title: Rich Little

text: Another HBO special followed in 1983 with "Rich Little's Robin Hood", including portrayals of Groucho Marx as Robin Hood, Humphrey Bogart as Prince John, John Wayne as Little John, Carol Channing as Maid Marion, Laurel and Hardy as Sheriffs of Nottingham, George Burns as Alan-a-Dale, and various other characters.


title: Rich Little

text: Outside of any comedic context, Little's talent for impersonation has been used in movies when an actor's dialogue was impaired by poor health. When David Niven proved too ill for his voice to be used in his appearances in "Trail of the Pink Panther" (1982) and "Curse of the Pink Panther" (1983), Little provided the overdub as an imitation of Niven's voice. He performed similar duties to dub an imitation of James Cagney's stroke-impaired voice in the 1984 TV movie "Terrible Joe Moran" and in the 1991 TV special "Christmas at the Movies" by providing an uncredited dub for actor/dancer Gene Kelly, who had lost his voice.


title: Rich Little

text: He also lent his voice to the narration of three specials that were the forerunners for the animated series "The Raccoons": "The Christmas Raccoons", "The Raccoons on Ice", and "The Raccoons and the Lost Star".


title: Rich Little

text: In 1987, during the "We the People 200: The Constitutional Gala" television special, Little personified various historical figures, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Edward R. Murrow, John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King Jr., and Robert F. Kennedy. Little's performance was described as eclectic, impersonating Henry Fonda as Abraham Lincoln and doing Winston Churchill giving a rousing speech.


title: Rich Little

text: Little was a frequent guest on variety and talk shows in the 1960s and 1970s, and had an unofficial monthly slot on "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson" for several years, and also guest hosted the program about a dozen times. He developed an impression of Johnny Carson, capturing "The Tonight Show" host's voice and many onstage mannerisms, and later played Carson in the HBO TV movie "The Late Shift". Little's spot-on impersonation allegedly got under the thin skin of Carson, and he was permanently banned from appearing on the "Tonight Show" without notice or reason after his August 1982 appearance. Little claims in his biography that he was banned because Carson was offended by his impression, and this claim was supported by Henry Bushkin, Carson's long-time lawyer, who stated that nobody got under Carson's skin more than Little. Little had been doing the impression since the early 1970s, though, a decade prior to his bookings on the show coming to an end, including performing the impression to the "Tonight Show"' host's face when Carson was the guest of honor at "The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast of Johnny Carson" in 1973. In response to Little's claims, Fred DeCordova, Carson's producer, said they just were not interested in hiring him any more due to his lack of new impressions.


title: Rich Little

text: Little has been appearing in Las Vegas since the mid-1960s, when he had dates at the Golden Nugget and went on to play at other Vegas venues such as The Sands, where he debuted in 1969 with a two-year contract. In 1973, he performed at Caesars Palace for four weeks as the opening act for The Osmonds. He then appeared at the Desert Inn with Juliet Prowse for a month in 1974. His appearances continued throughout the 1970s and 1980s; he headlined at the Desert Inn for eight years in the late 1970s and 1980s, at the MGM Grand with Nell Carter in 1985; at Bally's, with Charo in 1986; the Sands in 1991 and 1992, and at the Golden Nugget again in 1991.


title: Rich Little

text: With opportunities for him to work in television and film in decline, and his television work almost completely drying up by the mid-1980s, the focus of Little's career shifted from Hollywood to Las Vegas. The decline in his career was blamed in part on him not having updated his repertory of impressions with younger voices, a fact he blames on recent generations of actors using a naturalistic delivery that makes their voices less distinctive. "It’s much easier to do Humphrey Bogart than Tom Cruise," he said. "How do you imitate Brad Pitt? George Clooney? Wouldn’t mean anything."


title: Rich Little

text: Little sold his house in Los Angeles and relocated to Las Vegas in 1990, and bought a home in 1992, when he signed an exclusive, long-term contract with the Sahara, staging a revamped version of "The Kopykats" with other impersonators. He later moved to Paris Las Vegas, where he starred in "The Presidents", a play on nine Presidents of the United States from Kennedy to George W. Bush, starting in 2002. In 2004, he moved to the Suncoast.


title: Rich Little

text: In the early 2010s, he performed a one-man show, "Jimmy Stewart and Friends", based on the life of Jimmy Stewart, at the Westgate hotel, and on tour. After the death of his friend Jimmy Stewart in the late 1990s, Rich recorded the crosswalk messages for intersections in Stewart's hometown of Indiana, Pennsylvania, using his imitation of the star's voice.


title: Rich Little

text: Since 2015, Little has been a regular performer at the Laugh Factory in the Tropicana hotel in Las Vegas. His one-hour show, "Rich Little Live!", is a career retrospective including video highlights from his TV career, and is performed five nights a week. Throughout the show, he displays many of the charcoal sketches he has drawn of the celebrities he has impersonated.


title: Rich Little

text: Little was the host for the 2007 White House Correspondents' Association dinner. Although President George W. Bush was reported to have enjoyed Little's performance, it was panned by some reviewers for "his ancient jokes and impressions of dead people (Johnny Carson, Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan)."


title: Rich Little

text: Little voices as a guest star in "Futurama" such as "", playing his own celebrity head: "This is Rich Little, impersonating Howard Cosell." Many times, he plays a sports commentator. In 1998, Little was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame, and was inducted into the Casino Legends Hall of Fame in 1999, and was given a star on the Las Vegas Walk of Stars in 2005.


title: Rich Little

text: In 2017, Little released his memoir, "Little by Little: People I Have Known and Been". In 2021, "CBS News Sunday Morning" profiled Little; during the interview, he stated he believed it was the first time he had been on network television in 30 years, and hoped it would "go over well!"


title: Rich Little

text: in 2018, he appeared as himself in the documentary "They'll Love Me When I'm Dead" about Orson Welles' final film "The Other Side of the Wind". Little was in the original 1970 cast but left for other commitments and his scenes were reshot using Peter Bogdanovich playing the part. Bogdanovich completed directing the film in 2018 after Welles died in 1985. Little is credited as a party guest in "The Other Side of the Wind".


title: Rich Little

text: Little has been active in several charities, including the Juvenile Diabetes Fund and the Children's Miracle Network. He has been named to Miami Children's Hospital International Pediatrics Hall of Fame and been honoured by the naming of the Rich Little Special Care Nursery at Ottawa Civic Hospital. He has been a major supporter in helping veterans through the Gary Sinise Foundation.


title: Rich Little

text: Little was married to Jeanne Worden, whom he met when she was working as a secretary on "The Joey Bishop Show", in 1971. The couple had a daughter together, Bria, before their divorce in 1989. Little had a brief relationship with Lalette Cottrell, of Delaware; the couple had a daughter together, Lyndsay (born 1988).


title: Rich Little

text: Little was engaged to magician Melinda Saxe, but she broke off the three-year relationship in 1991, saying she had discovered he had secretly videotaped them having sex in 1988. Saxe sued Little for defamation, invasion of privacy, and inflicting emotional distress, claiming he had joked about their relationship on stage. Little claimed the videotaping was consensual. The lawsuit was eventually settled out of court.


title: Rich Little

text: He married comedian and impressionist Jeannette Markey in 1994; they divorced in 1997. He was married to Marie Marotta from 2003 until her death in 2010 of a deliberate overdose of sleeping pills after years of suffering from migraines and chronic pain. He married his fourth wife, Catherine Brown, a former reality show contestant, in a private ceremony in 2012; they divorced in October later that year.


title: Solarpunk

text: Solarpunk is a literary and artistic movement that envisions and works toward actualizing a sustainable future interconnected with nature and community. The "solar" represents solar energy as a renewable energy source and an optimistic vision of the future that rejects climate doomerism, while the "punk" refers to the countercultural, post-capitalist, and decolonial enthusiasm for creating such a future. As a science fiction literary subgenre and art movement, solarpunk works address how the future might look if humanity succeeded in solving major contemporary challenges with an emphasis on sustainability, human impact on the environment, and addressing climate change and pollution. Especially as a subgenre, it is aligned with cyberpunk derivatives, and may borrow elements from utopian and fantasy genres. Solarpunk can risk being greenwashed through aesthetics that give the appearance of sustainability without addressing the root causes of actual environmental issues.


title: Solarpunk

text: The term "solarpunk" was coined in 2008 in a blog post titled "From Steampunk to Solarpunk", in which the anonymous author, taking the design of the MS "Beluga Skysails" (the world's first ship partially powered by a computer-controlled kite rig) as inspiration, conceptualizes a new speculative fiction subgenre with steampunk's focal point on specific technologies but guided by practicality and modern economics. Steampunk is a subgenre of science fiction that incorporates retrofuturistic technology and aesthetics inspired by 19th-century industrial steam-powered machinery. Along a similar vein, in 2009, literary publicist Matt Staggs posted a "GreenPunk Manifesto" on his blog describing his vision of a technophilic genre focused on knowable, do it yourself technologies and with emphasis on positive ecological and social change. After visual artist Olivia Louise posted concept art on Tumblr of a solarpunk aesthetic in 2014, researcher Adam Flynn contributed to the science fiction forum Project Hieroglyph with further definition of the emerging genre. Based on Flynn's notes and contributions on the website solarpunks.net, "A Solarpunk Manifesto" was published in 2019 that describes solarpunk as "a movement in speculative fiction, art, fashion, and activism that seeks to answer and embody the question 'what does a sustainable civilization look like, and how can we get there?.


