈10 to 50 atoms. This corresponds to about 2 to 10 nanometers, and at 10 nm in diameter, nearly 3 million quantum dots could be lined up end to end and fit within the width of a human thumb.


title: Quantum dot

text: Large batches of quantum dots may be synthesized via colloidal synthesis. Due to this scalability and the convenience of benchtop conditions, colloidal synthetic methods are promising for commercial applications.


title: Quantum dot

text: Plasma synthesis has evolved to be one of the most popular gas-phase approaches for the production of quantum dots, especially those with covalent bonds. For example, silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) quantum dots have been synthesized by using nonthermal plasma. The size, shape, surface and composition of quantum dots can all be controlled in nonthermal plasma. Doping that seems quite challenging for quantum dots has also been realized in plasma synthesis. Quantum dots synthesized by plasma are usually in the form of powder, for which surface modification may be carried out. This can lead to excellent dispersion of quantum dots in either organic solvents or water (i. e., colloidal quantum dots).


title: Quantum dot

text: The quantum dot absorption features correspond to transitions between discrete, three-dimensional particle in a box states of the electron and the hole, both confined to the same nanometer-size box. These discrete transitions are reminiscent of atomic spectra and have resulted in quantum dots also being called "artificial atoms".


title: Quantum dot

text: Genetically engineered M13 bacteriophage viruses allow preparation of quantum dot biocomposite structures. It had previously been shown that genetically engineered viruses can recognize specific semiconductor surfaces through the method of selection by combinatorial phage display. Additionally, it is known that liquid crystalline structures of wild-type viruses (Fd, M13, and TMV) are adjustable by controlling the solution concentrations, solution ionic strength, and the external magnetic field applied to the solutions. Consequently, the specific recognition properties of the virus can be used to organize inorganic nanocrystals, forming ordered arrays over the length scale defined by liquid crystal formation. Using this information, Lee et al. (2000) were able to create self-assembled, highly oriented, self-supporting films from a phage and ZnS precursor solution. This system allowed them to vary both the length of bacteriophage and the type of inorganic material through genetic modification and selection.


title: Quantum dot

text: Highly ordered arrays of quantum dots may also be self-assembled by electrochemical techniques. A template is created by causing an ionic reaction at an electrolyte-metal interface which results in the spontaneous assembly of nanostructures, including quantum dots, onto the metal which is then used as a mask for mesa-etching these nanostructures on a chosen substrate.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dot manufacturing relies on a process called "high temperature dual injection" which has been scaled by multiple companies for commercial applications that require large quantities (hundreds of kilograms to tonnes) of quantum dots. This reproducible production method can be applied to a wide range of quantum dot sizes and compositions.


title: Quantum dot

text: The bonding in certain cadmium-free quantum dots, such as III-V-based quantum dots, is more covalent than that in II-VI materials, therefore it is more difficult to separate nanoparticle nucleation and growth via a high temperature dual injection synthesis. An alternative method of quantum dot synthesis, the "molecular seeding" process, provides a reproducible route to the production of high-quality quantum dots in large volumes. The process utilises identical molecules of a molecular cluster compound as the nucleation sites for nanoparticle growth, thus avoiding the need for a high temperature injection step. Particle growth is maintained by the periodic addition of precursors at moderate temperatures until the desired particle size is reached. The molecular seeding process is not limited to the production of cadmium-free quantum dots; for example, the process can be used to synthesise kilogram batches of high-quality II-VI quantum dots in just a few hours.


title: Quantum dot

text: Another approach for the mass production of colloidal quantum dots can be seen in the transfer of the well-known hot-injection methodology for the synthesis to a technical continuous flow system. The batch-to-batch variations arising from the needs during the mentioned methodology can be overcome by utilizing technical components for mixing and growth as well as transport and temperature adjustments. For the production of CdSe based semiconductor nanoparticles this method has been investigated and tuned to production amounts of kg per month. Since the use of technical components allows for easy interchange in regards of maximum throughput and size, it can be further enhanced to tens or even hundreds of kilograms.


title: Quantum dot

text: In 2011 a consortium of U.S. and Dutch companies reported a milestone in high volume quantum dot manufacturing by applying the traditional high temperature dual injection method to a flow system.


title: Quantum dot

text: On 23 January 2013 Dow entered into an exclusive licensing agreement with UK-based Nanoco for the use of their low-temperature molecular seeding method for bulk manufacture of cadmium-free quantum dots for electronic displays, and on 24 September 2014 Dow commenced work on the production facility in South Korea capable of producing sufficient quantum dots for "millions of cadmium-free televisions and other devices, such as tablets". Mass production is due to commence in mid-2015. On 24 March 2015 Dow announced a partnership deal with LG Electronics to develop the use of cadmium free quantum dots in displays.


title: Quantum dot

text: In many regions of the world there is now a restriction or ban on the use of heavy metals in many household goods, which means that most cadmium-based quantum dots are unusable for consumer-goods applications.


title: Quantum dot

text: For commercial viability, a range of restricted, heavy-metal-free quantum dots has been developed showing bright emissions in the visible and near-infrared region of the spectrum and have similar optical properties to those of CdSe quantum dots. Among these materials are InP/ZnS, CuInS/ZnS, Si, Ge and C.


title: Quantum dot

text: Some quantum dots pose risks to human health and the environment under certain conditions. Notably, the studies on quantum dot toxicity have focused on particles containing cadmium and have yet to be demonstrated in animal models after physiologically relevant dosing. In vitro studies, based on cell cultures, on quantum dots (QD) toxicity suggest that their toxicity may derive from multiple factors including their physicochemical characteristics (size, shape, composition, surface functional groups, and surface charges) and their environment. Assessing their potential toxicity is complex as these factors include properties such as QD size, charge, concentration, chemical composition, capping ligands, and also on their oxidative, mechanical and photolytic stability.


title: Quantum dot

text: Many studies have focused on the mechanism of QD cytotoxicity using model cell cultures. It has been demonstrated that after exposure to ultraviolet radiation or oxidation by air, CdSe QDs release free cadmium ions causing cell death. Group II–VI QDs also have been reported to induce the formation of reactive oxygen species after exposure to light, which in turn can damage cellular components such as proteins, lipids and DNA. Some studies have also demonstrated that addition of a ZnS shell inhibits the process of reactive oxygen species in CdSe QDs. Another aspect of QD toxicity is that there are, in vivo, size-dependent intracellular pathways that concentrate these particles in cellular organelles that are inaccessible by metal ions, which may result in unique patterns of cytotoxicity compared to their constituent metal ions. The reports of QD localization in the cell nucleus present additional modes of toxicity because they may induce DNA mutation, which in turn will propagate through future generation of cells, causing diseases.


title: Quantum dot

text: Although concentration of QDs in certain organelles have been reported in in vivo studies using animal models, no alterations in animal behavior, weight, hematological markers or organ damage has been found through either histological or biochemical analysis. These findings have led scientists to believe that intracellular dose is the most important determining factor for QD toxicity. Therefore, factors determining the QD endocytosis that determine the effective intracellular concentration, such as QD size, shape and surface chemistry determine their toxicity. Excretion of QDs through urine in animal models also have demonstrated via injecting radio-labeled ZnS-capped CdSe QDs where the ligand shell was labelled with Tc. Though multiple other studies have concluded retention of QDs in cellular levels, exocytosis of QDs is still poorly studied in the literature.


title: Quantum dot

text: While significant research efforts have broadened the understanding of toxicity of QDs, there are large discrepancies in the literature, and questions still remain to be answered. Diversity of this class of material as compared to normal chemical substances makes the assessment of their toxicity very challenging. As their toxicity may also be dynamic depending on the environmental factors such as pH level, light exposure and cell type, traditional methods of assessing toxicity of chemicals such as LD are not applicable for QDs. Therefore, researchers are focusing on introducing novel approaches and adapting existing methods to include this unique class of materials. Furthermore, novel strategies to engineer safer QDs are still under exploration by the scientific community. A recent novelty in the field is the discovery of carbon quantum dots, a new generation of optically-active nanoparticles potentially capable of replacing semiconductor QDs, but with the advantage of much lower toxicity.


title: Quantum dot

text: In semiconductors, light absorption generally leads to an electron being excited from the valence to the conduction band, leaving behind a hole. The electron and the hole can bind to each other to form an exciton. When this exciton recombines (i.e. the electron resumes its ground state), the exciton's energy can be emitted as light. This is called fluorescence. In a simplified model, the energy of the emitted photon can be understood as the sum of the band gap energy between the highest occupied level and the lowest unoccupied energy level, the confinement energies of the hole and the excited electron, and the bound energy of the exciton (the electron–hole pair):


title: Quantum dot

text: As the confinement energy depends on the quantum dot's size, both absorption onset and fluorescence emission can be tuned by changing the size of the quantum dot during its synthesis. The larger the dot, the redder (lower energy) its absorption onset and fluorescence spectrum. Conversely, smaller dots absorb and emit bluer (higher energy) light. Recent articles in "Nanotechnology" and in other journals have begun to suggest that the shape of the quantum dot may be a factor in the coloration as well, but as yet not enough information is available. Furthermore, it was shown that the lifetime of fluorescence is determined by the size of the quantum dot. Larger dots have more closely spaced energy levels in which the electron–hole pair can be trapped. Therefore, electron–hole pairs in larger dots live longer causing larger dots to show a longer lifetime.


title: Quantum dot

text: To improve fluorescence quantum yield, quantum dots can be made with "shells" of a larger bandgap semiconductor material around them. The improvement is suggested to be due to the reduced access of electron and hole to non-radiative surface recombination pathways in some cases, but also due to reduced Auger recombination in others.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dots are particularly promising for optical applications due to their high extinction coefficient and ultrafast optical nonlinearities with potential applications for developing all-optical systems. They operate like a single-electron transistor and show the Coulomb blockade effect. Quantum dots have also been suggested as implementations of qubits for quantum information processing, and as active elements for thermoelectrics.


