title: Electrical telegraph

text: By this point, reception had been automated, but the speed and accuracy of the transmission were still limited to the skill of the human operator. The first practical automated system was patented by Charles Wheatstone. The message (in Morse code) was typed onto a piece of perforated tape using a keyboard-like device called the 'Stick Punch'. The transmitter automatically ran the tape through and transmitted the message at the then exceptionally high speed of 70 words per minute.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: An early successful teleprinter was invented by Frederick G. Creed. In Glasgow he created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals onto paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System, which could run at an unprecedented 200 words per minute. His system was adopted by the "Daily Mail" for daily transmission of the newspaper contents.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: With the invention of the teletypewriter, telegraphic encoding became fully automated. Early teletypewriters used the ITA-1 Baudot code, a five-bit code. This yielded only thirty-two codes, so it was over-defined into two "shifts", "letters" and "figures". An explicit, unshared shift code prefaced each set of letters and figures. In 1901, Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In the 1930s, teleprinters were produced by Teletype in the US, Creed in Britain and Siemens in Germany.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: By 1935, message routing was the last great barrier to full automation. Large telegraphy providers began to develop systems that used telephone-like rotary dialling to connect teletypewriters. These resulting systems were called "Telex" (TELegraph EXchange). Telex machines first performed rotary-telephone-style pulse dialling for circuit switching, and then sent data by ITA2. This "type A" Telex routing functionally automated message routing.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The first wide-coverage Telex network was implemented in Germany during the 1930s as a network used to communicate within the government.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: At the rate of 45.45 (±0.5%) baud – considered speedy at the time – up to 25 telex channels could share a single long-distance telephone channel by using "voice frequency telegraphy multiplexing", making telex the least expensive method of reliable long-distance communication.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Automatic teleprinter exchange service was introduced into Canada by CPR Telegraphs and CN Telegraph in July 1957 and in 1958, Western Union started to build a Telex network in the United States.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The most expensive aspect of a telegraph system was the installation – the laying of the wire, which was often very long. The costs would be better covered by finding a way to send more than one message at a time through the single wire, thus increasing revenue per wire. Early devices included the duplex and the quadruplex which allowed, respectively, one or two telegraph transmissions in each direction. However, an even greater number of channels was desired on the busiest lines. In the latter half of the 1800s, several inventors worked towards creating a method for doing just that, including Charles Bourseul, Thomas Edison, Elisha Gray, and Alexander Graham Bell.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: One approach was to have resonators of several different frequencies act as carriers of a modulated on-off signal. This was the harmonic telegraph, a form of frequency-division multiplexing. These various frequencies, referred to as harmonics, could then be combined into one complex signal and sent down the single wire. On the receiving end, the frequencies would be separated with a matching set of resonators.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: With a set of frequencies being carried down a single wire, it was realized that the human voice itself could be transmitted electrically through the wire. This effort led to the invention of the telephone. (While the work toward packing multiple telegraph signals onto one wire led to telephony, later advances would pack multiple voice signals onto one wire by increasing the bandwidth by modulating frequencies much higher than human hearing. Eventually, the bandwidth was widened much further by using laser light signals sent through fiber optic cables. Fiber optic transmission can carry 25,000 telephone signals simultaneously down a single fiber.)


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Soon after the first successful telegraph systems were operational, the possibility of transmitting messages across the sea by way of submarine communications cables was first proposed. One of the primary technical challenges was to sufficiently insulate the submarine cable to prevent the electric current from leaking out into the water. In 1842, a Scottish surgeon William Montgomerie introduced gutta-percha, the adhesive juice of the "Palaquium gutta" tree, to Europe. Michael Faraday and Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta-percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from Dover to Calais. Gutta-percha was used as insulation on a wire laid across the Rhine between Deutz and Cologne. In 1849, C. V. Walker, electrician to the South Eastern Railway, submerged a wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: John Watkins Brett, an engineer from Bristol, sought and obtained permission from Louis-Philippe in 1847 to establish telegraphic communication between France and England. The first undersea cable was laid in 1850, connecting the two countries and was followed by connections to Ireland and the Low Countries.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed in London in 1856 to undertake to construct a commercial telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean. It was successfully completed on 18 July 1866 by the ship SS "Great Eastern", captained by Sir James Anderson, after many mishaps along the away. John Pender, one of the men on the Great Eastern, later founded several telecommunications companies primarily laying cables between Britain and Southeast Asia. Earlier transatlantic submarine cables installations were attempted in 1857, 1858 and 1865. The 1857 cable only operated intermittently for a few days or weeks before it failed. The study of underwater telegraph cables accelerated interest in mathematical analysis of very long transmission lines. The telegraph lines from Britain to India were connected in 1870. (Those several companies combined to form the "Eastern Telegraph Company" in 1872.) The HMS "Challenger" expedition in 1873–1876 mapped the ocean floor for future underwater telegraph cables.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Australia was first linked to the rest of the world in October 1872 by a submarine telegraph cable at Darwin. This brought news reports from the rest of the world. The telegraph across the Pacific was completed in 1902, finally encircling the world.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: From the 1850s until well into the 20th century, British submarine cable systems dominated the world system. This was set out as a formal strategic goal, which became known as the All Red Line. In 1896, there were thirty cable laying ships in the world and twenty-four of them were owned by British companies. In 1892, British companies owned and operated two-thirds of the world's cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Cable & Wireless was a British telecommunications company that traced its origins back to the 1860s, with Sir John Pender as the founder, although the name was only adopted in 1934. It was formed from successive mergers including:


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The telegraph was very important for sending time signals to determine longitude, providing greater accuracy than previously available. Longitude was measured by comparing local time (for example local noon occurs when the sun is at its highest above the horizon) with absolute time (a time that is the same for an observer anywhere on earth). If the local times of two places differ by one hour, the difference in longitude between them is 15° (360°/24h). Before telegraphy, absolute time could be obtained from astronomical events, such as eclipses, occultations or lunar distances, or by transporting an accurate clock (a chronometer) from one location to the other.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The idea of using the telegraph to transmit a time signal for longitude determination was suggested by François Arago to Samuel Morse in 1837, and the first test of this idea was made by Capt. Wilkes of the U.S. Navy in 1844, over Morse's line between Washington and Baltimore. The method was soon in practical use for longitude determination, in particular by the U.S. Coast Survey, and over longer and longer distances as the telegraph network spread across North America and the world, and as technical developments improved accuracy and productivity


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The "telegraphic longitude net" soon became worldwide. Transatlantic links between Europe and North America were established in 1866 and 1870. The US Navy extended observations into the West Indies and Central and South America with an additional transatlantic link from South America to Lisbon between 1874 and 1890. British, Russian and US observations created a chain from Europe through Suez, Aden, Madras, Singapore, China and Japan, to Vladivostok, thence to Saint Petersburg and back to Western Europe.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Australia was linked to Singapore via Java in 1871 and the web circled the globe in 1902 with the connection of Australia and New Zealand to Canada via the All Red Line. The double determination of longitudes from east to west and from west to east agreed within one second of arc ( second of time – less than 30 metres).


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The ability to send telegrams brought obvious advantages to those conducting war. Secret messages were encoded, so interception alone would not be sufficient for the opposing side to gain an advantage. There were also geographical constraints on intercepting the telegraph cables that improved security, however once radio telegraphy was developed interception became far more widespread.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use telegraphs and was one of the first to be documented extensively. In 1854, the government in London created a military Telegraph Detachment for the Army commanded by an officer of the Royal Engineers. It was to comprise twenty-five men from the Royal Corps of Sappers & Miners trained by the Electric Telegraph Company to construct and work the first field electric telegraph.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Journalistic recording of the war was provided by William Howard Russell (writing for "The Times" newspaper) with photographs by Roger Fenton. News from war correspondents kept the public of the nations involved in the war informed of the day-to-day events in a way that had not been possible in any previous war. After the French extended the telegraph to the coast of the Black Sea in late 1854, the news reached London in two days. When the British laid an underwater cable to the Crimean peninsula in April 1855, news reached London in a few hours. The daily news reports energised public opinion, which brought down the government and led to Lord Palmerston becoming prime minister.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: During the American Civil War the telegraph proved its value as a tactical, operational, and strategic communication medium and an important contributor to Union victory. By contrast the Confederacy failed to make effective use of the South's much smaller telegraph network. Prior to the War the telegraph systems were primarily used in the commercial sector. Government buildings were not inter-connected with telegraph lines, but relied on runners to carry messages back and forth. Before the war the Government saw no need to connect lines within city limits, however, they did see the use in connections between cities. Washington D.C. being the hub of government, it had the most connections, but there were only a few lines running north and south out of the city. It wasn't until the Civil War that the government saw the true potential of the telegraph system. Soon after the shelling of Fort Sumter, the South cut telegraph lines running into D.C., which put the city in a state of panic because they feared an immediate Southern invasion.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Within 6 months of the start of the war, the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps (USMT) had laid approximately of line. By war's end they had laid approximately of line, 8,000 for military and 5,000 for commercial use, and had handled approximately 6.5 million messages. The telegraph was not only important for communication within the armed forces, but also in the civilian sector, helping political leaders to maintain control over their districts.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Even before the war, the American Telegraph Company censored suspect messages informally to block aid to the secession movement. During the war, Secretary of War Simon Cameron, and later Edwin Stanton, wanted control over the telegraph lines to maintain the flow of information. Early in the war, one of Stanton's first acts as Secretary of War was to move telegraph lines from ending at McClellan's headquarters to terminating at the War Department. Stanton himself said "[telegraphy] is my right arm". Telegraphy assisted Northern victories, including the Battle of Antietam (1862), the Battle of Chickamauga (1863), and Sherman's March to the Sea (1864).