title: Solarpunk

text: While solarpunk has no specific political ideation, it does by default embrace the need for a collective movement away from polluting forms of energy. It practices prefigurative politics, creating spaces where the principles of a movement can be explored and demonstrated by enacting them in real life. Solarpunks practice the movement in various ways, including creating and living in communities (such as ecovillages), growing their own food, and a DIY ethic of working with what is available, including the thoughtful application of technology.


title: Solarpunk

text: Even stories set in the far future or fantasy worlds portray societal failures recognizable to contemporary audiences. These failures may include oppressive imbalances of wealth or power, degradation of natural habitat or processes, and impacts of climate change. Evidence of injustices, like social exclusion and environmental racism, may be present. Disastrous consequences are not necessarily averted but solarpunk tends to present a counter-dystopian perspective. Their worlds are not necessarily utopian but rather solarpunk seeks to present an alternative to a pessimistic, consequential dystopian outcome. To achieve this, themes of do it yourself ethics, convivial conservation, self-sustainability, social inclusiveness and positive psychology are often present. This perspective also more closely embeds the ideals of punk ideologies, such as anti-consumerism, egalitarianism and decentralization, than cyberpunk which typically includes protagonists with punk beliefs but in settings that are used more of a warning of a potential future.


title: Solarpunk

text: The integration of technologies into society in a manner that improves social, economic and environmental sustainability is central to solarpunk. It is starkly contrasted to cyberpunk which portrays highly advanced technologies that have little influence on, or otherwise exacerbate social, economic, and environmental problems. Whereas cyberpunk envisions humanity becoming more alienated from its natural environment and subsumed by technology, solarpunk envisions settings where technology enables humanity to better co-exist with itself and its environment.


title: Solarpunk

text: Solarpunk is more similar to steampunk than cyberpunk. Both steampunk and solarpunk imagine new worlds but with different primary sources of energy, steam engines and renewable energy. Though, whereas steampunk focuses more on history and uses Victorian era aesthetics, solarpunk uses more Art Nouveau style and looks to the future. Solarpunk also shares some elements with retrofuturism, Afrofuturism, Bionics and Arts and Crafts. The retrofuturist reevaluation of technology, its desire for understandable mechanics, and rejection of mysterious black box technology, and in favor of appropriate technology, are found in solarpunk works. As is the Afrofuturist's counter to mass-cultural homogeneity, the reckoning of injustices, and use of architecture and technology to correct power imbalances and problems in accessibility.


title: Solarpunk

text: Although solarpunk is concerned with technology, it also embraces low-tech ways of living sustainably such as gardening, permaculture, regenerative design, tool libraries, maker spaces, open-source, positive psychology, metacognition, and do-it-yourself ethics. Its themes may reflect on environmental philosophy such as bright green environmentalism and social ecology, as well as punk ideologies such as anarchism, anti-consumerism, anti-authoritarianism, anti-capitalism, civil rights, commoning, and decentralization.


title: Solarpunk

text: As an art movement, solarpunk emerged in the 2010s as a reaction to the prevalence of bleak post-apocalyptic and dystopian media alongside an increased awareness of social injustices, impacts of climate change, and inextricable economic inequality. As post-apocalyptic and dystopian was ubiquitous in media, solarpunk became an attractive alternative. Solarpunk is optimistic yet realistic in confronting contemporary problems.


title: Solarpunk

text: The solarpunk visual identity, as expressed by Olivia Louise and subsequent artists, is compared to Art Nouveau with its depictions of plants, use of sinuous lines like whiplash, and integration of applied arts into fine arts. The ornamental Arts and Crafts movement, an influence on Art Nouveau, is present and its built forms reflect Frank Lloyd Wright's organic architecture. The solarpunk aesthetic typically utilizes natural colors, bright greens and blues, and allusions to diverse cultural origins. Examples of this aesthetic include Boeri Studio's Bosco Verticale in Milan, the depiction of Wakanda in Marvel Studios' "Black Panther" and Auroa in "Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Breakpoint", ""'s Green Cities expansion, and some Studio Ghibli movies, particularly "Castle in the Sky" and "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind". Contrasted to cyberpunk which is portrayed as having a dark, grim aesthetic surrounded by an artificial and domineering built environment which is reflective of alienation and subjugation, solarpunk is bright, with light often used as a motif and in imagery to convey feelings of cleanliness, abundance and equability but, also, alternatively could be used to symbolize something that "subsumes everything beneath it, [an] emblem of tyranny [and] surveillance".


title: Solarpunk

text: In literature, solarpunk is a subgenre within science fiction, though it may also include elements of other types of speculative fiction such as fantasy and utopian fiction. It is a cyberpunk derivative, contrasted to cyberpunk for its particular extrapolation of technology's impact on society and progress. Cyberpunk characters are typically those marginalized by rapid technological change or subsumed by technology, while the solarpunk archetype has been described as a "maker-hero" who has witnessed environmental disaster or failures by central authorities to adapt to crises or injustice, often in defense of nature and in ways that allow the story to illustrate optimistic outcomes. Its fictions illustrate feasible worlds that do not ignore the mechanics or ingredients of how it was arrived at.


title: Solarpunk

text: Previously published novels that fit into this new genre included Ursula K. Le Guin's "Always Coming Home" (1985) and "The Dispossessed" (1974), Ernest Callenbach's "Ecotopia" (1975), Kim Stanley Robinson's "Pacific Edge" (1990), and Starhawk's "The Fifth Sacred Thing" (1993), largely for their depictions of contemporary worlds transitioning to more sustainable societies. However, the first explicit entries published into the genre were the short stories in anthologies "Solarpunk: Ecological and Fantastic Stories in a Sustainable World" (2012) (which was the third part of the publisher's trilogy of short story collections preceded by "Vaporpunk" and "Dieselpunk"), "Wings of Renewal: A Solarpunk Dragons Anthology" (2015), "Sunvault: Stories of Solarpunk and Eco-Speculation" (2017) and "Glass and Gardens" (2018). In 2018, author Becky Chambers agreed to write two solarpunk novellas for Tor Books and published "A Psalm for the Wild-Built" (2021) and "A Prayer for the Crown-Shy" (2022).


title: Solarpunk

text: In a 2019 "Slate" article, author Lee Konstantinou stated that solarpunk authors "...proclaim their commitment to "ingenuity, generativity, independence, and community", while going against the "nihilistic tendencies of cyberpunk and the reactionary tendencies of steampunk." He argues that solarpunk is aspirational, as it aims to provide "suggestions for the kind of science fiction or fantasy we ought to be writing". Solarpunk can include elements of mundane science fiction. In a "Solarpunk Futures" interview with Nina Munteanu regarding her solarpunk novel "A Diary in the Age of Water", she said that she added elements of mundane science fiction to add "the gritty realism of the mundane" to the story.


title: Solarpunk

text: In a study of the forty-four most popular American science fiction films, nature was found to be ignored in visions of the future, depicted in cities with monoculture lawns and ornamental gardens. Nature is never portrayed in these films in an innovative or integrated way with future human civilization. At best, nature is simply portrayed as a background motif. The study suggested for artists to "collaborate to imagine how to integrate nature and biodiversity into the depictions of future cities."


title: Solarpunk

text: Solarpunk can be co-opted by commercial entities or corporations for marketing purposes through greenwashing. This was pointed out with a Chobani yogurt ad that was done in a solarpunk aesthetic. An article for the "Washington University Political Review" commented on the ad, writing that it depicts "a solarpunk future where humanity has found a way to coexist and literally support nature, a utopia that is intentionally appealing to a set of young viewers more climate-conscious than ever before," yet that this vision is "brought to you by Chobani". The article noted that this is a product of "corporate marketers seek[ing] to co-opt the younger generation's desire to protect their future".


title: Solarpunk

text: Images of conventionally 'futuristic' cities with plant life simply used as a façade on skyscrapers that have been associated with solarpunk have also been criticized as greenwashing, by giving the appearance of integration or benefiting nature without actually addressing environmental issues. Solarpunk researcher Adam Flynn notes how depictions such as "luxury condos with a green roof that price out existing communities and might end up doing more environmental damage" is "fake solarpunk urbanism".


title: Differential diagnosis

text: In healthcare, a differential diagnosis (abbreviated DDx) is a method of analysis of a patient's history and physical examination to arrive at the correct diagnosis. It involves distinguishing a particular disease or condition from others that present with similar clinical features. Differential diagnostic procedures are used by clinicians to diagnose the specific disease in a patient, or, at least, to consider any imminently life-threatening conditions. Often, each individual option of a possible disease is called a differential diagnosis (e.g., acute bronchitis could be a differential diagnosis in the evaluation of a cough, even if the final diagnosis is common cold).


title: Differential diagnosis

text: More generally, a differential diagnostic procedure is a systematic diagnostic method used to identify the presence of a disease entity where multiple alternatives are possible. This method may employ algorithms, akin to the process of elimination, or at least a process of obtaining information that shrinks the "probabilities" of candidate conditions to negligible levels, by using evidence such as symptoms, patient history, and medical knowledge to adjust epistemic confidences in the mind of the diagnostician (or, for computerized or computer-assisted diagnosis, the software of the system).


