title: Stargate Universe

text: The SGC created Icarus base on a remote planet whose Stargate is powered by large naquadria deposits throughout the core. The team, led by Dr. Nicholas Rush, postulate that the power from that core could allow them to use a 9-chevron address to "dial" into the Stargate, allowing them access to locations far remote from their galaxy, but lack the means to translate the writing of the Ancients to understand how to dial this properly. Dr. Rush designs a video game used across Earth to find brilliant minds to interpret the puzzle, which Eli Wallace, a young mathematics genius, is able to solve. Although Eli is reluctant, he is brought to the Icarus base along with a contingent of guests of honor aboard the "Hammond", a Daedalus-class starship battlecruiser; the guests include Senator Armstrong, who funds Icarus Project, and his daughter Chloe. They are introduced to the base's military staff, led by Colonel Everett Young, Colonel David Telford, First Lieutenants Matthew Scott and Tamara Johansen, and Master Sergeant Ronald Greer.


title: Stargate Universe

text: Dr. Rush and Eli work together to discover the means to dial the ninth chevron, just as the base is attacked by members of the Lucian Alliance. Colonel Telford aids in the defense with F-302 fighters with Colonel Samantha Carter in command of the "George Hammond", while the base starts dialing Earth into the Stargate, finding that the planet's power core is about to explode. Dr. Rush realizes that the explosion would follow them through the base back to Earth, and instead redials the Stargate with the ninth chevron, successfully opening a wormhole. The surviving Icarus Base members flee through the wormhole before the planet explodes. They find themselves aboard an old abandoned spacecraft made by the Ancients, which Dr. Rush finds was named "Destiny". Around eighty survivors begin to assure the safety of their team, Senator Armstrong injured and realizing he might not have long, sacrifices himself to seal an air leak in one of "Destiny"s shuttles.


title: Stargate Universe

text: As the rest of the team works to make the ship habitable, Dr. Rush, Eli, and other scientific members of Icarus Base start to understand the function of "Destiny"; they are not able to directly control the ship, and find that it will drop out of faster-than-light travel to allow its Stargate to connect to a number of nearby worlds for a fixed period of time before it continues; it fuels itself by diving into the outermost layer of a nearby star and collecting energy from it; the first time the "Destiny" did that, the crew feared the worst, until they understood why it happened. The crew is able to remain in contact with Earth via the Ancient communication stones that Dr. Rush brought, and are told to continue the Stargate mission of exploring that galaxy, while searching for a way to return home.


title: Stargate Universe

text: The team's mission adapts in season 2, when the Ancients' mission for "Destiny" is discovered in "The Greater Good". Dr. Rush cracks the ship's master code, gaining control of the ship's systems and discovering that the Ancients found an artificial pattern to the cosmic microwave background radiation said to be a remnant of the Big Bang. This discovery suggested the possibility of life before or immediately after the Big Bang, and "Destiny" was launched millions of years ago to study and gather data regarding this possibility. While "Destiny" has not solved this riddle after millions of years of research, the series ends with the team continuing its fight for survival while also dedicating itself to researching this possibility of an originating intelligence.


title: Stargate Universe

text: "Stargate" producers Brad Wright and Robert C. Cooper conceived "Stargate Universe" as "a completely separate, third entity" in the live-action "Stargate" franchise – as opposed to "Stargate Atlantis", which was created as a spin-off from the first series "Stargate SG-1". They wanted to produce a stylistically and totally different TV series with a more mature and fresh story approach so as not to get too repetitive. Wright and Cooper originally planned to write the pilot script for "Stargate Universe" during the summer of 2007, making a 2008 premiere possible. Since their ambitions with the previous live-action "Stargate" series were often restricted by the low budget and risked coming across as silly, they pitched the show as "an expensive series" to the Sci Fi Channel (now Syfy) in the last quarter of 2007. Although the pitch was well-received, the project was put on hold because of the ongoing work on "Stargate Atlantis" and "", and the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The series was given the official greenlight for a 2009 debut by Syfy on August 22, 2008, shortly after the cancellation of "Stargate Atlantis" had been announced. It was given an initial order of 40 episodes across two seasons. Joseph Mallozzi explained that a new series would have lower salaries and licensing fees than a new sixth season of "Atlantis" would have had. MGM co-funded the project. According to co-star Robert Carlyle, each episode had a budget of $2 million US dollars.


title: Stargate Universe

text: Brad Wright pitched the series and its first five episodes to the "Stargate Atlantis" writers and producers in mid-September 2008. Wright, Cooper, and Carl Binder produced the show, while Joseph Mallozzi and Paul Mullie served as writers and consultant producers. "Stargate Atlantis" writers Martin Gero and Alan McCullough contributed scripts, but were not part of the regular writing staff. New writers were initially sought for freelance scripts and possible staff positions. Author John Scalzi was hired as a creative consultant, "a background rather than foreground sort of job". Most of the "Stargate Atlantis" crew, such as stunt coordinator James Bamford and composer Joel Goldsmith, moved over to "Universe".


title: Stargate Universe

text: Short character breakdowns for the series regulars (created for casting calls) leaked on the internet on September 17, 2008. Joseph Mallozzi explained the largely negative initial fan reaction as a passionate response to the preceding cancellation announcement of "Atlantis". Brad Wright dismissed negative comments as a sole reaction to the wording of the network; character breakdowns are written to aid casting directors and agents in the selection process, and "always sound shallow, and if they're written to appear 'deep' it's just ridiculous". Robert C. Cooper replied to concerns of young age that the "SG-1" cast was also quite young in their first season. The producers were "looking for people who are a little more identifiable and contemporary," with an "everyman on the street point of view" after being challenged by the situation. Martin Gero considered "Stargate Universe" as an ensemble show, more than the previous two "Stargate" live-action series were.


title: Stargate Universe

text: Auditions were held in Los Angeles. The producers were looking for well-known names for the lead roles, but intended to mostly cast "either new faces, or people you've seen in other stuff but maybe aren't as aware of". BAFTA and Screen Actors Guild Award-winning actor Robert Carlyle was the first announced series regular in mid-December 2008. The casting of Louis Ferreira, David Blue, Brian J. Smith, and Jamil Walker Smith as series regulars was announced in mid-January 2009. The casting of Alaina Huffman and Elyse Levesque was announced in late February 2009, along with other actors whose status as regular or recurring cast has not been established. The cast is American (Blue, B. Smith, J. Smith, Wen), Canadian (Ferreira, Levesque, and Huffman) and British (Carlyle).


title: Stargate Universe

text: The writers started drafting stories for the first season in mid-November 2008. The United States Air Force and Marine Corps reviewed the scripts, and disaster geophysicist Mika McKinnon served as a science consultant. The projected film start of "Stargate Universe" was initially slated for February 4, 2009, but was moved to February 18, 2009. The show was filmed on stages 2, 4 ("Destiny" set) and 5 (Icarus Base set) at The Bridge Studios ("SG-1" and "Atlantis" had been filmed at stages 5 and 6) and on location in and around Vancouver, British Columbia. "Air (Part 3)" was filmed in and around Alamogordo, New Mexico from late April through early May 2009. "Stargate Universe" showed computer-generated worlds filmed in digital sets. "Stargate Universe" had a markedly different shooting style for more reality and immediacy with inspiration from "Cloverfield", as if "a documentary crew were to ride along on this adventure to outer space".


title: Stargate Universe

text: Sci Fi Wire published concept art of the "Destiny" in October 2008. The first promotional picture of the cast (out of costume and in casual clothing) was released on March 20, 2009. The same day, Syfy began airing thirty-second trailers of "Universe", showing various clips of the "Universe" team aboard the ship and the "SG·U" Stargate with the first visual effects. MGM revealed its revamped "Stargate Universe" website on July 8 with an interactive virtual set tour of the "Destiny", interviews with the cast, character profiles and videos. Joseph Mallozzi began posting concept art and behind-the-scenes photos of the "SGU" set on his blog afterwards. Brad Wright, Robert C. Cooper and most members of the main cast appeared at an "SGU" panel at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 24, 2009. Behind-the-scenes material was shot for future online and DVD use.


title: Stargate Universe

text: "Stargate Universe" is set on the spaceship "Destiny", which was launched by the race known as the Ancients from the Milky Way galaxy several million years ago. Several ships were sent ahead of it to seed the universe with Stargates. The Ancients had planned on using the Stargate aboard Destiny to board that ship when it was far enough out into the universe, but they eventually abandoned the project after looking into ascension and other endeavors. To reach this ship, an address would have to be dialed consisting of nine chevrons, a possibility that had been unknown in the previous "Stargate" series, due to energy constraints and the lack of any nine-chevron addresses recorded anywhere until Destiny's address was discovered in Atlantis' database.


title: Stargate Universe

text: The series begins when a team of soldiers and scientists from present-day Earth escape through the Stargate and arrive on the "Destiny" after their base is attacked. Many of its primary systems are damaged or failing, and they are unable to return to Earth or even maneuver the ship. However, the "Destiny" periodically stops to dial the Stargate to planets with necessary supplies to repair the ship, and sustain human life. The writers have discussed the possibility that each season represents a voyage of the "Destiny" through a different galaxy.


title: Stargate Universe

text: "Stargate Universe" was intended to appeal to both veteran fans and newcomers, being firmly entrenched in established "Stargate" mythology without relying on it too often. It retained the familiar "Stargate" themes of adventure and exploration, but focused mostly on the people aboard the ship. "SGU" was also more serialized than its predecessors, although the writers attempted to resolve each character story within the episode. There was a conscious effort to avoid making "SGU" too serialized, with the serialization stemming mainly from character development. The industry described the show as "dark and edgy". According to Robert C. Cooper, the essence of the story is "that sort of fear and terror of a tragedy combined with the sense that there is hope for us in the basic ways in which human beings survive". The planned increased levels of drama were balanced with humor to avoid pretentiousness. The differences between good and evil were meant to be less apparent, as the ship was populated with flawed and unprepared characters who are not supposed to go there. According to Brad Wright, the show would "hopefully explor[e] the truly alien, and [avoid] the rubber faced English-speaking one[s]". There were aliens, but not a single dominant villain race like "SG-1"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Goa'uld and "Atlantis"<nowiki>'</nowiki> Wraith.