title: Quantum dot

text: Tuning the size of quantum dots is attractive for many potential applications. For instance, larger quantum dots have a greater spectrum-shift toward red compared to smaller dots and exhibit less pronounced quantum properties. Conversely, the smaller particles allow one to take advantage of more subtle quantum effects.


title: Quantum dot

text: Being zero-dimensional, quantum dots have a sharper density of states than higher-dimensional structures. As a result, they have superior transport and optical properties. They have potential uses in diode lasers, amplifiers, and biological sensors. Quantum dots may be excited within a locally enhanced electromagnetic field produced by gold nanoparticles, which then can be observed from the surface plasmon resonance in the photoluminescent excitation spectrum of (CdSe)ZnS nanocrystals. High-quality quantum dots are well suited for optical encoding and multiplexing applications due to their broad excitation profiles and narrow/symmetric emission spectra. The new generations of quantum dots have far-reaching potential for the study of intracellular processes at the single-molecule level, high-resolution cellular imaging, long-term in vivo observation of cell trafficking, tumor targeting, and diagnostics.


title: Quantum dot

text: CdSe nanocrystals are efficient triplet photosensitizers. Laser excitation of small CdSe nanoparticles enables the extraction of the excited state energy from the Quantum Dots into bulk solution, thus opening the door to a wide range of potential applications such as photodynamic therapy, photovoltaic devices, molecular electronics, and catalysis.


title: Quantum dot

text: In December 2019, Robert S. Langer and his team developed and patented a technique whereby transdermal patches could be used to label people with invisible ink to store information subcutaneously. This was presented as a boon to "developing nations" where lack of infrastructure means an absence of medical records. The technology, which is assigned to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, uses a "quantum dot dye that is delivered, in this case along with a vaccine, by a microneedle patch." The research "was funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research."


title: Quantum dot

text: In modern biological analysis, various kinds of organic dyes are used. However, as technology advances, greater flexibility in these dyes is sought. To this end, quantum dots have quickly filled in the role, being found to be superior to traditional organic dyes on several counts, one of the most immediately obvious being brightness (owing to the high extinction coefficient combined with a comparable quantum yield to fluorescent dyes) as well as their stability (allowing much less photobleaching). It has been estimated that quantum dots are 20 times brighter and 100 times more stable than traditional fluorescent reporters. For single-particle tracking, the irregular blinking of quantum dots is a minor drawback. However, there have been groups which have developed quantum dots which are essentially nonblinking and demonstrated their utility in single molecule tracking experiments.


title: Quantum dot

text: The use of quantum dots for highly sensitive cellular imaging has seen major advances. The improved photostability of quantum dots, for example, allows the acquisition of many consecutive focal-plane images that can be reconstructed into a high-resolution three-dimensional image. Another application that takes advantage of the extraordinary photostability of quantum dot probes is the real-time tracking of molecules and cells over extended periods of time. Antibodies, streptavidin, peptides, DNA, nucleic acid aptamers, or small-molecule ligands can be used to target quantum dots to specific proteins on cells. Researchers were able to observe quantum dots in lymph nodes of mice for more than 4 months.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dots can have antibacterial properties similar to nanoparticles and can kill bacteria in a dose-dependent manner. One mechanism by which quantum dots can kill bacteria is through impairing the functions of antioxidative system in the cells and down regulating the antioxidative genes. In addition, quantum dots can directly damage the cell wall. Quantum dots have been shown to be effective against both gram- positive and gram-negative bacteria.


title: Quantum dot

text: Semiconductor quantum dots have also been employed for in vitro imaging of pre-labeled cells. The ability to image single-cell migration in real time is expected to be important to several research areas such as embryogenesis, cancer metastasis, stem cell therapeutics, and lymphocyte immunology.


title: Quantum dot

text: One application of quantum dots in biology is as donor fluorophores in Förster resonance energy transfer, where the large extinction coefficient and spectral purity of these fluorophores make them superior to molecular fluorophores It is also worth noting that the broad absorbance of QDs allows selective excitation of the QD donor and a minimum excitation of a dye acceptor in FRET-based studies. The applicability of the FRET model, which assumes that the Quantum Dot can be approximated as a point dipole, has recently been demonstrated


title: Quantum dot

text: The use of quantum dots for tumor targeting under in vivo conditions employ two targeting schemes: active targeting and passive targeting. In the case of active targeting, quantum dots are functionalized with tumor-specific binding sites to selectively bind to tumor cells. Passive targeting uses the enhanced permeation and retention of tumor cells for the delivery of quantum dot probes. Fast-growing tumor cells typically have more permeable membranes than healthy cells, allowing the leakage of small nanoparticles into the cell body. Moreover, tumor cells lack an effective lymphatic drainage system, which leads to subsequent nanoparticle-accumulation.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dot probes exhibit in vivo toxicity. For example, CdSe nanocrystals are highly toxic to cultured cells under UV illumination, because the particles dissolve, in a process known as photolysis, to release toxic cadmium ions into the culture medium. In the absence of UV irradiation, however, quantum dots with a stable polymer coating have been found to be essentially nontoxic. Hydrogel encapsulation of quantum dots allows for quantum dots to be introduced into a stable aqueous solution, reducing the possibility of cadmium leakage. Then again, only little is known about the excretion process of quantum dots from living organisms.


title: Quantum dot

text: In another potential application, quantum dots are being investigated as the inorganic fluorophore for intra-operative detection of tumors using fluorescence spectroscopy.


title: Quantum dot

text: Delivery of undamaged quantum dots to the cell cytoplasm has been a challenge with existing techniques. Vector-based methods have resulted in aggregation and endosomal sequestration of quantum dots while electroporation can damage the semi-conducting particles and aggregate delivered dots in the cytosol. Via cell squeezing, quantum dots can be efficiently delivered without inducing aggregation, trapping material in endosomes, or significant loss of cell viability. Moreover, it has shown that individual quantum dots delivered by this approach are detectable in the cell cytosol, thus illustrating the potential of this technique for single molecule tracking studies.


title: Quantum dot

text: The tunable absorption spectrum and high extinction coefficients of quantum dots make them attractive for light harvesting technologies such as photovoltaics. Quantum dots may be able to increase the efficiency and reduce the cost of today's typical silicon photovoltaic cells. According to an experimental report from 2004, quantum dots of lead selenide can produce more than one exciton from one high energy photon via the process of carrier multiplication or multiple exciton generation (MEG). This compares favorably to today's photovoltaic cells which can only manage one exciton per high-energy photon, with high kinetic energy carriers losing their energy as heat. Quantum dot photovoltaics would theoretically be cheaper to manufacture, as they can be made using simple chemical reactions.


title: Quantum dot

text: Aromatic self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) (e.g. 4-nitrobenzoic acid) can be used to improve the band alignment at electrodes for better efficiencies. This technique has provided a record power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 10.7%. The SAM is positioned between ZnO-PbS colloidal quantum dot (CQD) film junction to modify band alignment via the dipole moment of the constituent SAM molecule, and the band tuning may be modified via the density, dipole and the orientation of the SAM molecule.


title: Quantum dot

text: Colloidal quantum dots are also used in inorganic/organic hybrid solar cells. These solar cells are attractive because of the potential for low-cost fabrication and relatively high efficiency. Incorporation of metal oxides, such as ZnO, TiO, and NbO nanomaterials into organic photovoltaics have been commercialized using full roll-to-roll processing. A 13.2% power conversion efficiency is claimed in Si nanowire/PEDOT:PSS hybrid solar cells.


title: Quantum dot

text: Another potential use involves capped single-crystal ZnO nanowires with CdSe quantum dots, immersed in mercaptopropionic acid as hole transport medium in order to obtain a QD-sensitized solar cell. The morphology of the nanowires allowed the electrons to have a direct pathway to the photoanode. This form of solar cell exhibits 50–60% internal quantum efficiencies.


title: Quantum dot

text: Nanowires with quantum dot coatings on silicon nanowires (SiNW) and carbon quantum dots. The use of SiNWs instead of planar silicon enhances the antiflection properties of Si. The SiNW exhibits a light-trapping effect due to light trapping in the SiNW. This use of SiNWs in conjunction with carbon quantum dots resulted in a solar cell that reached 9.10% PCE.


title: Quantum dot

text: Graphene quantum dots have also been blended with organic electronic materials to improve efficiency and lower cost in photovoltaic devices and organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) in compared to graphene sheets. These graphene quantum dots were functionalized with organic ligands that experience photoluminescence from UV-Vis absorption.


title: Quantum dot

text: Several methods are proposed for using quantum dots to improve existing light-emitting diode (LED) design, including "quantum dot light-emitting diode" (QD-LED or QLED) displays, and "quantum dot white-light-emitting diode" (QD-WLED) displays. Because quantum dots naturally produce monochromatic light, they can be more efficient than light sources which must be color filtered. QD-LEDs can be fabricated on a silicon substrate, which allows them to be integrated onto standard silicon-based integrated circuits or microelectromechanical systems.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dots are valued for displays because they emit light in very specific gaussian distributions. This can result in a display with visibly more accurate colors.


title: Quantum dot

text: A conventional color liquid crystal display (LCD) is usually backlit by fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) or conventional white LEDs that are color filtered to produce red, green, and blue pixels. Quantum dot displays use blue-emitting LEDs rather than white LEDs as the light sources. The converting part of the emitted light is converted into pure green and red light by the corresponding color quantum dots placed in front of the blue LED or using a quantum dot infused diffuser sheet in the backlight optical stack. Blank pixels are also used to allow the blue LED light to still generate blue hues. This type of white light as the backlight of an LCD panel allows for the best color gamut at lower cost than an RGB LED combination using three LEDs.


title: Quantum dot

text: Another method by which quantum dot displays can be achieved is the electroluminescent (EL) or electro-emissive method. This involves embedding quantum dots in each individual pixel. These are then activated and controlled via an electric current application. Since this is often light emitting itself, the achievable colors may be limited in this method. Electro-emissive QD-LED TVs exist in laboratories only.