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The telegraph system still had its flaws. The USMT, while the main source of telegraphers and cable, was still a civilian agency. Most operators were first hired by the telegraph companies and then contracted out to the War Department. This created tension between Generals and their operators. One source of irritation was that USMT operators did not have to follow military authority. Usually they performed without hesitation, but they were not required to, so Albert Myer created a U.S. Army Signal Corps in February 1863. As the new head of the Signal Corps, Myer tried to get all telegraph and flag signaling under his command, and therefore subject to military discipline. After creating the Signal Corps, Myer pushed to further develop new telegraph systems. While the USMT relied primarily on civilian lines and operators, the Signal Corp's new field telegraph could be deployed and dismantled faster than USMT's system.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: During World War I, Britain's telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted, while it was able to quickly cut Germany's cables worldwide. The British government censored telegraph cable companies in an effort to root out espionage and restrict financial transactions with Central Powers nations. British access to transatlantic cables and its codebreaking expertise led to the Zimmermann Telegram incident that contributed to the US joining the war. Despite British acquisition of German colonies and expansion into the Middle East, debt from the war led to Britain's control over telegraph cables to weaken while US control grew.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: World War II revived the 'cable war' of 1914–1918. In 1939, German-owned cables across the Atlantic were cut once again, and, in 1940, Italian cables to South America and Spain were cut in retaliation for Italian action against two of the five British cables linking Gibraltar and Malta. Electra House, Cable & Wireless's head office and central cable station, was damaged by German bombing in 1941.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Resistance movements in occupied Europe sabotaged communications facilities such as telegraph lines, forcing the Germans to use wireless telegraphy, which could then be intercepted by Britain.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The Germans developed a highly complex teleprinter attachment (German: "Schlüssel-Zusatz", "cipher attachment") that was used for enciphering telegrams, using the Lorenz cipher, between German High Command (OKW) and the army groups in the field. These contained situation reports, battle plans, and discussions of strategy and tactics. Britain intercepted these signals, diagnosed how the encrypting machine worked, and decrypted a large amount of teleprinter traffic.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In America, the end of the telegraph era can be associated with the fall of the Western Union Telegraph Company. Western Union was the leading telegraph provider for America and was seen as the best competition for the National Bell Telephone Company. Western Union and Bell were both invested in telegraphy and telephone technology. Western Union's decision to allow Bell to gain the advantage in telephone technology was the result of Western Union's upper management's failure to foresee the surpassing of the telephone over the, at the time, dominant telegraph system. Western Union soon lost the legal battle for the rights to their telephone copyrights. This led to Western Union agreeing to a lesser position in the telephone competition, which in turn led to the lessening of the telegraph.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: While the telegraph was not the focus of the legal battles that occurred around 1878, the companies that were affected by the effects of the battle were the main powers of telegraphy at the time. Western Union thought that the agreement of 1878 would solidify telegraphy as the long-range communication of choice. However, due to the underestimates of telegraph's future and poor contracts, Western Union found itself declining. AT&T acquired working control of Western Union in 1909 but relinquished it in 1914 under threat of antitrust action. AT&T bought Western Union's electronic mail and Telex businesses in 1990.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Although commercial "telegraph" services are still available in many countries, transmission is usually done via a computer network rather than a dedicated wired connection.


title: Names of Japan

text: The word "Japan" is an exonym, and is used (in one form or another) by many languages. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon () and Nihon (). They are both written in Japanese using the kanji .


title: Names of Japan

text: During the third-century CE Three Kingdoms period, Japan was inhabited by the Yayoi people who lived in Kyushu up to the Kanto region. They were called "Wa" in Chinese, and the kanji for their name can be translated as "dwarf" or "submissive". Japanese scribes found fault with its offensive connotation, and officially changed the characters they used to spell the native name for Japan, "Yamato", replacing the ("dwarf") character for "Wa" with the homophone ("peaceful, harmonious"). "Wa" was often combined with ("great") to form the name , which is read as "Yamato" (see also Jukujikun for a discussion of this type of spelling where the kanji and pronunciations are not directly related). The earliest record of appears in the Chinese "Old Book of Tang", which notes the change in 703 when Japanese envoys requested that its name be changed. It is believed that the name change within Japan itself took place sometime between 665 and 703. During the Heian period, was gradually replaced by , which was first pronounced with the Chinese reading (on'yomi) "Nippon" and later as "Nifon", and then in modern usage "Nihon", reflecting shifts in phonology in Early Modern Japanese. Marco Polo called Japan 'Cipangu' around 1300, based on the Chinese name, probably (compare modern Min Nan pronunciation "ji̍t pún kok"). In the 16th century in Malacca, Portuguese traders first heard from Malay and Indonesian the names "Jepang", "Jipang", and "Jepun". In 1577 it was first recorded in English, spelled "Giapan". At the end of the 16th century, Portuguese missionaries came to Japan and created grammars and dictionaries of Middle Japanese. The 1603–1604 dictionary Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam has 2 entries: "nifon" and "iippon". Since then many derived names of Japan appeared on ancient European maps.


title: Names of Japan

text: Both "Nippon" and "Nihon" literally mean "the sun's origin", that is, where the sun originates, and are often translated as the "Land of the Rising Sun". This nomenclature comes from Imperial correspondence with the Chinese Sui Dynasty and refers to Japan's eastern position relative to China. Before "Nihon" came into official use, Japan was known as or . "Wa" was a name early China used to refer to an ethnic group living in Japan around the time of the Three Kingdoms Period. The Yayoi people primarily lived on the island of Kyushu to the Kanto region on Honshu.


title: Names of Japan

text: Although the etymological origins of "Wa" remain uncertain, Chinese historical texts recorded an ancient people residing in the Japanese archipelago (perhaps Kyūshū), named something like *ˀWâ or *ˀWər . Carr (1992:9–10) surveys prevalent proposals for Wa's etymology ranging from feasible (transcribing Japanese first-person pronouns "waga" "my; our" and "ware" "I; oneself; thou") to shameful (writing Japanese "Wa" as implying "dwarf"), and summarizes interpretations for *ˀWâ "Japanese" into variations on two etymologies: "behaviorally 'submissive' or physically 'short'." The first "submissive; obedient" explanation began with the (121 CE) "Shuowen Jiezi" dictionary. It defines as "shùnmào" "obedient/submissive/docile appearance", graphically explains the "person; human" radical with a "wěi" "bent" phonetic, and quotes the above "Shijing" poem. "Conceivably, when Chinese first met Japanese," Carr (1992:9) suggests "they transcribed Wa as *ˀWâ 'bent back' signifying 'compliant' bowing/obeisance. Bowing is noted in early historical references to Japan." Examples include "Respect is shown by squatting" ("Hou Han Shu", tr. Tsunoda 1951:2), and "they either squat or kneel, with both hands on the ground. This is the way they show respect." (Wei Zhi, tr. Tsunoda 1951:13). Koji Nakayama interprets "wēi" "winding" as "very far away" and euphemistically translates "Wō" as "separated from the continent." The second etymology of "wō" meaning "dwarf, pygmy" has possible cognates in "ǎi" "low, short (of stature)", "wō" "strain; sprain; bent legs", and "wò" "lie down; crouch; sit (animals and birds)". Early Chinese dynastic histories refer to a "Zhūrúguó" "pygmy/dwarf country" located south of Japan, associated with possibly Okinawa Island or the Ryukyu Islands. Carr cites the historical precedence of construing Wa as "submissive people" and the "Country of Dwarfs" legend as evidence that the "little people" etymology was a secondary development.


title: Names of Japan

text: Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scribes regularly wrote "Wa" or "Yamato" "Japan" with the Chinese character until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it due to its offensive connotation, replacing it with "harmony, peace, balance". Retroactively, this character was adopted in Japan to refer to the country itself, often combined with the character (literally meaning "Great"), so as to write the name as "Yamato" () (Great Wa, in a manner similar to "e.g." Great Qing Empire, Empire of Great Britain). However, the pronunciation "Yamato" cannot be formed from the sounds of its constituent characters; it refers to a place in Japan and, based on the specific spellings used in ancient documents (see also Man'yōgana and Old Japanese#Vowels), this may have originally meant .


title: Names of Japan

text: "Nippon" appeared in history only at the end of the 7th century. The "Old Book of Tang" (), one of the Twenty-Four Histories, stated that the Japanese envoy disliked his country's name "Woguo" (Chinese) (), and changed it to "Nippon" (Japanese; Mandarin Chinese: "Rìběn," Toisan Cantonese":" "Ngìp Bāwn") (), or "Origin of the Sun". Another 8th-century chronicle, "True Meaning of Shiji" (), however, states that the Chinese Empress Wu Zetian ordered a Japanese envoy to change the country's name to "Nippon". It has been suggested that the name change in Japan may have taken place sometime between 665 and 703, and Wu Zetian then acceded to the name change in China following a request from a delegation from Japan in 703. The sun plays an important role in Japanese mythology and religion as the emperor is said to be the direct descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu and the legitimacy of the ruling house rested on this divine appointment and descent from the chief deity of the predominant Shinto religion. The name of the country reflects this central importance of the sun. The association of the country with the sun was indicated in a letter sent in 607 and recorded in the official history of the Sui dynasty. Prince Shōtoku, the Regent of Japan, sent a mission to China with a letter in which he called the emperor of Japan (actually an empress at the time) . The message said: "The Son of Heaven, in the land of the rising sun, sends this letter to the Son of Heaven of the land, where the sun sets, and wishes him well".


title: Names of Japan

text: The English word for Japan came to the West from early trade routes. The early Mandarin Chinese or possibly Wu Chinese word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as "Cipangu". In modern Toisanese (a language in the Yue Chinese subgroup), 日本 is pronounced as "Ngìp Bāwn" ], which sounds nearly identical to "Nippon." The Malay and Indonesian words "Jepang", "Jipang", and "Jepun" were borrowed from non-Mandarin Chinese languages, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in 1577 spelled "Giapan".


title: Names of Japan

text: In English, the modern official title of the country is simply "Japan", one of the few countries to have no "long form" name. The official Japanese-language name is "Nippon-koku" or "Nihon-koku" (), literally ""State of Japan"". From the Meiji Restoration until the end of World War II, the full title of Japan was the "Empire of Great Japan" ( "Dai Nippon Teikoku"). A more poetic rendering of the name of Japan during this period was "Empire of the Sun." The official name of the nation was changed after the adoption of the post-war constitution; the title "State of Japan" is sometimes used as a colloquial modern-day equivalent. As an adjective, the term "Dai-Nippon" remains popular with Japanese governmental, commercial, or social organizations whose reach extend beyond Japan's geographic borders (e.g., Dai Nippon Printing, Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, etc.).