title: Stargate Universe

text: "Stargate Universe" was well received by several major media outlets upon airing of the pilot episode. Mike Hale from "The New York Times" was generally positive towards the pilot episodes, saying the "Stargate" franchise was "catching up" with the long-running "Star Trek" franchise. Hale also agreed with Syfy's promotion of it being an "edgier" "Stargate". "The Boston Globe" reviewer Joanna Weiss also reacted positively towards the pilot episodes, saying it felt like "early "Lost"", while the story arc followed the patterns of "Battlestar Galactica". Mark Wilson from About.com gave the episode four-and-a-half stars out of 5, saying "Universe" accomplishes what "Stargate Atlantis" was not able to, and said it was "exceptionally well made" compared to other shows. The "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette" both praised the show, calling it "intriguing", for not abandoning its premise as "" did and criticized it by pointing out that the characters spend "far too much time wandering a desert planet" in "Air (Part 3)". The "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette" summarized their review by saying that, "given time, "Stargate Universe" may become worth watching if it develops its characters and continues to mine its premise for stories." David Hinckley, a reviewer from "The New York Daily News" gave the episodes four out of five stars, saying that "Eli's not the only one playing a high-stakes game here."


title: Stargate Universe

text: Among reviewers who were negative towards the new installments was Maureen Ryan from the "Chicago Tribune". The reviewer wrote that the "gloomy, underwhelming "Universe" seems to have ditched many of the elements that the previous "Stargate" shows had, notably camaraderie and a sense of adventure, without adding much in the way of narrative suspense or complexity." The only characters she felt were "worth following" were Eli Wallace and Nicholas Rush. Vince Horiuchi from "The Salt Lake Tribune", while not overall positive to the series, said the cast and characters were a "little more likable and interesting" than previous entries in the "Stargate" franchise. Reviewer Laura Freis from "Variety" concluded her review with "Sure, "SGU" is grittier, darker and psychologically deeper than previous versions. But so far, it's also a lot less fun." While negative towards the show, she called Robert Carlyle an "excellent" actor. "The Hollywood Reporter" noted a lack of "intelligent" and "surprising stories" and was overall negative towards "Stargate Universe". The show has also been criticized for its similarities to the reimagined "Battlestar Galactica".


title: Stargate Universe

text: In its second season, SGU had declined in viewership ratings. Series co-creator Brad Wright attributed this decline to its change in timeslot (from Friday night to Tuesday night, and then again to Monday night), stating:


title: Stargate Universe

text: After the cancellation of "Stargate Universe", "Stargate" fans reacted angrily towards Syfy. On May 12, 2011, Syfy released a letter explaining its reasons for the series' cancellation. The letter discussed the fact that ratings during the first season had fallen significantly on the Friday timeslot, dropping over 25% of its viewership during the long hiatus between the first and second half of the season. This prompted Syfy to start the second season in the Tuesday slot making room on Friday for wrestling, the change from Friday to Tuesday being a major factor in the reduction in viewership.


title: Stargate Universe

text: The episode "Time" won a Writers Guild of Canada Award for best one-hour TV series and both "Air" and "Space" were nominated for Outstanding Special Visual Effects For A Series at the 2010 Primetime Emmy Awards.


title: Stargate Universe

text: Robert Carlyle won Best Performance by an Actor in a Continuing Leading Dramatic Role for the first-season episode "Human" at the 2010 Gemini Awards.


title: Rivian R1T

text: The Rivian R1T is an all-electric, battery-powered, light duty pickup truck produced by the American company Rivian.


title: Rivian R1T

text: The first production R1T rolled off the assembly line in Illinois and was delivered to a customer in September 2021.


title: Rivian R1T

text: The official EPA range for the Rivian R1T is 314 miles (505 km).. 74 MPGe city, 66 MPGe highway, and 70 MPGe combined.


title: Rivian R1T

text: Rivian unveiled the upcoming truck under the working name A1T in May 2018 but rebadged the vehicle in November 2018 as the R1T. Designed to be off-road capable, the 2018 concept design was planned to have of ground clearance, feature an 800HP [] electric motor, with the most expensive models being designed to achieve approximately on a charge. The company claimed that early prototype testing showed the truck to be able to accelerate from in under 3 seconds, wade through of water and climb a 45degree incline. These design objectives were largely achieved in the 2021 production vehicle release.


title: Rivian R1T

text: Rivian said it was designing the vehicles to facilitate "car-sharing" with their autonomous features.


title: Rivian R1T

text: In 2018, Rivian stated it intended to license its electric chassis to other manufacturers as a design base for machinery such as cars and other components.


title: Rivian R1T

text: In March 2021, Rivian announced plans to develop a network of public charging stations by 2023. Similar to competitor Tesla, they plan to eventually offer a combination of fast chargers and slower destination chargers, while also selling home chargers. The target is for 600 Rivian-only Adventure Network sites with 3,500DC fast chargers at high-traffic locations; 200kW will be the initial charging speed, with an eventual target of 300kW.


title: Rivian R1T

text: , the company is planning 10,000 destination chargers (Level 2, 11.5kW) — called Rivian Waypoints — at retail, lodging, dining businesses, as well as parks and other locations; Waypoint chargers are slated to be available to all EVs with a J1772 connector. Starting July 2021, Rivian will install, at no cost to the government, two Rivian Waypoint chargers at up to 50 Colorado State Parks and state recreation areas.


title: Rivian R1T

text: In the summer of 2021, journalists from MotorTrend became the first to cross the Trans America Trail in an electric vehicle—on a journey covering terrain including rocks, mud, gravel and sand—using a stock R1T pre-production version of the truck.


title: Rivian R1T

text: In September 2021, the first customer vehicle rolled off the production line and was delivered to a customer.


title: Rivian R1T

text: The Rivian R1T was being initially offered with three different batteries sized 105 kWh, 135 kWh, and 180 kWh of energy storage. Rivian R1T will have a range of 230 miles with the smallest battery, 314 miles for the medium battery, and over 400 miles for the largest battery. Additional batteries can be mounted in the R1T's bed for improved range. Those backup/auxiliary batteries can be charged by another R1T, if no charging infrastructure is available.


title: Rivian R1T

text: According to Car and Driver magazine the real world range with a 129 kWh battery ranges from 220 to 280 miles highway driving, depending on tire choice.


title: Rivian R1T

text: The Rivian R1T is an all-electric, battery-powered, Individual wheel drive light duty pickup truck The vehicle features four electric motors, one on each wheel, that combine to produce and deliver of torque.


title: Rivian R1T

text: Rivian's relatively flat, low center of gravity chassis is a typical electric vehicle skateboard, which enables straightforward modification by the manufacturer for other body types.


title: Rivian R1T

text: Rivian has applied for a patent on a novel tight-turning technique where differential motor torque between the turned front wheels and back wheels is applied. Previously referred to as "Tank Turn" mode, the software to support the feature was not ready and so is not included in the initial production trucks in late 2021.


title: Rivian R1T

text: The cargo bed is long. Its width at the narrowest point, between the wheel wells, is . Towing capacity is , as tested in conditions exceeding on a desert road that is specified by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) as the standard for determining a vehicle’s tow rating. The Class V tow hitch is hidden behind a removable panel.


title: Rivian R1T

text: The "frunk" — located where the engine would be in a internal-combustion-engine-powered truck — offers of additional cargo space, and contains 12 V DC outlets, a 15A/120V AC outlet, and a drain.


title: Rivian R1T

text: Another storage compartment is the -long Gear Tunnel, which runs the width of the truck and can be used for storing sports equipment or a number of available accessories. It also has a 12 V DC outlet and a 15A/120V AC outlet.


title: Rivian R1T

text: The vehicle has an air suspension which allows for 6.5 in (17 cm) of vertical travel — the ground clearance can be as low as 7.9 in (20 cm) or as high as 14.4 in (37 cm). Depending on the wheel configuration, the maximum ground clearance can be even higher, at 14.9 in (38 cm). Maximum wading depth in water is 43.1 inches (1094.74 mm). Approach, departure, breakover angles are 35.5, 30 and 26.4 degrees respectively. Custom made Pirelli 275/65 R20 all-terrain tires are available as an option.


title: Rivian R1T

text: Custom drive modes—which adjust the suspension, ride-height, throttle and steering—include "All-Purpose, Sport, Conserve, Tow and Off-Road", plus sub modes for off-road that include "Rock Crawl, Soft Sand and Rally."


title: Rivian R1T

text: Rivian is offering vehicle options for off roading: a reinforced underbody shield with tow hooks, a "camp kitchen"—two induction cooking elements (1440W each, Dometic CI20), a sink, plus 30 pieces of outdoor cooking/dining equipment—that collapses into the R1T gear tunnel, as well as a roof-top tent for three. A winch is available as an option and can be controlled via Rivian's iOS app.


title: Rivian R1T

text: R1T has safety and driver assistance package called the Driver+. On selected highways the truck is capable of self-steering and controlling speed following the instructions of the driver similar to Tesla's AutoPilot. During hands-free driving the driver has to keep their eyes on road and Rivian R1T has cameras inside the cabin to monitor the driver's activity. The hands-free feature works well in straight roads but needs driver's input when taking corners.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Johnny Lawrence is a fictional character of the " Karate Kid" media franchise. Played by William Zabka, he appears in the films "The Karate Kid", "The Karate Kid Part II", "The Karate Kid Part III", and the sequel television series "Cobra Kai".