title: Quantum dot

text: The ability of QDs to precisely convert and tune a spectrum makes them attractive for LCD displays. Previous LCD displays can waste energy converting red-green poor, blue-yellow rich white light into a more balanced lighting. By using QDs, only the necessary colors for ideal images are contained in the screen. The result is a screen that is brighter, clearer, and more energy-efficient. The first commercial application of quantum dots was the Sony XBR X900A series of flat panel televisions released in 2013.


title: Quantum dot

text: In June 2006, QD Vision announced technical success in making a proof-of-concept quantum dot display and show a bright emission in the visible and near infrared region of the spectrum. A QD-LED integrated at a scanning microscopy tip was used to demonstrate fluorescence near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) imaging.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs) can be fabricated either via solution-processing, or from conventional single-crystalline semiconductors. Conventional single-crystalline semiconductor QDPs are precluded from integration with flexible organic electronics due to the incompatibility of their growth conditions with the process windows required by organic semiconductors. On the other hand, solution-processed QDPs can be readily integrated with an almost infinite variety of substrates, and also postprocessed atop other integrated circuits. Such colloidal QDPs have potential applications in visible- and infrared-light cameras, machine vision, industrial inspection, spectroscopy, and fluorescent biomedical imaging.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dots also function as photocatalysts for the light driven chemical conversion of water into hydrogen as a pathway to solar fuel. In photocatalysis, electron hole pairs formed in the dot under band gap excitation drive redox reactions in the surrounding liquid. Generally, the photocatalytic activity of the dots is related to the particle size and its degree of quantum confinement. This is because the band gap determines the chemical energy that is stored in the dot in the excited state. An obstacle for the use of quantum dots in photocatalysis is the presence of surfactants on the surface of the dots. These surfactants (or ligands) interfere with the chemical reactivity of the dots by slowing down mass transfer and electron transfer processes. Also, quantum dots made of metal chalcogenides are chemically unstable under oxidizing conditions and undergo photo corrosion reactions.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum dots are theoretically described as a point-like, or zero dimensional (0D) entity. Most of their properties depend on the dimensions, shape, and materials of which QDs are made. Generally, QDs present different thermodynamic properties from their bulk materials. One of these effects is melting-point depression. Optical properties of spherical metallic QDs are well described by the Mie scattering theory.


title: Quantum dot

text: In a semiconductor crystallite whose size is smaller than twice the size of its exciton Bohr radius, the excitons are squeezed, leading to quantum confinement. The energy levels can then be predicted using the particle in a box model in which the energies of states depend on the length of the box. Comparing the quantum dot's size to the Bohr radius of the electron and hole wave functions, 3 regimes can be defined. A 'strong confinement regime' is defined as the quantum dots radius being smaller than both electron and hole Bohr radius, 'weak confinement' is given when the quantum dot is larger than both. For semiconductors in which electron and hole radii are markedly different, an 'intermediate confinement regime' exists, where the quantum dot's radius is larger than the Bohr radius of one charge carrier (typically the hole), but not the other charge carrier.


title: Quantum dot

text: where "μ" is the reduced mass, "a" is the radius of the quantum dot, "m" is the free electron mass, "m" is the hole mass, and "ε" is the size-dependent dielectric constant.


title: Quantum dot

text: Although the above equations were derived using simplifying assumptions, they imply that the electronic transitions of the quantum dots will depend on their size. These quantum confinement effects are apparent only below the critical size. Larger particles do not exhibit this effect. This effect of quantum confinement on the quantum dots has been repeatedly verified experimentally and is a key feature of many emerging electronic structures.


title: Quantum dot

text: The Coulomb interaction between confined carriers can also be studied by numerical means when results unconstrained by asymptotic approximations are pursued.


title: Quantum dot

text: Besides confinement in all three dimensions (i.e., a quantum dot), other quantum confined semiconductors include:


title: Quantum dot

text: A variety of theoretical frameworks exist to model optical, electronic, and structural properties of quantum dots. These may be broadly divided into quantum mechanical, semiclassical, and classical.


title: Quantum dot

text: Quantum mechanical models and simulations of quantum dots often involve the interaction of electrons with a pseudopotential or random matrix.


title: Quantum dot

text: Semiclassical models of quantum dots frequently incorporate a chemical potential. For example, the thermodynamic chemical potential of an "N"-particle system is given by


title: Quantum dot

text: whose energy terms may be obtained as solutions of the Schrödinger equation. The definition of capacitance,


title: Quantum dot

text: is the "quantum capacitance" of a quantum dot, where we denoted by the ionization potential and by the electron affinity of the "N"-particle system.


title: Quantum dot

text: Classical models of electrostatic properties of electrons in quantum dots are similar in nature to the Thomson problem of optimally distributing electrons on a unit sphere.


title: Quantum dot

text: The classical electrostatic treatment of electrons confined to spherical quantum dots is similar to their treatment in the Thomson, or plum pudding model, of the atom.


title: Quantum dot

text: The classical treatment of both two-dimensional and three-dimensional quantum dots exhibit electron shell-filling behavior. A "periodic table of classical artificial atoms" has been described for two-dimensional quantum dots. As well, several connections have been reported between the three-dimensional Thomson problem and electron shell-filling patterns found in naturally-occurring atoms found throughout the periodic table. This latter work originated in classical electrostatic modeling of electrons in a spherical quantum dot represented by an ideal dielectric sphere.


title: Quantum dot

text: The term "quantum dot" was coined in 1986. They were first synthesized in a glass matrix by Alexey Ekimov in 1981 and in colloidal suspension by Louis Brus in 1983. They were first theorized by Alexander Efros in 1982.


title: Bill Bruford

text: William Scott Bruford (born 17 May 1949) is an English former drummer and percussionist who first gained prominence as a founding member of the progressive rock band Yes. After leaving Yes in 1972, Bruford spent the rest of the 1970s recording and touring with King Crimson (1972–1974) and Roy Harper (1975), and touring with Genesis (1976) and U.K. (1978). In 1978, he formed his own group (Bruford), which was active until 1980.


title: Bill Bruford

text: In the 1980s, Bruford returned to King Crimson for three years (1981–1984), collaborated with several artists (including Patrick Moraz and David Torn), and formed his own electric jazz band Earthworks in 1986. He then played with his former Yes bandmates in Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe, which eventually led to a very brief second stint in Yes. Bruford played in King Crimson for his third and final tenure from 1994–1997, after which he continued with a new acoustic configuration of Earthworks.


title: Bill Bruford

text: On 1 January 2009, Bruford retired from professional drumming, only briefly returning for a few private gigs. He pursued other projects since then, including the operation of his two record labels, Summerfold and Winterfold, releasing an autobiography in 2009, and speaking and writing about music. In 2016, after four-and-a-half years of study, Bruford earned a PhD in Music at the University of Surrey. That year, Bruford ranked No. 16 on "Rolling Stone" list of the "100 Greatest Drummers of All Time". In 2017, Bruford was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Yes.


title: Bill Bruford

text: Bruford was born on 17 May 1949 in Sevenoaks, Kent, the third child of Betty and John Bruford, a local veterinary surgeon. He has a brother, John, and a sister, Jane. He attended New Beacon School in Sevenoaks, followed by Tonbridge School in Tonbridge, a boarding school. Bruford decided to take up drumming at thirteen after watching American jazz drummers on the BBC2 jazz television series "Jazz 625", and practised the instrument in the attic of his house. He cites Max Roach, Joe Morello, Art Blakey and Ginger Baker as the most influential drummers on him as a young man. Around this time, Bruford's sister bought him a pair of drum brushes as a birthday present, and Bruford would practise using them on album sleeves after he was told the sound resembled a snare drum while watching "Jazz 625". Bruford recalled it as "a perfect education". Though he was given a single snare drum at first, Bruford gradually built a full drum kit. He later took a few lessons from Lou Pocock, a member of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.


title: Bill Bruford

text: During his time at boarding school, Bruford befriended several fellow jazz fans, one of them a drummer who gave Bruford lessons in improvisation and a tutorial book by American jazz drummer Jim Chapin. In 1966 and 1967, Bruford performed in The Breed, an R&B/soul four-piece with Stu Murray on guitar, Mike Freeman on saxophone, Ray Bennett (who would later play with Peter Banks's Flash) on bass, and Doug Kennard on guitar and vocals. After leaving school, Bruford took a gap year before he intended to study economics at Leeds University. In January 1968, he unsuccessfully auditioned for a place in Savoy Brown at a pub in Battersea, but he "hung around until the end and told them they had the wrong guy ... I talked my way into it". His tenure only lasted three gigs because he "messed with the beat", and followed this with a brief stint in the psychedelic rock band Paper Blitz Tissue. Bruford then spotted an ad in a music shop from The Noise, who were looking for a drummer to play with them for a six-week residency at the Piper Club in Rome, Italy. He remembered the experience as "ghastly", felt his bandmates could not play properly, and had to hitchhike back to London with his kit.


title: Bill Bruford

text: Following his return to London, the nineteen-year-old Bruford settled into a flat in north London and placed an advertisement for drum work in the "Melody Maker". It was spotted by singer Jon Anderson of the psychedelic rock band Mabel Greer's Toyshop, formed of bassist Chris Squire and guitarist Clive Bayley, who sought a replacement for their departing drummer, Bob Hagger. The four met on 7 June 1968; Anderson was so impressed with Bruford that he invited him to play with the band that evening at the Rachel McMillan College in Deptford. Their entire set consisted of "In the Midnight Hour" by Wilson Pickett as it was the only song they all knew how to play through, but Bruford was impressed with the band's ability to sing in harmony. Following the gig, Bruford had several offers to join soul bands, one of which earned as much as £30 a week, but chose to remain with Anderson and Squire, who took charge in forming a new band. The four entered rehearsals, which ended in Peter Banks replacing Bayley on guitar, Tony Kaye on keyboards, and the group changing their name to Yes.