title: Names of Japan

text: Though "Nippon" or "Nihon" are still by far the most popular names for Japan from within the country, recently the foreign words "Japan" and even "Jipangu" (from "Cipangu", see below) have been used in Japanese mostly for the purpose of foreign branding.


title: Names of Japan

text: Portuguese missionaries arrived in Japan at the end of the 16th century. In the course of learning Japanese, they created several grammars and dictionaries of Middle Japanese. The 1603–1604 dictionary Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam contains two entries for Japan: "nifon" and "iippon".


title: Names of Japan

text: The title of the dictionary ("Vocabulary of the Language of Japan") illustrates that the Portuguese word for Japan was by that time "Iapam".


title: Names of Japan

text: Historically, Japanese has undergone a number of phonological changes. Originally *, this weakened into and eventually became the modern . Modern is still pronounced when followed by .


title: Names of Japan

text: Before modern styles of romanization, the Portuguese devised their own. In it, is written as either "ii" or "ji". In modern Hepburn style, "iippon" would be rendered as "Jippon". There are no historical phonological changes to take into account here.


title: Names of Japan

text: Etymologically, "Jippon" is similar to "Nippon" in that it is an alternative reading of . The initial character may also be read as or . Compounded with (), this regularly becomes "Jippon".


title: Names of Japan

text: The Japanese name for Japan, , can be pronounced either "Nihon" or "Nippon". Both readings come from the on'yomi.


title: Names of Japan

text: ("nichi") means "sun" or "day"; ("hon") means "base" or "origin". The compound means "origin of the sun" or "where the sun rises" (from a Chinese point of view, the sun rises from Japan); it is a source for the popular Western description of Japan as the "Land of the Rising Sun".


title: Names of Japan

text: "Nichi", in compounds, often loses the final "chi" and creates a slight pause between the first and second syllables of the compound. When romanised, this pause is represented by a doubling of the first consonant of the second syllable; thus "nichi" plus "kō" (light) is written and pronounced "nikkō", meaning sunlight.


title: Names of Japan

text: Japanese and were historically pronounced "niti" (or "jitu", reflecting a Late Middle Chinese pronunciation) and "pon", respectively. In compounds, however, final voiceless stops (i.e. "p", "t", "k") of the first word were unreleased in Middle Chinese, and the pronunciation of 日本 was thus "Nippon" or "Jippon" (with the adjacent consonants assimilating).


title: Names of Japan

text: Historical sound change in Japanese has led to the modern pronunciations of the individual characters as "nichi" and "hon". The pronunciation "Nihon" originated, possibly in the Kantō region, as a reintroduction of this independent pronunciation of into the compound. This must have taken place during the Edo period, after another sound change occurred which would have resulted in this form becoming "Niwon" and later "Nion".


title: Names of Japan

text: Several attempts to choose a definitive official reading were rejected by the Japanese government, which declared both to be correct.


title: Names of Japan

text: While both pronunciations are correct, "Nippon" is frequently preferred for official purposes, including money, stamps, and international sporting events, as well as the "Nippon-koku", literally the ""State of Japan"" ().


title: Names of Japan

text: Other than this, there seem to be no fixed rules for choosing one pronunciation over the other, but in some cases, one form is simply more common. For example, Japanese-speakers generally call their language "Nihongo"; "Nippongo", while possible,


title: Names of Japan

text: is rarely used. In other cases, uses are variable. The name for the Bank of Japan (), for example, is given as "NIPPON GINKO" on banknotes but is often referred to, such as in the media, as "Nihon Ginkō".


title: Names of Japan

text: In 2016, element 113 on the periodic table was named nihonium to honor its discovery in 2004 by Japanese scientists at RIKEN.


title: Names of Japan

text: As mentioned above, the English word "Japan" has a circuitous derivation; but linguists believe it derives in part from the Portuguese recording of the early Mandarin Chinese or Wu Chinese word for Japan: "Cipan" (), which is rendered in pinyin as "Rìběn" (IPA: ʐʅ˥˩pən˨˩˦), and literally translates to "sun origin". "Guó" (IPA: kuo˨˦) is Chinese for "realm" or "kingdom", so it could alternatively be rendered as "Cipan-guo". The word was likely introduced to Portuguese through the Malay: "Jipan".


title: Names of Japan

text: Cipangu was first mentioned in Europe in the accounts of Marco Polo. It appears for the first time on a European map with the Fra Mauro map in 1457, although it appears much earlier on Chinese and Korean maps such as the "Gangnido". Following the accounts of Marco Polo, Cipangu was thought to be fabulously rich in silver and gold, which in Medieval times was largely correct, owing to the volcanism of the islands and the possibility to access precious ores without resorting to (unavailable) deep-mining technologies.


title: Names of Japan

text: The modern Shanghainese pronunciation of Japan is "Zeppen" . In modern Japanese, "Cipangu" is transliterated as which in turn can be transliterated into English as "Chipangu", "Jipangu", "Zipangu", "Jipang", or "Zipang". "Jipangu" ( ("Zipangu")) as an obfuscated name for Japan has recently come into vogue for Japanese films, anime, video games, etc.


title: Names of Japan

text: These names were invented after the introduction of Chinese into the language, and they show up in historical texts for prehistoric legendary dates and also in names of gods and Japanese emperors:


title: Names of Japan

text: The katakana transcription ("Japan") of the English word "Japan" is sometimes encountered in Japanese, for example in the names of organizations seeking to project an international image. Examples include ("Japan Netto Ginkō") (Japan Net Bank), ("Japan Kappu") (Japan Cup), ("Waiyaresu Japan") (Wireless Japan), etc.


title: Names of Japan

text: "Dōngyáng" () and "Dōngyíng" () – both literally, "Eastern Ocean" – are Chinese terms sometimes used to refer to Japan exotically when contrasting it with other countries or regions in eastern Eurasia; however, these same terms may also be used to refer to all of East Asia when contrasting "the East" with "the West". The first term, "Dōngyáng", has been considered to be a pejorative term when used to mean "Japan", while the second, "Dōngyíng", has remained a positive poetic name. They can be contrasted with "Nányáng" (Southern Ocean), which refers to Southeast Asia, and "Xīyáng" (Western Ocean), which refers to the Western world. In Japanese and Korean, the Chinese word for "Eastern Ocean" (pronounced as "tōyō" in Japanese and as "dongyang" () in Korean) is used only to refer to the Far East (including both East Asia and Southeast Asia) in general, and it is not used in the more specific Chinese sense of "Japan".


title: Names of Japan

text: In China, Japan is called "Rìběn", which is the Mandarin pronunciation for the characters . The Cantonese pronunciation is "Yahtbún" , the Shanghainese pronunciation is "Zeppen" , and the Hokkien pronunciation is "Ji̍tpún" / "Li̍t-pún". This has influenced the Malay name for Japan, "Jepun", and the Thai word "Yipun" (). The terms "Jepang" and "Jipang", ultimately derived from Chinese, were previously used in both Malay and Indonesian, but are today confined primarily to the Indonesian language. The Japanese introduced "Nippon" and "Dai Nippon" into Indonesia during the Japanese Occupation (1942–1945) but the native "Jepang" remains more common. In Korean, Japan is called "Ilbon" (Hangeul: , Hanja: ), which is the Korean pronunciation of the Sino-Korean name, and in Sino-Vietnamese, Japan is called "Nhật Bản" (also rendered as "Nhựt Bổn"). In Mongolian, Japan is called "Yapon" (Япон).


title: Names of Japan

text: "Ue-kok" () is recorded for older Hokkien speakers. In the past, Korea also used , pronounced "Waeguk" ().


title: Brassica

text: Brassica () is a genus of plants in the cabbage and mustard family (Brassicaceae). The members of the genus are informally known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages, or mustard plants. Crops from this genus are sometimes called "cole crops"derived from the Latin "caulis", denoting the stem or stalk of a plant.


title: Brassica

text: The genus "Brassica" is known for its important agricultural and horticultural crops and also includes a number of weeds, both of wild taxa and escapees from cultivation. "Brassica" species and varieties commonly used for food include bok choy, broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, choy sum, kohlrabi, napa cabbage, rutabaga, turnip and some seeds used in the production of canola oil and the condiment mustard. Over 30 wild species and hybrids are in cultivation, plus numerous cultivars and hybrids of cultivated origin. Most are seasonal plants (annuals or biennials), but some are small shrubs. "Brassica" plants have been the subject of much scientific interest for their agricultural importance. Six particular species ("B. carinata", "B. juncea", "B. oleracea", "B. napus", "B. nigra", and "B. rapa") evolved by the combining of chromosomes from three earlier species, as described by the triangle of U theory.


title: Brassica

text: The genus is native to Western Europe, the Mediterranean and temperate regions of Asia. Many wild species grow as weeds, especially in North America, South America, and Australia.


title: Brassica

text: A dislike for cabbage or broccoli can result from the fact that these plants contain a compound similar to phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), which is either bitter or tasteless to people depending on their taste buds.


title: Brassica

text: The flowers, seeds, stalks, and tender leaves of many species of "Brassica" can be eaten raw or cooked. Almost all parts of some species have been developed for food, including the root (swede, turnip), stems (kohlrabi), leaves (cabbage, collard greens, kale), flowers (cauliflower, broccoli, romanesco broccoli), buds (Brussels sprouts, cabbage), and seeds (many, including mustard seed, and oil-producing rapeseed). Some forms with white or purple foliage or flowerheads are also sometimes grown for ornament.


title: Brassica

text: "Brassica" species are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species—see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Brassica.


title: Brassica

text: Boiling substantially reduces the levels of broccoli glucosinolates, while other cooking methods, such as steaming, microwaving, and stir frying, have no significant effect on glucosinolate levels.


title: Brassica

text: There is some disagreement among botanists on the classification and status of "Brassica" species and subspecies. The following is an abbreviated list, with an emphasis on economically important species.


title: Brassica

text: Bayer CropScience (in collaboration with BGI-Shenzhen, China; KeyGene; the Netherlands and the University of Queensland, Australia) announced it had sequenced the entire genome of rapeseed (canola, "Brassica napus") and its constituent genomes present in "B. rapa" and "B. oleracea" in 2009. The "B. rapa" genome was sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project in 2011. This also represents the A genome component of the amphidiploid crop species "B. napus" and "B. juncea".