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Johnny Lawrence was born on August 20, 1966. He knew his father for a short while in his life, before he left the family for unknown reasons when Johnny was five years old. Johnny moved to the upscale neighborhood of Encino, California, after his mother, Laura married Sid Weinberg, an executive producer for Lorimar Television. A friendless Johnny was often verbally abused by his stepfather, especially after quitting drums, rollerskating, and magic lessons. As a result, Johnny would use his Walkman to drown out Sid's heckling. One day in 1979, while riding his bicycle, a 12-year-old Johnny discovered the Cobra Kai dojo and spent the next five years learning Tang Soo Do karate under sensei John Kreese.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Johnny entered the All-Valley Under-18 Karate Tournament for the first time in 1981 but failed to make the finals after losing to the much more experienced Darryl Vidal in the quarter-finals. In 1982, he begins to date Ali Mills.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: He also began to take his training more seriously and won back-to-back championships in 1982 and 1983. In the summer of 1984, Ali and Johnny broke up after Johnny got drunk while out with his Cobra Kai friends and missed her birthday, leading to a fight. Daniel LaRusso moved to the area a little while later. Johnny mistakenly believed that Ali cheated on him with Daniel, leading to an ongoing conflict with Daniel. Johnny made the All-Valley finals for a third time in 1984, after easily avenging his defeat in the 1981 tournament over Vidal in the semi-finals, but lost to LaRusso. Despite his three appearances and two victories in the tournament finals, he never received the fame or recognition that LaRusso enjoyed after his subsequent victories in 1984 and 1985. This, paired with a violent clash with Kreese, led Johnny to abandon Cobra Kai and karate until 2017.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: After leaving Cobra Kai, Johnny became aimless for decades, spending most of his time partying and eventually dated a fellow alcoholic, Shannon Keene. Laura died in 2002, shortly before Johnny's son and oldest child Robby Keene was born in February of that year. Johnny took his mother's death hard, and while grieving went on a drinking binge that caused him to miss his son's birth. After that, Johnny broke up with Shannon and became estranged from Robby for the next seventeen years.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: In 2017, after spending several years working as a handyman in Reseda, Johnny chanced upon a new neighbor, Miguel Diaz being targeted by a group of bullies. After Johnny successfully fought off the attackers with his karate skills, Miguel convinced Johnny to reopen the Cobra Kai dojo which renewed his rivalry with LaRusso. After losing ownership of Cobra Kai to an unrepentant Kreese, Johnny formed a new dojo named Eagle Fang Karate and teamed up with Daniel and the Miyagi-Do dojo, eventually leading to them ending their rivalry. Johnny also became romantically involved with Miguel's mother Carmen around this time, conceiving a second child — a half-sibling to both Robby and Miguel, who became effectively step-brothers due to Johnny and Carmen’s relationship.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Johnny is the top student of the Cobra Kai dojo, and best friends with its strongest members: Bobby Brown, Tommy, Jimmy, and Dutch. Their sensei is John Kreese, a ruthless master of Tang Soo Do karate and a United States Army veteran from the Vietnam War.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Johnny is the two-time defending champion of the All Valley Under-18 Karate Championships tournament in both 1982 and 1983. Before the events of the film, his girlfriend Ali Mills broke up with him after a two-year relationship. One night at a beach party, Johnny confronts Ali about their breakup and starts getting violent. New Jersey native Daniel LaRusso, who recently moved to the area, tries to stick up for Ali, and Johnny beats him up with his karate skills. Over the next few weeks, Johnny and his Cobra Kai gang harass Daniel in and out of school. At a Halloween dance, Daniel soaks Johnny in the bathroom with a hose while he is rolling a joint, prompting Johnny and the other Cobras to chase him down and beat him until Mr. Miyagi, the maintenance man of Daniel's apartment building, intervenes and defeats Johnny and his gang. The next day, Mr. Miyagi confronts Kreese at the Cobra Kai dojo and proposes that Daniel and Johnny's feud be settled in the upcoming tournament. Kreese agrees, but warns that if they do not attend the tournament, both Daniel and Mr. Miyagi will be declared fair game to Cobra Kai.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: At the tournament, Johnny quickly advances to the finals, scoring three unanswered points against a highly skilled opponent in his semi-final match. When Daniel reaches the semi-finals, Bobby Brown, one of the more compassionate Cobras and the least vicious of Daniel's tormentors, reluctantly (under orders from Kreese) strikes Daniel's knee with an illegal kick, getting himself disqualified while Johnny looks at Kreese in disgust. Before Johnny is declared the victor by default, Ali informs the tournament announcer that Daniel will fight in the final round. During the fight, Daniel gets the upper hand and gives Johnny a bloody nose. Kreese orders Johnny to sweep Daniel's leg, considered unethical because of Daniel's injury. Fearing his sensei, Johnny manages to land an elbow on Daniel's bad leg, receiving a warning from the referee. Upon the restart of the round, Johnny loses the match after Daniel lands a crane kick to his face. Having gained a new respect for his nemesis, Johnny personally gives Daniel the trophy.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Kreese harshly reprimands Johnny for losing to Daniel, breaking his second-place trophy and locking him in a chokehold. The other Cobra Kai students, except for Dutch and Jimmy plead for Kreese to let go of Johnny until Mr. Miyagi intervenes. Mr. Miyagi dodges Kreese's punches, causing Kreese to injure his hands from breaking two car windows. He further humiliates Kreese by mocking Cobra Kai's founding tenets and tweaking his nose after halting a fatal blow deathly close to its target. Following the incident, Johnny and his friends leave Cobra Kai.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Kreese tells Silver at the beginning of the film that he is closing the dojo, as Johnny and his friends left Cobra Kai.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: "Cobra Kai" picks up 33 years after the first film. Now in his 50s, Johnny is a down-on-his-luck alcoholic loner who is estranged from his now-teenaged son Robby who he had with his ex-girlfriend Shannon Keene when both were younger, spending most of his time drinking beer and often resorting to bottles of whiskey when depressed. He struggles to make a living as a handyman in the San Fernando Valley, but is fired from this job after getting into an argument with a customer.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: He appears to be oblivious to most technology released after the 1990s, as he still carries a flip phone and is unfamiliar with the Internet and social media platforms such as Facebook. In addition, Johnny cites "Iron Eagle" and its sequel as his favorite movies and continues to listen to classic 1980s rock music. He also is jealous of Daniel, who is now the owner of a successful car dealership despite showing good sportsmanship to him by handing the trophy during the 1984 All-Valley Tournament. The duo re-encounter each other after Johnny's red Pontiac Firebird is towed to his dealership following a hit and run committed by Yasmine, a friend of Daniel's daughter Samantha. Johnny reluctantly allows Daniel to have the car repaired for free, but is enraged to find out that Sam is Daniel's daughter.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: One night, Johnny intervenes after witnessing his teenage neighbor Miguel Diaz being harassed by a group of rich bullies at a convenience store. Johnny defeats Kyler and his gang, but is arrested in the process. He is bailed out by Sid, who disowns him and offers to buy him out of his life with an undisclosed sum of money. Johnny initially rejects the money out of pride, but after reuniting with Daniel, Johnny uses the money to reopen the Cobra Kai dojo, with Miguel as his first student. Johnny initially struggles to gain new students, but after Miguel beats up Kyler and his crew in the cafeteria while they are confronting Sam, dozens of new recruits flock to the dojo.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Johnny tries to enter Cobra Kai in the upcoming All-Valley Under-18 Karate Championships tournament, but he discovers that the dojo has been given a lifetime ban due to the ruthless actions of Kreese, Terry Silver, and Mike Barnes (from "The Karate Kid Part III"). Johnny decides to appeal the ban, telling the All-Valley Committee that his Cobra Kai is run differently than it was under Kreese, claiming that Kreese has been dead for years and he has never had any association with or even heard of Silver or Barnes. Johnny explains that he alone holds authority over the dojo and that he endeavors to make a difference in the lives of local youth who have been bullied. The board votes to lift the ban and allow Cobra Kai to enter the tournament over the objections of Daniel, who is a committee member. As the dojo gains more students, Johnny gradually earns enough money to keep it afloat and pay back Sid, vowing to never return to him again.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: On the back of this success, Johnny trains his dojo even more rigorously. However, his conflict with Daniel is exacerbated by a series of misunderstandings, culminating with Daniel's cousin Louie destroying Johnny's car and assaulting him supposedly in Daniel's name. Enraged, Johnny comes to Daniel's home to fight him, but Daniel's wife, Amanda, manages to defuse the conflict by inviting Johnny to breakfast to discuss the matter peacefully and persuades her husband to give Johnny a car from the trade-in lot of his dealership as compensation. While test driving a 2009 Dodge Challenger R/T, Johnny and Daniel make considerable progress coming to terms, until their return to Daniel's residence leads to Johnny discovering that Robby is Daniel's karate protégé and new employee. At that point, an enraged Johnny shoves Daniel against the wall and storms out while Daniel furiously banishes Robby from his home and dealerships as punishment for his dishonesty.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: At the All-Valley tournament, both Miguel and Hawk make it to the semi-finals, along with Robby. When Robby and Hawk fight in the semi-finals, Johnny chastises Hawk for illegally attacking Robby's shoulder, which gets him disqualified and leaves Robby and Miguel to meet in the final match after Robby reconciles with Daniel and apologizes to Daniel for hiding the fact that he is Johnny's estranged son. When Miguel ruthlessly exploits Robby's injured shoulder against his sensei's wishes, Johnny realizes that his teaching methods have corrupted his students. Miguel wins the tournament and thanks Johnny for his guidance, but Johnny is too dejected by his actions to celebrate due to the fact that Miguel and Hawk have become more ruthless as a result of his aggressive teachings. He stops Robby before he can leave the arena and apologizes to him, which Robby accepts with reasonable politeness, implying that Robby still cares about Johnny somewhat despite their strained relationship. Later that night, a very much alive John Kreese shows up unexpectedly at the Cobra Kai dojo to congratulate him.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: At the start of the season, Johnny addresses the unethical tactics committed by Miguel and Hawk against his son Robby during the tournament and downgrades his entire team back to white belts to further discipline them, banning any form of cheating or dirty fighting from the dojo despite their "no mercy" teachings. He also begins employing a stricter training regimen, going so far as forcing his students to push a full concrete mixer from the inside. To further promote his dojo, Johnny has his Dodge Challenger repainted black and decorated with Cobra Kai logos, and has the sound system replaced with a cassette player for his mixtape collection. Johnny initially rebuffs Kreese's attempts to reconcile and blames him for ruining his life due to the traumatic aftermath of the 1984 All-Valley Tournament that resulted in Kreese choking Johnny. After Kreese apologizes for his previous actions and repairs Johnny's second-place trophy, he relents and agrees to partner with Kreese by making him an observer before making him a co-sensei.