title: Bill Bruford

text: Bruford played on Yes's first five studio albums during his initial tenure: "Yes" (1969), "Time and a Word" (1970), "The Yes Album" (1971), "Fragile" (1971), and "Close to the Edge" (1972). He received a writing credit on just five tracks: "Harold Land", "Yours Is No Disgrace", "Heart of the Sunrise", "And You and I", and "Five Per Cent for Nothing", a 35-second track on "Fragile" that was his first attempt at composition. His main interest was allowing the drums to "be heard" as Squire played his bass often in the higher register, and so developed a style that involved "unusual beat placement" and time signatures. He developed his musical understanding during this time, learning "how to read the horizontal lines, but not the vertical notes." Bruford recalled Yes being hot blooded and argumentative, with personality conflicts being the eventual reason for his exit. These, for him, included problems in understanding other members' accents, differences in social backgrounds, and many other issues that set the band in a constant state of friction between Anderson, Squire, and himself.


title: Bill Bruford

text: In July 1972, after "Close to the Edge" had been recorded, Bruford quit to join King Crimson, later explaining: "King Crimson was one of the only gigs for a rock drummer where you could play in 17/16 and still stay in decent hotels". Rehearsals began in September 1972, followed by an extensive UK tour. His instinct to remember complicated drum parts was shown when he learned how to play the long percussion and guitar part in the middle of "21st Century Schizoid Man", "by listening to it and just learning it." Bruford cites the six months free jazz percussionist Jamie Muir was in the band as highly influential on him as a player. Bruford is featured on "Larks' Tongues in Aspic" (1973), "Starless and Bible Black" (1974), "Red" (1974) and the live album USA (1975). Robert Fripp disbanded King Crimson in September 1974.


title: Bill Bruford

text: After leaving King Crimson, Bruford felt his "sense of direction was rather stymied" and was unsure on his next step. In late 1974, he became a temporary member of the Anglo-French band Gong for a European tour after drummer Laurie Allan was busted for drugs at a border. Bruford then chose to wait for an appealing offer while earning money as a session musician. The sessions were few, however, and the ones that he was a part of he called "unmitigated disasters". In 1975, Bruford played drums on "Fish Out of Water" by Chris Squire, "HQ" by Roy Harper, and "At the Sound of the Bell" by Pavlov's Dog. Later in the year, he performed as guest percussionist for the jazz fusion band Brand X, featuring Phil Collins on drums. Bruford then joined National Health for several live performances, but declined an offer to join full-time as there were already many writers in the group, and felt his contributions to the music, the majority of which was already written, would have caused problems.


title: Bill Bruford

text: By mid-1976, Bruford had rehearsed with Ray Gomez and Jeff Berlin in the US but plans to form a group failed, partly due to the members living far away from each other. He wished not to force a band together, so he decided to "watch, wait, observe and absorb". From March to July 1976, Bruford toured with Genesis on their 1976 tour of North America and Europe, supporting "A Trick of the Tail". It was their first album and tour after original frontman Peter Gabriel had left, leaving drummer Phil Collins to sing lead vocals. Bruford had known Collins for several years and suggested sitting in the drum seat until Genesis found a permanent replacement. Bruford is featured on the "" film and the live albums "Seconds Out" (1977) and "Three Sides Live" (1982). In late 1976, Bruford became involved in a tentative rock trio with Rick Wakeman and John Wetton, but they soon disbanded. According to Bruford, "A&M Records was unwilling to let its 'star,' Wakeman, walk off with a used, slightly soiled King Crimson rhythm section, and the idea folded." Bruford then rejoined National Health for a short stint.


title: Bill Bruford

text: In 1977, Bruford recorded his debut solo album "Feels Good to Me" (1978), with Dave Stewart (keyboards), Jeff Berlin (bass), and Allan Holdsworth (guitar). This was Bruford's first attempt at songwriting on a substantial level, and spent a lot of time developing tunes on the piano. The four stuck together and became a full-time band named Bruford, which also featured Annette Peacock on vocals, Kenny Wheeler on flugelhorn, and John Goodsall on rhythm guitar. Later in 1978, Bruford reunited with John Wetton and formed the progressive rock group U.K. After their debut album "U.K." (1978) and several tours, Holdsworth and Bruford left the group due to disagreements on the group's musical direction. Bruford resumed activity in his own group to release "One of a Kind" (1979). Almost entirely instrumental, the album contains some spoken lines by Bruford during the introduction to "Fainting in Coils". Subsequent gigs spawned the live releases "Rock Goes to College" and "The Bruford Tapes" (1979). Their final album, "Gradually Going Tornado" (1980), features backing vocals from Canterbury scene stalwarts Barbara Gaskin and Amanda Parsons, as well as Georgina Born on cello. Unfinished songs for a projected fourth album were recorded in 1980, but remained unreleased until 2017.


title: Bill Bruford

text: In 1981, Bruford returned to King Crimson in a new formation with Fripp, Tony Levin, and Adrian Belew. The four recorded "Discipline" (1981), "Beat" (1982), and "Three of a Perfect Pair" (1984), all featuring Bruford on an acoustic and Simmons electronic hybrid kit. Bruford embraced the Simmons drums for the next fifteen years as it allowed him to play programmed chords, samples, tuned pitches, and sound effects, which expanded his musical palette. In 1984, Fripp disbanded the group; Bruford picked the live album "" (1998) as one of the best rock albums he played on.


title: Bill Bruford

text: In 1983, Bruford formed a duo with Swiss keyboardist and former Yes member Patrick Moraz after he learned that Moraz was living close to him in Surrey. The project had Bruford develop a "real taste for improvising". Under the name Moraz/Bruford, the two released "Music for Piano and Drums" (1983) and "Flags" (1985), two albums recorded on acoustic instruments. The albums were supported with several live shows, including a tour of Japan. Also in 1985, Bruford was approached by Jimmy Page to be the drummer for his new band with Paul Rodgers and Pino Palladino named The Firm. He recalled: "We rehearsed briefly, but I think decided we were mutually unsuited!"


title: Bill Bruford

text: In 1986, Bruford formed his jazz group Earthworks with Django Bates, Iain Ballamy and Mick Hutton (later replaced by Tim Harries), with initial assistance from Dave Stewart. By then, electronic drum technology had improved to Bruford's satisfaction and he resumed using the Simmons kit. The band toured the US club circuit through 1987.


title: Bill Bruford

text: Bruford put Earthworks on hold in late 1988, after Jon Anderson invited him to play on a new album that also featured past Yes members Rick Wakeman and Steve Howe. Bruford was under the impression that he was performing on an Anderson solo album, but the four went on to become a group and named themselves Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (ABWH). Bruford later remarked that while ABWH could have been an interesting group had they been given time to develop instead of being pushed immediately into a recording studio, for him it was primarily a business-motivated arrangement which he took on so that he could pay for Earthworks. Bruford was attracted to the idea of recording on Montserrat, and convinced Anderson to have Tony Levin on bass. "Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe" (1989) was supported by a world tour, and in 1990, while recording a second album, ABWH merged with Yes to become an eight-member formation. "Union" (1991), featuring tracks from both groups, was criticised by almost the entire band; Bruford called it "the worst record I've ever been on". He took part in the subsequent Union Tour in 1991 and 1992, and though he enjoyed the enthusiastic audiences in large venues and performing with former band mates, he found the experience "pretty horrible". After the tour, Bruford and Howe became involved in an orchestral project that reinterpreted Yes songs with an orchestra, entitled "Symphonic Music of Yes" (1993).


title: Bill Bruford

text: Bruford resumed with Earthworks in January 1991, and the group released a studio and live album. After Bates left, Bruford disbanded the group in 1993. After this, their record label pushed for Bruford and Holdsworth to form a new band, but neither were too keen on the idea and the idea fell through. In the early 1990s, Bruford became an active drum clinician and taught small groups in several universities.


title: Bill Bruford

text: King Crimson re-emerged once more in 1994 as a six-piece band, consisting of its 1980s line-up with the additions of Pat Mastelotto sharing drumming duties with Bruford, and Trey Gunn on Chapman Stick. Dubbed the "double trio" configuration, they released "Vrooom" (1994), "Thrak" (1995), and two live albums, "" (1995) and "Thrakattak" (1996). After Bruford and Fripp discussed the idea of holding improvisational performances together and invited Gunn and Levin to join them, Fripp conceived the ProjeKcts idea of having different subsets of King Crimson working separately as a way of developing new material for the band. The first group, ProjeKct One, performed live at the Jazz Cafe in London from 1–4 December 1997. Bruford then left the group, and King Crimson altogether, mainly due to his frustration with rehearsals, which he felt came to nothing. This also marked the end of Bruford using the Simmons electronic drums due to the high overhead costs, the time required to program the kit, and the lackluster Japanese model that was made after the original manufacturer went bankrupt.


title: Bill Bruford

text: After King Crimson, Bruford focused on acoustic jazz, partly because he felt jazz required a return to a beginning jumping-off point. In 1997, he formed a new line-up of Earthworks, using the group as a base for British musicians and to give them experience of performing internationally. This line-up involved pianist Steve Hamilton, saxophonist Patrick Clahar, and double bassist Geoff Gascoyne, soon replaced by Mark Hodgson. Although Earthworks underwent further line-up changes with Tim Garland replacing Clahar as saxophonist in 2001, Gwilym Simcock replacing Hamilton as pianist in 2004, and Laurence Cottle replacing Hodgson on bass circa 2005, the revived band maintained a consistent, predominantly acoustic post-bop approach focusing on Bruford's compositions. During 2005, Earthworks temporarily combined with Garland's Underground Orchestra to form the Earthworks Underground Orchestra.