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Differential diagnosis can be regarded as implementing aspects of the hypothetico-deductive method, in the sense that the potential presence of candidate diseases or conditions can be viewed as hypotheses that clinicians further determine as being true or false.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: A differential diagnosis is also commonly used within the field of psychiatry/psychology, where two different diagnoses can be attached to a patient who is exhibiting symptoms that could fit into either diagnosis. For example, a patient who has been diagnosed with bipolar disorder may also be given a differential diagnosis of borderline personality disorder, given the similarity in the symptoms of both conditions.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Strategies used in preparing a differential diagnosis list vary with the experience of the healthcare provider. While novice providers may work systemically to assess all possible explanations for a patient's concerns, those with more experience often draw on clinical experience and pattern recognition to protect the patient from delays, risks, and cost of inefficient strategies or tests. Effective providers utilize an evidence-based approach, complementing their clinical experience with knowledge from clinical research.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: There are several methods for differential diagnostic procedures and several variants among those. Furthermore, a differential diagnostic procedure can be used concomitantly or alternately with protocols, guidelines, or other diagnostic procedures (such as pattern recognition or using medical algorithms).


title: Differential diagnosis

text: For example, in case of medical emergency, there may not be enough time to do any detailed calculations or estimations of different probabilities, in which case the ABC protocol ("Airway, Breathing and Circulation") may be more appropriate. Later, when the situation is less acute, a more comprehensive differential diagnostic procedure may be adopted.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The differential diagnostic procedure may be simplified if a "pathognomonic" sign or symptom is found (in which case it is almost certain that the target condition is present) or in the absence of a sine qua non sign or symptom (in which case it is almost certain that the target condition is absent).


title: Differential diagnosis

text: A diagnostician can be selective, considering first those disorders that are more likely (a probabilistic approach), more serious if left undiagnosed and untreated (a prognostic approach), or more responsive to treatment if offered (a pragmatic approach). Since the subjective probability of the presence of a condition is never exactly 100% or 0%, the differential diagnostic procedure may aim at specifying these various probabilities to form indications for further action.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The following are two methods of differential diagnosis, being based on epidemiology and likelihood ratios, respectively.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: One method of performing a differential diagnosis by epidemiology aims to estimate the probability of each candidate condition by comparing their probabilities to have occurred in the first place in the individual. It is based on probabilities related both to the presentation (such as pain) and probabilities of the various candidate conditions (such as diseases).


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The statistical basis for differential diagnosis is Bayes' theorem. As an analogy, when a die has landed the outcome is certain by 100%, but the probability that it Would Have Occurred in the First Place (hereafter abbreviated WHOIFP) is still 1/6. In the same way, the probability that a presentation or condition would have occurred in the first place in an individual (WHOIFPI) is not same as the probability that the presentation or condition "has" occurred in the individual, because the presentation "has" occurred by 100% certainty in the individual. Yet, the contributive probability fractions of each condition are assumed the same, relatively:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: When an individual presents with a symptom or sign, Pr(Presentation has occurred in individual) is 100% and can therefore be replaced by 1, and can be ignored since division by 1 does not make any difference:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The total probability of the presentation to have occurred in the individual can be approximated as the sum of the individual candidate conditions:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Also, the probability of the presentation to have been caused by any candidate condition is proportional to the probability of the condition, depending on what rate it causes the presentation:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The probability that a condition would have occurred in the first place in an individual is approximately equal to that of a population that is as similar to the individual as possible except for the current presentation, compensated where possible by relative risks given by known risk factor that distinguish the individual from the population:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The following table demonstrates how these relations can be made for a series of candidate conditions:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: One additional "candidate condition" is the instance of there being no abnormality, and the presentation is only a (usually relatively unlikely) appearance of a basically normal state. Its probability in the population ("P(No abnormality in population)") is complementary to the sum of probabilities of "abnormal" candidate conditions.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: This example case demonstrates how this method is applied but does not represent a guideline for handling similar real-world cases. Also, the example uses relatively specified numbers with sometimes several decimals, while in reality, there are often simply rough estimations, such as of likelihoods being very high", "high", "low" or "very low, but still using the general principles of the method.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: For an individual (who becomes the "patient" in this example), a blood test of, for example, serum calcium shows a result above the standard reference range, which, by most definitions, classifies as hypercalcemia, which becomes the "presentation" in this case. A clinician (who becomes the "diagnostician" in this example), who does not currently see the patient, gets to know about his finding.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: By practical reasons, the clinician considers that there is enough test indication to have a look at the patient's medical records. For simplicity, let's say that the only information given in the medical records is a family history of primary hyperparathyroidism (here abbreviated as PH), which may explain the finding of hypercalcemia. For this patient, let's say that the resultant hereditary risk factor is estimated to confer a relative risk of 10 (RR = 10).


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The clinician considers that there is enough motivation to perform a differential diagnostic procedure for the finding of hypercalcemia. The main causes of hypercalcemia are primary hyperparathyroidism (PH) and cancer, so for simplicity, the list of candidate conditions that the clinician could think of can be given as:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The probability that 'primary hyperparathyroidism' (PH) would have occurred in the first place in the individual ("P(PH WHOIFPI)") can be calculated as follows:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Let's say that the last blood test taken by the patient was half a year ago and was normal and that the incidence of primary hyperparathyroidism in a general population appropriately matches the individual (except for the presentation and mentioned heredity) is 1 in 4000 per year. Ignoring more detailed retrospective analyses (such as including speed of disease progress and lag time of medical diagnosis), the time-at-risk for having developed primary hyperparathyroidism can roughly be regarded as being the last half-year because a previously developed hypercalcemia would probably have been caught up by the previous blood test. This corresponds to a probability of primary hyperparathyroidism (PH) in the population of:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: With the relative risk conferred from the family history, the probability that primary hyperparathyroidism (PH) would have occurred in the first place in the individual given from the currently available information becomes:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Primary hyperparathyroidism can be assumed to cause hypercalcemia essentially 100% of the time (r = 1), so this independently calculated probability of primary hyperparathyroidism (PH) can be assumed to be the same as the probability of being a cause of the presentation:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: For cancer, the same time-at-risk is assumed for simplicity, and let's say that the incidence of cancer in the area is estimated at 1 in 250 per year, giving a population probability of cancer of:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: For simplicity, let's say that any association between a family history of primary hyperparathyroidism and risk of cancer is ignored, so the relative risk for the individual to have contracted cancer in the first place is similar to that of the population (RR = 1):


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The probabilities that hypercalcemia would have occurred in the first place by other candidate conditions can be calculated in a similar manner. However, for simplicity, let's say that the probability that any of these would have occurred in the first place is calculated at 0.0005 in this example.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: For the instance of there being no disease, the corresponding probability in the population is complementary to the sum of probabilities for other conditions:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The probability that the individual would be healthy in the first place can be assumed to be the same:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The rate at which the case of no abnormal condition still ends up in measurement of serum calcium of being above the standard reference range (thereby classifying as hypercalcemia) is, by the definition of standard reference range, less than 2.5%. However, this probability can be further specified by considering how much the measurement deviates from the mean in the standard reference range. Let's say that the serum calcium measurement was 1.30 mmol/L, which, with a standard reference range established at 1.05 to 1.25 mmol/L, corresponds to a standard score of 3 and a corresponding probability of 0.14% that such degree of hypercalcemia would have occurred in the first place in the case of no abnormality:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Subsequently, the probability that hypercalcemia would have resulted from no disease can be calculated as:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The probability that hypercalcemia would have occurred in the first place in the individual can thus be calculated as:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Subsequently, the probability that hypercalcemia is caused by primary hyperparathyroidism (PH) in the individual can be calculated as:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Similarly, the probability that hypercalcemia is caused by cancer in the individual can be calculated as:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Thus, this method estimates that the probability that the hypercalcemia is caused by primary hyperparathyroidism, cancer, other conditions or no disease at all are 37.3%, 6.0%, 14.9%, and 41.8%, respectively, which may be used in estimating further test indications.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The procedure of differential diagnosis can become extremely complex when fully taking additional tests and treatments into consideration. One method that is somewhat a tradeoff between being clinically perfect and being relatively simple to calculate is one that uses likelihood ratios to derive subsequent post-test likelihoods.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: One method of estimating likelihoods even after further tests uses likelihood ratios (which is derived from sensitivities and specificities) as a multiplication factor after each test or procedure. In an ideal world, sensitivities and specificities would be established for all tests for all possible pathological conditions. In reality, however, these parameters may only be established for one of the candidate conditions. Multiplying with likelihood ratios necessitates conversion of likelihoods from probabilities to "odds in favor" (hereafter simply termed "odds") by:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: However, only the candidate conditions with known likelihood ratio need this conversion. After multiplication, conversion back to probability is calculated by:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The rest of the candidate conditions (for which there is no established likelihood ratio for the test at hand) can, for simplicity, be adjusted by subsequently multiplying all candidate conditions with a common factor to again yield a sum of 100%.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The resulting probabilities are used for estimating the indications for further medical tests, treatments or other actions. If there is an indication for an additional test, and it returns with a result, then the procedure is repeated using the likelihood ratio of the additional test. With updated probabilities for each of the candidate conditions, the indications for further tests, treatments, or other actions change as well, and so the procedure can be repeated until an "endpoint" where there no longer is any indication for currently performing further actions. Such an endpoint mainly occurs when one candidate condition becomes so certain that no test can be found that is powerful enough to change the relative probability profile enough to motivate any change in further actions. Tactics for reaching such an endpoint with as few tests as possible includes making tests with high specificity for conditions of already outstandingly high-profile-relative probability, because the high likelihood ratio positive for such tests is very high, bringing all less likely conditions to relatively lower probabilities. Alternatively, tests with high sensitivity for competing candidate conditions have a high likelihood ratio negative, potentially bringing the probabilities for competing candidate conditions to negligible levels. If such negligible probabilities are achieved, the clinician can rule out these conditions, and continue the differential diagnostic procedure with only the remaining candidate conditions.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: This example continues for the same patient as in the example for the epidemiology-based method. As with the previous example of epidemiology-based method, this example case is made to demonstrate how this method is applied but does not represent a guideline for handling similar real-world cases. Also, the example uses relatively specified numbers, while in reality, there are often just rough estimations. In this example, the probabilities for each candidate condition were established by an epidemiology-based method to be as follows:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: These percentages could also have been established by experience at the particular clinic by knowing that these are the percentages for final diagnosis for people presenting to the clinic with hypercalcemia and having a family history of primary hyperparathyroidism.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The condition of highest profile-relative probability (except "no disease") is primary hyperparathyroidism (PH), but cancer is still of major concern, because if it is the actual causative condition for the hypercalcemia, then the choice of whether to treat or not likely means life or death for the patient, in effect potentially putting the indication at a similar level for further tests for both of these conditions.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Here, let's say that the clinician considers the profile-relative probabilities of being of enough concern to indicate sending the patient a call for a clinician visit, with an additional visit to the medical laboratory for an additional blood test complemented with further analyses, including parathyroid hormone for the suspicion of primary hyperparathyroidism.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: For simplicity, let's say that the clinician first receives the blood test (in formulas abbreviated as "BT") result for the parathyroid hormone analysis and that it showed a parathyroid hormone level that is elevated relative to what would be expected by the calcium level.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Such a constellation can be estimated to have a sensitivity of approximately 70% and a specificity of approximately 90% for primary hyperparathyroidism. This confers a likelihood ratio positive of 7 for primary hyperparathyroidism.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The probability of primary hyperparathyroidism is now termed "Pre-BT" because it corresponds to before the blood test (Latin preposition "prae" means before). It was estimated at 37.3%, corresponding to an odds of 0.595. With the likelihood ratio positive of 7 for the blood test, the post-<nowiki>test</nowiki> odds is calculated as:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Therefore, to conform to a sum of 100% for all candidate conditions, each of the other candidates must be multiplied by a correcting factor:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The probabilities for each candidate conditions before and after the blood test are given in following table:


title: Differential diagnosis

text: These "new" percentages, including a profile-relative probability of 80% for primary hyperparathyroidism, underlie any indications for further tests, treatments, or other actions. In this case, let's say that the clinician continues the plan for the patient to attend a clinician visit for a further checkup, especially focused on primary hyperparathyroidism.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: A clinician visit can, theoretically, be regarded as a series of tests, including both questions in a medical history, as well as components of a physical examination, where the post-test probability of a previous test, can be used as the pre-test probability of the next. The indications for choosing the next test are dynamically influenced by the results of previous tests.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Let's say that the patient in this example is revealed to have at least some of the symptoms and signs of depression, bone pain, joint pain or constipation of more severity than what would be expected by the hypercalcemia itself, supporting the suspicion of primary hyperparathyroidism, and let's say that the likelihood ratios for the tests, when multiplied together, roughly results in a product of 6 for primary hyperparathyroidism.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The presence of unspecific pathologic symptoms and signs in the history and examination are often concurrently indicative of cancer as well, and let's say that the tests gave an overall likelihood ratio estimated at 1.5 for cancer. For other conditions, as well as the instance of not having any disease at all, let's say that it's unknown how they are affected by the tests at hand, as often happens in reality. This gives the following results for the history and physical examination (abbreviated as P&E):


title: Differential diagnosis

text: These probabilities after the history and examination may make the physician confident enough to plan the patient for surgery for a parathyroidectomy to resect the affected tissue.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: At this point, the probability of "other conditions" is so low that the physician cannot think of any test for them that could make a difference that would be substantial enough to form an indication for such a test, and the physician thereby practically regards "other conditions" as ruled out, in this case not primarily by any specific test for such other conditions that were negative, but rather by the absence of positive tests so far.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: For "cancer", the cutoff at which to confidently regard it as ruled out maybe more stringent because of severe consequences of missing it, so the physician may consider that at least a histopathologic examination of the resected tissue is indicated.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The validity of both the initial estimation of probabilities by epidemiology and further workup by likelihood ratios are dependent on the inclusion of candidate conditions that are responsible for a large part as possible of the probability of having developed the condition, and it is clinically important to include those where relatively fast initiation of therapy is most likely to result in the greatest benefit. If an important candidate condition is missed, no method of differential diagnosis will supply the correct conclusion. The need to find more candidate conditions for inclusion increases with the increasing severity of the presentation itself. For example, if the only presentation is a deviating laboratory parameter and all common harmful underlying conditions have been ruled out, then it may be acceptable to stop finding more candidate conditions, but this would much more likely be unacceptable if the presentation would have been severe pain.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: If two conditions get high post-test probabilities, especially if the sum of the probabilities for conditions with known likelihood ratios becomes higher than 100%, then the actual condition is a combination of the two. In such cases, that combined condition can be added to the list of candidate conditions, and the calculations should start over from the beginning.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: To continue the example used above, let's say that the history and physical examination were indicative of cancer as well, with a likelihood ratio of 3, giving an Odds(PostH&E) of 0.057, corresponding to a P(PostH&E) of 5.4%. This would correspond to a "Sum of known P(PostH&E)" of 101.5%. This is an indication for considering a combination of primary hyperparathyroidism and cancer, such as, in this case, a parathyroid hormone-producing parathyroid carcinoma. A recalculation may therefore be needed, with the first two conditions being separated into "primary hyperparathyroidism without cancer", "cancer without primary hyperparathyroidism" as well as "combined primary hyperparathyroidism and cancer", and likelihood ratios being applied to each condition separately. In this case, however, tissue has already been resected, wherein a histopathologic examination can be performed that includes the possibility of parathyroid carcinoma in the examination (which may entail appropriate sample staining).


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Let's say that the histopathologic examination confirms primary hyperparathyroidism, but also showed a malignant pattern. By an initial method by epidemiology, the incidence of parathyroid carcinoma is estimated at 1 in 6 million people per year, giving a very low probability before taking any tests into consideration. In comparison, the probability that non-malignant primary hyperparathyroidism would have occurred at the same time as an unrelated non-carcinoma cancer that presents with malignant cells in the parathyroid gland is calculated by multiplying the probabilities of the two. The resultant probability is, however, much smaller than the 1 in 6 million. Therefore, the probability of parathyroid carcinoma may still be close to 100% after histopathologic examination despite the low probability of occurring in the first place.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Machine differential diagnosis is the use of computer software to partly or fully make a differential diagnosis. It may be regarded as an application of artificial intelligence. Alternatively, it may be seen as "Augmented Intelligence" if it meets the FDA criteria, namely that (1) it reveals the underlying data, (2) reveals the underlying logic, and (3) leaves the clinician in charge to shape and make the decision. Machine Learning AI is generally seen as a device by the FDA, whereas Augmented Intelligence applications are not.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Many studies demonstrate improvement of quality of care and reduction of medical errors by using such decision support systems. Some of these systems are designed for a specific medical problem such as schizophrenia, Lyme disease or ventilator-associated pneumonia. Others are designed to cover all major clinical and diagnostic findings to assist physicians with faster and more accurate diagnosis.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: However, these tools all still require advanced medical skills to rate symptoms and choose additional tests to deduce the probabilities of different diagnoses. Machine differential diagnosis is also currently unable to diagnose multiple concurrent disorders. Thus, non-professionals should still see a health care provider for a proper diagnosis.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The method of differential diagnosis was first suggested for use in the diagnosis of mental disorders by Emil Kraepelin. It is more systematic than the old-fashioned method of diagnosis by "gestalt" (impression).


title: Differential diagnosis

text: 'Differential diagnosis' is also used more loosely, to refer simply to a list of the most common causes of a given symptom, to a list of disorders similar to a given disorder, or to such lists when they are annotated with advice on how to narrow the list down ("French's Index of Differential Diagnosis" is an example). Thus, a differential diagnosis in this sense is medical information specially organized to aid in diagnosis.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Methods similar to those of differential diagnostic processes in medicine are also used by biological taxonomists to identify and classify organisms, living and extinct. For example, after finding an unknown species, there can first be a listing of all potential species, followed by ruling out of one by one until, optimally, only one potential choice remains.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Similar procedures may be used by plant and maintenance engineers and automotive mechanics and used to be used in diagnosing faulty electronic circuitry.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: The American television medical drama House, featuring Hugh Laurie as the main protagonist Dr. Gregory House who leads a team of diagnosticians at the fictional Princeton–Plainsboro Teaching Hospital in New Jersey, revolves around using differential diagnostics procedures in a bid to come up with the right diagnosis.


title: Differential diagnosis

text: Throughout the series, the doctors have diagnosed such diseases as lupus, mastocytosis, Plummer's disease, rabies, Kawasaki's syndrome, smallpox, Rickettsialpox, and dozens of others.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Several different religions are practised in Indonesia and in practice the country is a secular state.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Indonesia is officially a presidential republic and a unitary state. Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population and the first principle of Indonesia's philosophical foundation, Pancasila, requires its citizens to state "the One and almighty God". Consequently, atheists in Indonesia experience official discrimination in the context of registration of births and marriages and the issuance of identity cards. In addition, the Aceh province officially enforces Sharia law and is notorious for its discriminatory practices towards religious and sexual minorities. There are also pro-Sharia and fundamentalist movements in several parts of the country with overwhelming Muslim majorities.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Several different religions are practised in the country, and their collective influence on the country's political, economic and cultural life is significant. Despite constitutionally guaranteeing freedom of religion, the government recognises only six religions since 1965: Islam, Christianity (Catholicism, under the label of "Katholik", and Protestantism, under the label of "Kristen" are treated separately), Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism. According to a 2017 decision of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia, "the branches/flows of beliefs" ()—ethnic religions with new religious movements—must be recognised and included in an Indonesian identity card (KTP). Based on data collected by the Indonesian Conference on Religion and Peace (ICRP), there are about 245 unofficial religions in Indonesia.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Indonesian law between 1975 and the 2017 Constitutional Court decision required its citizens to have a KTP that identifies them with one of the six religions. (since 2017 citizens that don't identify with those religions may identify themselves to profess "believe in Divine Omnipotence" or leave that section blank). Indonesia does not recognise agnosticism or atheism, and blasphemy is illegal. In 2018 Indonesian governmental statistics, 86.7% of Indonesians identified themselves as Muslim (with Sunnis about 99%, Shias about 1% and Ahmadis 0.2%), Christianity (7.6% Protestantism, 3.12% Catholicism), 1.74% Hindu, 0.77% Buddhist, 0.03% Confucian, 0.05% others.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Until the beginning of CE, the peoples of Indonesia followed the local tribal Austronesian and Papuan ethnic religions and traditions.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Historically, immigration from the Indian subcontinent, mainland China, Portugal, the Arab world, and the Netherlands has been a significant contributor to the diversity of religion and culture within the archipelago. However, these aspects have changed due to some modifications made to suit the Indonesian culture.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Before the arrival of the Abrahamic religions of Islam, Christianity and Judaism, the prevalent religions in the region were thoroughly influenced by Dharmic religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. They were brought to the archipelago around the second and fourth centuries, respectively, when Indian traders arrived on the islands of Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi, and brought their religion. Hinduism of Shaivite traditions started to develop in Java in the fifth century CE. Hinduism had a decisive influence on the ideology of the one-man rule of the Raja. The traders established Buddhism which developed further in the following century and several Hindu Buddhist-influenced kingdoms were established, such as Kutai, Srivijaya, Majapahit, and Shailendra. The world's largest Buddhist monument, Borobudur, was built by Shailendra and around the same time, the Hindu monument Prambanan was also built. The peak of Hindu-Javanese civilisation was the Majapahit empire in the fourteenth century, and is described as a 'Golden Age' in Indonesian history.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Islam was introduced to the archipelago in the thirteenth century. Coming from Gujarat, India (some scholars also propose the Arabian and Persian theories), Islam spread through the west coast of Sumatra and then developed to the east in Java. This period also saw Islam-influenced kingdoms established, namely Demak, Pajang, Mataram and Banten. By the end of the fifteenth century, 20 Islam-based kingdoms had been established, reflecting the domination of Islam in Indonesia.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The Portuguese introduced Christianity in the 16th century, notably to the island of Flores and to what was to become East Timor. Protestantism was first introduced by the Dutch in the 16th century with Calvinist and Lutheran influences. For the Dutch, economic benefit rather than religious conversion were paramount, and missionary efforts avoided predominantly Muslim areas such as Java. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) regulated the missionary work so it could serve its own interests and focused it to the eastern, Animist part of the archipelago, including Maluku, North Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, Papua and Kalimantan. Christianity later spread from the coastal ports of Kalimantan, and missionaries arrived among the Torajans on Sulawesi. Parts of Sumatra were also targeted, most notably the Batak people who are predominantly Protestant today.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The Sukarno era was characterised by a "distrust" between religion and the state. There were also significant changes to the relationship during the New Order. Following an attempted coup in 1965 that officially blamed the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) and an anti-communist purge, the New Order government attempted to suppress PKI supporters by making it mandatory to have a religion since PKI supporters were mostly atheists. As a result, citizens were required to carry personal identification cards indicating their religion. The policy resulted in a mass conversion, with most to Catholicism and Protestantism. Chinese Indonesians, who were mostly Confucianists, also faced similar circumstances. Because Confucianism was not one of the state-recognised religions, many converted to Christianity.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The history of Islam in Indonesia is complex and reflects the diversity of Indonesian cultures. There is evidence of Arab Muslim traders entering the Indonesian archipelago as early as the 8th century. Venetian explorer, Marco Polo is credited with the earliest known record of a Muslim community around 1297 AD, whom he referred to as a new community of Moorish traders in Perlak, Aceh. Over the 15th and 16th century, the spread of Islam accelerated via the missionary work of Maulana Malik Ibrahim (also known as Sunan Gresik, originally from Samarkand) in Sumatra and Java and Admiral Zheng He (also known as Cheng Ho, from China) in north Java, as well as campaigns led by sultans that targeted Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms and various communities, with each trying to carve out a region or island for control. Four diverse and contentious sultanates emerged in northern and southern Sumatra, west and central Java, and southern Kalimantan. The sultans declared Islam as a state religion and pursued war against each other as well as the Hindus and other non-Muslim infidels.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Subsequently, Hindu, Buddhist, Confucian, animist communities and unbelievers bought peace by agreeing to pay jizya tax to a Muslim ruler, while others began adopting Islam to escape the tax. Islam in Indonesia is in many cases less meticulously practised in comparison to Islam in the Middle East. In some regions, people retained and continued their old beliefs. They adopted a syncretic version of Islam, while others left and concentrated as communities in islands that they could defend, for example, Hindus of western Java moved to Bali and neighbouring small islands. While this period of religious conflict and inter-Sultanate warfare was unfolding, and new power centres were attempting to consolidate regions under their control, European powers arrived. The archipelago was soon dominated by the Dutch empire, which helped prevent inter-religious conflict, and slowly began the process of excavating, preserving and understanding the archipelago's ancient Hindu and Buddhist period, particularly in Java and the western islands.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The vast majority of Indonesian Muslims (about 99%) practice Sunni Islam of the Shafi‘i school. Smaller numbers follow other schools (madhhabs), and the Salafi movement. The main divisions of Islam in Indonesia are traditionalism and modernism. Both are supported by Indonesia's two largest Islamic civil society groups Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah, respectively. the orders of Sufism are considered essential.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Concerning the political expansion of Islam after the resignation of Suharto, political parties were again permitted to declare an ideology other than Pancasila. Several Islamist parties formed with Sharia as their ideology and the Crescent Star Party (PBB) came in sixth place in the 1999 elections. However, in 2009 elections, the PBB ranked only 10th, while parties characterised by moderate and tolerant Islamic interpretations had more significant success, such as the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) coming in 4th with nearly 8% of total votes.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Shia Islam played an important role in the early period of the spread of Islam in North Sumatra and Java. Currently, there are approximately 1-3 million Twelvers in Sumatra, Java, Madura and Sulawesi islands, and also Ismailis in Bali, which approximates more than 1% of the total Muslim population. Shias form a segment of Arab Indonesians and the Hadhrami people. The main organisation is "Ikatan Jamaah Ahlulbait Indonesia" (IJABI).


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The earliest history of Ahmadi Muslims in the archipelago dates back to the summer of 1925, when roughly two decades before the Indonesian revolution, a missionary of the Community, Rahmat Ali, stepped in Sumatra and established the movement with 13 devotees in Tapaktuan, Aceh. The community has had an influential history in Indonesia's religious development, yet in modern times it has faced increasing intolerance from religious establishments and physical hostilities from radical Muslim groups. In Ahmadiyya organisation "Jamaah Muslim Ahmadiyah Indonesia" (JMAI), there are an estimated 400.000 followers, which equates to 0.2% of the total Muslim population, spread over 542 branches across the country; in contrast to independent estimates, the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia) estimates around 80.000 members. A separatist group, Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam, known as "Gerakan Ahmadiyah-Lahore Indonesia" (GAI) in Indonesia, has existed in Java since 1924 and had only 708 members in the 1980s.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The government officially recognises the two main Christian divisions in Indonesia, Catholicism and Protestantism, as two separate religions.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Catholicism arrived in the archipelago during the Portuguese arrival with spice-trading over the 14th and 15th century. Many Portuguese had the goal of spreading Catholicism, starting with the Maluku Islands in 1534. Between 1546 and 1547, the pioneer Christian missionary, Saint Francis Xavier, visited the islands and baptised several thousand locals. During the VOC era, the number of Roman Catholicism practitioners fell significantly, due to the VOC's policy of banning the religion. The hostility of the Dutch toward Catholicism is due to its history where the Protestant Dutch gained their independence after the Eighty Years War against Catholic Spain's rule. The most significant result was on the island of Flores and East Timor where the VOC concentrated. Moreover, Roman Catholic priests were sent to prisons or punished and replaced by Protestant clergy from the Netherlands. One Roman Catholic priest was executed for celebrating Mass in prison during Jan Pieterszoon Coen's tenure as Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. After the VOC collapsed and with the legalisation of Catholicism in the Netherlands starting around 1800, Dutch Catholic clergy predominated until after Indonesia's independence. In present-day Flores, the royal house of Larantuka formed the only native Catholic kingdom in Southeast Asia around the 16th century, with the first king named Lorenzo.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Other than Flores, Central Java also have significant numbers of Catholics. Catholicism started to spread in Central Java when Frans van Lith, a priest from the Netherlands came to Muntilan in 1896. Initially, his effort did not produce a satisfying result until 1904 when four Javanese chiefs from Kalibawang region asked him to give them education in the religion. On 15 December 1904, a group of 178 Javanese were baptised at Semagung, Muntilan, district Magelang, Central Java, near the border of Yogyakarta.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: As of 2018, 3.12% of Indonesians are Catholics, nearly half the number of Protestants at 7.6%. The practitioners mostly live in West Kalimantan, Papua and East Nusa Tenggara. The province of East Nusa Tenggara, where the island of Flores and West Timor are located, is the only province in Indonesia where Catholics are the majority (about 54.14% of the total population). In Java, next to Javanese, Catholicism also spread to Chinese Indonesians. In the present day, Catholic traditions close to Easter days remain, locally known as "Semana Santa". It involves a procession carrying statues of Jesus and the Virgin Mary (locally referred to as "Tuan Ana" and "Tuan Ma" respectively) to a local beach, then to Cathedral of the Queen of the Rosary, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Larantuka, Flores.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Eastern Orthodoxy is represented by the Indonesian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), which until 2019 was part of the Russian Orthodox Diocese of Sydney, Australia and New Zealand (Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia), and then comes under the unified spiritual leadership of the Diocese of Singapore (Russian Orthodox Church).


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: In addition, there are communities of Oriental Orthodoxy, namely the Syriac Orthodox Church (Indonesian: "Kanisah Ortodoks Suriah") and Coptic Orthodox Church (Indonesian: "Gereja Kristen Ortodoks Koptik di Indonesia").


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Protestantism is mostly a result of Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period. The Dutch Reformed Church was long at the forefront in introducing Christianity to native peoples and was later joined by other Reformed churches that separated from it during the 19th century. The VOC regulated the missionary work so it could serve its own interests and restricted it to the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago. Although these two branches are the most common, a multitude of other denominations can be found elsewhere in Indonesia.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Protestants form a significant minority in some parts of the country. Statistically, 7.6% of the total population declared themselves Protestant in a 2018 census. Seventeen per cent of the population in Sulawesi are Protestants, particularly in Tana Toraja regency in South Sulawesi province and Central Sulawesi. Furthermore, up to 65% of the ethnic Torajans are Protestants. The Batak people from North Sumatra is also one of the major Protestant groups in Indonesia, comprising around 50% out of all ethnic population. Christianity was brought by German Lutheran missionary Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen who is known as the apostle to the Batak people and started the Batak Christian Protestant Church aka HKBP.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Chinese Indonesians are also a significant part of the Protestant population, scattered throughout Indonesia with the majority concentrated in major urban areas. In 2000, approximately 35% of ethnic Chinese were Christian, and there is a continuous increase among the younger generation. In some parts of the country, entire villages belong to a distinct denomination, such as Adventism, the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, Lutheran, Presbyterian or the Salvation Army ("Bala Keselamatan") depending on the success of missionary activity.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Indonesia has three Protestant-majority provinces, West Papua, Papua, and North Sulawesi, with 60%, 68% and 64% of the total population respectively. In Papua, it is most widely practised among the native Papuan population. In North Sulawesi, the Minahasan population centred around Manado converted to Christianity in the 19th century. Today, most of the population native to North Sulawesi practice some form of Protestantism, while transmigrants from Java and Madura practice Islam. Adherents of Protestantism mostly live in North Sumatra, West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, West Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, North Sulawesi, East Nusa Tenggara, North Maluku, Maluku (province), West Papua (province), Papua (province).


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Hindu culture and religion arrived in the archipelago around the 2nd century CE, which later formed the basis of several Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms such as Kutai, Mataram, and Majapahit. Around 130, a Sundanese kingdom named Salakanagara emerged in western Java. It was the first historically recorded Indianised kingdom in the archipelago, created by an Indian trader following marriage to a local Sundanese princess. The largest Hindu temple in Indonesia, Prambanan, was built during the Majapahit kingdom by the Sanjaya dynasty. The kingdom existed until the 16th century when Islamic empires began to develop, this period known as the Hindu-Indonesian period.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Hinduism in Indonesia takes on a distinct tone from other parts of the world. Hinduism, referred to as Agama Hindu Dharma in Indonesia, formally applied the caste system. It also incorporated native Austronesian elements that revered hyangs, deities and spirits of nature and deceased ancestors. The Hindu religious epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are expressed in Indonesian wayang puppetry and dance. All practitioners of Agama Hindu Dharma share many common beliefs, mostly the Five Points of Philosophy, the Panca Srada. These include the belief in one Almighty God (Brahman), belief in the souls and myriad of local and ancestral spirits and karma or the belief in the law of reciprocal actions, rather than belief in cycles of rebirth and reincarnation. In addition, the religion focuses more on art and ritual rather than scriptures, laws and beliefs. In many areas on Java, Hinduism and Islam have heavily influenced each other, in part resulting in Abangan and Kejawèn (Kebatinan) traditions.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: According to the 2010 census, Hindus numbered 4 million (1.7% of Indonesians). The Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia has disputed this figure, who estimated as many as 18 million Hindus in the country. The majority of Hindus live in Bali. Sumatra, Java, Lombok, Kalimantan and Sulawesi also have significant Hindu populations; most are Balinese who migrated to these areas through government-sponsored transmigration program or urbanised Balinese attracted to cities in Java, especially the Greater Jakarta area. The Tamil Indonesians in Medan represents another important concentration of Hindus.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: There are indigenous religions that are incorporated into the Hinduism (not all followers agree): Hindu Kaharingan of Dayak people; Javanese Hinduism of Tenggerese tribe; Hindu Tolotang of Bugis; and Aluk Todolo of Toraja.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: There are also some international Hindu reform movements, including the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Sathya Sai Organization, Chinmaya Mission, Brahma Kumaris, Ananda Marga, Sahaja Yoga, and Haidakhandi Samaj.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Buddhism is the second oldest religion in Indonesia, arriving around the sixth century. The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism, as some empires based on Buddhist culture were established around the same period. The Indonesian archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful Buddhist empires such as Shailendra dynasty, Srivijaya and Mataram Empires. The arrival of Buddhism was started with trading activities that began in the early first century on the Silk Road between Indonesia and India. According to some Chinese sources, a Chinese monk on his journey to India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based in Sumatra. The empire also served as a Buddhist learning centre in the region. Some historical heritage monuments can be found in Indonesia, including the Borobudur Temple in Yogyakarta and statues or "prasasti" (inscriptions) from the earlier history of Buddhist empires.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Following the downfall of President Sukarno in the mid-1960s and the mandatory policy of having a religion, founder of Perbuddhi (Indonesian Buddhists Organisation), Bhikku Ashin Jinarakkhita, proposed that there was a single supreme deity, Sanghyang Adi Buddha. He was also backed up with the history behind the Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts, and the shape of the Borobudur Temple.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: According to the 2018 census, roughly 0.8% of Indonesians are Buddhists, which takes up about 2 million people. Most Buddhists are concentrated in Jakarta, although other provinces such as Riau, North Sumatra and West Kalimantan also have a significant number of practitioners. However, the figures are likely higher, since practitioners of Confucianism and Taoism, the latter of which is not considered an official religion, referred to themselves as Buddhists on the census. Today, most Buddhists are Chinese Indonesians and, to a lesser extent, among the Javanese and Balinese. Among the Indonesian Buddhists follow major Buddhist schools: Mahayana, Vajrayana, and Theravada. Most Chinese Indonesians follow a syncretic flows with Chinese beliefs, such as the three teachings (Tridharma) and Yiguandao (Maytreya).


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Confucianism originated in China and was brought to Indonesia by Chinese merchants as early as the 3rd century AD. Unlike other religions, Confucianism evolved more into loose individual practices and belief in the code of conduct, rather than a well-organised community with a sound theology—akin to a way of life or social movement than a religion. It was not until the early 1900s that Confucianists formed an organisation, called "Khong Kauw Hwe" (THHK) in Batavia.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: After the Indonesian independence in 1945, Confucianism was affected by several political conflicts. In 1965, Sukarno issued Presidential Decree No. 1/Pn.Ps/1965, recognising that six religions are embraced by the Indonesian people, including Confucianism. In 1961, the "Association of Khung Chiao Hui Indonesia" (PKCHI) (now the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia) had declared that Confucianism is a religion and Confucius is their prophet.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: During the New Order, the anti-China policy became a scapegoat-like method to gain political support from the masses, especially after the fall of PKI, which had allegedly been backed by China. In 1967, Suharto issued controversial Presidential Instruction No. 14/1967, which effectively banned Chinese culture, including documents printed in Chinese, expressions of Chinese belief, Chinese celebrations and festivities, and even Chinese names. However, Suharto acknowledged that the Chinese Indonesians had a large amount of wealth and power, despite consisting only 3% of the population.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: In 1969, Statute No. 5/1969 was passed, restoring the official total of six religions. However, it was not always put into practice. In 1978, the Minister of Home Affairs issued a directive asserting there are only five religions, excluding Confucianism. On 27 January 1979, a presidential cabinet meeting decided that Confucianism is not a religion. Another Minister of Home Affairs directive in 1990 re-iterated the total of five official religions in Indonesia. Therefore, the status of Confucianism during the New Order regime was never clear. "De jure", there were conflicting laws, because higher laws permitted Confucianism, but lower ones did not recognise it. "De facto", Confucianists were not recognised by the government, and they were forced to register with one of the original five official religions to maintain their citizenship. This practice was applied in many places, including the national registration card, marriage registration, and family registration card. Civics education in Indonesia taught school children that there are only five official religions.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Following the fall of Suharto in 1998, Abdurrahman Wahid was elected as the country's fourth president. He rescinded the 1967 Presidential Instruction and the 1978 Home Affairs Ministry directive, and Confucianism once again became officially recognised as a religion in Indonesia. Chinese culture and activities were again permitted.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: A number of ancestral animistic/polytheistic indigenous religions (Austronesian and Papuan ethnic beliefs) are present, which were dominant throughout the archipelago before the arrival of Dharmic and Abrahamic religions. Some still exist in some parts of Indonesia as either pure or syncretic. They include:


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The non-official number of ethnic believers is up to 20 million. The government often views indigenous beliefs as "kepercayaan adat" (custom) rather than "agama" (religion) or as a variant of a recognised religion. Because of this, followers of these beliefs such as Dayak Kaharingan have identified themselves as Hindu as a result to avoid pressure to convert to Islam or Christianity. Several native tribal beliefs such as Sunda Wiwitan, Toraja Aluk Todolo, and Batak Parmalim — although different from Indian-influenced Balinese Hinduism — might seek affiliation with Hinduism to survive, while at the same time also preserving their distinction from mainstream Indonesian Hinduism dominated by the Balinese. In many cases, some of the followers of these native beliefs might convert to Christianity or Islam, at least registered as such on their KTP while still upholding and performing their native beliefs.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: However, "the branches/flows of beliefs" (), including local new religious movements, are partly recognised according to a 2017 decision of the Constitutional Court. It rules that the law requiring people whose 'religion is not recognised', or followers of indigenous religions to leave the religion column on identity documents blank is contrary to the constitution.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: "Kejawèn" (Javanese beliefs) or "Kebatinan" is an amalgam of animism, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic — especially Sufi — beliefs. The beliefs are rooted in Javanese history and spiritualism with the tendency to syncretise aspects of different religions in search for a common ground. "Kejawèn" is generally characterised as mystical, and some varieties were concerned with spiritual self-control. Although there were many varieties circulating in 1992, "Kejawèn" often implies pantheistic worship because it encourages sacrifices and devotions to local and ancestral spirits. These spirits are believed to inhabit natural objects, human beings, artefacts, and grave sites of the important wali (Muslim saints). Illness and other misfortunes are traced to such spirits, and if sacrifices or pilgrimages fail to placate angry deities, the advice of a "dukun" or healer is sought. "Kejawèn", while it connotes a turning away from the aggressive universalism of orthodox Islam, moves toward a more internalised universalism. In this way, Kebatinan moves toward eliminating the distinction between the universal and the local, the communal and the individual.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The "Kejawèn" have no certain prophet, a sacred book, nor distinct religious festivals and rituals; it has more to do with each adherent's internalised transcendental vision and beliefs in their relations with others and with the supreme being. As a result, there is an inclusiveness that the "kebatinan" believer could identify themselves with one of six officially recognised religions, at least in KTP, while still subscribe to their "kebatinan" belief and way of life. This loosely organised current of thought and practice was legitimised in the 1945 constitution and, in 1973, when it was recognised as "Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa" ("Believer of One Supreme God") that somewhat gain the status as one of the "agama". President Suharto regarded himself as one of its adherents.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Subud is an international spiritual movement that began in Indonesia in the 1920s as a movement related to Sufism and Javanese beliefs founded by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo. (The name Subud was first used in the late 1940s when Subud was legally registered in Indonesia.) The basis of Subud is a spiritual exercise commonly referred to as the "latihan kejiwaan", which was said by Muhammad Subuh to be guidance from "the Power of God" or "the Great Life Force".


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Muhammad Subuh saw the present age as one that demands personal evidence and proof of religious or spiritual realities, as people no longer just believe in words. He claimed that Subud is not a new teaching or religion, but only that the latihan kejiwaan itself is the kind of proof that humanity is looking for. There are now Subud groups in about 83 countries, with a worldwide membership of about 10,000.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Indonesian social-religious Saminism Movement (also Sedulur Sikep) rejected the capitalist views of the colonial Dutch, was founded by Surosentiko Samin in north-central Java (Blora) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Dukun and pawang are Indonesians' terms for a shaman (the Malays in Indonesia use word bomoh). Their societal role is that of a traditional healer, spirit medium, custom and tradition experts and on occasion sorcerers and masters of black magic. In common usage, the dukun is often confused with another type of shaman, the pawang. It is often mistranslated into English as "witch-doctor" or "medicine man". Many self-styled shamans in Indonesia are scammers and criminals, preying on gullible and superstitious people who were raised to believe in the supernatural.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The early Sephardi Jews establishment in the archipelago came from Portugal and Spain in the 17th century. In the 1850s, about 20 Jewish families of Dutch and German origins lived in Batavia. Some lived in Semarang and Surabaya. Several Baghdadi Jews also settled. Before 1945, there were about 2.000 Dutch Jews in Indonesia. Some Jews even converted to Christianity or Islam during the Japanese occupation when Jews were sent to internment camps, and the Indonesian National Revolution when Eurasians were targeted. In 1957, it was reported that around 450 Jews remained, mainly Ashkenazim in Jakarta and Sephardim in Surabaya. The community decreased to 50 in 1963 and to 20 in 1997.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Jews in Surabaya maintained a synagogue for many years, with sporadic support from relatives and co-religionists residing in Singapore. Beth Shalom closed in 2009 after radical groups protested against Israel's assault on Gaza that year. It was later designated a heritage site by the Surabaya government, but was demolished in May 2013 without warning as part of a mysterious real estate deal.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Since 2003, "Shaar Hashamayim" synagogue has been serving the local Jewish community of some 20 people in Tondano city, North Sulawesi, which is attended by around 10 Orthodox Jews (Hasidic Chabad group). Currently, it is the only synagogue in Indonesia that provides services.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The organisation "The United Indonesian Jewish Community" (UIJC) has been formed since 2009 and inaugurated in October 2010. In 2015, the first official Jewish centre, "Beit Torat Chaim", was inaugurated by the Religious Affairs Ministry. It is located in Jakarta and will be led by Rabbi Tovia Singer.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: According to the Association of Religion Data Archives in the Bahá'í Faith in Indonesia had 22,115 adherents in 2005.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The community is subject to a measure of government discrimination. Since 2014, the situation has improved in the form of government plans for possible recognition (there was an erroneous opinion on already held the official recognition of the Bahai in 2014).


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Sikhs migration to Indonesia began in the 1870s (guardians and traders). There are several gurdwaras and schools in Sumatra and Java, for example, in Medan was built in 1911. In 2015, the Supreme Council for the Sikh Religion in Indonesia was founded. Numbering about 7.000 (or between 10.000 and 15.000), Sikhs are not officially recognised by the government, resulting in adherents referring to themselves as Hindus on the KTP.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Apart from the orthodox, Sikhism in Indonesia represented the Sikh reformist movement Radha Soami Satsang Beas (RSSB).


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: A small Jain community, Jain Social Group Indonesia (JSG Indonesia), exists in Jakarta among Indian Indonesians.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The most famous of the new religious movements in Indonesia are Theosophical Society, Transcendental Meditation movement, Falun Gong, and originated in Indonesia Subud and Eden community (Jamaah Alamulla).


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Although there is no specific law that bans atheism, legal cases in which atheists have been charged with blasphemy for publicly expressing atheist points of view have raised the issue of whether it is "de facto" illegal to do so according to Pancasila. Some clerics invoke the first Pancasila principle to argue that it is illegal, while legal scholars say that the principle was adopted as a compromise between secular nationalist, Muslim and non-Muslim founders, and not intended to ban atheism. Nonetheless, atheists as a group tend not to express their atheism publicly for fear of prosecution.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: In 2012, civil servant Alexander Aan was sentenced to 30 months in prison for writing "God doesn't exist" on his Facebook page and sharing explicit material about the prophet Muhammad online, sparking nationwide debate. Alexander's lawyers speculated that there were only around 2,000 atheists in Indonesia, but stated that it was difficult to estimate due to the threat of imprisonment for open atheism.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Although the government recognises several different religions, inter-religious conflicts have occurred. During the New Order, President Suharto proposed the Anti-Chinese law which prohibits anything related to Chinese culture, including names and religions. Suharto also made an effort to "de-Islamicise" the government, by maintaining a large proportion of Christians in his cabinet. However, in the early 1990s, the issue of Islamisation appeared, and the military split into two groups, the Nationalist and Islamic camps. The latter, led by General Prabowo Subianto, was in favour of Islamisation, while General Wiranto was in the former in favour of a secular state.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: During the New Order, the transmigration program continued after it was initiated by the Dutch East Indies government in the early nineteenth century. The intention was to move millions of people from overcrowded and populated Java, Bali and Madura to less populated regions, such as Ambon, Lesser Sunda Islands and Papua. It has received much criticism, being described as a type of colonisation by the Javanese and Madurese who also brought Islam to non-Muslim areas. Citizens in western Indonesia are mostly Muslims with Christians a small minority, while in eastern regions, the Christian populations are similar in size or larger than the Muslim population. This more even population distribution has led to more religious conflicts in the eastern regions, including Poso riots and the Maluku sectarian conflict communal violence since the resignation of President Suharto.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The government has made an effort to reduce the tension by proposing the inter-religion cooperation plan. The Foreign Ministry, along with the most prominent Islamic organisation in Indonesia, Nahdatul Ulama, held the International Conference of Islamic Scholars, to promote Islamic moderation, which is believed to reduce the tension in the country. On 6 December 2004, the "Dialogue On Interfaith Cooperation: Community Building and Harmony" conference was opened. The meeting, attended by ASEAN countries, Australia, East Timor, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea was intended to discuss possible cooperation between different religious groups to minimise inter-religious conflict in Indonesia.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Nevertheless, the 2010 report to the United States Congress by the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom noted attacks against the Shia communities in Indonesia, particularly in East Java and Madura. In one incident in Madura, local villagers surrounded Shia houses and demanded they desist religious activities, but the crowd was dispersed by local leaders and clergy. On the issue of the Ahmadiyya , Indonesia has failed to act and uphold their human rights. Several Ahmadi mosques were burnt in 2008. 126 Ahmadis have become refugees within their own country in the four years before 2012.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: There is, however, indications that religious conflicts regarding the building of places of worships have more to do with business interest than in religious issues. For example, the dispute over a Bethel Injil Sepenuh Church (GBIS) in Jakarta was due to land dispute dating back to 1957, while the Indonesia Christian Church (GKI) Taman Yasmin dispute in Bogor was due to the municipal government plan to turn the church's area into a business district. The Taman Yasmin Church in Bogor has been upheld and protected by Supreme Court of Indonesia, but the mayor of Bogor refused to comply with the court ruling. A positive form of relations has also appeared in society, such as the effort from six different religious organisations to help the 2004 tsunami victims. In 2011, the interfaith 'Indonesia Sunni and Shia Council' (MUHSIN) was established.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: In 2017, the blasphemy trial of Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (Ahok) received international attention. In 2016, at a campaign stop during the capital city's gubernatorial election, Ahok stated some citizens would not vote for him because they were being "threatened and deceived" by those using the verse Al-Ma'ida 51 of the Qur'an and variations of it. After a university lecturer, Buni Yani edited the video containing his speech, widespread protests against him ensued, culminating in his controversial imprisonment in May 2017. The Joko Widodo administration responded by banning the Indonesian chapter of Hizb ut-Tahrir. Subsequent government attempts, particularly by the country's intelligence agency (BIN), in curbing radicalism has been called an attack on Islam by some sectarian figures.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: Religion was a census variable in the 1961, 1971, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2018 and in various intercensal surveys. Being deemed divisive, the 1961 census data regarding religion was not published. In 1971, three groups of Christians were recorded: Catholic, Protestant and other. The U.N. Demographic Yearbook 1979 only lists data collectively for all Christians. In the 2000 census, only Catholics and Protestants were available as categories.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: The Muslim population in percentage terms decreased in the period 2000-2010 due to the large number of Muslims who died as a result of the tsunami in Aceh Province on December 26, 2004.


title: Religion in Indonesia

text: In 2018, based on data from the BPS stated that 86.7% of Indonesians are Muslims, 10.72% Christians (7.6% Protestants, 3.12% Roman Catholic), 1.74% Hindu, 0.77% Buddhists, 0.03% Confucians and 0.05% Others.


title: Bitches Brew

text: Bitches Brew is a studio album by American jazz trumpeter, composer, and bandleader Miles Davis. It was recorded from August 19 to 21, 1969, at Columbia's Studio B in New York City and released on March 30, 1970 by Columbia Records. It marked his continuing experimentation with electric instruments that he had featured on his previous record, the critically acclaimed "In a Silent Way" (1969). With these instruments, such as the electric piano and guitar, Davis departed from traditional jazz rhythms in favor of loose, rock-influenced arrangements based on improvisation. The final tracks were edited and pieced together by producer Teo Macero.


title: Bitches Brew

text: The album initially received a mixed critical and commercial response, but it gained momentum and became Davis' highest-charting album on the U.S. "Billboard" 200, peaking at No. 35. In 1971, it won a Grammy Award for Best Large Jazz Ensemble Album. In 1976, it became Davis' first gold album to be certified by the Recording Industry Association of America.


title: Bitches Brew

text: In subsequent years, "Bitches Brew" gained recognition as one of jazz's greatest albums and a progenitor of the jazz rock genre, as well as a major influence on rock and '70s crossover musicians. In 1998, Columbia released "The Complete Bitches Brew Sessions", a four-disc box set that includes the original album and previously unreleased material. In 2003, the album was certified platinum, reflecting shipments of one million copies.


title: Bitches Brew

text: By 1969, Davis' core working band consisted of Wayne Shorter on soprano saxophone, Dave Holland on bass, Chick Corea on electric piano, and Jack DeJohnette on drums. The group, minus DeJohnette, recorded "In a Silent Way" (1969), which also featured Joe Zawinul, John McLaughlin, Tony Williams, and Herbie Hancock. The album marked the beginning of Davis' "electric period", incorporating instruments such as the electric piano and guitar and jazz fusion styles. For his next studio album, Davis wished to explore his electronic and fusion style even further. While touring with his five-piece from the spring to August 1969, he introduced new pieces for his band to play, including early versions of what became "Miles Runs the Voodoo Down", "Sanctuary", and "Spanish Key". At this point in his career Davis was influenced by contemporary rock and funk music, Zawinul's playing with Cannonball Adderley, and the work of English composer Paul Buckmaster.


title: Bitches Brew

text: In August 1969, Davis gathered his band for a rehearsal, one week prior to the booked recording sessions. As well as his five-piece, they were joined by Zawinul, McLaughlin, Larry Young, Lenny White, Don Alias, Juma Santos, and Bennie Maupin. Davis had written simple chord lines, at first for three pianos, which he expanded into a sketch of a larger scale composition. He presented the group with some "musical sketches" and told them they could play anything that came to mind as long as they play off of his chosen chord. Davis had not arranged each piece because he was unsure of the direction the album was to take and that what was produced came from an improvisational process, "not some prearranged shit."


title: Bitches Brew

text: Davis booked Columbia's Studio B in New York City from August 19–21, 1969. The session on August 19 began at 10 a.m., the band attempting "Bitches Brew" first. Everyone was set up in a half-circle with Davis and Shorter in the middle. In Lenny White’s words:


title: Bitches Brew

text: As usual with Davis' recording sessions during this period, tracks were recorded in sections. Davis gave a few instructions: a tempo count, a few chords or a hint of melody, and suggestions as to mood or tone. Davis liked to work this way; he thought it forced musicians to pay close attention to one another, to their own performances, or to Davis' cues, which could change at any moment. On the quieter moments of "Bitches Brew", for example, Davis' voice is audible, giving instructions to the musicians: snapping his fingers to indicate tempo, or, in his distinctive voice, saying, "Keep it tight" or telling individuals when to solo—e.g., saying "John" during the title track. "John McLaughlin" and "Sanctuary" were also put down during the August 19 session. Towards the end the group rehearsed "Pharaoh's Dance".


title: Bitches Brew

text: Despite his reputation as a "cool", melodic improviser, much of Davis' playing on this album is aggressive and explosive, often playing fast runs and venturing into the upper register of the trumpet. His closing solo on "Miles Runs the Voodoo Down" is particularly noteworthy in this regard. Davis did not perform on the short piece "John McLaughlin".


title: Bitches Brew

text: It is not known where the album title came from, and there are various theories as to where it originates. Some believe it was a reference to women in Davis' life who were introducing him to cultural changes in the '60s. Other explanations have been given.


title: Bitches Brew

text: Significant editing was made to the recorded music. Short sections were spliced together to create longer pieces, and various effects were applied to the recordings. Paul Tingen reports:


title: Bitches Brew

text: Though "Bitches Brew" was in many ways revolutionary, perhaps its most important innovation was rhythmic. The rhythm section for this recording consists of two bassists (one playing bass guitar, the other double bass), two to three drummers, two to three electric piano players, and a percussionist, all playing at the same time. As Paul Tanner, Maurice Gerow, and David Megill explain, "like rock groups, Davis gives the rhythm section a central role in the ensemble's activities. His use of such a large rhythm section offers the soloists wide but active expanses for their solos."


title: Bitches Brew

text: Tanner, Gerow and Megill further explain that "the harmonies used in this recording move very slowly and function modally rather than in a more tonal fashion typical of mainstream jazz... The static harmonies and rhythm section's collective embellishment create a very open arena for improvisation. The musical result flows from basic rock patterns to hard bop textures, and at times, even passages that are more characteristic of free jazz." The solo voices heard most prominently on this album are the trumpet and the soprano saxophone, respectively of Miles and Wayne Shorter. Notable also is Bennie Maupin's bass clarinet present on four tracks.


title: Bitches Brew

text: The technology of recording, analog tape, disc mastering, and inherent recording time constraints had, by the late sixties, expanded beyond previous limitations and sonic range for the stereo, vinyl album and "Bitches Brew" reflects this. In it are long-form performances that encompass entire improvised suites with rubato sections, tempo changes or the long, slow crescendo more common to a symphonic orchestral piece or Indian raga form than the three-minute rock song. Starting in 1969, Davis' concerts included some of the material that would become "Bitches Brew".


title: Bitches Brew

text: "Bitches Brew" was released in March 1970. It gained commercial momentum for the next four months and peaked at No. 35 on the U.S. "Billboard" 200 for the week of July 4, 1970. This remains Davis' best performance on the chart. On September 22, 2003, the album was certified platinum by the RIAA for selling one million copies in the U.S.


title: Bitches Brew

text: In addition to the standard two channel stereo version, the album was also mixed for four channel quadraphonic sound. A quad LP version was released by Columbia, using the SQ matrix system, in 1971. The album was reissued by Sony in Japan in 2018 on the Super Audio CD format containing both the complete stereo and quadraphonic mixes.