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: In the meantime, Daniel reopens Miyagi-Do in an attempt to compete with and undermine Cobra Kai by offering lessons for free. While Daniel initially has little success in these efforts, several Cobra Kai students defect to Miyagi-do after a group of students led by Hawk proceeds to vandalize the Miyagi-do dojo in retaliation for Moon breaking up with Hawk due to the aftermath of the mall fight with Sam, Robby and Demetri with the blessing of Kreese. Johnny eventually discovers that Kreese has been teaching his students the old ways of Cobra Kai behind his back and expels him from the dojo. During this time, Johnny buys a used laptop and discovers the Internet. He also upgrades to a smartphone, joins Facebook, and eventually finds love in Miguel's mother Carmen. At the same time, Johnny slowly reconciles with Robby, who eventually moves in with his father. After a chance encounter at a restaurant, Johnny and Daniel make another attempt at reconciliation. But their uneasy peace proves short-lived after a misunderstanding involving Robby and Samantha, leading to a showdown between Daniel and Johnny in the latter's apartment that results in Daniel cutting ties with Johnny and Robby.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Making matters worse, a massive conflict between the two dojos' students erupts on the first day of school, beginning with Cobra Kai student Tory Nichols picking a fight with Daniel's daughter Samantha in retaliation for a drunken kiss with Miguel at Moon's party and ending with Johnny’s son Robby inadvertently putting Miguel in the hospital. Johnny's life and relationships are severely in limbo, with a missing Robby expelled from school and in legal trouble, and Carmen breaking up with him. To make matters worse, Kreese regains control of Cobra Kai and forces Johnny out, revealing that while Johnny was visiting his dying friend Tommy, he made a deal with the landlord to take over the dojo. Most of Cobra Kai's students turn against Johnny and side with Kreese, who vows to never let them down, while Hawk openly blames Johnny for Miguel's life-threatening spinal injuries accidentally caused by Robby.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: A guilt-ridden Johnny goes to the beach and gets drunk, haunted by Miguel's life-threatening spinal injuries accidentally caused by Robby at the end of the school brawl and his betrayals as well as Robby’s expulsion from school and potential legal problems. He throws his bottle of whiskey at his car, abandoning it and his smartphone, which he drops in the sand. He walks away, unaware that Ali has sent him a friend request on Facebook.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Reeling from the fallout of Miguel's hospitalization, Johnny visits Miguel's intensive care unit and gives him some encouraging words to help him wake from his coma. He reluctantly agrees to pair with Daniel in searching for Robby, but the two eventually part ways after a confrontation while following a lead. In order to make amends, Johnny acquires funding for Miguel's surgery by stealing one of Sid's statues to sell at a pawn shop. He also makes failed attempts at reconciling with Robby after his arrest, but a resentful Robby furiously cuts ties with Johnny in retaliation for missing a planned visit to stay with Miguel's family. Once Miguel gets out of the hospital, Johnny then dedicates his time to helping provide him with physical therapy that includes unorthodox methods, and manages to succeed after taking him to a Dee Snider concert, mending his initial rift with Miguel and Carmen in the process.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Motivated by his success with Miguel, Johnny creates a new martial arts dojo called Eagle Fang, composed of Miguel and several other students that Kreese has expelled from Cobra Kai, including Mitch and Bert. Johnny also reconnects with Ali briefly for the Christmas holidays and finally gets closure with her and ends his rivalry with Daniel, while Miguel does the same thing at the students' level by rekindling his romance with Sam and negotiating an alliance between the students of Miyagi-Do and Eagle Fang.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: When Johnny becomes aware of Cobra Kai attacking Miyagi-Do and Eagle Fang at Daniel's home, he confronts Kreese alone and gains the upper hand on him, only to be interrupted by Robby, who has joined Cobra Kai after getting out of juvenile hall to Johnny's dismay. After accidentally knocking out Robby during his fight, Johnny is ambushed by Kreese and nearly choked to death, only for Daniel to intervene and defeat Kreese. Johnny then gives Daniel the approval to finish off Kreese, only for Miguel and Sam to intervene. Kreese agrees to cease hostilities with both Johnny and Daniel until the upcoming All-Valley tournament before walking back into the dojo with Robby, who has firmly sided with Kreese. Finding common ground, Johnny and Daniel agree to train together with their students at Miyagi-Do.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Despite agreeing to team up, tensions still exist between Johnny and Daniel over how to train their respective students. Furthermore, Johnny becomes jealous when Miguel enthusiastically pairs with Daniel to learn his style of karate, and fears losing his best student to Daniel after losing Robby to Kreese. Eventually, the tensions explode into a karate match between Johnny and Daniel, which ends with no clear winner, and the two cease working together and decide to train their dojos separately after another argument breaks out due to the aftermath of an incident with Cobra Kai shaving off Hawk's mohawk at the tattoo shop. Despite this, Johnny secretly trains Sam, as she has taken a liking to his style of karate.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: During this time, Johnny starts taking his relationship with Carmen more seriously, which leads to some awkwardness with Miguel. After learning that new Cobra Kai co-sensei and Kreese's old friend Terry Silver has loaned Robby a car and bribed Shannon with money and a job offer, Johnny confronts him at the old Cobra Kai dojo. In the ensuing fight, Silver handily defeats Johnny but Kreese intervenes and orders Terry not to finish him off.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: At the tournament, most of Johnny's students are defeated by both Miyagi-do and Cobra Kai with the exception of Miguel. During the match between Miguel and Hawk (who has joined Miyagi-do), Miguel is seriously injured after spraining a muscle and Hawk wins the match by default when Miguel refuses to fight any further. After Hawk defeats Robby in the All-Boys tournament and Sam makes it to the overall finals, Daniel approaches Johnny and they agree to team up against Cobra Kai after noticing that both students have used both styles of karate with success. However, Cobra Kai ultimately defeats both Eagle Fang and Miyagi-do after Tory defeats Sam, allowing Cobra Kai to win the most points overall. Unbeknownst to anyone except Tory, Silver secretly bribed the referee to rig the final match in Cobra Kai's favor. Meanwhile, Silver has gotten Kreese arrested by framing him for the near-fatal assault on former Cobra Kai student Stingray.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: In the aftermath of the tournament, Johnny visits the now-abandoned Cobra Kai dojo. While silently reminiscing about opening the dojo, Robby arrives, where they briefly connect over their shared failures with their students after the former witnessed his protégé Kenny's increasingly violent behavior against Daniel's son Anthony due to Cobra Kai's influence, and the two reconnect with a hug. Johnny returns to his apartment and is then shocked to learn that Miguel has traveled to Mexico to track down his biological father. Johnny promises Carmen that he will find Miguel and bring him home.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Accompanied by Robby, Johnny travels to Mexico where he convinces Miguel to come home. Upon returning, Johnny is initially freaked out but is elated when he learns that Carmen is now pregnant with his and Carmen's child and works towards building a family with her. However, he refuses to have anything more to do with the fight against Cobra Kai as Kreese has been placed behind bars. After Amanda leaves Daniel over his obsession with Terry Silver, Johnny helps him to see how his obsession is affecting his family and the two men commiserate on their past, even joking about how they might have gotten over their rivalry a long time ago if they had just fought it out with each other. Johnny has to deal with rising tensions between Robby and Miguel before, inspired by his conversation with Daniel, has them fight it out, leading to a reconciliation and Johnny inadvertently revealing to Miguel and Robby with their half-sibling, much to their joy.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: With his new family now united, Johnny subsequently agrees to rejoin the fight against Cobra Kai, but a dejected Daniel wants nothing more to do with it after being severely beaten by Silver due to being depressed about his resentment towards Silver straining his relationship with Amanda and his family. Chozen and Johnny decide to storm a local Cobra Kai dojo, defeating one of the senseis, but are quickly forced to flee when Sensei Kim Da-Eun shows up. With the help of the Miyagi-Do and Eagle Fang students, Robby, Amanda and Sam are able to change Daniel's mind, knowing that if they have any chance of defeating Silver, they need Daniel's leadership. In tandem with Daniel's former rival Chozen Toguchi, they begin working together again, but much more seamlessly. After learning from Kreese that Silver plans to enroll Cobra Kai in the Sekai Taikai, an international karate tournament, Daniel and Johnny are able to get Miyagi-Do and Eagle Fang invited as well, but are informed that they must choose a single name for their combined dojos for the tournament instead of being Miyagi-Do and Eagle Fang.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Johnny and Carmen inform Daniel, Amanda, and Chozen that they are having a baby and they celebrate by going out to a bar together. While on their way to another bar, Johnny, Daniel and Chozen are confronted by a vengeful Mike Barnes, Silver's former student who hijacks their limo and furiously demands retribution for Silver burning down his furniture store in retaliation for him helping Chozen and Daniel. Barnes convinces Johnny and Chozen to attack Silver at home and bring an end to him, though Daniel refuses to join in his drunken state and ends up stranded after Barnes drives off with Johnny and Chozen. The trio are quickly outmatched when Silver's henchmen appear. In the ensuing fight, Barnes is knocked out while Chozen is severely wounded by Silver striking him with a katana. Silver leaves his henchmen to deal with Johnny as he makes his way to the Cobra Kai dojo. Johnny is outmatched by Silver's henchmen, but reinvigorated by the sight of his unborn child's sonogram, he defeats Silver's henchmen using basic military fighting skills, aided at the last minute by a recovered Barnes.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Johnny then drives Chozen and Barnes to the Cobra Kai dojo just in time to witness Silver's arrest on a litany of charges thanks to his and Daniel's students exposing Silver's bribing of the tournament referee and Stingray confessing to Silver attacking him. Johnny reunites with Carmen and celebrates Silver's downfall with Daniel, congratulating him on finally taking Silver down. The two are then informed by a detective that Kreese has been killed in a fight in prison, but are unaware that Kreese faked his death and escaped.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Johnny Lawrence, as conceived in the original films, was an archetypal bully. Since the turn of the 21st century, however, Johnny along with Daniel have been more deeply developed.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: The thematic genesis for "Cobra Kai" began with a few works of pop culture. First, the 2007 music video for the song "Sweep the Leg" by No More Kings stars William Zabka (who also directed the video) as a caricature of himself as Johnny, and features references to "The Karate Kid", including cameo appearances by Zabka's former "Karate Kid" co-stars. In a 2010 interview, Zabka jokingly discussed this video in the context of his vision that Johnny was the true hero of the film. In 2013, Macchio and Zabka made guest appearances as themselves in the television sitcom "How I Met Your Mother" ("The Bro Mitzvah"). In the episode, Macchio is invited to Barney Stinson's bachelor party, leading to Barney shouting that he hates Macchio and that Johnny was the real hero of "The Karate Kid". Towards the end of the episode, a clown in the party wipes off his makeup and reveals himself as Zabka. This influenced the launch of "Cobra Kai", which gives a balanced perspective for Johnny, Daniel, and other characters. Zabka continued to be a recurring character throughout the ninth season of the show.