title: Bill Bruford

text: During his final stint with Earthworks, Bruford collaborated with others in the final twelve years of his career. These included a collaboration with Americans Eddie Gomez and Ralph Towner in 1997, the jazz-rock band Bruford Levin Upper Extremities in 1998, a duo with Dutch pianist Michiel Borstlap from 2002 to 2007, the contemporary composer Colin Riley with the Piano Circus collective in 2009, and presenting drum clinics. In 2003, Bruford established two record labels: Winterfold Records, which cover his early releases including his guitar and rock-oriented music, and Summerfold Records, focusing on his jazz output, mostly from post-1987. Both are distributed by Voiceprint Records.


title: Bill Bruford

text: Bruford's final public gig was with Earthworks on 31 July 2008 at Ronnie Scott's, London. In January 2009, at age 59, Bruford announced that he was retiring from performing and recording, after 41 year career in music, effective 1 January. Among the various reasons for retiring were his growing performance anxiety that "was making life intolerable", his diminishing stamina required to tour and perform on an international scale, and what he perceived as a bleak future for the style of drumming that appealed to him. The final studio album he played on was "Skin and Wire: Play the Music of Colin Riley" (2009) by Piano Circus. Bruford had kept a diary of his gigs throughout his career, and logged 2,885 gigs.


title: Bill Bruford

text: In early 2009, Bruford released his autobiography. Not long into his retirement, Bruford had a brief, low key stint in Ann Bailey's Soul House, a nine-piece band performing Motown and soul covers in Ewhurst, Surrey.


title: Bill Bruford

text: In February 2016, after four-and-a-half years of study, Bruford earned a PhD degree in Music at the University of Surrey. He had wanted to do something related to music following his retirement, and considered his missed opportunity in pursuing higher education in the late 1960s as a factor in his decision to enter academia. The University of Surrey offered to award Bruford an honorary doctorate, but he wanted to put in the effort and work for his degree, which focused on creativity and music performance, specifically with a drum kit. Bruford's thesis, "Making it work: Creative music performance and the Western kit drummer", was posted online in May 2016. Bruford has since written various journal articles, book chapters, and liner notes, and presented guest lectures at universities and music institutions in Europe and North America.


title: Bill Bruford

text: In April 2017, Bruford was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Yes. He attended the ceremony, but did not perform or deliver an acceptance speech. In March 2018, Bruford introduced Yes at their two London shows during their 50th Anniversary Tour. Later that year, Bruford published his second book, "Uncharted: Creativity and the Expert Drummer". It is an adaptation of his PhD dissertation.


title: Bill Bruford

text: In October 2020, Bruford put much of his personal collection of instruments, microphones, tour cases, and other equipment from his career up for sale, totalling 258 separate listings. In August 2021, Bruford's back catalogue of music from Bruford, Moraz/Bruford, and Earthworks were made available on digital streaming platforms for the first time. In January 2022, Bruford launched his own YouTube channel to share videos from his career with additional "thoughts and anecdotes". A 6-CD career-spanning box set of tracks that Bruford played on was released on 29 April 2022.


title: Bill Bruford

text: Bruford married his wife Carolyn in March 1973; they live in Surrey. They have three children, Alex, Holly, and Jack; Alex was formerly the drummer of the indie rock band Infadels.


title: Bill Bruford

text: It was at Bruford's wedding reception where Jon Anderson met Jamie Muir, who inspired Anderson to read "Autobiography of a Yogi" which became the origin of Yes's double album "Tales from Topographic Oceans" (1973).


title: Bill Bruford

text: When interviewed in 1982, Bruford commented on his ability to compose for King Crimson. "It's very hard to know how to communicate in a band like that where the individuals are competent enough to produce their own kinds of sounds, it's very hard to write for a band like that."


title: Bill Bruford

text: Many other drummers have cited Bruford as an influence, including Danny Carey, Mike Portnoy, Matt Cameron, Brann Dailor, Tim "Herb" Alexander, Gene Hoglan, Aaron Harris, Chad Cromwell, Ben Koller, Chris Pennie, Steve Arrington, Mac McNeilly, Morgan Simpson of Black Midi, Eric Kretz, and Martin Dosh. In addition, other artists have been quoted expressing admiration for his work including Neil Murray, Jimmy Keegan, and Adrian Younge.


title: Mitanni

text: Mitanni (; Hittite cuneiform ; "Mittani" '), c. 1550–1260 BC, earlier called Ḫabigalbat in old Babylonian texts, c. 1600 BC; Hanigalbat or Hani-Rabbat ("Hanikalbat", "Khanigalbat", cuneiform ') in Assyrian records, or "Naharin" in Egyptian texts, was a Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria and southeast Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). Since no histories or royal annals/chronicles have yet been found in its excavated sites, knowledge about Mitanni is sparse compared to the other powers in the area, and dependent on what its neighbours commented in their texts.


title: Mitanni

text: The Hurrians were in the region as of the late 3rd millennium BC. A king of Urkesh with a Hurrian name, Tupkish, was found on a clay sealing dated c. 2300 BC at Tell Mozan. The first recorded inscription of their language was of Tish-atal (c. 21st century BC), king of Urkesh. Later on, Hurrians made up the main population of Mitanni, that was firstly known as "Ḫabigalbat", at Babylonia, in two texts of the late Old Babylonian period, during the reign of Ammi-Saduqa, (c. 1646–1626 BC), in middle chronology.


title: Mitanni

text: The Egyptian official astronomer and clockmaker Amenemhet (Amen-hemet) apparently ordered to write on his tomb that he returned from the "foreign country called "Mtn" ("Mi-ti-ni")," but Alexandra von Lieven (2016) and Eva von Dassow (2022) consider that the expedition to Mitanni could have taken place in pharaoh Ahmose I's reign (c. 1550–1525 BC), actually by Amenemhet's father. During the reign of pharaoh Thutmose I (1506–1493 BC), the names Mitanni and Naharin are among the reminiscences of several of the pharaoh's officers. One of them, Ahmose si-Abina, wrote: "...His Majesty arrived at Naharin..." Another one, Ahmose pa-Nekhbit, recorded: "...when I captured for him in the land of Naharin..."


title: Mitanni

text: After the Battle of Megiddo, an officer of pharaoh Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC), in the pharaoh's 22 regnal year, reported: "That [wretched] enemy of Kadesh has come and has entered into Megiddo. He is [there] at this moment. He has gathered to him the princes of [every] foreign country [which had been] loyal to Egypt, as well as (those) as far as Naharin and M[itanni], them of Hurru, them of Kode, their horses, their armies." In several later military campaigns the Annals of Thutmose III mention Naharin, in particular those of his regnal years 33, 35, and 42. After that time, records become more available from local sources until the empire's end in the mid-13th century BC.


title: Mitanni

text: The Mitanni Empire was a strong regional power limited by the Hittites to the north, Egyptians to the west, Kassites to the south, and later by the Assyrians to the east. At its maximum extent Mitanni ranged as far west as Kizzuwatna by the Taurus Mountains, Tunip in the south, Arraphe in the east, and north to Lake Van. Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the Levant of a distinct pottery type, Nuzi ware.


title: Mitanni

text: All dates must be taken with caution since they are worked out only by comparison with the chronology of other ancient Near Eastern nations.


title: Mitanni

text: King Barattarna is known from a cuneiform tablet in Nuzi and an inscription by Idrimi of Alalakh. He reigned c. 1500–1480 BC. Egyptian sources do not mention his name; that he was the king of Naharin whom Thutmose III (1479 – 1425 BC) fought against, can only be deduced from assumptions. This king, also known as Parratarna is considered, by J. A. Belmonte-Marin quoting H. Klengel, to have reigned c. 1510–1490 BC (middle chronology). Parsha(ta)tar, known from another Nuzi inscription (HSS 13 165), an undated inventory list which mentions his death, is considered a different king than Barattarna by M. P. Maidman, Eva von Dassow, and Ian Mladjov.


title: Mitanni

text: Thutmose III again waged war in Mitanni in the 33rd year of his rule. The Egyptian army crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish and reached a town called Iryn (maybe present day Erin, 20 km northwest of Aleppo.) They sailed down the Euphrates to Emar (Maskanah) and then returned home via Mitanni. A hunt for elephants at Lake Nija was important enough to be included in the annals.


title: Mitanni

text: Victories over Mitanni are recorded from the Egyptian campaigns in "Nuhašše" (middle part of Syria). Barattarna or his son Shaushtatar controlled the North Mitanni interior up to "Nuhašše", and the coastal territories from Kizzuwatna to Alalakh in the kingdom of Mukish at the mouth of the Orontes. Idrimi of Alalakh, returning from Egyptian exile, could only ascend his throne with Barattarna's consent. While he got to rule Mukish and Ama'u, Aleppo remained with Mitanni.


title: Mitanni

text: Shaushtatar, king of Mitanni, perhaps the most outstanding Mitannian king, reigned c. 1480–1460 BC, he sacked the Assyrian capital of Assur some time in the 15th century during the reign of Nur-ili, and took the silver and golden doors of the royal palace to Washukanni. This is known from a later Hittite document, the Suppililiuma-Shattiwaza treaty. After the sack of Assur, Assyria may have paid tribute to Mitanni up to the time of Eriba-Adad I (1390–1366 BC).


title: Mitanni

text: The states of Aleppo in the west, and Nuzi and Arrapha in the east, seem to have been incorporated into Mitanni under Shaushtatar as well. A letter (HSS 9 1) sealed with the seal of Shaushtatar was discovered in the house (Room A26) of Prince Šilwa-teššup in Nuzi which lay just north of the main mound. The letter is addressed to Ithia, vassal ruler of Arrapha under Mitanni. Because Šauštatar is not mentioned in the letter and dynastic seals were often used after the reign of a ruler, especially in the periphery of empire, it is difficult to date this letter. Stein, based on various factors, puts the date at c. 1400 BC. His seal shows heroes and winged geniuses fighting lions and other animals, as well as a winged sun. This style, with a multitude of figures distributed over the whole of the available space, is taken as typically Hurrian. A second seal, belonging to Shuttarna I and found in Alalakh, used by Shaushtatar in two letters (AT 13 and 14) shows a more traditional Post-Akkadian - Ur III style.