title: Kadeem Hardison

text: Kadeem Hardison (born July 24, 1965) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Dwayne Wayne on "A Different World", a spin-off of the long-running NBC sitcom "The Cosby Show". He starred in the Disney Channel series "K.C. Undercover" as Craig Cooper, the title character's father and played Norman in OWN's "Love Is_". He also appeared in the first season of the Showtime comedy "Black Monday" and starred as Bowser in the Netflix series "Teenage Bounty Hunters".


title: Kadeem Hardison

text: Hardison was born in Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, New York, the only child of Donald McFadden, an antique and fine art collector, and Bethann Hardison, a pioneering African-American runway model and advocate for diversity in the fashion industry.


title: Kadeem Hardison

text: Hardison was a starring cast member on the sitcom "A Different World" as Dwayne Wayne, and a regular cast member of "K.C. Undercover" and the short-lived sitcoms "Abby" and "Between Brothers". His career was managed predominantly by his mother, Bethann Hardison. He has also guest starred on several other sitcoms, including "Living Single", "Girlfriends", "Under One Roof", "The Boondocks" (as himself), "Greek", "Parenthood", and on "Everybody Hates Chris" as the judge. His films include "Escapee", "Rappin'", "School Daze", "Def by Temptation", "Vampire in Brooklyn", "30 Years to Life", "Made of Honor", "The 6th Man", "Drive", "Renaissance Man", "Panther", "The Fantasia Barrino Story: Life Is Not a Fairy Tale", "Bratz", "Biker Boyz", "Who's Your Daddy?", "", "I'm Gonna Git You Sucka", "Blind Faith", "Showtime", "White Men Can't Jump", and "B.C. Butcher". He appears as an actor in the 2013 PlayStation 3 exclusive video game "" as Cole Freeman.


title: Kadeem Hardison

text: Hardison was married to American singer Chanté Moore from 1997 until 2000; they have a daughter named Sophia (b. 1996). Hardison remains a close friend of actor Darryl Bell, who played his best friend Ron Johnson on "A Different World"; he made an appearance alongside Bell on FOX's "Househusbands of Hollywood".


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: Mallika Sarabhai (born 9 May 1954) is an activist and Indian classical dancer and actress from Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. Daughter of a classical dancer Mrinalini Sarabhai and space scientist Vikram Sarabhai, Mallika is an accomplished Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam dancer and performer who has specialized in using the arts for social change and transformation.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: Mallika Sarabhai was born in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India to Vikram Sarabhai and Mrinalini Sarabhai. She completed her MBA from IIM Ahmedabad in 1974 and Doctorate in Organisational Behaviour from the Gujarat University in 1976. She is a noted choreographer and dancer and has also acted in a few Hindi, Malayalam, Gujarati and international films.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: She started to learn dancing when she was young and started her film career in the parallel cinema when she was 15. Mallika played the role of Draupadi in the Peter Brook's play "The Mahabharata". Mallika has won many accolades during her long career, the Golden Star Award is one of them, which she won for the Best Dance Soloist, Theatre De Champs Elysees, Paris 1977. As well as a dancer, Sarabhai is a social activist. She manages the Darpana Academy of Performing Arts located at Ahmedabad, a centre for the arts and for the use of arts as a language for behaviour change.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: She acted in the Hindi movie titled "Himalay Se Ooncha" that was released in 1975. The movie which had "Sunil Dutt" as the hero, did not do very well at the box office. In 1986 she acted in the Basu Chatterji directed movie titled "Sheesha" opposite super star Mithun Chakraborty.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: In 1989 she performed hard-hitting solo theatrical works, Shakti: The Power of Women. Her performance Sita's Daughters has toured the world and been performed over 500 times in three languages. After that, she directed and acted in numerous productions reflecting current issues and awareness among people. Amongst them is An Idea Named Meera; In Search of the Goddess and SvaKranti: The Revolution Within.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: Mallika Sarabhai also wrote the script for the play 'Unsuni' based on Harsh Mander's book 'Unheard Voices' to raise awareness amongst children in elite schools and colleges to the real issues facing India's marginalized. The play went around 120 schools and colleges. Arvind Gaur later directed it as a play, with the same name. Darpana Academy has launched the people awareness movement through its production Unsuni which travels all over India.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: In 2009 Mallika Sarabhai acted in an Indian adaptation Bertolt Brecht's of "The Good Person of Szechwan" (Ahmedabadki Aurat Bhali-Ramkali) directed by Arvind Gaur in 34th Vikram Sarabhai International Art Festival.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: In the year 2012, Mallika co-directed 'Women with Broken Wings,' an international production with filmmaker Yadavan Chandran and Swiss pianist Elizabeth Sombart, an ode to the millions of women who have been the victims of violence. In 2014 she recreated, with Yadavan Chandran, Kadak Badshaahi, a multimedia production on the 603-year-old history of the city of Ahmedabad. The performance ran for an unprecedented 33 full nights in Darpana's venue, Natarani.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: Mallika has also used film and television for social change, especially for women's empowerment and environmental consciousness. Through Darpana Communications, she has been responsible for the production of three thousand hours of TV broadcast programming, all of which has been shown through Doordarshan, Gujarati. The programming uses the most popular genres of TV. She has anchored many shows on STAR TV and Doordarshan as well as the first NACO series on HIV, Talk Positive; the science series "Turning Point"; Vaividhyotsav, the culture quiz and Srishti: The Environment Quiz.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: Mallika first started writing when she produced and performed Shakti: The Power of Women. Since then she has scripted her shows, TV serials for ISROs educational TV in Madhya Pradesh, film scripts and more new contemporary lyrics for Bharatanatyam. She has been a columnist for "Times of India", "Vanitha", "The Week", "DivyaBhaskar", "Hans" and "DNA".


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: Her recent memoir is title, In Free Fall, My Experiments With Living. She recently appeared on a podcast, The Literary City with Ramjee Chandran to talk about the memoir.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: On 19 March 2009, Mallika Sarabhai announced her candidature against the Bharatiya Janata Party's prime ministerial candidate L K Advani for the Gandhinagar Lok Sabha seat, as an independent candidate in the 2009 general election. She had several offers from the Congress to contest elections, the first being in 1984 from Rajiv Gandhi, but did not join any political party as she believed that all parties are corrupt. She eventually lost to L K Advani by a huge margin and forfeited her election deposit in the process.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: She protested against Gujarat Chief Minister, Narendra Modi during Sadbhavna Mission in September 2011. She accused Narendra Modi of scuttling the petition filed in Supreme court by her on the 2002 Gujarat violence. She joined the Aam Aadmi Party on 8 January 2014.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: Mallika met Bipin Shah in 1982 and married him. They have two children, a son, Revanta and a daughter Anahita. They divorced in 1989.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: Bipin and Mallika co-founded Mapin Publishing in 1984 and continue to run it together.The loss of her mother, classical dancer Mrinalini Sarabhai, in 2016, left her bereft; yoga, dance, Transcendental Meditation (TM) and Non-Violent Communication (NVC) were some of the ways that she coped.


title: Mallika Sarabhai

text: She is the cousin of Indian politician and member of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) Subhashini Ali, daughter of her mother’s sister Captain Lakshmi Sehgal (née Dr. Lakshmi Swaminathan) and Colonel Prem Sehgal. Her brother is environmental educator and director of Centre for Environment Education (CEE) Kartikeya Sarabhai.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Enoch Lewis "Nucky" Johnson (January 20, 1883December 9, 1968) was an Atlantic City, New Jersey, political boss, a sheriff of Atlantic County, New Jersey, a businessman and a crime boss who was the leader of the political machine that controlled Atlantic City and the Atlantic County government from the 1910s until his conviction and imprisonment in 1941. His rule encompassed the Roaring Twenties when Atlantic City was at the height of its popularity as a refuge from Prohibition. In addition to bootlegging, the criminal aspect of his organization was also involved in gambling and prostitution.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Enoch Lewis Johnson was born on January 20, 1883, in Galloway Township, New Jersey, to Smith E. and Virginia (Higbee) Johnson, who were Protestants and members of two of Atlantic County's oldest families. His nickname "Nucky" was derived from his forename Enoch.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: In 1886, Johnson's father was elected Sheriff of Atlantic County, New Jersey for a three-year term, and the family moved to Mays Landing, the county seat. His career in law enforcement alternated between the roles of sheriff of Mays Landing and undersheriff of Atlantic City. Along with


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Atlantic County Clerk Lewis P. Scott (1854–1907) and Congressman John J. Gardner, the elder Johnson was a member of the three-man group dominating the governments of Atlantic City and Atlantic County prior to the rise to power of Louis Kuehnle. In 1905, Nucky Johnson became his father's undersheriff in Mays Landing. In 1908, he was elected Sheriff of Atlantic County when his father's term expired, a position he held until ousted by a court order in 1911.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Johnson and Mabel soon enrolled at New Jersey State Normal School (now the College of New Jersey) in Trenton, New Jersey, where he studied English literature. However, he later abandoned his studies in favour of his political career.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: In 1909, Johnson was appointed to the politically important position of Atlantic County Republican Executive committee secretary. In 1911, local political boss Louis Kuehnle, Johnson and several others were charged with corruption. Kuehnle was convicted and imprisoned, while Johnson was acquitted, allowing him to succeed Kuehnle as leader of the same organization, which effectively controlled the Republican-led Atlantic City and Atlantic County governments.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Atlantic City was a tourist destination, and city leaders knew that its success as a resort depended on providing visitors with what they wanted. What many tourists wanted was the opportunity to drink, gamble, and visit prostitutes. City leaders realized that permitting a vice industry would give the city an edge over its competitors. Therefore, the organization inherited by Johnson permitted the service of alcohol on Sundays (which at the time was prohibited by New Jersey law), gambling, and prostitution, in exchange for the payment of protection money by vice industry operators to the organization. Support of the vice industry was to continue and expand under Nucky Johnson's rule, as would other forms of corruption, such as kickbacks on government contracts.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: In 1912, Johnson's wife Mabel died. Reportedly, Johnson had previously been a teetotaler but began to drink after her death.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Johnson held many jobs during his 30-year rule: county treasurer, which allowed him to control the county's purse strings; county collector; publisher of a weekly newspaper; bank director; president of a building and loan company; and director of a Philadelphia brewery. He declined requests that he run for the state senate, believing that it was beneath the dignity of a "real boss" to stand for election. As the most powerful New Jersey Republican, Johnson was responsible for electing several governors and United States senators.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: In 1916 Johnson served as campaign manager for Republican candidate Walter E. Edge's successful run for governor. In addition to raising money for Edge, who was then the state senator from Atlantic County, Johnson engineered Edge's election by reaching out to Democratic Hudson County boss Frank Hague, who disliked the Democratic nominee, Otto Wittpenn. Edge provided Hague with a pledge of cooperation, and Hague instructed people in his Democratic organization to cross over and vote for Edge in the Republican primary. Hague did not support Wittpenn in the general election, and Edge was elected. Edge rewarded Johnson by appointing him clerk of the State Supreme Court.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Johnson's power reached its peak during Prohibition, which was enacted nationally in 1919 (but did not go into effect until 1920) and lasted until 1933. Prohibition was effectively unenforced in Atlantic City, and, as a result, the resort's popularity grew further. The city then called itself "The World's Playground". This was aided by Johnson who, with his influence and power in the city, made sure that anyone who was serving alcohol, running a brothel, or managing a gambling den wasn't bothered so long as Johnson got a cut of the money. In fact, most of Johnson's income came from the percentage he took on every gallon of illegal liquor sold and on gambling and prostitution operations in Atlantic City. Johnson once said:


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: We have whisky, wine, women, song and slot machines. I won't deny it and I won't apologize for it. If the majority of the people didn't want them they wouldn't be profitable and they would not exist. The fact that they do exist proves to me that the people want them.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Investigators charged that Johnson's income from vice exceeded $500,000 a year (equivalent to over $ million in ). He rode in a chauffeur-driven, $14,000 powder-blue limousine and wore expensive clothes, including a $1,200 raccoon coat. His personal trademark was a red carnation, fresh daily, worn on his lapel. At the height of his power, Johnson lived in a suite of rooms on the ninth floor of the Ritz-Carlton Hotel, located on the Boardwalk. The Ritz, which opened in 1921, was where Johnson hosted many lavish parties. He was known as both "the Czar of the Ritz" and "the Prisoner of the Ritz". He freely gave to those in need, and he was widely beloved by local citizens, among whom his benevolence and generosity were legendary. Johnson once explained, "When I lived well, everybody lived well".


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Since its founding, Atlantic City, like other summer resorts, had been burdened with a seasonal economy, and efforts to promote tourism there during the colder months had not been successful. The free availability of alcohol during Prohibition, however, made Atlantic City the nation's premier location for holding conventions. In an effort to promote a year-round convention-supported economy, Johnson directed the construction of Atlantic City Convention Hall. Work on Convention Hall began in 1926 and it opened in May 1929. A structure, it was a state-of-the-art convention building and contained what was then the largest room in history with an unobstructed view.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Under Nucky Johnson, Atlantic City was one of the leading ports for importing bootleg liquor and, in 1927, he agreed to participate in a loose organization of other bootleggers and racketeers along the east coast, forming the Big Seven or Seven Group. He was the host of the Atlantic City Conference in 1929, a meeting of national organized crime leaders, including Al Capone. (A well-known photograph purporting to show Johnson and Capone walking down the Boardwalk together during the conference is of doubtful authenticity.)


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Johnson's top enforcer and powerful Fourth Ward boss was former Ritz-Carlton Hotel bellhop Jimmy Boyd. Johnson met Boyd around the time that he and Charlie Luciano were forming the Big Seven. When they met, Boyd and Johnson took an instant liking to each other and Johnson began grooming him to become the boss of his organization. By the late 1920s, Boyd was running every speakeasy, illegal casino, numbers racket, and brothel in the city.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Nucky Johnson's name was mentioned frequently in a series of articles about vice in Atlantic City published in 1930 by William Randolph Hearst's "New York Evening Journal". According to some accounts, bad blood existed between Johnson and Hearst because Johnson had become too close to a showgirl who was Hearst's steady date when he visited Atlantic City. Johnson subsequently was the focus of increased scrutiny by the Federal government, allegedly as a result of Hearst's lobbying of Roosevelt administration officials.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: In 1933 a property lien was filed against Johnson by the Federal government for additional taxes he owed on income earned in 1927. 1933 also saw the repeal of Prohibition, which eliminated a major selling point for Atlantic City among tourists and conventioneers, as well as a source of income for Johnson and his political machine. On May 10, 1939, Johnson was indicted for evading taxes on about $125,000 in income he received from numbers operators during 1935, 1936 and 1937. A two-week trial concluded in July 1941, and Johnson was convicted. He was sentenced to ten years in federal prison and fined $20,000. On August 1, 1941, Johnson, then 58 years old, married 33-year-old Swedish American Florence "Flossie" Osbeck, a former showgirl from Philadelphia, to whom he had been engaged for three years. Ten days later, on August 11, 1941, Johnson entered Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Following Johnson's 1941 conviction, Frank S. Farley succeeded him as the leader of Atlantic City's political machine.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Johnson was paroled on August 15, 1945, after four years in prison, and took a pauper's oath to avoid paying the $20,000 fine ().


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: After his release from prison, Johnson lived with his wife and brother in a house owned by relatives of his wife on South Elberon Avenue, Atlantic City. There was speculation that he would seek elected office, but he never did. Instead, he worked in sales for the Richfield Oil Company, and, with his wife, for Renault Winery. During these years, Johnson and his wife would sometimes attend local political dinners or rallies, where they would be seated at the head table. He continued to dress impeccably, including a red carnation on his lapel. Johnson steadfastly supported Farley's leadership, and in 1952, when the Farley organization faced a particularly strong election challenge, Johnson campaigned on his behalf in Atlantic City's predominantly black Northside area, where Johnson remained popular.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: Enoch Johnson died on December 9, 1968, at the Atlantic County Convalescent Home in Northfield, New Jersey. According to "The Press of Atlantic City", Johnson "was born to rule: He had flair, flamboyance, was politically amoral and ruthless, and had an eidetic memory for faces and names, and a natural gift of command ... [Johnson] had the reputation of being a trencherman, a hard drinker, a Herculean lover, an epicure, a sybaritic fancier of luxuries and all good things in life." He died of natural causes in the Atlantic County Convalescent Home.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: "Boardwalk Empire" fictionalized the Prohibition era in Atlantic City. The series ran for five seasons, was produced by Martin Scorsese and Mark Wahlberg, and starred Steve Buscemi as Nucky Thompson. Show creator Terence Winter elected to portray a fictionalized version of Johnson, to give the writers creative license with history, and to maintain suspense. One great difference between the real Johnson and the fictional Thompson is that the real Johnson is not known to have killed anyone personally, as the fictional Thompson does; there is also no evidence that Johnson ever ordered someone to be killed. Also, Thompson is portrayed as running his distillery for bootlegging and competing directly with real-life gangsters for distribution on the East Coast, whereas the real Johnson took a cut of all illegal alcohol sold in Atlantic City but was never known to engage in competition or turf wars. He has been described as running his empire "with a velvet hammer". Johnson did not remarry until 1941, long after his wife's death in 1912; in the show, Thompson remarries in 1921. Thompson is Irish Catholic, while Johnson was a Methodist whose parents were from two of Atlantic County's oldest families.


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: The HBO television series is based on a chapter of the 2002 book "", by Nelson Johnson (no relation).


title: Enoch L. Johnson

text: In Louis Malle's 1980 film "Atlantic City", aging gangster Lou (Burt Lancaster) mentions an incident involving Enoch L. Johnson.


title: Festivus

text: Festivus () is a secular holiday celebrated on December 23 as an alternative to the pressures and commercialism of the Christmas season. Originally created by author Daniel O'Keefe, Festivus entered popular culture after it was made the focus of the 1997 "Seinfeld" episode "The Strike", which O'Keefe's son, Dan O'Keefe, co-wrote.


title: Festivus

text: The non-commercial holiday's celebration, as depicted on "Seinfeld", occurs on December 23 and includes a Festivus dinner, an unadorned aluminum Festivus pole, practices such as the "airing of grievances" and "feats of strength", and the labeling of easily explainable events as "Festivus miracles". The episode refers to it as "a Festivus for the rest of us".


title: Festivus

text: It has been described both as a parody holiday festival and as a form of playful consumer resistance. Journalist Allen Salkin describes it as "the perfect secular theme for an all-inclusive December gathering".


title: Festivus

text: Festivus was conceived by author and editor Daniel O'Keefe, the father of television writer Dan O'Keefe, and was celebrated by his family as early as 1966. While the Latin word means "excellent, jovial, lively", and derives from "fēstus", meaning "joyous; holiday, feast day", "Festivus" in this sense was coined by the elder O'Keefe. According to him, the name "just popped into my head". In the original O'Keefe tradition, the holiday would take place to celebrate the anniversary of Daniel O'Keefe's first date with his future wife, Deborah. The phrase "a Festivus for the rest of us" originally referred to those remaining after the death of the elder O'Keefe's mother, Jeanette, in 1976; i.e., the "rest of us" are the living, as opposed to the dead.


title: Festivus

text: In 1982, Daniel O'Keefe wrote a book, "Stolen Lightning: The Social Theory of Magic", that deals with idiosyncratic ritual and its social significance, a theme relevant to Festivus tradition.


title: Festivus

text: It is now celebrated on December 23, as depicted in the "Seinfeld" episode written by the younger O'Keefe.


title: Festivus

text: The "Seinfeld" episode that featured Festivus was titled "The Strike", although O'Keefe notes that the writers later wished they had named it "The Festivus". It was first broadcast on December 18, 1997. The plot revolves around Cosmo Kramer (Michael Richards) returning to work at his old job, H&H Bagels. While dining at Monk's Restaurant, as George Costanza (Jason Alexander) is opening his mail, he receives a card from his father saying, "Dear Son, Happy Festivus." This leads to Jerry Seinfeld and Elaine Benes (Julia Louis-Dreyfus) discussing George's father's creation of Festivus despite George not wanting it to be discussed. Kramer then becomes interested in resurrecting the holiday when, at the bagel shop, Frank Costanza (Jerry Stiller) tells him how he created Festivus as an alternative holiday in response to the commercialization of Christmas.


title: Festivus

text: Meanwhile, George creates donation cards for a fake charity called The Human Fund (with the slogan "Money for People") in lieu of having to give office Christmas presents. When his boss, Mr. Kruger (Daniel von Bargen), questions George about a $20,000 check he gave George to donate to the Human Fund as a corporate donation, George hastily concocts the excuse that he made up the Human Fund because he feared persecution for his beliefs, of celebrating Festivus instead of Christmas. Attempting to call his bluff, Kruger goes home with George to see Festivus in action.


title: Festivus

text: Kramer eventually goes back on strike from his bagel-vendor job when his manager tells him he cannot take December 23 off to celebrate his newfound holiday. Kramer is then seen on the sidewalk picketing H&H Bagels, carrying a sign reading "Festivus yes! Bagels no!" and chanting to anyone passing the store: "Hey! No bagel, no bagel, no bagel..."


title: Festivus

text: Finally, at Frank's house in Queens, Jerry, Elaine, Kramer, and George gather to celebrate Festivus. George brings Kruger to prove to him that Festivus is "all too real".


title: Festivus

text: O'Keefe was initially reluctant to insert his family's tradition into this episode, but when executive producers Alec Berg and Jeff Schaffer caught wind of the bizarre holiday through his younger brother, they became curious, then enthusiastic, then insisted it have a place in the episode. Schaffer later reflected: "That's the thing with Seinfeld stories, the real ones are always the best ones. There's a nuance to reality sometimes that is just perfect. We could have sat in a room for a billion years and we never would have made up Festivus. It's crazy and hilarious and just so funny and so disturbing. It's awesome."


title: Festivus

text: The Festivus practices and traditions began as original O'Keefe family practices, and later expanded to include the traditions introduced in the 1997 "Seinfeld" episode "The Strike".


title: Festivus

text: The O'Keefe family holiday featured other practices, as detailed in "The Real Festivus" (2005), a book by Daniel O'Keefe's son, Dan O'Keefe. Besides providing a first-person account of the early version of the Festivus holiday as celebrated by the O'Keefe family, the book relates how Dan O'Keefe amended or replaced details of his father's invention to create the "Seinfeld" episode.


title: Festivus

text: In a 2013 CNN segment on the origins of Festivus, O'Keefe spoke about the real-life experiences related to the holiday. O'Keefe's father, who originated some of the now-recognized Festivus traditions, used a clock in a bag nailed to a wall, not an aluminum pole. It was never the same bag, rarely the same clock, but always the same wall. The nailing was most often done in secret and then revealed proudly to his family. The younger O'Keefe told CNN: "The real symbol of the holiday was a clock that my dad put in a bag and nailed to the wall every year...I don't know why I don't know what it means, he would never tell me. He would always say, 'That's not for you to know.


title: Festivus

text: The holiday, as portrayed in the "Seinfeld" episode, includes practices such as the "airing of grievances", which occurs during the Festivus meal and in which each person tells everyone else all the ways they have disappointed them over the past year. After the meal, the "feats of strength" are performed, involving wrestling the head of the household to the floor, with the holiday ending only if the head of the household is pinned.


title: Festivus

text: In the episode, the tradition of Festivus begins with an aluminum pole. Frank Costanza cites its "very high strength-to-weight ratio" as appealing. During Festivus, the pole is displayed unadorned, as Frank "find[s] tinsel distracting."


title: Festivus

text: Dan O'Keefe credits fellow "Seinfeld" writer Jeff Schaffer with introducing the concept. The aluminum pole was not part of the original O'Keefe family celebration, which centered on putting a clock in a bag and nailing it to a wall. In 2021 the "Seinfeld" Twitter, YouTube and other social media accounts along the environmental organization "One Tree Planted" tried to give a new environmental meaning to the pole, pledging to plant a tree for every person that posted a selfie along a pole using the hashtag #FestivusSavesTrees. While bringing out that using a Festivus pole instead of Christmas tree, is better for the environment because it saves a tree, the rule was also described so the pole would not have to be aluminum, but it could be any kind of pole that you already have on your house of any kind of size as in further highlighting the anti-consumerism meaning of Festivus as a Holiday.


title: Festivus

text: In "The Strike", a celebratory dinner is shown on the evening of Festivus prior to the feats of strength and during the airing of grievances. The on-air meal shows Estelle Costanza serving a sliced reddish meatloaf-shaped food on a bed of lettuce. In the episode no alcohol is served at the dinner, but George's boss, Mr. Kruger, drinks something from a hip flask.


title: Festivus

text: The original holiday dinner in the O'Keefe household featured turkey or ham as described in Dan O'Keefe's "The Real Festivus".


title: Festivus

text: The "airing of grievances" takes place immediately after the Festivus dinner has been served. In the television episode, Frank Costanza began it with the phrase, "I got a lotta problems with you people, and now you're going to hear about it!" It consists of each person lashing out at others and the world about how they have been disappointed in the past year. In 2021, CNN "experts" on mental health explained that having a tradition day where people could yearly air some of their grievances of the year to their families and friends, could actually be good for mental health and is something other holidays usually avoid.


title: Festivus

text: The "feats of strength" are the final tradition observed in the celebration of Festivus, celebrated immediately following (or in the case of "The Strike", during) the Festivus dinner. The head of the household selects one person at the Festivus celebration and challenges them to a wrestling match. Tradition states Festivus is not over until the head of the household has been pinned. In "The Strike", however, Kramer manages to circumvent the rule by creating an excuse to leave. The feats of strength are mentioned twice in the episode before they take place. In both instances, no detail was given as to what had happened, but in both instances, George Costanza ran out of the coffee shop in a mad panic, implying he had bad experiences with the feats of strength in the past. What the feats of strength entailed was revealed at the very end of the episode when it took place.


title: Festivus

text: Cosmo Kramer twice declares a "Festivus miracle" during the Festivus celebration in the Costanza household. Kramer causes the occurrence of two "miracles" by inviting two off-track betting bookies (Tracy Letts and Colin Malone) to dinner with Elaine (men whom Elaine wished to avoid), and by causing Jerry's girlfriend Gwen to believe that Jerry was cheating on her.


title: Festivus

text: Some people, many of them inspired by the "Seinfeld" episode, subsequently began to celebrate the holiday with varying degrees of seriousness. Allen Salkin's 2005 book "Festivus: The Holiday for the Rest of Us" chronicles the early adoption of Festivus. Rabbi Joshua Eli Plaut's 2012 book "A Kosher Christmas: 'Tis the Season to Be Jewish"' references Festivus. Martin Bodek's 2020 book "The Festivus Haggadah" fuses Passover with Festivus. Others have adopted Festivus as a way of engaging in a non-religious celebration over the traditional holiday season, such as by showcasing winter festivities. Some decorate using secular figures, like snowmen and snow angels, hang fairy lights to highlight their decorations, share traditional holiday food with loved ones, such as hot chocolate, gingerbread men, and candy canes, and they may exchange small gifts.


title: Festivus

text: During the Baltimore Ravens' run to the Super Bowl XXXV Championship in 2000, head coach Brian Billick superstitiously issued an organizational ban on the use of the word "playoffs" until the team had clinched its first postseason berth. "Playoffs" was instead referred to as "Festivus" and the Super Bowl as "Festivus Maximus".


title: Festivus

text: In 2005, Wisconsin Governor Jim Doyle was declared "Governor Festivus", and during the holiday season displayed a Festivus pole in the family room of the Executive Residence in Madison, Wisconsin. Governor Doyle's 2005 Festivus Pole is now part of the collection of the Wisconsin Historical Museum.


title: Festivus

text: In 2010, a CNN story featuring Jerry Stiller detailed the increasing popularity of the holiday, including US Representative Eric Cantor's Festivus fundraiser, and the "Christian Science Monitor" reported that Festivus was a top trend on Twitter that year.


title: Festivus

text: In 2012, Google introduced a custom search result for the term "Festivus". In addition to the normal results, an unadorned aluminum pole was displayed running down the side of the list of search results and "A festivus miracle!" prefixed the results count and speed. Also in 2012, a Festivus Pole was erected on city property in Deerfield Beach, Florida, alongside religious-themed holiday displays. A similar Festivus pole was displayed next to religious displays in the Wisconsin State Capitol, along with a banner provided by the Freedom From Religion Foundation advocating for the separation of government and religion.


title: Festivus

text: In 2013 and 2014, Chaz Stevens erected a Festivus pole constructed with of beer cans next to a nativity scene and other religious holiday displays in the Florida State Capitol Building, as a protest supporting separation of church and state. In 2015, the same man was granted permission to display a Festivus pole decorated with a gay pride theme and topped with a disco ball to celebrate the United States Supreme Court's decision on same-sex marriage, at state capitols in Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Washington.


title: Festivus

text: In 2016, US Senator Rand Paul released a special Festivus edition of "The Waste Report". The Festivus "airing of grievances" has become an annual tradition for Paul on Twitter.


title: Festivus

text: In 2016, the "Tampa Bay Times" became the first newspaper to allow readers to submit Festivus grievances through its website, with the promise to publish them on December 23, the day of the Festivus holiday.


title: Festivus

text: An annual public Festivus celebration has been held in Pittsburgh since 2005, featuring live bands, a "Seinfeld" trivia contest, and holiday traditions. In 2017, the "Pittsburgh City Paper" called its 13th iteration "the longest-running celebration of Sein-Culture in the 'Burgh".


title: Festivus

text: In 2018 Wollongong City Council (New South Wales, Australia) named a lane "Festivus Lane" in the suburb of Corrimal. The name was chosen as the celebration of Festivus started by locals grew to become a local annual fixture.


title: Festivus

text: In 2021, WWE world heavyweight wrestling Champion Big E started wearing custom-designed singlets on-air adorned with catch-phrases, and images of "Seinfeld"s version of Festivus.


title: Festivus

text: In 2021 the "Seinfeld" Twitter, YouTube, Facebook and other social media accounts, along with the environmental organization "One Tree Planted", tried to give a new environmental meaning to the Festivus pole by pledging to plant a tree for every person who posted a selfie with a pole using the hashtag #FestivusSavesTrees. They pointed out that using a Festivus pole instead of a Christmas tree is better for the environment because it saves a living tree. Their rules stated that the pole would not have to be aluminum, but could be any kind of pole of any size.


title: Festivus

text: In 2022, the official "Seinfeld" social media accounts created a petition on the website change.org to make Festivus a national holiday on December 23, and encouraged the use of the hashtag #MakeFestivusOfficial. The video promoting the petition notes that Festivus is as worthy of recognition as other unofficial national holidays, such as National Bagel Day, Boss's Day, and hug a musician day.


title: Kursk

text: Kursk () is a city and the administrative center of Kursk Oblast, Russia, located at the confluence of the Kur, Tuskar, and Seym rivers. The area around Kursk was the site of a turning point in the Soviet–German struggle during World War II and the site of the largest tank battle in history.


title: Kursk

text: Kursk was originally built as a fortress city, on a hill dominating the plain. The settlement was surrounded on three sides by steep cliffs and rivers. From the west, the Kur river, from the south and east, the Tuskar river, and from the north, forest thickets approached it. By 1603, Kursk had become a large military, administrative and economic center of a vast territory in the south of the country. The new fortress was built under the leadership of the governor Ivan Polev and Nelyub Ogaryov. The Kursk fortress was given a particularly important role, since in these places the Crimean Tatars, who made regular raids on Russia, traditionally crossed the Seym river, and their main road, the Muravsky Trail, passed east of the city. In this regard, Kursk, despite not being part of the Belgorod Protection Line, it became one of the most important fortresses in the southern region. The importance of the Kursk fortress is evident by the fact that in the first half of the 17th century it significantly surpassed other cities in southern Russia in terms of the number of people. In 1616 there were 1600 people in the Kursk garrison.


title: Kursk

text: By 1782, the buildings of Kursk were located on the heights of two hills and in the valley of the Kur River. On the banks of the river were meadows and pastures. The city streets that laid on the slopes of the hills had steep ascents and descents in many places, so that travel in the city was almost everywhere made uphill. The presence of six ravines that cut through the hill of the Nagornaya part significantly hampered the development of Kursk. Heavy rains sometimes eroded the soil of the hillsides and formed ditches and gullies. The plan of Kursk in 1782 was to be implemented in the conditions of the existing buildings of the city. In the 1880s Kursk was already a significant settlement. It housed 14 churches not including the churches of the Znamensky Monastery. Most of them were stone and built around the time period 1730–1786. By 1782 Kursk was almost entirely built up with wooden houses. Fences and services went out in the direction of the streets, and houses were hidden in the depths of the courtyards. Many streets and lanes were no wider than 2.5 - 3m. The only stone mansion that has survived after the redevelopment to the present time is located at the corner of Pionerov (former Troitskaya) and Gaidar (former Zolotarevskaya) streets. On the eve of Perestroika, there were powerful fortifications and natural obstacles in the center of Kursk. Settlements were located around the city. Cossack and Pushkarnaya were on the slopes of the hills and in the valley of the Kur River, Yamskaya - away from the city, on the plain. At that time, Yamskaya was a small village concentrated around the Vvedenskaya church. The settlements Streletskaya and Kozhevenny were located in the lowlands and were often flooded by the Tuskar river.


title: Kursk

text: The principle of regularity was applied in the structure of the general layout of Kursk. On the plan of 1782 Kursk is shown as consisting of two parts: city or Nagornaya and Zakurnaya. They are separated from each other by the Kura river valley. Each of these parts is divided into regular rectangular blocks located on both sides of the planned main streets - Bolshaya Moskovskaya (Lenina) and Kherson (Dzerzhinsky). In the city Nagornaya part, 19 streets were planned, and in the Zakurnaya part - 24 streets. At the entrance to the city, at the beginning of both Moskovskaya and Kherson streets, it was planned to arrange the entrance squares. The remains of the former prison were destroyed, and “the moat was buried according to the plan of the city, which was most confirmed in 1782, and a square called“ red ”was made in its place. The construction of small areas was also envisaged for a number of churches throughout the city. The territory of both parts of the city, where it was not limited by rivers and deep ravines, was planned to be surrounded by a ditch and a rampart. The area occupied by the city according to the new plan totaled approximately 3060 thousand square fathoms, which corresponds to 12.24 square kilometers. The main drawback of the project was that it did not take into account the complex relief of the Kursk area. The structure of the plan, correct and orderly on paper, required significant revision, additions and even minor changes. The numerous proposals of the Kursk governors A.A. Prozorovsky, F.N. Nicknames, A.B. Debalmena, A.A. Bekleshov, included in the city planning, made it possible to bring the scheme closer to reality.


title: Kursk

text: The purpose of the redevelopment was complete accounting and control of residents. For this, the city was divided under the governor Aleksandr Bekleshov into 4 parts, each of which was managed by a private bailiff. The redevelopment of the city was begun by the provincial surveyor Ivan Fedorovich Bashilov, the district surveyor Ivan Shoshin, the provincial architects Vasily Yakovlev, Lavrenty Kalinovsky. Since 1783, decisions on redevelopment issues were made by a commission in the amount of 3 officials, namely the provincial land surveyor, the mayor and the city magistrate's ratman. The new urban structure - a rectangular quarter with residents of the same income, one estate - greatly facilitated the accounting and control of the inhabitants by the authorities. The center of the city, built up with stone buildings, was to take on a new, "ceremonial" appearance. These requirements were met by the resettlement of residents on the basis of class. The most significant government buildings erected in Kursk by the end of the 18th century. in accordance with the plan, confirmed by Catherine II, these were public places, a prison, a guest house, the main public school, a house of a noble assembly. The building of the bank office, magistrate and post office was located along the red lines of the development of Florovskaya and Moskovskaya streets. The general plan for the development of Kursk was adopted in 1782. It was built according to a regular plan with a clear rectangular grid of streets. It was based on the two main streets Moskovskaya and Khersonskaya (now Lenin and Dzerzhinsky), converging at right angles on Red Square.


title: Kursk

text: A city hospital, a regimental infirmary, an almshouse, and salt shops were built. The most notable private houses of the late 18th century that have survived to this day are the houses of the landowner Denisiev (corner of Sadovaya and Semyonovskaya) and the official Puzanov (Dzerzhinsky, 70), as well as the "house of the treasurer" (corner of Radishcheva and Marata). The main significance of the general city plan of 1782 is that for about 150 years it remained the only document that determined the development of the city of Kursk. The next master plan appeared only in 1947, after the Second World War. The number of residential buildings from 1786 to 1836 increased insignificantly, from 1989 houses to 2782 houses. If any building did not correspond to the confirmed plan, it was demolished.


title: Kursk

text: The bulk of government buildings (offices, post office, magistrate, prison, drinking houses, pharmacies, hospital) were built at the end of the 18th century. At the beginning of the 19th century, construction was carried out insignificantly: offices were repaired, a new prison was built, almost half of Kursk's streets had stone pavements, along which storm sewer grooves were laid. The streets were named Sergievskaya, Tuskarnaya Naberezhnaya, Staraya, Novaya Preobrazhensky, General's line, Soldier's, Druzhininskaya, Pastukhovskaya. Zolotarevskaya, Avraamovskaya, and so on. On July 10, 1808, five settlements (Sloboda) of Kursk (Podyacheskaya, Soldatskaya, Gorodovy Sluzhby, Malyrossiyskaya, Rassylnaya) became part of the city. The settlements surrounding Kursk (Kazatskaya, Pushkarskaya, Yamskaya, Streletskaya) became part of the city only after 1917. The Kozhevennaya Sloboda disappeared from the city plan by the 1940s. The layout of the settlements was as regular as in the provincial center. Urban pasture land was located between the Seim River, on the border of the 3rd district of Kursk and the Big Post Road from Kursk to Oboyan.


title: Kursk

text: The first written record of Kursk is dated 1032. It was mentioned as one of Severian towns by Prince Igor in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign":


title: Kursk

text: Saddle, brother, your swift steeds. As to mine, they are ready, saddled ahead, near Kursk; as to my Kurskers, they are famous knights—swaddled under war-horns, nursed under helmets, fed from the point of the lance; to them the trails are familiar, to them the ravines are known, the bows they have are strung tight, the quivers, unclosed, the sabers, sharpened; themselves, like gray wolves, they lope in the field, seeking for themselves honor, and for their prince, glory.


title: Kursk

text: The seat of a minor principality, Kursk was raided by the Polovtsians in the 12th and 13th centuries. Destroyed by the Mongols under Batu Khan around 1237, the city was rebuilt no later than 1283. Between 1360 and 1508, it was ruled by Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Kursk joined the centralized Russian state in 1508, becoming its southern border province.


title: Kursk

text: However, a century later the city re-emerged in a new place; date of re-considered grounds Kursk 1586 [9]. In 1596 a new fortress was built, in 1616 it was garrisoned by over 1,300 soldiers. At the beginning of the 17th century, Kursk was repeatedly attacked by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth forces (in 1612, 1616, 1617, and 1634), the Crimean Khanate, and the Nogai horde, but the Kursk fortress was never taken.


title: Kursk

text: Residents of Oryol and other southern Russian cities were resettled in Kursk (by 1678 2,800 had been resettled). The city developed due to its advantageous geographical position on the shortest route from Moscow to the Crimea and from Moscow to Kiev. It was an important center of the corn trade with Ukraine and hosted an important fair, which took place annually under the walls of the monastery of Our Lady of Kursk.


title: Kursk

text: It was successively part of the Kiev Governorate (1708–1727), Belgorod Governorate (1727–1779), and Kursk Viceroyalty (1779–1797). The town status was granted to Kursk in 1779, and it became the administrative center of Kursk Governorate in 1797.


title: Kursk

text: After a fire in 1781 devastated Kursk, a new plan for the city was developed in which a market center would be placed in the central square, known as the Red Square. In 1768, the Voskresensko-Ilinskaya Church was built (). In 1778 both the baroque Sergiev Cathedral and Trinity-Sergius Cathedral were completed. The city opened its first school for nobility in 1783. A men's gymnasium was opened in 1808 and a seminary in 1817. A women's gymnasium was opened in 1872.


title: Kursk

text: At the beginning of the 20th century Kursk played a dominant role in the food industry (Kvilitsu AK, one of the largest breweries in Russia, operated in Kursk) and in other industries; in the 1900s, the city had 4 sitoproboynye shops (of which the largest was the Tikhonov works, whose products were exported to Germany, Austria-Hungary, etc.). There were several engineering enterprises operating in Kursk (in 1914 there were seven, including a railroad one). The working conditions in the factories of Kursk were harsh, and workers' strikes were frequent (for instance, the workers at the sugar mill went on strike in 1901–1903). The Kursk workers also participated in the general political strike during the 1905 Russian Revolution.


title: Kursk

text: On November 26 (December 9 - new style), 1917 the Soviets took power in Kursk. On September 20, 1919, the city was taken over by the troops under the command of General Denikin; however, on November 19, 1919, Kursk was retaken by the Red Army.


title: Kursk

text: The Soviet government valued Kursk for its rich deposits of iron ore and developed it into one of the major railroad hubs in the Russian southwest. In 1932, Yamskaya Sloboda was incorporated ito the city. In 1935, Kursk got its first tram system. Sometime in the 1930s, the area of the city of Kursk was divided into Leninsky District (the left bank of the Kura River), Dzerzhinsky District (the right bank of the Kura River) and Kirov District (Yamskaya Sloboda). In 1937 Stalinsky District was formed at the southern outskirts of the city.


title: Kursk

text: During World War II, Kursk was occupied by Germany between . In July 1943, the Germans launched Operation Citadel in an attempt to recapture Kursk. During the resulting Battle of Kursk, the village of Prokhorovka near Kursk became the center of a major armoured engagement – the Battle of Prokhorovka – between Soviet and German forces, which is widely considered to have been one of the largest tank battles in history. Operation Citadel was the last major German offensive against the Soviet Union.


title: Kursk

text: Rebuilding efforts in the city began in February 1944. The cultural life recovered as well: on 19 February a cinema was reopened and on February 27 - a drama theatre. In 1953 the tram system began operating again. By 1950 the urban economy had been completely restored. On 17 August 1956, Stalinsky District was renamed Promishlenost District, and Dzerzhinsky District was abolished and its territory divided between Promishlenost and Leninsky Districts.


title: Kursk

text: In 2009, for the first time in 90 years at the site of Theotokos of Kursk, the most revered icon in the Russian Orthodox Church, received the name Hodigitria Russian diaspora.


title: Kursk

text: Until 2010, Kursk had the status of historical settlement, but the Russian Ministry of Culture deprived the city of this status on 29 July 2010 in resolution No. 418/339.


title: Kursk

text: On 29 October 2011, for the first time in 30 years, the city opened a new firehouse for the protection of the Central District, with modern equipment. In 2012, Kursk celebrated its 980th anniversary.


title: Kursk

text: Kursk is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Kursky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Kursk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Kursk is incorporated as Kursk Urban Okrug.


title: Kursk

text: In addition to its importance as an administrative hub, Kursk is important as an industrial centre. Activity focuses on iron based industry, the chemical sector and a large food processing industry, reflecting the richness of agriculture in the surrounding "Black Earth" region.


title: Kursk

text: Particularly noteworthy is the so-called Kursk Magnetic Anomaly "(Russian: Курская магнитная аномалия)", the world's largest known iron-ore reserve, where the iron content of the ore ranges from 35% up to 60%.


title: Kursk

text: In Kurchatov, some to the south-west, is the Kursk Nuclear Power Plant, incorporating four RBMK-1000 ("High Power Channel-type Reactor") "(Russian: Реактор Большой Мощности Канальный)" reactors similar to those implicated in the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. The oldest of the Kursk reactors has been operational since 1977, and the newest of them since 1986.


title: Kursk

text: The oldest building in Kursk is the upper church of the Trinity Monastery, a good example of the transition style characteristic of Peter the Great's early reign. The oldest lay building is the so-called Romodanovsky Chamber, although it was erected in all probability in the mid-18th century, when the Romodanovsky family had ceased to exist.


title: Kursk

text: The city cathedral was built between 1752 and 1778 in the splendid Baroque style and was decorated so sumptuously that many art historians attributed it to Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Although Rastrelli's authorship is out of the question, the cathedral is indeed the most impressive monument of Elizabethan Baroque not to be commissioned by the imperial family or built in the imperial capital.


title: Kursk

text: The cathedral has two stories, with the lower church consecrated to St. Sergius of Radonezh and the upper one — to the Theotokos of Kazan. The upper church is noted for an intricate icon screen which took sixteen years to complete. The three-story cathedral bell tower derives peculiar interest from the fact that Seraphim of Sarov, whose father took part in construction works, survived an accidental fall from its top floor at the age of seven. The Resurrection Church is also shown where St. Seraphim was baptized.


title: Kursk

text: The monastery cathedral of the Sign (1816–26) is another imposing edifice, rigorously formulated in the purest Neoclassical style, with a cupola measuring in diameter and rising high. The interior was formerly as rich as colored marbles, gilding, and frescoes could make it. During the Soviet period, the cathedral was desecrated, four lateral domes and twin belltowers over the entrance pulled down. There are plans to restore the church to its former glory.


title: Kursk

text: The modern city is a home for several universities: Kursk State Medical University, State Technical University, Kursk State University (former Pedagogical University) and Agricultural Academy, as well as the private Regional Open Social Institute (ROSI). There are also modern shrines and memorials commemorating the Battle of Kursk, both in the city and in Prokhorovka.


title: Kursk

text: The Command Station Bunker & Museum was built specifically in memorial of the courageous Russian T-34 tank units that fought in the Battle of Kursk, where a T-34 tank is on display. Over 6,000 armored vehicles fought in close range over the open territory near Kursk in 1943. This battle stopped the German advance into the Kursk Salient, and was a turning point of World War II on the Eastern Front.


title: Kursk

text: Nearby is Tsentralno-Chernozemny Zapovednik, a large section of steppe soil that has never been plowed. It is used for a variety of research purposes.


title: Kursk

text: Since 1868 there has been a railway connection between Kursk and Moscow. Kursk is located on a major railway line between Moscow and Kharkov, with trains also linking the city to Voronezh and Kiev. The Kursk Vostochny Airport provides domestic flights. Public transport includes buses, trolleybuses, and trams. Since 2007, the public transport introduced a satellite navigation system. The total length of the road network of the city of Kursk is 595.8 km, of which 496.2 km of roads are paved. Roads of the city have access to federal highway M2 "Crimea", as well as on the highway A144 (Kursk - Voronezh - Saratov) and P199 (border with Ukraine).


title: Kursk

text: Kursk bound intercity bus routes to cities and towns Kursk region and neighboring regions (Belgorod Oblast, Bryansk Oblast, Voronezh Oblast, Oryol Oblast), as well as Moscow, St. Petersburg and cities of Ukraine: Kharkiv and Sumy. Long-distance buses arrive and depart from the bus station "Kursk", located in the North-West part of the city.


title: Kursk

text: On September 5, 2011, in Kursk commissioned automated monitoring system fare. Implementation of the system in operation is carried out by Kursk Integrated Ticket System was to take place in three stages: At the initial stage is implemented partially open version of the system, in which the sale of tickets and travel control social cards carried in the cabin of public transport conductors with handheld validators, the second stage involves the installation of stationary validators, third - commissioning turnstiles. After completion of the implementation, the automated monitoring system drive will operate in "closed" mode : turnstiles will be installed at the entrance and exit of passengers. As of September 2011 turnstiles installed on 44 buses, 10 trolley buses and trams 5.


title: Kursk

text: Kursk State University is home to the Russian Chamber Orchestra, under the direction of conductor and trumpet soloist Sergey Proskurin. The orchestra performs regularly, tours internationally and has produced multiple CDs.


title: Kursk

text: Pushkin Theater located in the center of the city. It has permanent company as well as visiting shows.


title: Kursk

text: Kursk hams since 1935 could receive television broadcasts from Moscow. In 1960, the Committee on Radio and Television was created by the Kursk Oblast Executive Committee. The first transmission of local television aired January 14, 1961. Main fixed line and cellular operators are active in the city.


title: Kursk

text: On 8 March 2022, the Polish city of Tczew ended its partnership with Kursk as a response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Deadman Wonderland

text: An anime adaptation aired between April and July 2011, pulling content from the first 21 chapters of the manga. The anime is licensed by Funimation and aired on Adult Swim's newly revived Toonami programming block between May and August 2012.


title: Deadman Wonderland

text: A massive anomaly caused a great earthquake that ravaged Japan's mainland and destroyed most of Tokyo, sinking three-quarters of the city into the Pacific Ocean.


title: Deadman Wonderland

text: Ten years later, the story shifts to Ganta Igarashi, a seemingly ordinary 9th grader attending Nagano Prefecture's middle school. As an "escapee", a survivor of the great earthquake, Ganta has no memories of the tragedy and has lived a normal life. This all changes when a strange person covered in blood and crimson armor floats through his classroom windows. Grinning madly, the "Red Man" massacres Ganta's entire class. Instead of killing him, the "Red Man" embeds a red crystal shard in Ganta's chest. Within days of the massacre, Ganta is placed on trial as a suspect. Due to the evidence rigged against him, he is sentenced to death at "Deadman Wonderland", a prison that doubles as a theme park and is run by the warden Tsunenaga Tamaki (who posed as Ganta's lawyer and was secretly responsible for the rigged evidence against him).


title: Deadman Wonderland

text: Arriving at the prison, Ganta is fitted with a special collar which monitors his location and vital signs. A lethal poison is constantly injected into his bloodstream through the collar, but it can be neutralized by consuming a peculiar candy-like medicine every three days, which can be acquired through various activities in the prison, e.g. performing for audiences, working backstage and purchasing with Cast Points (a form of currency among inmates at Deadman Wonderland). To gather Cast Points, an inmate must perform in the facility's lethal games and survive. Fortunately for Ganta, he is aided by a mysterious albino girl named Shiro who apparently knows Ganta and who is imprisoned for murdering people because her mother chose to save her flowers instead of her, Shiro is also attracted to her.