title: Johnny Lawrence (character)

text: Also in 2013, Zabka voiced Johnny in an episode of "Robot Chicken" entitled "Caffeine-Induced Aneurysm".


title: Lydia West

text: Lydia Dorothy West (born 24 June 1993) is a British actress. She is known for her roles in the BBC One series "Years and Years" and the Channel 4 series "It's a Sin", the latter of which earned her a BAFTA nomination.


title: Lydia West

text: West is from London. Her maternal grandparents are Irish, and her father is from Montserrat. Her mother is a nurse and her father works in charity. She has an older sister and an older brother.


title: Lydia West

text: West trained in ballet, tap, jazz and contemporary dance as a teenager, but quit after a foot injury. After graduating from university with a degree in business, she worked as a personal assistant and trained part-time at Identity School of Acting.


title: Lydia West

text: Post graduation from IDSA, West was cast as Bethany Bisme-Lyons in Russell T Davies' 2019 BBC One and HBO series "Years and Years". She starred in the 2021 Channel 4 series "It's A Sin", also by Davies. She played Jill Baxter, who is loosely based on one of Davies' friends (Jill Nalder). Davies called her character "the heart of the story", a view echoed by Jack King of I-D who described the character as the "de facto matriarch". Her performance was described as a "standout" one by "i."


title: Lydia West

text: In 2022, West appeared as Monique Thompson in the Apple TV+ series "Suspicion" and Reilly Clayton in Mike Myers' Netflix comedy "The Pentaverate". She has upcoming roles in the films "It's All Coming Back To Me" and "Coffee Wars", as well as the series "Inside Man" and "Gray".


title: Satyagraha

text: Satyagraha (; "satya": "truth", "āgraha": "insistence" or "holding firmly to"), or "holding firmly to truth","" or "truth force", is a particular form of nonviolent resistance or civil resistance. Someone who practises "satyagraha" is a satyagrahi.


title: Satyagraha

text: The term "satyagraha" was coined and developed by Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948), who practised satyagraha in the Indian independence movement and also during his earlier struggles in South Africa for Indian rights. Satyagraha theory influenced Martin Luther King Jr.'s and James Bevel's campaigns during the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, as well as Nelson Mandela's struggle against apartheid in South Africa and many other social justice and similar movements.


title: Satyagraha

text: The terms originated in a competition in the news-sheet "Indian Opinion" in South Africa in 1906. Mr. Maganlal Gandhi, grandson of an uncle of Mahatma Gandhi, came up with the word "Sadagraha" and won the prize. Subsequently, to make it clearer, Gandhi changed it to "Satyagraha". "Satyagraha" is a "tatpuruṣa" compound of the Sanskrit words "satya" (meaning "truth") and "āgraha" ("polite insistence", or "holding firmly to"). Satya is derived from the word "sat", which means "being". Nothing is or exists in reality except Truth. In the context of satyagraha, Truth, therefore, includes a) Truth in speech, as opposed to falsehood, b) knowledge of what is real, as opposed to nonexistent (asat), and c) good as opposed to evil or bad. This was critical to Gandhi's understanding of and faith in nonviolence: "The world rests upon the bedrock of "satya" or truth. "Asatya", meaning untruth, also means nonexistent, and "satya" or truth, also means that which is. If untruth does not so much as exist, its victory is out of the question. And truth being that which is, can never be destroyed. This is the doctrine of satyagraha in a nutshell."


title: Satyagraha

text: For Gandhi, satyagraha went far beyond mere "passive resistance" and became strength in practising non-violent methods. In his words:


title: Satyagraha

text: In September 1935, in a letter to P. K. Rao, Servants of India Society, Gandhi disputed the proposition that his idea of civil disobedience was adapted from the writings of Henry David Thoreau, especially the essay "Civil Disobedience" published in 1849.


title: Satyagraha

text: There is a connection between ahimsa and satyagraha. Satyagraha is sometimes used to refer to the whole principle of nonviolence, where it is essentially the same as ahimsa, and sometimes used in a "marked" meaning to refer specifically to direct action that is largely obstructive, for example in the form of civil disobedience.


title: Satyagraha

text: Assessing the extent to which Gandhi's ideas of satyagraha were or were not successful in the Indian independence struggle is a complex task. Judith Brown has suggested that "this is a political strategy and technique which, for its outcomes, depends greatly on historical specificities." The view taken by Gandhi differs from the idea that the goal in any conflict is necessarily to defeat the opponent or frustrate the opponent's objectives, or to meet one's own objectives despite the efforts of the opponent to obstruct these. In satyagraha, by contrast, "The Satyagrahi's object is to convert, not to coerce, the wrong-doer." The opponent must be converted, at least as far as to stop obstructing the just end, for this cooperation to take place. There are cases, to be sure, when an opponent, e.g. a dictator, has to be unseated and one cannot wait to convert him. The "satyagrahi" would count this a partial success.


title: Satyagraha

text: The theory of satyagraha sees means and ends as inseparable obtain an end are wrapped up in and attached to that end. Therefore, it is contradictory to try to use unjust means to obtain justice or to try to use violence to obtain peace. As Gandhi wrote: "They say, 'means are, after all, means'. I would say, 'means are, after all, everything'. As the means so the end. Separating means and ends would ultimately amount to introducing a form of duality and inconsistency at the core of Gandhi's non-dual (Advaitic) conception.


title: Satyagraha

text: Gandhi used an example to explain this: "If I want to deprive you of your watch, I shall certainly have to fight for it; if I want to buy your watch, I shall have to pay for it; and if I want a gift, I shall have to plead for it; and, according to the means I employ, the watch is stolen property, my own property, or a donation."


title: Satyagraha

text: Gandhi rejected the idea that injustice should, or even could, be fought against "by any means necessary"—if you use violent, coercive, unjust means, whatever ends you produce will necessarily embed that injustice. However, in the same book Gandhi admits that even though his book argues that machinery is bad, it was produced by machinery, which he says can do nothing good. Thus, he says, "sometimes poison is used to kill poison" and for that reason as long as machinery is viewed as bad it can be used to undo itself.


title: Satyagraha

text: The essence of satyagraha is that it seeks to eliminate antagonisms without harming the antagonists themselves, as opposed to violent resistance, which is meant to cause harm to the antagonist. A satyagrahi therefore does not seek to end or destroy the relationship with the antagonist, but instead seeks to transform or "purify" it to a higher level. A euphemism sometimes used for satyagraha is that it is a "silent force" or a "soul force" (a term also used by Martin Luther King Jr. during his famous "I Have a Dream" speech). It arms the individual with moral power rather than physical power. Satyagraha is also termed a "universal force," as it essentially "makes no distinction between kinsmen and strangers, young and old, man and woman, friend and foe."


title: Satyagraha

text: Gandhi contrasted satyagraha (holding on to truth) with "duragraha" (holding on by force), as in protest meant more to harass than enlighten opponents. He wrote: "There must be no impatience, no barbarity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If we want to cultivate a true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one's cause."


title: Satyagraha

text: Civil disobedience and non-cooperation as practised under satyagraha are based on the "law of suffering", a doctrine that the endurance of suffering is a means to an end. This end usually implies a moral uplift or progress of an individual or society. Therefore, the non-cooperation of satyagraha is in fact a means to secure the cooperation of the opponent that is consistent with truth and justice.


title: Satyagraha

text: When using satyagraha in a large-scale political conflict involving civil disobedience, Gandhi believed that the satyagrahis must undergo training to ensure discipline. He wrote that it is "only when people have proved their active loyalty by obeying the many laws of the State that they acquire the right of Civil Disobedience."


title: Satyagraha

text: Gandhi envisioned "satyagraha" as not only a tactic to be used in acute political struggle but as a universal solvent for injustice and harm.


title: Satyagraha

text: He founded the Sabarmati Ashram to teach "satyagraha. He asked satyagrahis" to follow the following principles (Yamas described in Yoga Sutra):


title: Satyagraha

text: Satyagraha theory also influenced many other movements of nonviolence and civil resistance. For example, Martin Luther King Jr. wrote about Gandhi's influence on his developing ideas regarding the Civil Rights Movement in the United States:


title: Satyagraha

text: In view of the Nazi persecution of the Jews in Germany, Gandhi offered satyagraha as a method of combating oppression and genocide, stating:


title: Satyagraha

text: When Gandhi was criticized for these statements, he responded in another article entitled "Some Questions Answered":


title: Satyagraha

text: In a similar vein, anticipating a possible attack on India by Japan during World War II, Gandhi recommended satyagraha as a means of national defense (what is now sometimes called "Civilian Based Defense" (CBD) or "social defence"):


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Marcus Thorbjörn Ericsson (; born 2 September 1990) is a Swedish professional racing driver. He competes in the NTT IndyCar Series, driving the No. 8 Honda for Chip Ganassi Racing and is the 2022 Indianapolis 500 winner. Ericsson previously competed in Formula One between 2014 and 2018.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: After a successful debut in car racing in 2007 which saw him take the British Formula BMW title with Fortec Motorsport, he moved up into the British team's British Formula Three Championship squad. After finishing as one of the top rookies in the category, Ericsson turned his attentions to the All-Japan Formula Three Championship where he won the championship in his debut year. In 2010, he moved up to the GP2 Series where he secured one victory during his maiden campaign for Super Nova Racing. Between 2011 and 2012, Ericsson drove for iSport. Ericsson completed the 2013 GP2 season with DAMS, and debuted in Formula One in with Caterham F1.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Born in Kumla, Örebro County, Ericsson's first taste of motorsport came when he was nine years old racing in karts. "I got a call from Fredrik Ekblom, whom I ran in British Formula 3000 and Indy Lights. He now runs a kart circuit and he told me about a nine-year old kid who'd walked in off the street and nearly broke the lap record", recalled Richard Dutton, head of Fortec Motorsport. Ekblom managed to convince Ericsson's father, Tomas, to buy his son a kart and the young Swede stayed in karting for the next four years, "I'd never really thought about racing as a career. My family didn't have the money for me to race formula cars so we never thought about it", Ericsson said.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: In 2006 Ericsson's career got backing from former Champ Car driver and 1999 Indianapolis 500 winner Kenny Bräck, who said:I spotted Marcus at a race in Gothenburg. He didn't win the race because his engine blew up with two laps to go but he was clearly the best out there. He didn't get caught in any battles when passing – he'd just wait for the right opportunity, then he pounced and he was away. He has such patience but when he does go for it, it measures so perfectly. He reminded me of watching Alain Prost.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Bräck convinced Richard Dutton, who ran Bräck in the British Formula Three Championship in 1989, to race Ericsson for his Fortec Motorsport team's 2007 Formula BMW UK title challenge. Ericsson said of his chances during the season, "I was thinking that I should be around top eight to start with, trying for podiums and maybe wins by the end of the year". Ericsson's first win came at the first meeting of the series at Brands Hatch where he took third place in the first race and won from pole position in the second race. Following his win, Ericsson was described by "Autosport" as "the best young talent" Bräck had ever seen. Ericsson was in the title race for the whole season, challenging Czech Josef Král and Brit Henry Arundel. In the end, Ericsson, aged 16, won the title by 40 points from Kral, becoming the final Champion of the British Formula BMW series before the series merged with the German series to make a European championship.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Following his win of the Formula BMW title, Ericsson began aiming for a seat in Formula Three. Tests followed with the British Formula 3 team Räikkönen Robertson Racing as part of his prize for winning the title that year. Afterward Ericsson had a test with frontrunning Formula 3 Euro Series team ASM, later ART Grand Prix. Despite an offer to join ASM, Ericsson opted to stay in England and join Fortec's British Formula 3 team. Ericsson received with two pole positions and a handful of podium finishes, but no victories, which gave him fifth overall in the championship.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: During the winter of 2008, Ericsson signed a contract with the Japanese F3 team TOM'S to compete full-time in the championship for the upcoming 2009 season. Ericsson said that he was more likely to gain the experience needed to win the Macau Grand Prix in comparison to competing further in the British championship. Ericsson won the Japanese F3 championship and also won races when making guest appearances back in British F3. He consequently participated in the Macau Grand Prix where he qualified in pole position and finished the main race in the fourth position.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Ericsson moved into the GP2 Asia Series for the 2009–10 GP2 Asia Series, driving originally for the ART Grand Prix team. However, it was later confirmed that Ericsson would drive for Super Nova Racing in the 2010 GP2 Series. He had been expected to complete the rest of the Asian series with the team, but Jake Rosenzweig was signed to replace Ericsson for the final two rounds. Ericsson returned to Super Nova for the GP2 Series, partnering Josef Král and later Luca Filippi. He took his first series victory at Valencia, but only scoring points on two further occasions restricted him to seventeenth place in the drivers' championship.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Ericsson switched to the iSport International team for 2011, alongside Sam Bird. He finished sixth in the Asia series championship, and tenth in the main series championship. He remained with iSport for 2012, alongside Jolyon Palmer. He won at Spa, beginning a run of six consecutive points finishes to the end of the season, including two podium finishes. This lifted him to eighth in the championship.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: In 2013, he got the chance to drive for the reigning champions DAMS, taking pole positions in Spain and Great Britain. In Germany, he won the feature race, and he continued with podium positions in Hungary, Belgium, Singapore, and Abu Dhabi to finish sixth in the championship.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Ericsson drove for Brawn GP at the young driver test at Circuito de Jerez over three days, on 1–3 December 2009. He tested alongside IndyCar Series driver Mike Conway. Conway had the edge by three-tenths of a second, however team principal Ross Brawn commended Ericsson for his performance, saying that he had "performed very well showing exceptional maturity in his approach and feedback".


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: On 21 November 2013, It was announced that Ericsson was a candidate to drive for the Caterham F1 Team in 2014 with Kamui Kobayashi as teammate. On 21 January 2014, the team announced that Ericsson and Kobayashi would be their race driver line up for the forthcoming season, with Robin Frijns as reserve.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Ericsson qualified 20th in his debut race– the 2014 Australian Grand Prix, running 11th before he fell back with oil pressure problems. In Malaysia, he qualified last, finishing 14th in front of main rival Max Chilton. In Spain, he outqualified Kobayashi for the first time in his career, but he was behind both Marussia cars. He finished the race in 20th position, the last classified finisher. In the next race, the , he was involved in a collision with Williams driver Felipe Massa during qualifying, which resulted in Massa not advancing to the second part of the qualifying session. Ericsson was penalised with two penalty points and had to start from the pit lane. He finished in 11th place, just missing out on his and Caterham's first points.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: After this, he suffered a crash in the rain in Hungary, when he lost control of his car on the exit of turn 3 and hit the barriers. He was unhurt, but the car was destroyed. In the he battled with the Marussias again, losing 16th place to Chilton on the penultimate lap. In Singapore, he finished in 15th place and in Japan, he out-qualified both Marussias and Kobayashi for 19th position. He started 17th, but spun behind the safety car in heavy rain, and had to fight back from last place. He finished 17th, in front of both Marussias and Kobayashi, but his performance was overshadowed by the crash of Bianchi. At the inaugural , he qualified in a career-best 17th position, missing out on making it into Q2 by only 0.15 seconds. During the race, he started 16th but fell back, finishing 19th overall but in front of his main rivals– the other Caterham and the sole Marussia of Chilton, who both eventually retired from the race.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Due to Caterham F1 falling into administration on 21 October 2014, neither team driver was able to compete at the . Despite this, Ericsson flew to Texas to commentate the race for Swedish television and secured a new drive for 2015. Ericsson terminated his contract with Caterham on 12 November. He eventually finished the season in 19th position, highest of the Caterham drivers that took part in .


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: At the 2014 United States Grand Prix, on 1 November 2014, Sauber announced that it had signed Ericsson for . In his first race with the team in Australia, Ericsson finished in eighth position, recording the first points-scoring finish by a Swedish driver since Stefan Johansson finished third at the 1989 Portuguese Grand Prix.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Malaysia was the first time that Ericsson made it into Q3, qualifying 10th but was ultimately promoted to 9th. He spun on the fourth lap after an unsuccessful overtaking attempt on Force India's Nico Hülkenberg which resulted in retirement. In China, Ericsson again made it into Q3 in qualifying, again qualifying 10th. He finished the race in the same position, scoring one point after Max Verstappen's engine failed with only a few laps remaining. In Bahrain he qualified outside the top 10, and held eighth position when a pit stop error caused him to fall down the field, and he ultimately finished the race in 14th position. In the first European leg of the season he finished 14th in Spain and 13th in Monaco.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: In the 2015 British Grand Prix he finished 11th – just outside the points. He scored one more point before the summer break, with a 10th-place finish in Hungary, followed by another 10th position in Belgium. At the Ericsson qualified for Q3, where he ended up 10th, before he was given a grid penalty for blocking Nico Hülkenberg in Q1. Ericsson eventually finished 9th – taking his fifth points position for the year and again being in front of teammate Felipe Nasr.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: During the summer break, Sauber announced that Ericsson along with Nasr had both extended their deals with the team for the 2016 season.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: In 2016, Sauber missed pre-season testing due to financial concerns hurting their car development for 2016. Ericsson was running 15th before vibrations forced his retirement in Australia and finished twelfth in Bahrain in the next round. He ran just outside the points in China but steadily dropped to sixteenth, which was still enough to finish ahead of his teammate. In Russia he recovered from contact on the first lap of the race to take 14th at the finish. In Spain he finished twelfth, but in Monaco he was deemed to be at fault for a collision with his teammate, resulting in a grid penalty for Canada that made him start from the back. The following races saw him finishing 17th in Baku and 15th in Austria, with qualifying crashes in Silverstone and Hungary forcing him to start from the pit lane.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: In Monza, he finished 16th whilst in Singapore he made it into Q2 and was close to scoring his first point until a strategic error from the team. He ran close to the points in Malaysia and Suzuka, in front of his teammate in qualifying and the race. In Austin, he ran 11th for part of the race but dropped to 14th by the checkered flag, and in Mexico he recovered from a first lap crash to finish eleventh, just outside of the points. He crashed out of the race in Brazil but finished 15th in Abu Dhabi.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Ericsson's campaign did not start well as a hydraulic issue in Australia caused him to have to retire. He qualified 14th and finished 15th in China. He struggled to match his teammate Wehrlein in Bahrain with his race ending in another retirement caused by a gearbox failure. He finished 15th in Russia, ahead of his teammate for the first time over the season. Ericsson got his best result of the season of 11th in Azerbaijan where he fought for points with his teammate. Sauber started to struggle in Monaco with Ericsson crashing into the barrier while overtaking the safety car to get on the lead lap. He finished 13th in Canada and would fail to score points for the rest of the season.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: For 2018 Ericsson retained his seat at Sauber, which became the Alfa Romeo Sauber F1 team in partnership with the car outfit. Alongside him was new teammate Charles Leclerc. At the Bahrain Grand Prix, Ericsson finished in ninth place, scoring his first points since the 2015 Italian Grand Prix, after a total of 49 races without scoring a point. He then scored further points at the Austrian, German, Belgian, USA and Mexican Grands Prix. At the Italian Grand Prix, Ericsson had a high speed accident in second practice, when his DRS system failed, causing the car to lose control into turn 1 and slam the wall. Ericssons car rolled three times before coming to rest on its wheels, but he was uninjured.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Just before the 2018 Russian Grand Prix it was announced that Ericsson was to be replaced at Sauber by Antonio Giovinazzi, but would remain with the team as their third driver and brand ambassador.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: On 30 October 2018, it was announced that Ericsson would race full-time for Schmidt Peterson Motorsports in the 2019 IndyCar Series.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: During his rookie year, Ericsson scored a podium finish at the Detroit Grand Prix. In September, he missed the Grand Prix of Portland as he was on standby for an injured Kimi Räikkönen at the Belgian Grand Prix; Räikkönen would ultimately run the race. Ericsson ended the 2019 season 17th in points.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Ericsson moved to Chip Ganassi Racing for the 2020 IndyCar Series season. During the pandemic shortened season he scored top ten finishes in over half of his races, with his best result being a fourth-place finish at the second race Road America.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Ericsson was confirmed for longer tenure with Chip Ganassi in October 2020, re-upping for at least another two seasons. 2021 would be Ericsson's breakout year in IndyCar. Although he had middling performances compared to teammates Scott Dixon and Alex Palou before the 2021 Indianapolis 500 Ericsson would outscore both his teammates and the entire IndyCar field following the Indianapolis 500. Ericsson scored his first win in IndyCar and his first win in any category since 2013 in GP2 when he won the first race of the doubleheader in Detroit, a race in which Ericsson benefited from the misfortune of race leader Will Power after Power's car refused to restart during a formation lap following a red flag incident at the end of the race. Ericsson finished second to Josef Newgarden at Mid Ohio and picked up a second victory at the chaotic inaugural round at Nashville, putting him into contention of the series title. Although he would hold top-ten finishes throughout the rest of the season Ericsson would be mathematically eliminated from the championship after a sixth-place finish at Laguna Seca. Ericsson would end the season in 6th place in the driver's championship with 435 points.