title: Mitanni

text: During the reign of Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep II, Mitanni seems to have regained influence in the middle Orontes valley that had been conquered by Thutmose III. Amenhotep II fought in Syria in 1425 BC, presumably against Mitanni as well, but did not reach the Euphrates.


title: Mitanni

text: Later on, Egypt and Mitanni became allies, and King Shuttarna II himself was received at the Egyptian court. Amicable letters, sumptuous gifts, and letters asking for sumptuous gifts were exchanged. Three Amarna letters (EA 182 EA 183 and EA 185) were sent by Shutarna with two being sent from "Mušiḫuna". Mitanni was especially interested in Egyptian gold. This culminated in a number of royal marriages: the daughter of King Artatama I was married to Thutmose IV. Kilu-Hepa, or Gilukhipa, the daughter of Shuttarna II, was married to Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who ruled in the early 14th century BC. In a later royal marriage Tadu-Hepa, or Tadukhipa, the daughter of Tushratta, was sent to Egypt.


title: Mitanni

text: When Amenhotep III fell ill, the king of Mitanni sent him a statue of the goddess Shaushka (Ishtar) of Nineveh that was reputed to cure diseases. A more or less permanent border between Egypt and Mitanni seems to have existed near Qatna on the Orontes River; Ugarit was part of Egyptian territory.


title: Mitanni

text: The reason Mitanni sought peace with Egypt may have been trouble with the Hittites. A Hittite king called Tudḫaliya I conducted campaigns against Kizzuwatna, Arzawa, Ishuwa, Aleppo, and maybe against Mitanni itself. Kizzuwatna may have fallen to the Hittites at that time.


title: Mitanni

text: Artašumara, reigned c. 1360-1358 BC, is known only from a single mention in a tablet found in Tell Brak: "Artassumara the king, son of Shuttarna the king," and a mention in Amarna letter 17. According to the later, after the death of Shuttarna II he briefly took power but was then murdered (by someone named Tuhi) and succeeded by his brother Tushratta, who reigned c. 1358-1335 BC.


title: Mitanni

text: Our knowledge of Tushratta comes from two sources, the Amarna letters and the texts of the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaties between Hittite ruler Suppiluliuma I and a son of Tushratta named Shattiwaza. These pair of treaties found at the ancient Hittite capital of Hattusa codify the Mitanni Shattiwaza, probable son of Tushratta, entering the status of vassal to Suppiluliuma I. One (CTH 51, also known as KBo I 1) includes a historical prologue from the Hittite point of view which is complete, this tablet also confirms that the existing Hittite treaty with Artatama II is still in effect so perhaps Suppiluliuma was hedging his bets. The other (CTH 52) includes a historical prologue from the Mitanni point of view which is partially lost though another fragment to this tablet was found in recent years. These prologues provide information about the events of the time of Tushratta but must be considered under the self interest of the two treaty parties. While the preambles of the treaties are a later retrospective and are filtered through the interests of the treaty parties, the tablets found in Egypt provide direct information. Eight Amarna letters were sent to pharaoh Amenhotep III (including EA 19 and EA 23) and four to pharaoh Akhenaten (including EA 27). A single Amarna letter was sent by Tushratta to Queen Tiye, wife of Amenhotep III, mother of Akhenaten and grandmother of Tutankhamun (EA 26). A note in hieratic on the tablet stated that EA 23 arrived in the 36th year of Amenhotep III reign or roughly 1350 BC in the standard Egyptian Chronology.


title: Mitanni

text: Some of the Amarna letters covered minor matters between Tushratta and the pharaohs. Amenhotep III asked for Tushratta's daughter Tadukhipa in marriage and after some back and forth over bride-price she traveled to Egypt and became a wife of the pharaoh. And when that pharaoh was ill near the end of his reign Tushratta sent (EA 23) the Hurrian goddess Šauška of Nineveh (actually her cult statue) to him as had been done in the time of Shuttarna II. The main focus of the Amarna letters, though, was a consequence of the realignment of power in Syria with the decline of Egyptian influence and rise of Hittite power, with a number of lesser powers caught in the middle. In the first letter from Tusratta he claimed to have destroyed the Hittite forces that had invaded his territory and included a selection of the booty, including a chariot and several slaves. In later letters we see the Hittite ruler working to improve previously poor relations with the pharaoh so as to counterbalance Mitanni. According to other Amarna letters (EA 85, EA86, EA95) from Rib-Hadda, king of Byblos, Tushratta personally joined a large Mitanni raid into Amurru. In another Amarna letter (EA 75) Rib-Hadda tells Ahkenaten that all the lands of the Mitanni have been conquered by the Hittites but its date is uncertain.


title: Mitanni

text: Tusratta faced a difficult situation, an ascendant Hittite New Kingdom in the west and in the east an Assyrian power beginning to free itself of Mitanni control at the start of the Middle Assyrian Period. A rule book-ended by succession crises. With no Mitanni or Assyrian records we are left with the historical claims of the Hittite king, for better or worse. In summary they are:


title: Mitanni

text: Shattiwaza reigned c. 1330–1305 BC, (alternately Šattiwaza, Kurtiwaza, or Mattiwaza). What little is known about his period, like the later parts of the reign of his father, Tushratta, all comes from the partially recovered pair of Hittite texts in which Shattiwaza becomes a vassal of Hittite king Suppiluliuma I. The first text (CTH 51 lays out the condition of vassalage and in the second (CTH 52) Shattiwaza accepts these conditions. The text can be difficult to interpret because of gaps and the obtuse prose.


title: Mitanni

text: The best that can be parsed out of the Hittite text is that some (unnamed) son killed the prior king Tushratta resulting in a succession crisis between Atratama II, brother of Tushratta, Shuttarna III, son of Tusratta, and Shattiwaza. son of Tushratta. The Hittites then made a treaty with Atratama II (still in effect as of the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty). Some combination of Atratama II and Shuttarna III made an alliance with the Assyrians to hold power in Mitanni. returning cultic items taken when Mitanni king Shaushtatar sacked Asshur c. 1450. This resulted in Shattiwaza going to Hittite king Suppiluliuma and declaring vassalage in exchange for Hittite military assistance. This ployed succeeded as the Hittite forces carried the day but the cost, besides becoming a vassal, was the ceding of some Mitanni territory to the Hittites, subsequently ruled by the kings son Piyassili as King of Carchemesh. As part of the agreement Shattiwaza would marry a daughter of Suppiluliuma as Queen and would be allowed ten wives but none of the other wives could be primary and the children from his marriage with the Queen would succeed. The Hittite text does include some tidbits about the war of succesion which are hard to interpret. At one point the Hurrian nobles were taken to Taite and "criucified" though that practice was unknown in the ancient Near East until classical times. And at one point Shattiwaza flees to the Kassites with 200 chariots but the Kassites impounded the chariots and tried to kill him, which he mirsculously escapes and finds his way to Suppiluliuma. After presumably ascending the throne of what was left of Mitanni, Shattiwaza is lost to history.


title: Mitanni

text: Shattuara reigned c. 1305–1285 BC. The royal inscriptions of the Assyrian king Adad-nirari I (c. 1307–1275 BC) relate how the vassal king Shattuara of Mitanni rebelled and committed hostile acts against Assyria. How this Shattuara was related to the dynasty of Partatama is unclear. Some scholars think that he was the second son of Artatama II, and the brother of Shattiwazza's one-time rival Shuttarna. Adad-nirari claims to have captured King Shattuara and brought him to Ashur, where he took an oath as a vassal. Afterwards, he was allowed to return to Mitanni, where he paid Adad-nirari regular tribute. This must have happened during the reign of the Hittite King Mursili II, but there is no exact date.


title: Mitanni

text: According to an inscription (BM 115687) by Assyrian king Adad-nirari I, Shattuara's son Wasashatta (also read Uasašatta), who reigned c. 1285-1265 BC, attempted to rebel. He sought Hittite help which did not come. The Hittites took Wasashatta's money but did not help. The Assyrians expanded further, and conquered the royal city of Taidu, and took Washukanni, Amasakku, Kahat, Shuru, Nabula, Hurra and Shuduhu as well. They conquered Irridu, destroyed it utterly and sowed salt over it. The wife, sons and daughters of Wasashatta were taken to Ashur, together with much booty and other prisoners. As Wasashatta himself is not mentioned, he may have escaped capture. There is a letter (KBo. 1, 14) from a Hittle king (to probably the Egyptian king) referring to a "King of Hanigalbat" which was possibly Wasašatta.


title: Mitanni

text: According to the royal annals (A.0.77.1) of Assyrian king Shalmaneser I (1270s–1240s) King Shattuara II of Hanigalbat, rebelled against Assyrian control with the help of the Hittites and the nomadic Ahlamu around 1250 BC. Shalmaneser I claimed to have defeated the Hittites and Mitanni slaying 14,400 men; the rest were blinded and carried away. His inscriptions mention the conquest of nine fortified temples; 180 Hurrian cities were "turned into rubble mounds," and Shalmaneser "slaughtered like sheep the armies of the Hittites and the Ahlamu his allies." The cities from Taidu to Irridu were captured, as well as all of mount Kashiar to Eluhat and the fortresses of Sudu and Harranu to Carchemish on the Euphrates. Another inscription mentions the restoration of a temple to god Adad in Kahat, a city of Mitanni that must have been occupied as well.


title: Mitanni

text: The archaeological core zone of Mitanni is Upper Mesopotamia, and Trans Tigridian region (Northwestern Iraq).


title: Mitanni

text: Sites with Mitannian remains were found mainly in three regions: Northeastern Syria Jazira Region, Northern Syria, and Southeastern Turkey (Upper Tigris).


title: Mitanni

text: Mitanni's first phase in Jazira Region features Late Khabur Ware from around 1600 to 1550 BC, due to this pottery was a continuity from non-Mitannian previous Old Babylonian period. From around 1550 to 1270 BC, Painted Nuzi Ware (the most characteristic pottery in Mitanni times) developed as a contemporary to Younger Khabur Ware.