title: Marcus Ericsson

text: Ericsson continued to show pace in his third season with Chip Ganassi Racing. He recorded his first podium finish on an oval at the XPEL 375 at the Texas Motor Speedway with a third-place finish. Ericsson, sporting a helmet painted in honor of his countryman and Formula One legend, Ronnie Peterson, won the 2022 Indianapolis 500 under caution after holding off Pato O'Ward on a late restart. Ericsson became the second Swedish driver to win the Indianapolis 500, after Kenny Bräck in 1999. Ericsson's win in the 500 plus solid early season results vaulted him into the points lead of the IndyCar Series championship for the first time in his career.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: Heather Cox Richardson is an American historian and professor of history at Boston College, where she teaches courses on the American Civil War, the Reconstruction Era, the American West, and the Plains Indians. She previously taught history at MIT and the University of Massachusetts Amherst.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: Richardson has authored six books on history and politics. In 2014, Richardson founded a popular history website, werehistory.org. Between 2017 and 2018, she co-hosted the NPR podcast Freak Out and Carry On. Most recently, Richardson started publishing "Letters from an American", a nightly newsletter that chronicles current events in the larger context of American history. The newsletter accrued tens of thousands of subscribers, making her, as of December 2020, the most successful individual author of a paid publication on Substack. Richardson also co-hosts the podcast Now & Then with fellow historian Joanne B. Freeman. In February 2022, Richardson interviewed President Joe Biden.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: Born in 1962 and raised in Maine, Richardson attended Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire. She received both her B.A. and Ph.D. from Harvard University, where she studied under David Herbert Donald and William Gienapp.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: Richardson’s first book, "The Greatest Nation of the Earth" (1997), stemmed from her dissertation at Harvard University. Inspired by Eric Foner’s work on pre-Civil War Republican ideology, Richardson analyzed Republican economic policies during the war. She contended that their efforts to create an activist federal government during the Civil War marked a continuation of Republican free labor ideology. These policies, such as war bonds and greenbacks or the Land Grant College Act and the Homestead Act, revolutionized the role of the federal government in the U.S. economy. At the same time, these actions laid the groundwork for the Republican Party's shift to big business after the Civil War.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: According to Professor James L. Huston at Oklahoma State University: For nineteenth-century political historians, this will be an important book with crucial insights into the nature of the Republican Party. Richardson's attention to political economy offers a refreshing vantage point from which to assess Civil War legislation, and her willingness to delve deeply into economic doctrines is commendable. Not the least of her accomplishments is a more realistic appraisal of the Republicans, revealing their agricultural bias and their distrust of monopoly and hierarchy... At times, Richardson's discussion of economic principles is insightful and perceptive; at other times the discussion is shallow and requires more refinement.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: Four years later, Richardson extended her study of Republican policy into the postwar period with "The Death of Reconstruction" (2001). Unlike other historians, her analysis of the period focused on the "Northern abandonment of Reconstruction". Building on the earlier work of C. Vann Woodward, she argued that a more complete understanding of the period required appreciation of class, not only race. As Reconstruction continued into the 1870s and especially the 1880s, Republicans began to view African Americans in the South more from a class perspective and less from the perspective of race that had driven their earlier humanitarianism. In the midst of the labor struggles of the Gilded Age, Republicans came to compare "the demands of the ex-slaves for land, social services, and civil rights" to the demands of white laborers in the North. This ideological shift was the key to Republican abandonment of Reconstruction, as they chose the protection of their economic and business interests over their desire for racial equality.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: According to Professor Michael W. Fitzgerald, at St. Olaf College: "The Death of Reconstruction" is an important book on a big topic. It offers a full-scale reinterpretation of the great betrayal of the Civil War's egalitarian legacy, the northern public's abandonment of the freedpeople. If the book is not uniformly persuasive, that partially reflects the scope of its ambition.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: In "West from Appomattox: The Reconstruction of America after the Civil War" (2007), Richardson presented Reconstruction as a national event that affected all Americans, not just those in the South. She incorporated the West into the discussion of Reconstruction as no predecessor had. Between 1865 and 1900, Americans re-imagined the role of the federal government, calling upon it to promote the well-being of its citizens. However, racism, sexism, and greed divided Americans, and the same people who increasingly benefited from government intervention—white, middle-class Americans—actively excluded African-Americans, Native Americans, immigrants, and organized laborers from the newfound bounties of their reconstructed nation.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: "Wounded Knee: Party Politics and the Road to an American Massacre" (2010), focused on the U.S. Army's slaughter of Native Americans in South Dakota in 1890. She argued that party politics and opportunism led to the Wounded Knee Massacre. After a bruising midterm election, President Benjamin Harrison needed to shore up his support. To do so, he turned to The Dakotas, where he replaced seasoned Indian agents with unqualified political allies, who incorrectly assumed that the Ghost Dance Movement presaged war. In order to avoid spending cuts from Congress, the army responded by sending one-third of its force. After the event, Republicans tried to paint the massacre as a heroic battle to stifle the resurgent Democrats.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: In "To Make Men Free: A History of the Republican Party" (2014), Richardson extended her study of the Republican Party into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. This book studied the entire life of the Republican Party, from its inception in the 1850s through the presidency of George W. Bush. Believing a small group of men who controlled all three branches of government were turning the country into a slavocracy, the party’s founders united against "slave power". These Republicans articulated a new vision of an America in which all hardworking men could rise. But after the Civil War, Republicans began to emulate what they originally opposed. They tied themselves to powerful bankers and industrialists, sacrificing the well-being of ordinary Americans. A similar process took place after World War II, when Republicans sought to dismantle successful New Deal policies and prop up the wealthy. However, in both cases, reformers within the party were able to return the party to its founding vision of equality of opportunity, first Theodore Roosevelt during the Progressive Era, and then Dwight D. Eisenhower, who enforced integration and maintained the New Deal. The Nixon and Reagan administrations represented yet another fall from the party's founding purpose. It is ironic, Richardson points out, that Republicans treated Barack Obama with an unprecedented level of disrespect, as Obama's rise from humble beginnings to the highest office in the nation embodied the vision of the original Republicans.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: In "How the South Won the Civil War: Oligarchy, Democracy, and the Continuing Fight for the Soul of America" (2020), Richardson argued that America was founded with contradicting ideals, with the ideas of liberty, equality, and opportunity on one hand, and slavery and hierarchy on the other. United States victory in the American Civil War should have settled that tension forever, but at the same time that the Civil War was fought, Americans also started moving into the West. In the West, Americans found, and expanded upon, deep racial hierarchies, meaning that hierarchical values survived in American politics and culture despite the crushing defeat of the pro-slavery Confederacy. Those traditions—a rejection of democracy, an embrace of entrenched wealth, the marginalization of women and people of color—have found a home in modern conservative politics, leaving the promise of America unfulfilled. Professor Dana Elizabeth Weiner of Wilfrid Laurier University states:With this beautifully written book, prominent US historian Heather Cox Richardson offers valuable insights to historians and general readers about the tenacity of oligarchy in American politics since the seventeenth century.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: Deborah M. Liles, a professor at Tarleton State University states: Heather Cox Richardson's skill with connecting events into a cohesive narrative is on full display in this brilliant study...she dismantles the concept of equality guaranteed in the Constitution, connects western ideology with that of the Old South, and demonstrates how oligarchs and those who supported them established restrictions within society to retain their power.


title: Heather Cox Richardson

text: In September 2019, Richardson began writing a daily synopsis of political events associated with the impeachment inquiry of President Donald Trump. Originally posted late every evening or in the early hours of the next day on her Facebook page, Richardson later moved to add a newsletter format, entitled "Letters from an American", published via Substack. The newsletter became popular because of her calm voice, with straightforward explanations of the news of the day. As of December 2020, Richardson was "the most successful individual author of a paid publication on ... Substack" and on track to bring in a million dollars of revenue a year. The newsletter received a "Best of Boston" award for "2021 Best Pandemic Newsletter" from "Boston" magazine.


title: Pollen

text: Pollen is a powdery substance produced by seed plants. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants, or from the male cone to the female cone of gymnosperms. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates, producing a pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called palynology and is highly useful in paleoecology, paleontology, archaeology, and forensics.


title: Pollen

text: Pollen in plants is used for transferring haploid male genetic material from the anther of a single flower to the stigma of another in cross-pollination. In a case of self-pollination, this process takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower.


title: Pollen

text: Pollen is infrequently used as food and food supplement. Because of agricultural practices, it is often contaminated by agricultural pesticides.


title: Pollen

text: Pollen itself is not the male gamete. It is a gametophyte, something that could be considered an entire organism, which then produces the male gamete. Each pollen grain contains vegetative (non-reproductive) cells (only a single cell in most flowering plants but several in other seed plants) and a generative (reproductive) cell. In flowering plants the vegetative tube cell produces the pollen tube, and the generative cell divides to form the two sperm nuclei.


title: Pollen

text: Pollen is produced in the microsporangia in the male cone of a conifer or other gymnosperm or in the anthers of an angiosperm flower. Pollen grains come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and surface markings characteristic of the species (see electron micrograph, right). Pollen grains of pines, firs, and spruces are winged. The smallest pollen grain, that of the forget-me-not ("Myosotis" spp.), is 2.5-5 µm (0.005 mm) in diameter. Corn pollen grains are large, about 90–100 µm. Most grass pollen is around 20-25 µm.


title: Pollen

text: In angiosperms, during flower development the anther is composed of a mass of cells that appear undifferentiated, except for a partially differentiated dermis. As the flower develops, four groups of sporogenous cells form within the anther. The fertile sporogenous cells are surrounded by layers of sterile cells that grow into the wall of the pollen sac. Some of the cells grow into nutritive cells that supply nutrition for the microspores that form by meiotic division from the sporogenous cells.


title: Pollen

text: In a process called microsporogenesis, four haploid microspores are produced from each diploid sporogenous cell (microsporocyte, pollen mother cell or meiocyte), after meiotic division. After the formation of the four microspores, which are contained by callose walls, the development of the pollen grain walls begins. The callose wall is broken down by an enzyme called callase and the freed pollen grains grow in size and develop their characteristic shape and form a resistant outer wall called the exine and an inner wall called the intine. The exine is what is preserved in the fossil record. Two basic types of microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive. In simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed before cytokinesis, whereas in successive microsporogenesis cytokinesis follows. While there may be a continuum with intermediate forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance. The predominant form amongst the monocots is successive, but there are important exceptions.


title: Pollen

text: During microgametogenesis, the unicellular microspores undergo mitosis and develop into mature microgametophytes containing the gametes. In some flowering plants, germination of the pollen grain may begin even before it leaves the microsporangium, with the generative cell forming the two sperm cells.


title: Pollen

text: Except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen grain has a double wall. The vegetative and generative cells are surrounded by a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose called the endospore or intine, and a tough resistant outer cuticularized wall composed largely of sporopollenin called the exospore or exine. The exine often bears spines or warts, or is variously sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of value for identifying genus, species, or even cultivar or individual. The spines may be less than a micron in length (spinulus, plural spinuli) referred to as spinulose (scabrate), or longer than a micron (echina, echinae) referred to as echinate. Various terms also describe the sculpturing such as reticulate, a net like appearance consisting of elements (murus, muri) separated from each other by a lumen (plural lumina). These reticulations may also be referred to as brochi.


title: Pollen

text: The pollen wall protects the sperm while the pollen grain is moving from the anther to the stigma; it protects the vital genetic material from drying out and solar radiation. The pollen grain surface is covered with waxes and proteins, which are held in place by structures called sculpture elements on the surface of the grain. The outer pollen wall, which prevents the pollen grain from shrinking and crushing the genetic material during desiccation, is composed of two layers. These two layers are the tectum and the foot layer, which is just above the intine. The tectum and foot layer are separated by a region called the columella, which is composed of strengthening rods. The outer wall is constructed with a resistant biopolymer called sporopollenin.


title: Pollen

text: Pollen apertures are regions of the pollen wall that may involve exine thinning or a significant reduction in exine thickness. They allow shrinking and swelling of the grain caused by changes in moisture content. The process of shrinking the grain is called harmomegathy. Elongated apertures or furrows in the pollen grain are called colpi (singular: colpus) or sulci (singular: sulcus). Apertures that are more circular are called pores. Colpi, sulci and pores are major features in the identification of classes of pollen. Pollen may be referred to as inaperturate (apertures absent) or aperturate (apertures present). The aperture may have a lid (operculum), hence is described as operculate. However the term inaperturate covers a wide range of morphological types, such as functionally inaperturate (cryptoaperturate) and omniaperturate. Inaperaturate pollen grains often have thin walls, which facilitates pollen tube germination at any position. Terms such as uniaperturate and triaperturate refer to the number of apertures present (one and three respectively). Spiraperturate refers to one or more apertures being spirally shaped.


title: Pollen

text: The orientation of furrows (relative to the original tetrad of microspores) classifies the pollen as sulcate or colpate. Sulcate pollen has a furrow across the middle of what was the outer face when the pollen grain was in its tetrad. If the pollen has only a single sulcus, it is described as monosulcate, has two sulci, as bisulcate, or more, as polysulcate. Colpate pollen has furrows other than across the middle of the outer faces, and similarly may be described as polycolpate if more than two. Syncolpate pollen grains have two or more colpi that are fused at the ends. Eudicots have pollen with three colpi (tricolpate) or with shapes that are evolutionarily derived from tricolpate pollen. The evolutionary trend in plants has been from monosulcate to polycolpate or polyporate pollen.


title: Pollen

text: Additionally, gymnosperm pollen grains often have air bladders, or vesicles, called sacci. The sacci are not actually balloons, but are sponge-like, and increase the buoyancy of the pollen grain and help keep it aloft in the wind, as most gymnosperms are anemophilous. Pollen can be monosaccate, (containing one saccus) or bisaccate (containing two sacci). Modern pine, spruce, and yellowwood trees all produce saccate pollen.


title: Pollen

text: The transfer of pollen grains to the female reproductive structure (pistil in angiosperms) is called pollination. This transfer can be mediated by the wind, in which case the plant is described as anemophilous (literally wind-loving). Anemophilous plants typically produce great quantities of very lightweight pollen grains, sometimes with air-sacs. Non-flowering seed plants (e.g., pine trees) are characteristically anemophilous. Anemophilous flowering plants generally have inconspicuous flowers. Entomophilous (literally insect-loving) plants produce pollen that is relatively heavy, sticky and protein-rich, for dispersal by insect pollinators attracted to their flowers. Many insects and some mites are specialized to feed on pollen, and are called palynivores.


title: Pollen

text: In non-flowering seed plants, pollen germinates in the pollen chamber, located beneath the micropyle, underneath the integuments of the ovule. A pollen tube is produced, which grows into the nucellus to provide nutrients for the developing sperm cells. Sperm cells of Pinophyta and Gnetophyta are without flagella, and are carried by the pollen tube, while those of Cycadophyta and Ginkgophyta have many flagella.


title: Pollen

text: When placed on the stigma of a flowering plant, under favorable circumstances, a pollen grain puts forth a pollen tube, which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its way along the placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the micropyle of an ovule. The nucleus of the tube cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the generative nucleus, which divides (if it hasn't already) to form two sperm cells. The sperm cells are carried to their destination in the tip of the pollen tube. Double-strand breaks in DNA that arise during pollen tube growth appear to be efficiently repaired in the generative cell that carries the male genomic information to be passed on to the next plant generation. However, the vegetative cell that is responsible for tube elongation appears to lack this DNA repair capability.


title: Pollen

text: The sporopollenin outer sheath of pollen grains affords them some resistance to the rigours of the fossilisation process that destroy weaker objects; it is also produced in huge quantities. There is an extensive fossil record of pollen grains, often disassociated from their parent plant. The discipline of palynology is devoted to the study of pollen, which can be used both for biostratigraphy and to gain information about the abundance and variety of plants alive — which can itself yield important information about paleoclimates. Also, pollen analysis has been widely used for reconstructing past changes in vegetation and their associated drivers.


title: Pollen

text: Pollen is first found in the fossil record in the late Devonian period, but at that time it is indistinguishable from spores. It increases in abundance until the present day.


title: Pollen

text: Nasal allergy to pollen is called pollinosis, and allergy specifically to grass pollen is called hay fever. Generally, pollens that cause allergies are those of anemophilous plants (pollen is dispersed by air currents.) Such plants produce large quantities of lightweight pollen (because wind dispersal is random and the likelihood of one pollen grain landing on another flower is small), which can be carried for great distances and are easily inhaled, bringing it into contact with the sensitive nasal passages.


title: Pollen

text: Pollen allergies are common in polar and temperate climate zones, where production of pollen is seasonal. In the tropics pollen production varies less by the season, and allergic reactions less.


title: Pollen

text: In northern Europe, common pollens for allergies are those of birch and alder, and in late summer wormwood and different forms of hay. Grass pollen is also associated with asthma exacerbations in some people, a phenomenon termed thunderstorm asthma.


title: Pollen

text: In the US, people often mistakenly blame the conspicuous goldenrod flower for allergies. Since this plant is entomophilous (its pollen is dispersed by animals), its heavy, sticky pollen does not become independently airborne. Most late summer and fall pollen allergies are probably caused by ragweed, a widespread anemophilous plant.


title: Pollen

text: Arizona was once regarded as a haven for people with pollen allergies, although several ragweed species grow in the desert. However, as suburbs grew and people began establishing irrigated lawns and gardens, more irritating species of ragweed gained a foothold and Arizona lost its claim of freedom from hay fever.


title: Pollen

text: Anemophilous spring blooming plants such as oak, birch, hickory, pecan, and early summer grasses may also induce pollen allergies. Most cultivated plants with showy flowers are entomophilous and do not cause pollen allergies.


title: Pollen

text: Symptoms of pollen allergy include sneezing, itchy, or runny nose, nasal congestion, red, itchy, and watery eyes. Substances, including pollen, that cause allergies can trigger asthma. A study found a 54% increased chance of asthma attacks when exposed to pollen.


title: Pollen

text: The number of people in the United States affected by hay fever is between 20 and 40 million, including around 6.1 million children and such allergy has proven to be the most frequent allergic response in the nation. Hay fever affects about 20% of Canadians and the prevalence is increasing. There are certain evidential suggestions pointing out hay fever and similar allergies to be of hereditary origin. Individuals who suffer from eczema or are asthmatic tend to be more susceptible to developing long-term hay fever.