title: Mitanni

text: Mitanni had outposts centred on its capital, Washukanni, whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the Khabur River, most likely at the site of Tell Fekheriye as recent German archaeological excavations suggest. The city of Taite was also known to be a Mitanni "royal city" whose current location is unknown.


title: Mitanni

text: The major 3rd millennium urban center of Tell Brak which had dwindled to a minor settlement in Old Babylonian times, saw major development c. 1600 by the Mitanni. Monumental buildings including a palace and temple were constructed on the high ground and a 40 hectare lower town developed. The Mitanni occupation lasted until the site was destroyed (in two phases) between c.1300 and 1275 BC, presumably by the Assyrians. Two Mitanni-era tablets were found during the modern excavation. One (TB 6002) mentioned "Artassumara the king, son of Shuttarna the king".


title: Mitanni

text: Mitanni period occupation, between 1400 and 1200 BC (radiocarbon) was found at the site of Tell Bazi. Finds included a Mitanni cylinder seal and several ritual bowls. Two cuneiform tablets of the Mitanni period sealed by Mitanni ruler Saushtatar, one by Artatama I were also found. There is also a record of Mitanni governance at Tell Hadidi (Azu).


title: Mitanni

text: The (2017) salvage excavations at the Ilısu Dam in the right bank of upper Tigris, southern Turkey, have shown a very early beginning of Mitanni period, as in the ruins of a temple in Müslümantepe, ritual artefacts and a Mitannian cylinder seal were found, radiocarbon-dated to 1760–1610 BC. Archaeologist Eyyüp Ay, in his (2021) paper, describes the second phase of the temple as an "administrative center, which had craftsmen working in its workshops as well as farmers, gardeners and shepherds, [that] might have been ruled by a priest bound to a powerful Mitannian leader."


title: Mitanni

text: To the east of upper Tigris river, Trans-Tigridian region in northern Iraq, a site now called Bassetki was excavated, which in all likelihood was the ancient town of Mardama with Mitanni layers from 1550 to 1300 BC, as its Phase A9 (in trench T2) may alternatively represent a Middle Bronze/Late Bronze transitional, or Proto-Mitanni occupation within 16th century BC. In a subsequent excavation season, the deeper Phase A10 was identified as having a mix of Middle Bronze and Mitanni potteries, considered to be in the turn of the Middle to the Late Bronze Age transitional period (late 17th – early 16th century BC).


title: Mitanni

text: In 2010, the 3,400-year-old ruins of Kemune, a Bronze Age Mitanni palace on the banks of the Tigris in modern-day Iraqi Kurdistan, were discovered. It became possible to excavate the ruins in 2018 and again in 2022 when a drought caused water levels to drop considerably. In the 1st excavation 10 Mitanni-era tablets were found, in Babylonian cuneiform written in Akkadian, bearing Hurrian names, dating to the Middle-Trans-Tigridian IA and IB periods. Middle Trans-Tigridian IA and IB are dated to (c. 1550-1350 BC) and (c. 1350-1270 BC) respectively by Peter Pfälzner (2007). In the 2nd excavation the entire city was mapped and 100 Middle Assyrian tablets were discovered. They were dated to after the city's destruction by earthquake and have not yet published.


title: Mitanni

text: At least since around 1550 BC, in the beginning of Late Bronze age, Painted Nuzi Ware was identified as a characteristic pottery in Mitanni sites, the origin of this decorated pottery is an unsolved question, but a possible previous development as Aegean Kamares Ware has been suggested by Pecorelia (2000), and S. Soldi claims that Tell Brak was one of the first centers specializing in the production of this Painted Nuzi Ware, and analyses on samples support the assumption that it was produced locally in various centers throughout the Mitanni kingdom, it was particularly appreciated in Upper Mesopotamia, but appears only sporadically in western Syrian cities such as Alalakh and Ugarit.


title: Mitanni

text: At the height of its power, during the 15th and the first half of 14th century BC, a large region from North-West Syria to the Eastern Tigris was under Mitanni's control.


title: Mitanni

text: The Mitanni kingdom was firstly known as "Ḫabigalbat" before 1600 BC at Babylonia, during the reign of Ammi-Saduqa, attested as "ḫa-bi-in-gal-ba-ti-i", and "ḫa-bi-in-ga-al-ba-at", in two texts of the late Old Babylonian period. Egyptians referred to it as "Maryannu", "Nahrin" and "Mitanni", it was "Hurri" to the Hittites, and "Hanigalbat" or "Hani-Rabbat" to the Assyrians. These names seem to have referred to the same kingdom and were often used interchangeably, according to Michael C. Astour. Hittite annals mention a people called "Hurri" (""), located in northeastern Syria. A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I, mentions a "King of the Hurri," and the Assyro-Akkadian version of the text renders "Hurri" as "Hanigalbat". Tushratta, who styles himself "king of Mitanni" in his Akkadian Amarna letters, refers to his kingdom as Hanigalbat.


title: Mitanni

text: The earliest attestation of the term Hanigalbat can be read in Akkadian, along with the Hittite version mentioning "the Hurrian enemy," in a copy from 13th century BC of the "Annals of Ḫattušili I," who reigned between 1650 and 1620 BC.


title: Mitanni

text: The reading of the Assyrian term "Ḫanigalbat" has a history of multiple renderings. The first portion has been connected to, " '," "Hanu" or "Hana," first attested in Mari to describe nomadic inhabitants along the southern shore of the northern Euphrates region, near the vicinity of Terqa (capital of the Kingdom of Hana) and the Khabur River. The term developed into more than just a designation for a people group, but also took on a topographic aspect as well. In the Middle Assyrian period, a phrase "" "'," "cities of the Upper Hanu" has suggested that there was a distinction between two different Hanu's, likely across each side of the river. This northern side designation spans much of the core territory of Mitanni state.


title: Mitanni

text: The two signs that have led to variant readings are " '" and its alternative form " '". The first attempts at decipherment in the late 1800s rendered forms interpreting ""gal"," meaning "great" in Sumerian, as a logogram for Akkadian ""rab"" having the same meaning; "Ḫani-Rabbat" denoting "the Great Hani". J. A. Knudtzon, and E. A. Speiser after him, supported instead the reading of ""gal"" on the basis of its alternative spelling with ""gal"", which has since become the majority view.


title: Mitanni

text: There is still a difficulty to explain the suffix ""-bat"" if the first sign did not end in ""b"," or the apparent similarity to the Semitic feminine ending ""-at"," if derived from a Hurrian word. More recently, in 2011, scholar Miguel Valério, then at the New University of Lisbon provided detailed support in favor to the older reading "Hani-Rabbat". The re-reading makes argument on basis of frequency, where ""gal"" not ""gal"," is far more numerous; the later being the deviation found in six documents, all from the periphery of the Akkadian sphere of influence. Additionally argued, although graphically distinct, there is a high degree of overlap between the two signs, as ""gal"" denotes ""dannum"" or ""strong"" opposed to "great", easily being used as synonyms. Both signs also represent correlative readings; alternative readings of ""gal"" include ""rib"" and ""rip"," just like ""gal"" being read as ""rab"."


title: Mitanni

text: The situation is complicated by there being, according to linguists, three separate dialects of Hurrian, central-western, northern, and eastern.


title: Mitanni

text: The first known use (by now) of Indo-Aryan names for Mitanni rulers begins with Shuttarna I who succeeded his father Kirta on the throne. King Barattarna of Mitanni expanded the kingdom west to Aleppo and made the Amorite king Idrimi of Alalakh his vassal, and five generations seems to separate this king (also known as Parattarna) from the rise of Mitanni kingdom. The state of Kizzuwatna in the west also shifted its allegiance to Mitanni, and Assyria in the east had become largely a Mitannian vassal state by the mid-15th century BC. The nation grew stronger during the reign of Shaushtatar, but the Hurrians were keen to keep the Hittites inside the Anatolian highland. Kizzuwatna in the west and Ishuwa in the north were important allies against the hostile Hittites.


title: Mitanni

text: Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the Thutmosids. However, with the ascent of the Hittite Empire, Mitanni and Egypt struck an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination. After a few successful clashes with the Egyptians over the control of Syria, Mitanni sought peace with them, and an alliance was formed. During the reign of Shuttarna II, in the early 14th century BC, the relationship was very amicable, and he sent his daughter Gilu-Hepa to Egypt for a marriage with Pharaoh Amenhotep III. Mitanni was now at its peak of power.


title: Mitanni

text: However, by the reign of Eriba-Adad I (1390–1366 BC) Mitanni influence over Assyria was on the wane. Eriba-Adad I became involved in a dynastic battle between Tushratta and his brother Artatama II and after this his son Shuttarna II, who called himself king of the Hurri while seeking support from the Assyrians. A pro-Hurri/Assyria faction appeared at the royal Mitanni court. Eriba-Adad I had thus loosened Mitanni influence over Assyria, and in turn had now made Assyria an influence over Mitanni affairs. King Ashur-Uballit I (1365–1330 BC) of Assyria attacked Shuttarna and annexed Mitanni territory in the middle of the 14th century BC, making Assyria once more a great power.


title: Mitanni

text: At the death of Shuttarna, Mitanni was ravaged by a war of succession. Eventually Tushratta, a son of Shuttarna, ascended the throne, but the kingdom had been weakened considerably and both the Hittite and Assyrian threats increased. At the same time, the diplomatic relationship with Egypt went cold, the Egyptians fearing the growing power of the Hittites and Assyrians. The Hittite king Suppiluliuma I invaded the Mitanni vassal states in northern Syria and replaced them with loyal subjects.


title: Mitanni

text: In the capital Washukanni, a new power struggle broke out. The Hittites and the Assyrians supported different pretenders to the throne. Finally a Hittite army conquered the capital Washukanni and installed Shattiwaza, the son of Tushratta, as their vassal king of Mitanni in the late 14th century BC. The kingdom had by now been reduced to the Khabur Valley. The Assyrians had not given up their claim on Mitanni, and in the 13th century BC, Shalmaneser I annexed the kingdom.


title: Mitanni

text: The Mitanni dynasty had ruled over the northern Euphrates-Tigris region between c. 1600 and 1350 BC, but succumbed to Hittite and later Assyrian attacks, and Mitanni was reduced to the status of a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire between c. 1350 and 1260 BC.


title: Mitanni

text: As early as Akkadian times, Hurrians are known to have lived east of the river Tigris on the northern rim of Mesopotamia, and in the Khabur Valley. The group which became Mitanni gradually moved south into Mesopotamia before the 17th century BC. It was already a powerful kingdom at the end of the 17th century or in the first half of the 16th century BC, and its beginnings date to well before the time of Thutmose I, dating actually to the time of the Hittite sovereigns Hattusili I and Mursili I.


title: Mitanni

text: Hurrians are mentioned in the private Nuzi texts, in Ugarit, and the Hittite archives in Hattusa (Boğazköy). Cuneiform texts from Mari mention rulers of city-states in upper Mesopotamia with both "Amurru" (Amorite) and Hurrian names. Rulers with Hurrian names are also attested for Urshum and Hassum, and tablets from Alalakh (layer VII, from the later part of the Old Babylonian period) mention people with Hurrian names at the mouth of the Orontes. There is no evidence for any invasion from the North-east. Generally, these onomastic sources have been taken as evidence for a Hurrian expansion to the South and the West.


title: Mitanni

text: A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I, mentions a "King of the Hurrians" ("LUGAL ERÍN.MEŠ Hurri"). This terminology was last used for King Tushratta of Mitanni, in a letter in the Amarna archives. The normal title of the king was 'King of the Hurri-men' (without the determinative "KUR" indicating a country).


title: Mitanni

text: With the final decline of the Mitanni Empire the western portions of its territory came up direct control of the Hittites and the eastern portions came under direct control of the Assyrians. The middle part continued on as the rump state of Hanigalbat. Eventually, under Shalmaneser I, that remaining part of the former Mitanni territory came under direct Assyrian control. This continued until the decline of Middle Assyrian power after the death of Tukulti-Ninurta I.


title: Mitanni

text: While under direct Assyrian control Hanigalbat was ruled by appointed governors such as the Assyrian grand-vizier Ilī-padâ, father of Ninurta-apal-Ekur (1191–1179), who took the title of King of Hanigalbat. He resided in the newly built (over an existing Mitanni tower and residence) Assyrian administrative centre at Tell Sabi Abyad.


title: Mitanni

text: The Babylonian Kings List A names the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib (705–681 BC) and his son Ashur-nadin-shumi (700–694) as being "Dynasty of Ḫabigal".


title: Mitanni

text: "While the practice of bestowing throne names of Indo-Aryan derivation on most of Mittani’s kings suggests significant contact with an Indo-Aryan-speaking population, it does not indicate that the royal dynasty (much less the ruling class) was of Aryan 'blood' – whatever that might mean."


title: Mitanni

text: Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit similarities to Indo-Aryan or Proto-Aryan. Several Mitanni rulers had names which could be interpreted as Indo-Aryan, most notably Shuttarna. The deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are listed and invoked in two treaties found in Hattusa, between the kings Sattiwaza of Mitanni and Suppiluliuma the Hittite: (treaty KBo I 3) and (treaty KBo I 1 and its duplicates).


title: Mitanni

text: Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as "aika" ("eka", one), "tera" ("tri", three), "panza" ("pancha", five), "satta" ("sapta", seven), "na" ("nava", nine), "vartana" ("vartana", turn, round in the horse race). The numeral "aika" (one) is of particular importance because it places the loanwords in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general. Annelies Kammenhuber (1968) suggested that this vocabulary was derived from the still undivided Indo-Iranian language, but Mayrhofer has shown that specifically Indo-Aryan features are present.


title: Mitanni

text: Another text has "babru" ("babhru", brown), "parita" ("palita", grey), and "pinkara" ("pingala", red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice ("vishuva") which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called "marya", the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha,~ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)."


title: Mitanni

text: Jasper Eidem in 2014 reported on Farouk Ismail's earlier study, in reference to the word "marijannu" that was found in a letter from Tell Leilan in northeastern Syria dating to a period slightly before 1761 BC, which is the time when the reign of Zimri-Lim ended in the region of Mari. According to Kroonen et al. (2018) this may be considered as an early Indo-Aryan linguistic presence in Syria two centuries prior to the formation of the Mitanni realm, as "mariannu" can be seen as a Hurrianized form of the Indo-Aryan "*marya", which means man or youth, associated to military affairs and chariots. Jasper Eidem (2014) comments that it's very surprising "the mention of "marijannu" soldiers to be exchanged between a ruler of Leilan and another king with a Hurrian name" and that "Leilan letter L.87–887, [was] sent from Kirip-seris to Himdija,[...] with reference to a journey to Babylon to visit the 'king'. Presumably the letter dates to the very end of Zimri-Lim’s reign, or shortly after the fall of Mari. The soldiers exchanged are described as "ṣāb ma-ri-ia-nim /ṣābī ša ma-ri-a/ia-nim.""


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Across the Universe is a 2007 jukebox musical romantic drama film directed by Julie Taymor, centered on songs by the Beatles. The script is based on an original story credited to Taymor, Dick Clement, and Ian La Frenais, and based on the song of the same name by Lennon–McCartney. It incorporates 34 compositions originally written by members of the Beatles. The film stars Evan Rachel Wood, Jim Sturgess, Joe Anderson and T.V. Carpio, and introduces Dana Fuchs and Martin Luther McCoy as actors. Cameo appearances are made by Bono, Eddie Izzard, Joe Cocker, and Salma Hayek, among others.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: "Across the Universe" premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 14, 2007, and was theatrically released in the United States on October 12 by Columbia Pictures. The film received mixed reviews from critics, with many praising the visuals, cast and singing performances, though criticized the plot and direction. The film was a major box-office bomb, failing to earn even half of its total production budget at the box office. The film received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and an Oscar nomination for Best Costume Design. Two members of the supporting cast, Carol Woods and Timothy T. Mitchum, performed as part of a special Beatles tribute at the 50th Grammy Awards.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Set in the 1960s. Jude Feeney, a shipyard worker in Liverpool, heads to the US to find his G.I. father who conceived him during World War II, whom he has never met. He promises his girlfriend Molly he will stay in touch while he is away.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Meanwhile, in New Jersey, Lucy Carrigan worries about her boyfriend Daniel, who is headed for service in the Vietnam War. In Dayton, Ohio, cheerleader Prudence pines for a fellow female cheerleader, and then drops out of school in shame.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Jude meets his father Wes, a janitor at Princeton University, but does not particularly bond with him. While on campus, he meets and befriends slacker student Max, who brings him home for Thanksgiving He introduces Jude to his family, including Lucy, his younger sister.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Max drops out of college; he and Jude move into a bohemian enclave in Greenwich Village run by a singer, Sadie. Jude becomes a freelance artist and Max a cab driver. Daniel is killed in Vietnam and Lucy attends his funeral. In Detroit, a young African-American boy is killed in the 1967 riot. His adult brother Jo-Jo, a guitarist, moves to New York for a change of scenery and auditions for Sadie's band. They are soon joined by Prudence who had hitchhiked there.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Lucy visits Max in New York before starting college, and she and Jude fall in love. Max, initially displeased upon learning they slept together, finally gives them his blessing. Later, Max is drafted into the army and sent to Vietnam, as he is no longer a college student protected from the draft. Prudence is attracted to Sadie and becomes depressed when Sadie and Jo-Jo begin a relationship.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Lucy becomes increasingly involved in the anti-war movement. Jude remains comparatively apolitical but devoted to her. Sadie is offered a chance to go on a solo tour as a headliner, leading to a bitter breakup between her and Jo-Jo. Jude dislikes the increasing amount of time Lucy spends with the Students for a Democratic Republic, led by activist Paco, as he suspects that Paco is attempting to seduce her.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Jude storms into the SDR office leading to an argument with Lucy and a fight with Paco after which Jude is thrown out and she breaks up with him. Some time later, Jude follows her to an anti-war demonstration at Columbia University. When the police arrest Lucy, Paco, and the other activists, Jude's attempts to reach her lead to his arrest as well.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: With Jude facing deportation, Lucy contacts his father. Wes visits him in jail but has no legal proof that he is his son and thus an American citizen. As a result, Jude is sent back to England. Returning to his job at the Liverpool shipyards, he runs into his former girlfriend Molly and sees that she is heavily pregnant by her current partner. She met him around the time Jude stopped writing her (when he started seeing Lucy).


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Jo-Jo continues playing solo guitar in bars, while the highly successful Sadie drowns her sorrow and loneliness in alcohol on tour. Max is wounded in Vietnam and sent home. Lucy visits him in the hospital but he is traumatized and dependent on morphine. Meanwhile, she continues her activities with the SDR and is involved with Paco, but is uncomfortable with him leading the movement deeper into violence.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Lucy leaves Paco and the organization when she finds him making bombs, and she is surrounded by constant reminders of Jude. One of Paco's homemade bombs explodes, killing him and his confederates. Upon reading this news, Jude fears Lucy is also dead. He learns from Max over the phone that she had left the group beforehand and is alive, and he arranges to return to NYC legally.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: Jo-Jo and Sadie, who have reconciled, put on a rooftop concert. Max brings Jude to the rooftop. When the police arrive to break up the concert, Jude manages to remain on the roof and begins to sing. The police allow the band to rejoin him. He notices Lucy on the opposite rooftop, standing and looking at him. Lucy and Jude gaze smilingly at each other as the performance concludes.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: The names of the six main characters (and most minor characters) were inspired by Beatles song titles and lyrics.


title: Across the Universe (film)

text: List of 33 Beatles compositions on the soundtrack in order, including three compositions heard twice, totalling 34 individual music cues: