title: Stavanger

text: According to Köppen climate classification, Stavanger experiences a temperate oceanic climate ("Cfb") with five months with a mean temperature above . Spring and early summer is the driest season. The all-time high at the airport was recorded August 1975. The warmest high recorded in Stavanger is at the weather station Stavanger-Våland (72 m) in July 2018. The warmest month on record at Stavanger Airport is August 2002 with mean and average daily high . The all-time low was recorded January 1987. The coldest month on record is February 1963 with mean and average daily low .


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger is officially partitioned into 22 parts and 218 subparts. Stavanger is also divided into seven boroughs.


title: Stavanger

text: In the early 20th century, Stavanger's industry was mainly related to fisheries and shipping. In the first half of the century it was known for canning, and in the 1950s there were over 50 canneries in town. The town was even called Norway's "canned capital", and included Christian Bjelland, who founded Chr Bjelland & Co. A/S. The last of these factories were closed down in 2002.


title: Stavanger

text: Around 1950, over half of the working population in the city was employed in industry. Structural changes in industry and the strong development of the service sector have radically changed the city's economic base, and the service industry now represents over 11 percent of employment. However, the city still has 29 percent of the county's industrial employment.


title: Stavanger

text: Engineering is now the main industry with 59 percent of manufacturing employment. This is mostly related to the offshore petroleum industry, and production of oil platforms alone account for 40 percent. Other important industries are publishing – especially high printing and the major daily newspapers in town, Stavanger and Rogaland Avis Aftenblad – and food and beverage, which includes the processing of local agricultural products from Jæren, including Gilde Vest with one of the largest slaughterhouses.


title: Stavanger

text: Employment by place of work and industry in 2007 to 0.6% in primary, 27.4% in secondary and tertiary industries 71.7%. Employment by place of work by sector in 2007 to 24.4% in the public sector and 75.6% in the private sector and public enterprises.


title: Stavanger

text: Industry has in recent years become highly decentralized. The most important of the newer industrial areas are Forus in the south, on the border of Sandnes and Sola, and Dusavik (mainly petroleum-related activities) in the north, on the border of Randfontein. Significant older industrial areas are Hillevåg, Buøy, the eastern districts, and in some places elsewhere along the coast. Shipbuilding and shipping has also traditionally been of great importance to the city's economic growth, and Rosenberg Shipyard, established in 1896, is located on Hundvåg. Today Stavanger is also among the country's most important maritime cities, coming in fourth for registered fleets after the cities of Oslo, Bergen and Ålesund.


title: Stavanger

text: For the fourth consecutive year, Stavanger Region was in 2007 ranked best business region. Telemarksforsking Bo worked with Ministry NM to rank the regions in Norway with regard to profitability, growth and new businesses.


title: Stavanger

text: The city's largest daily newspaper, Stavanger Aftenblad came out with its first issue in 1893. Competitor Rogalands Avis was first published in 1899 under the name "1ste Mai" ('1 May'), and published daily. In 1987 an attempt was made to establish a new daily newspaper, The West Coast, but it was only released for two months and ended with a total loss of NOK 27 million.


title: Stavanger

text: The first newspaper published in Stavanger, "Stavangerske Adressecontoirs Efterretninger", was a handwritten weekly newspaper that probably came out in 1769 and 1770. This was not an ordinary newspaper, but a so-called link newspaper with the privilege of bringing out announcements, small articles and ads. The first "printed" newspaper in Stavanger, "Stavanger Addresseavis", published its first issue on Friday, 4 October 1833.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger Avis was published from 1888 until 1911. Writer and local Alexander L. Kielland was editor in 1889. Stavanger Avis was also the name of the newspaper that came out from 1942 to 1945, when Stavanger Aftenblad and Stavangeren were merged by the Press Directorate.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger has one principal television station, TV Vest, that sends local news and reports. Additionally, Viking TV, the channel for the football team Viking FK, started on 2 March 2008, and is distributed via Lyse's broadband network, reaching 120,000 viewers in 45,000 households. NRK Rogaland supplies local news broadcasts on radio and television. Local radio stations also provide local news and reports.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger region is often referred to as Norway's answer to the French food region of Lyon. The Culinary Institute, based in Ullandhaug, provided a very important focus on food in Stavanger. After the Culinary Institute went bankrupt, partly due to activities in Oslo on 4 June 2008, a new culinary organization was established by the Foundation Rogaland knowledge park and Rogaland County Council. This new institute, now also known as The Culinary Institute, maintained parts of the work of the original organization, and eventually bought back the name, logo and brand "Culinary Institute" from the bankruptcy estate.


title: Stavanger

text: In summer 2007, the region's culinary actors were awarded the title "Norwegian Centers of Expertise in Culinology." The building under construction at Ullandhaug will serve as a platform and innovative arena, not only for the region's R & D environment, but also for other expertise among both industry and the public. In July 2008 the Stavanger European championship qualified for the Bocuse d' Or. In 2008, Norway was represented by Geir Skeie, who also won gold. Every year there is a "Happy Food Festival" in the city center. The festival originated in the network of Rogaland county so that they could impart culinary traditions of the region. By 2020, Stavanger region intends to be the region most Norwegians associate with food products and culinary experiences.


title: Stavanger

text: In recent times, the city has come to be called the "oil capital," and Norway's national and largest oil company, Equinor, is based at Forus, in Stavanger. Equinor (at the time known as Statoil) was founded as a limited company owned by the Government of Norway on 14 July 1972 by a unanimous act passed by the Norwegian parliament Stortinget, to enable Norwegian participation in the oil industry on the continental shelf, to build up Norwegian competency within the petroleum industry, and to establish the foundations of a domestic petroleum industry. Establishing Equinor's headquarters in Stavanger naturally led to Stavanger becoming the center of the oil industry. Petoro, a Norwegian state-owned company responsible for managing the commercial aspects of the state's direct financial interest in petroleum activities on the Norwegian continental shelf, also has its headquarters in the city. With the center of the national oil industry in Stavanger, several other international oil companies have also made their headquarters in Stavanger.


title: Stavanger

text: NPD was created in 1972 by Ullandhaug and PSA was established on 1 January 2004 and co-located with the agency, as a regulatory body.


title: Stavanger

text: Jåttåvågen, on Gandsfjorden, was from the 1970s to the 1990s a large industrial area, particularly for the construction of large concrete Condeep platforms and oil platforms for the offshore industry. Among others, the Condeep jacket for the three Gullfaks platforms and Troll A were cast here by Norwegian Contractors.


title: Stavanger

text: Offshore Northern Seas is the second largest exhibition of its kind in the oil and gas industry. ONS takes place in Stavanger during the last week of August every other year. In 2008, there were 38,000 visitors, half of whom came from abroad.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger Airport, Sola, is located in Sola, 14 minutes away from Stavanger city center. The airport opened in 1937. In 1940 Stavanger Airport, Forus, opened, but closed in 1989. In 2013 Sola airport had over 4 million passengers and was the largest airport in Rogaland county. It is also the 3rd largest airport in Norway and 7th in the Nordic countries. The busiest route is Oslo-Gardermoen, with over 1.5 million passengers; the second most popular is Bergen Airport, Flesland, with over 700,000 passengers; Oslo-Torp is the third most popular, followed by Trondheim Airport, Værnes and Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik domestically. Internationally, the busiest routes are Copenhagen, Amsterdam, and Aberdeen. Stavanger also has connections to domestic and European destinations, including London, Paris, Barcelona, Stockholm, Warsaw. Domestic destinations are all the way up from Tromsø down to Kristiansand.


title: Stavanger

text: The Southern Railway goes from Oslo Central Station to Drammen, to Kristiansand Station, to, finally, Stavanger Station. This route, 545 kilometres (339 mi) between Oslo and Stavanger, is scheduled over four times every day and takes around seven hours. The railway was constructed in several phases, the first section being opened in 1871 and the last not opened until 1944. While there was continual construction work from Oslo westward as far as Moi, the Jæren Line, from Egersund to Stavanger in Western Norway, was opened in 1878. Up to 1913 the name used on plans and for the completed sections was the Vestlandet Line (The West Country Line).


title: Stavanger

text: There are also local trains in Jæren with 19 stops on one line. The line opened as a 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) narrow gauge stand-alone line on 27 February 1878. The railway was extended from Egersund to Flekkefjord as the Flekkefjord Line in 1904. The Jæren Line's only branch, the Ålgård Line from Ganddal to Ålgård, opened in 1924. In 1944, the Sørlandet Line was extended to Sira on the Flekkefjord Line, and the Jæren Line was integrated into the main railway network. Because of this, the line was converted to standard gauge.


title: Stavanger

text: European route E39 goes through Stavanger via the Mastrafjord Tunnel and Byfjord Tunnel, then goes south to Sandnes. Fylkesvei 44 starts from Stavanger and ends in Kristiansand, via Sandnes and Flekkefjord.


title: Stavanger

text: National road 509 runs between Tasta Borough through Tananger, Sola and Stavanger Airport, and Forus, ending at E39 near Jåtten.


title: Stavanger

text: On 18 December 2012, the new engine traffic road Solasplitten opened as a new thoroughfare eastward, north of Forus and the European route E39.


title: Stavanger

text: An undersea road tunnel connects Stavanger to Strand via the Ryfast tunnel link. (Ryfylke Tunnel and Hundvåg Tunnel).


title: Stavanger

text: There is as of 2021 ongoing construction of Rogfast, an undersea road tunnel that will facilitate travel between Stavanger and Haugesund.


title: Stavanger

text: Located outside Stavanger, there is a port serving ferries to Hirtshals, Denmark. There have been advocates for the Smyril Line ferry between the Faroe Islands and Denmark to make a stop in Stavanger as the new port in Risavika allows this to be done while only adding one hour to the total sailing time.


title: Stavanger

text: Local ferries go to Tau and Kvitsøy, while fast passenger boats go to many villages and islands between the main routes from Stavanger to Haugesund and Sauda.


title: Stavanger

text: There are plans to re-establish the ferry link to Newcastle in the United Kingdom, which was suspended in 2008.


title: Stavanger

text: The local bus service in Stavanger is administered by Rogaland Kollektivtrafikk (RKT) under the brand name "Kolumbus". The buses are operated by Boreal Transport. RKT administers all bus routes in Rogaland County.


title: Stavanger

text: Express bus services are operated by NOR-WAY Bussekspress from Stavanger City Terminal to Kristiansand, Bergen and Haugesund, and by Lavprisekspressen to Oslo via Kristiansand.


title: Stavanger

text: University of Stavanger (UIS) is the fifth university established in Norway, on 29 October 2004, when Høgskolen i Stavanger (HiS) gained university status by decision of the Council. The university has about 9,000 students and 1,200 employees and is organized into three faculties: Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences and the Faculty of Science. The archaeological museum is also part of the university. The campus is located in Ullandhaug, with most departments located there. Marit Boyesen was selected as the principal for the period 2011 to 2015, and started her tenure as rector 1 August 2011. As rector, she is the head of the academic activities of the University of Stavanger as well as Chairman of the University Board. The University of Stavanger became a member of European Consortium of Innovative Universities (ECIU) in October 2012.


title: Stavanger

text: The VID Specialized University has a long history in the city. This university began as the School of Mission and Theology or Misjonshøgskolen (MHS), being established in 1843 and accredited in 2008 as a research university. It has about 300 students from approximately 20 countries. MHS is owned by the Norwegian Missionary Society. The Centre for Intercultural Communication (SIK) is associated with the college's mission. In 2016 it became part of the VID Specialized University.


title: Stavanger

text: The Scandinavian School of Management offers college studies in Marketing and Management. The school is 92.5% owned by John Bauer Group.


title: Stavanger

text: Other private schools include the International School of Stavanger, The British International School of Stavanger and Stavanger French school, which is in the same premises as Eiganes School.


title: Stavanger

text: Other schools in the city are the Enterprise Technical College Stavanger, Noroff Institute Stavanger, Utdanningshuset Stavanger, Acta Bible, BI Stavanger, Fjelltun Bible, Folkeuniversitetet Stavanger, Imente Vocational School Stavanger, Nor Offshore Stavanger, Norwegian School of Creative Studies Stavanger, NæringsAkademiet Stavanger Peteka – Stavanger, PNI Training Center and Stavanger Offshore Technical College.


title: Stavanger

text: The high schools are categorized under Rogaland county, but specifically within Stavanger municipality are the schools St. Olav, St. Svithun, Stavanger Cathedral School, Hetland, Jåttå, Stavanger Offshore Technical College, Godalen and Bergeland.


title: Stavanger

text: The city has several museums and collections that are both local and national. The city's most visited museum is the Norwegian Petroleum Museum, opened in 1998. In its 10 years of visitation records, from 1998 to 2008, almost 95,000 people visited the museum annually.


title: Stavanger

text: The city's oldest museum is Missjonmuseet, established in 1864, located on the ground floor of the faculty building at MHS. The museum has about 5,000 exhibits consisting of several objects of ethnographic and historical interest from the various mission fields of study.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger Museum, founded in 1877 and thus one of the oldest museums, includes several historic buildings and collections. Stavanger Museum consists of a total of eight buildings: Stavanger Museum Muségata 16, Stavanger Maritime Museum, the Norwegian Canning Museum, Ledaal, Breidablikkveien museum, combined indretning, Norwegian Printing Museum and the Norwegian Children's Museum. In the main museum are now a cultural department, a zoological collection, and a library.


title: Stavanger

text: Museum of Archaeology in Stavanger is the largest museum in Stavanger, measured by number of employees. AmS is a state museum for the prehistoric sites in Rogaland, and is part of the University of Stavanger. The museum also conducts extensive outreach activities, and has facilities fairly close to Stavanger Museum.


title: Stavanger

text: Rogaland Art Museum, located by a park, has paintings by Norwegian artist Edvard Munch, Christian Krogh, Eilif Peterssen and Harriet Backer, and also has the largest collection of Lars Hertervigs work. Other artists of Rogaland represented here include Kitty Kielland, Nicolai Ulfsten, Carl Sundt-Hansen, Olaf Lange and Aage Storstein.


title: Stavanger

text: Vestlandske School Museum (Western Norway School Museum), in Stavanger, is currently in the old 1920 Kvaleberg school building. Established in 1925, it is a museum of school history in Rogaland.


title: Stavanger

text: By the bay lies the Norwegian Emigration Center on the west side and on the eastern side of the bay is Valbergtårnet with his vektermuseeum. Norwegian Telecom Museum has an office in Stavanger, at Løkkeveien.


title: Stavanger

text: The Church of Norway has two deaneries "(prosti)" within the municipality of Stavanger: the Stavanger arch-deanery and the Ytre Stavanger deanery. The two deaneries are divided up into 17 parishes "(sokn)", all of which are part of the Diocese of Stavanger.


title: Stavanger

text: South West Film Forum was established in 1992 and is an organization of film workers in Rogaland. Its goal is to increase the skills of film workers in the region and encourage more filmmaking. Film Forum Southwest has received operating support from the City of Stavanger since 1995 and from the county since 1997. Additionally, they have received grants for film workshop from the county and for other industry-stimulating measures from Stavanger municipality.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger has since 1997 had a grant for the support of local filmmaking. The aim has been to stimulate the local film community growth and development, and to contribute to local filmmakers so they can initiate film projects that can then apply for production funding from other government agencies. In addition, they support the already completed projects – primarily to help cinemas display locally produced film.


title: Stavanger

text: The feature film "Mongoland" became a Norwegian film success, made outside the traditional infrastructure for Norwegian film. So far this has culminated with the establishment of the production company South West Film and Film Kraft Rogaland, to ensure long-term fund allocations to filmproduksjoner. Arild Østin Ommundsen made his directorial debut with the feature film Mongoland in 2000 and has since directed and written the script for "The Haunting" (2003) and "Monster Thursday" (2005). Ommundsen helped start the new Stavanger wave that came after Mongoland premiered, and several of the actors who were instrumental have since enjoyed great success.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger native Stian Kristiansen, who had his acting breakthrough in the feature film "Mongoland", debuted as a feature film director with the film interpretation of Tore Renberg's book "The Man Who Loved Yngve". The film, of the same title, had its theatrical release on 15 February 2008. The film has received top marks in Norwegian media, and was watched by over 30,000 people during the premiere weekend. In 2008, Kristiansen received Stavanger's screenplay scholarship.


title: Stavanger

text: On 30 September 2010, the film "Nokas", directed by Erik Skjoldbjærg, premiered in Stavanger. The film is about the NOKAS robbery in Stavanger on 5 April 2004, and was filmed on location, using many of the locations where the factual event took place, such as the King Street counting center, in the Norway Bank building, and the Cathedral Square, by Maria Church Ruins. The family of the police officer who died during the robbery has not authorized the film.


title: Stavanger

text: "Lykkeland" "(″State of Happiness″)", a Norwegian drama series of so far 16 episodes in two seasons, premiered with the first season on NRK1 in 2018. The series is about the time when Norway enters the oil age and follows some families and people in Stavanger who experience great upheavals when the city goes from being a pietistic community with fishing, shipping and agriculture as main industries, to becoming an international, rich oil city. The second season premiered on 2 January 2022 and deals with dramatic events in the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Stavanger

text: The series won two awards during the newly started CannesSeries Festival in Cannes in 2018. The first season of the series won five awards during the Gullruten ("Golden Screen", Norway) 2019 – best drama series, best actress for Anne Regine Ellingsæter, best director TV drama for Petter Næss and Pål Jackman, best screenplay in TV drama for Mette Marit Bølstad and best costume for Karen Fabritius Gram. During the Gullruten 2022, the second season of the series won five awards, among them best supporting role for Pia Tjelta and best director TV drama for Petter Næss.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger and its region, along with Liverpool, United Kingdom, was selected as a European Capital of Culture for 2008. The "Stavanger2008" vision is expressed through the concept "Open Port". This can be understood both in its English sense – "an open harbour" – and in its Norwegian meaning of "an open gate", together implying openness towards the world. The region and its people is supposed to be even more open and inclusive towards art, ideas and opportunities.


title: Stavanger

text: The largest local football club in Stavanger is Viking FK, one of the most successful football clubs in Norwegian history, having won a total of eight league titles and five Norwegian Football Cup titles. The club plays its home matches at SR-Bank Arena, which was opened in 2004.


title: Stavanger

text: After a short stint in the second-tier division, OBOS-ligaen, in the 2018 season, Viking FK was once again promoted to the top-tier Eliteserien, and is to date the club with the most seasons at the highest level of Norwegian football, along with Trondheim rival Rosenborg BK.


title: Stavanger

text: FK Vidar, another local football club, currently plays in the Norwegian second division, the third highest level on the football league pyramid.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger Oilers is the only western team in the top Norwegian ice hockey league, Fjordkraftligaen. It has won a total of seven Norwegian championship titles. The club plays its home matches at DNB Arena, which was opened in 2012.


title: Stavanger

text: The Sørmarka Arena is an indoor multi-purpose ice rink used for (inter)national ice speed skating competitions.


title: Stavanger

text: Every May, Stavanger is host to MaiJazz, the Stavanger International Jazz Festival. The International Chamber Music Festival takes place every August.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger is the home of the Stavanger Symphony Orchestra (SSO). Covering another part of the musical spectrum, it is also home to gothic metal bands Theatre of Tragedy, Tristania, Sirenia and the singer Liv Kristine, and the black metal band Gehenna. Janove Ottesen and Geir Zahl, founding members of the alternative rockband Kaizers Orchestra, both live in Stavanger as well. Other notable acts from Stavanger include Kvelertak, Thomas Dybdahl & Sturle Dagsland.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger participates in the annual "NuArt Festival", organized for national and international artists who operate outside of the traditional art establishment. Every September, a team of internationally acclaimed street artists contribute to "one of Europe’s most dynamic and constantly evolving public art events."


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger is a popular tourist destination, especially in summer. The hotels in the city have good occupancy year round due to a lot of commuters who travel to work and meetings in Stavanger. In recent years, Stavanger has also become one of the most popular ports of call for cruise ships, with the number of cruise ships increasing steadily, making Stavanger one of Europe's fastest growing ports of call for cruise ships north of the Mediterranean.


title: Stavanger

text: Especially in the summertime, Stavanger's harbour is full of large cruiseships: in 2011 Stavanger hosted 130 cruiseships. The Port of Stavanger is a popular stop on the route to the Norwegian Fjords. The charming city center is just a small walk from the quay.


title: Stavanger

text: There are not many outdoor activities in Stavanger itself, however, splendid opportunities are nearby in adjacent municipalities: Lysefjorden is particularly popular for hiking. Tourists typically visit places like Preikestolen (aka the Pulpit Rock), and Kjeragbolten. Preikestolen is a massive rock overhanging the fjord (604 metres below). Kjeragbolten is a rock wedged in the cliff approximately 1,000 metres above the fjord. The straight fall 1,000 metres down to the fjord makes Kjerag a very popular location for BASE jumping.


title: Stavanger

text: Not too far from Stavanger, alpine centers are available for skiers and snowboarders throughout the winter season.


title: Stavanger

text: Along the coast south of Stavanger there are a number of large, sandy beaches, including at Sola, within close reach from the city.


title: Stavanger

text: Old Stavanger (Gamle Stavanger) is located right next to the city center and has a collection of 18th- and 19th-century wooden structures.


title: Stavanger

text: Stavanger domkirke (St. Swithun's cathedral) was built between 1100 and 1150 by the English bishop Reinald in Anglo-Norman style, and in the late 13th century a new choir was added in Gothic style, with a vaulted roof. The cathedral is the only Norwegian cathedral that is almost unchanged since the 14th century.


title: Stavanger

text: The city center itself is small and intimate, with narrow streets and open spaces protected from car traffic.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The Yellow Vests Protests or Yellow Jackets Protests or Yellow Vests Revolution (, ) are a series of populist, grassroots weekly protests in France that began on 17 November 2018. At first the protestors advocated economic justice; later they called for institutional political reforms.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: After an online petition posted in May 2018 had attracted nearly 1 million signatures, mass demonstrations began on 17 November. The movement was initially motivated by rising crude oil and fuel prices, a high cost of living, and economic inequality. The movement argued that a disproportionate burden of taxation in France was falling on the working and middle classes, especially in rural and peri-urban areas. The protesters called for lower fuel taxes, a reintroduction of the solidarity tax on wealth, a minimum wage increase, among other things. On 29 November 2018, a list of 42 demands was made public and went viral on social media, becoming a "de facto" structuring basis for the movement. The demands covered a wide range of eclectic topics, mostly related to democracy, and social and fiscal justice. After President Emmanuel Macron made an address on TV on 10 December announcing the cancellation of the fuel tax increase and other social measures, the movement evolved, and the citizens' initiative referendums became its unique revendication. Participation in the weekly protests diminished due to violence, particularly due to the loss of eyes, hands, and other neurological disorders caused by police blast balls. The protests eventually stopped due to the COVID-19 pandemic in France but continued again after health restrictions were lifted.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The movement spans the political spectrum. According to one poll, few of those protesting had voted for Macron in the 2017 French presidential election; many had shown political alienation by not voting, or had voted for far-right or far-left candidates. Rising fuel-prices initially sparked the demonstrations. Yellow high-visibility vests, which French law requires all drivers to have in their vehicles and to wear during emergency situations, were chosen as "a unifying thread and call to arms" because of their convenience, visibility, ubiquity, and association with working-class industries. The protests have involved demonstrations and the blocking of roads and fuel depots, sometimes developing into major riots, described as the most violent since those of May 68. The police action, resulting in multiple incidents of loss of limb, has been criticized by politicians and international media; it has sometimes resulted in police officers being charged for their violent behavior. The movement has received international attention. Protesters in many places around the world have used the yellow vest as a symbol. About 3 million people have participated in the yellow-vests movement.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The issue on which the French movement centered at first was the projected 2019 increase in fuel taxes, particularly on diesel fuel. The yellow vest was an accessible symbol for the protests, as all French drivers have been required to have one in their vehicles since 2008.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Already low in early 2018 (47% approval in January 2018), French president Emmanuel Macron's approval rating had dipped below 25% at the beginning of the movement. The government's method of curbing the budget deficit had proven unpopular, with Macron being dubbed "président des très riches" ("president of the very rich") by his former boss François Hollande.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Late in June 2017, Macron's Minister of Justice, François Bayrou, came under pressure to resign, due to the ongoing investigation into the financial arrangements of the political party (MoDem) he leads. During a radio interview in August 2018, Nicolas Hulot had resigned from the Ministry of the Environment, without telling either the President or the Prime Minister of his plans to do so. Criticized for his role in the Benalla affair, Gérard Collomb tried to resign in October 2018 as Minister of the Interior—leaving himself with only two jobs, as a senator and mayor of Lyon—but saw his resignation initially refused, then finally accepted.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In the 1950s, diesel engines were used only in heavy equipment so, to help sell off the surpluses in French refineries, the state created a favorable tax regime to encourage motorists and manufacturers to use diesel. The 1979 oil crisis prompted efforts to curb petrol (gasoline) use, while taking advantage of diesel fuel availability and diesel engine efficiency. The French manufacturer Peugeot has been at the forefront of diesel technology, and from the 1980s, the French government favored this technology. A reduction in VAT taxes for corporate fleets also increased the prevalence of diesel cars in France. In 2015, two out of every three cars purchased consumed diesel fuel.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The price of petrol (SP95-E10) decreased during 2018, from €1.47 per liter (USD $6.57/gallon) in January to €1.43 per liter (USD $6.40/gallon) in the last week of November.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Prices of petrol and diesel fuel increased by 15 percent and 23 percent respectively between October 2017 and October 2018. The world market purchase price of petrol for distributors increased by 28 percent over the previous year; for diesel, by 35 percent. Costs of distribution increased by 40 percent. VAT included, diesel taxes increased by 14 percent over one year and petrol taxes by 7.5 percent. The tax increase had been 7.6 cents per litre on diesel and 3.9 cents on petrol in 2018, with a further increase of 6.5 cents on diesel and 2.9 cents on petrol planned for 1 January 2019.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The protest movement against fuel prices mainly concerns individuals, as a number of professions and activities benefit from partial or total exemptions from TICPE.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Though allegedly pro-climate, the protesters criticized Édouard Philippe's second government for burdening households with the bulk of the carbon tax, while offering exemptions to many carbon-intensive companies. As the carbon tax had progressively been ramping up to meet ecological objectives, many who had chosen fossil fuel-based heating for their homes, outside of the city center—where a car is required were displeased. President Macron attempted to dispel these concerns in early November by offering special subsidies and incentives.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Diesel prices in France increased by 16 percent in 2018, with taxes on both petrol and diesel increasing at the same time and a further tax increase planned for 2019, making diesel as expensive as petrol. President Macron bore the brunt of the protesters' anger for his extension of policies implemented under François Hollande's government.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The government decided in 2017 to cut the speed limit on country roads from 1 July 2018 from 90 to with the aim to save 200 lives each year, after research found that "excessive or unsuitable" speed was involved in a third (32 percent) of fatal road accidents. The change was opposed and was a factor in the rise of the yellow vest movement. It was seen as another tax via citations and a failure to understand the needs of rural residents who are totally reliant on their cars. Vandalism of traffic enforcement cameras grew significantly after the yellow vest movement began.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Sparked by claims that the fuel tax was intended to finance tax cuts for big business (a characterization that French President Emmanuel Macron has objected to, stating that the fuel tax was intended to discourage fossil fuel use as a way to combat climate change) and including many people motivated by economic difficulties due to low salaries and high energy prices, the yellow vests movement has called for redistributive economic policies like a wealth tax, increased pensions, a higher minimum wage, and reduced salaries for politicians. While some commentators have claimed that the movement was a backlash to policies meant to combat climate change, a communique released by the movement calls for a "real ecological policy", including fuel and kerosene taxes for ships and airplanes, but objects to policies like the gas tax that hit the poor and working class most heavily.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: No one knows how the high-visibility yellow vest came to be chosen as the symbol and uniform for the movement, and no one has claimed to be its originator. The movement originated with French motorists from rural areas who had long commutes protesting against an increase in fuel taxes, wearing the yellow vests that, under a 2008 French law, all motorists are required to keep in their vehicles and to wear in case of emergency. The symbol has become "a unifying thread and call to arms" because yellow vests are common and inexpensive, easy to wear over any clothing, associated with working-class industries, highly visible, and widely understood as a distress signal. As the movement grew to include grievances beyond fuel taxes, non-motorists in France put on yellow vests and joined the demonstrations, as did protesters in other countries with diverse (and sometimes conflicting) grievances of their own. In the words of one commentator, "The uniform of this revolution is as accessible as the frustration and fury."


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Éric Drouet and a businesswoman named Priscillia Ludosky from the Seine-et-Marne department started a petition on the change.org website in May 2018 that had reached 300,000 signatures by mid-October and close to 1 million a month later. Parallel to this petition, two men from the same Department launched a Facebook event for 17 November to "block all roads" and thus protest against an increase in fuel prices they considered excessive, stating that this increase was the result of the tax increase. One of the viral videos around this group launched the idea of using yellow jackets.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The movement is organized in a leaderless, horizontal fashion. Informal leaders can emerge, but some have been rejected by other demonstrators and even threatened. According to John Lichfield, some in the movement extend their hatred of politicians even to any "would-be politicians who emerge from their own ranks". The yellow jacket movement is not associated with a specific political party or trade union and has spread largely by social media.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The yellow vests movement has been described as a populist, grassroots movement for economic justice, opposing what it sees as the wealthy urban elite and the establishment. Many of the protesters live in tight financial circumstances, often in rural or outer-urban areas where there is "weak economic growth and high unemployment", and where depending on a car for transport is "essential, and increasingly costly". According to the BBC, "It's no accident that cars were the spark that ignited this anger. Not needing one has become a status symbol in France. Those in city centers have a wealth of public transport to choose from, but you need to be rich enough to live in the center of Paris or Marseille or Bordeaux".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The movement has drawn supporters from across the political spectrum. An opinion poll published by the Elabe Institute showed that in the presidential election in May 2017, 36% of the participants voted for far-right candidate Marine Le Pen and 28% for far-left candidate Jean-Luc Mélenchon in the 2017 presidential elections. Five "Le Monde" journalists studied the yellow vests' forty-two directives and concluded that two thirds were "very close" to the position of the "radical left" (Mélenchon, Philippe Poutou and Nathalie Arthaud), nearly a half were "compatible with" the position of the "far right" (Nicolas Dupont-Aignan and Marine Le Pen), and that all were "very far removed" from economically "liberal" policies (Emmanuel Macron and François Fillon). Étienne Girard, writing for "Marianne", says the one figure that gathers wide support in the movement has been dead for thirty-two years: the former humourist and presidential candidate Coluche.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Some media outlets were shocked at the hostility they felt from the very beginning of the yellow vest mobilization. The media had been largely supportive of Emmanuel Macron's government since before his election. This unyielding support of his policies was widely cited by the yellow vests' as the main cause of this violence. Multiple verbal and physical attacks perpetrated by yellow vests against journalists have been reported and documented throughout the movement. For example in Rouen during the Acte IX, LCI television reporters were attacked by a group of protesters, thrown to the ground and beaten. The same day a reporter for the local newspaper La Dépêche du Midi was threatened by yellow vest protesters in Toulouse who told her "we'll take you out of your car and rape you". On 19 November a BFMTV crew was forced to abandon a protest in the Bordeaux region because they were targeted by protesters who not only hurled insults but also threw stones and beer cans at them. In parallel, many comments and photomontages expressing hatred towards journalists as a whole circulated on "yellow vest" Facebook pages. In December the level of threats and attacks was such that more and more news organizations decided that every reporter they sent out should be accompanied by a bodyguard, because of the strong aversion the yellow jackets had shown toward journalists and media. A month later, 25 yellow vests prevented "Ouest-France" from being delivered in parts of the Vendée and Loire-Atlantique because they did not like an editorial. Protesters had also blocked the printing center of the L'Yonne Republicaine newspaper and prevented the newspaper la Voix du Nord from being distributed.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: International media have also reported on the disproportionate violence used by the French police response against the protestors, including the use of explosive grenades and flashball weapons resulting in multiple incidences of loss of limb and sight by the protestors.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: According to Stéphane Sirot, a specialist in the history of French trade unionism, the unions were hesitant to join forces with the yellow jackets because the movement included people trade unions traditionally do not represent (business owners and the self-employed) as well as people who simply did not want to negotiate. The presence of far-right elements in the movement was also off-putting to the CGT.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: A significant number of misleading images and information have been circulated on social media concerning the protests. According to Pascal Froissart, the leaderless, horizontal aspect of the movement contributes to the dissemination of disinformation, as nobody is in charge of public relations or social media messaging.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: One of the goals of the yellow jackets is to obtain the right to direct initiative, in other words, the right to petition the government at any time to propose or repeal a law, amend the constitution, or remove a public official from office. The bottom-up Swiss model of government, where referendums are frequent, has been compared to the top-down French governmental system to explain the lack of a similar movement in French-speaking Switzerland. Étienne Chouard, a French economics and law teacher, and a retired dentist named Yvan Bachaud, who named the RIC, were among the earliest proponents of such referendums. More recently, several politicians included the idea in their 2017 presidential platforms.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The protests began on 17 November 2018, and attracted more than 300,000 people across France with protesters constructing barricades and blocking roads. John Lichfield, a journalist who witnessed the riots, described them as insurrectional.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On this first day of protests, a 63-year-old pensioner was run over by a motorist in Le Pont-de-Beauvoisin while she was demonstrating at a roundabout at the entrance to a commercial zone. A motorcyclist died after being struck the same day by a van trying to get around a barricade.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: By 21 November casualties had climbed to 585 civilians and 115 police injured, with 16 civilians and 3 police severely wounded.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Protests also occurred in the French overseas region of Réunion, where the situation developed into looting and riots. Schools on the island were closed for three days after protesters blocked access to roads. On 21 November, President Macron ordered the deployment of troops to the island to calm the violence.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: With the protests in Paris having raised tensions the previous week, the Interior Ministry agreed to allow a gathering on 24 November at the Champ de Mars. The protests attracted 106,000 people all across France, only 8,000 of whom were in Paris, where the protests turned violent. Protesters lit fires in the streets, tore down signs, built barricades, and pulled up cobblestones. Police resorted to tear gas and water cannons to disperse the protesters.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 26 November, an official estimated that the riots in Paris during the two previous days had cost up to €1.5m ($) in damage. Two hundred additional workers were assigned to assist with the cleanup and repair work.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Yellow jackets briefly occupied the runway at Nantes Atlantique Airport and prevented access to Nice Côte d'Azur Airport. Vinci Autoroutes reported tollbooths were blocked on 20 major arteries all across France.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In Marseille, where demonstrations have been frequent since 5 November collapse of a building and the evacuation of the surrounding neighborhoods, an 80-year-old Algerian woman trying to close her shutters was hit by shards from a police tear gas canister, later dying while in surgery. A second motorist was killed on the third weekend after crashing his van into stopped lorries at a barricade on the Arles bypass.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: More than 100 cars were burned in Paris during the protest on 1 December, and the Arc de Triomphe was vandalised. A man fell into a coma and several people were seriously injured after the yellow vests tore down a 15 ft cast iron railing from the Tuilerie garden. On the following Monday, Paris Mayor Anne Hidalgo estimated the property damages at €3–4 million ($-).


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Protests turned violent for the second week in a row in Le Puy-en-Velay. Civil unrest marred the Festival of Lights in both Lyon and Saint-Étienne. The A6 motorway was again blocked north of Lyon in Villefranche-sur-Saône.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In Bordeaux, after two hours of skirmishes between the police and protesters, rioters took advantage of the situation to set fires and pillage the local Apple Store.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Paris experienced protests for the fourth consecutive week. Many shops were boarded up in anticipation of violence, with The Louvre, Eiffel Tower and the Paris Opera also closed. Police assembled steel fences around the Élysée Palace and deployed armored vehicles on the streets in an attempt to limit the violence.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In his 10 December speech to the French people in response to the movement, Macron pledged a €100 per month increase in the minimum wage in 2019, the exclusion of charges and taxes on overtime hours in 2019, and on any 2018 end-of-year bonuses paid to employees. Macron likewise announced that pensioners on low incomes would be excluded from an increase in the CSG in 2019. He stood by his replacement of the solidarity tax on wealth with increases in property taxes. The broadcast was watched by more than 23 million people, making it the most-viewed political speech in French history. After investigation, it became apparent that the minimum wage itself would not be raised by €100 a month but that those eligible would see an increase in the activity bonus paid by the CAF.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 11 December, after having declared a state of economic and social emergency the day before, Macron invited representatives of the French banks to the Elysée to announce that the banks had agreed to freeze their prices in 2019 and to permanently limit incident-related fees to €25 a month ($/month) for people in extreme financial difficulty, as determined by the Bank of France.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In the wake of the 2018 Strasbourg attack, the government asked protesters to stay off the streets. According to the Paris prefecture estimates, there were 8,000 police for 2,200 demonstrators in Paris. The Minister of the Interior estimated that 66,000 people protested in France on 15 December. Conflict arose in Bordeaux, Toulouse, Marseille, Lyon and the capital. Priscillia Ludosky, in front of the Paris Opera, said over megaphone: "We are exhausted by the colossal pressure of taxation that takes away the energy of our country, of our entrepreneurs, of our artisans, of our small businesses, of our creators and of our workers, while a small elite constantly dodges taxes."


title: Yellow vests protests

text: At the end of the day, the Interior Minister called for the roundabouts, occupied since 17 November, to be liberated.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Demonstrations continued throughout the country. The Ministry of the Interior announced a participation figure almost half that of the previous week with 38,600 demonstrators throughout France, including 2,000 in Paris according to the Prefecture of Police. Versailles Palace was preventively closed for the day. Éric Drouet, the 33-year-old truck driver who is one of the most followed yellow jackets on Facebook, was arrested for organizing an undeclared demonstration and participating in a violent assembly. He had called on Facebook for demonstrators to meet at Versailles but then revised the call to Montmartre after it had been announced that Versailles would be closed. Authorities say that Drouet was carrying a truncheon and would be summoned in court where they would seek to prevent him from coming to Paris.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Protesters blocked border traffic to Switzerland at Cluse-et-Mijoux. They were dispersed after one hour by police. Similar operations were conducted at the Spanish, Italian, German, and Belgian borders. Two distribution platforms were blocked in Montélimar: EasyDis (Groupe Casino) and Amazon.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Overall, at least 220 people were arrested in the country, including 142 in Paris. A motorist was killed on 21 December when his car hit a truck that was stopped at a blockade in Perpignan, the tenth fatality overall.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Much quieter than in the first weeks on a national level, there was a significant confrontation in Rouen, Normandy, after fires were set in front of the local branch of the Banque de France.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In Paris, the protesters demonstrated in front of the headquarters of BFM-TV, Libération and France Télévisions. Victor Glad suggests that the same crisis of representation motivating the citizens' initiative referendums is also behind the "gilets jaunes" criticism of the traditional media.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: According to the French Ministry of the Interior, the first demonstrations of 2019 brought 50,000 people into the streets across France. A door to Rennes' city hall was damaged, while government Spokesman Benjamin Griveaux was evacuated from his office on Rue de Grenelle (Paris) through the garden, after rioters hijacked a forklift to break down the door to the Ministry. There were also skirmishes in Bordeaux, Nantes, Caen & Rennes.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Women's role, both in defining the movement's objectives and in communicating at roundabouts, is—for editorialist Pierre Rimbert—a reflection of the fact that women make up the majority of workers in "intermediary professions" but are three times more likely to be classed as "employees" than men according to an INSEE study in 2017. Women organized separate demonstrations in Paris, Toulouse and Caen. According to one of the organizers, the goal was to have a "channel of communication other than violence".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: A civil servant and former light-heavyweight boxing champion was filmed fighting with two gendarmes on a footbridge about one of the gendarmes' use of force. One month later the civil servant was sentenced to serve one year of sleeping in jail, which allowed him to continue to work.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The interior minister announced that over 60% of the traffic enforcement cameras in the country had been vandalized. This was up from estimates of 50% in early December.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Attendance increased in the ninth straight weekend of protests, with at least 84,000 demonstrating on 12 January for economic reform across France, including 8,000 in Paris, 6,000 in Bourges, 6,000 in Bordeaux, and 2,000 in Strasbourg. Government officials deployed 80,000 security forces nationwide, vowing "zero tolerance" for violence. The CRS (riot police) resorted to tear gas in most major cities.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On the streets of Paris, protesters marching "noisily but mostly peacefully", singing the French national anthem, were met by 5,000 riot police officers, armored vehicles and barricades. Citing 5 January attack on the Dijon gendarmerie and terror threats, the police communication service said that some CRS agents were authorized to carry semi-automatic weapons. This was confirmed by the Paris prefecture. Small groups of people left the designated protest route and threw projectiles at police. Around the Arc de Triomphe, riot police fired water cannons and tear gas at protesters after being hit with stones and paint. 244 people were arrested nationwide; 156 in Paris.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: A "massive" gas explosion caused by an apparent gas leak in a bakery in northern Paris killed four people, including two firefighters already at the scene investigating the leak, and injured dozens more. The explosions occurred early on 12 January, while Paris was under heavy guard in anticipation of the day's demonstrations. The French Interior Minister told the media that "responsibility triumphed over the temptation of confrontation" and that protesters marched in Paris "without serious incident".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: As in week IX, police estimated that 84,000 people demonstrated across France, including a peak of 10,000 in Toulouse for a short period, 7,000 in Paris (where protesters demonstrated on the Left Bank for the first time), 4,000 in Bordeaux, and 2,500 in both Marseille and Angers. This weekly protest is the first to happen after the launch of the "Great National Debate" by President Emmanuel Macron.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Nationwide demonstrations continued for an eleventh straight week on Saturday, 26 January. The French interior ministry estimated crowds of 69,000 across the country, and local police estimated 4,000 in Paris. A high-profile member of the protest movement, Jérôme Rodrigues, was maimed after being shot in the face by police with a flash-ball launcher, resulting in the loss of his right eye. Dozens of people have been similarly injured during the course of the yellow vests protests. "I was deliberately targeted. I am a figure of the movement, at least in the Paris protests, and police pointed their fingers at me many times during previous demonstrations, so I think they knew very well who they were shooting at," Rodrigues told the media. The following day, an estimated 10,000 people marched in Paris in a "foulards rouges" ("red scarves") counter-protest in opposition to the yellow vests.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On Friday, 1 February 2019, Edouard Philippe went to Bordeaux and informed merchants that an agreement had been found with insurers to treat insurance damage claims in successive weeks as part of a single event (with a single deductible). He also announced that the ten cities most affected by degradations, including Bordeaux, would receive €300,000 ($).


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On Saturday, 2 February, between 10,000 and 13,800 people protested in Paris, with thousands more in Tours, Valence, Marseille, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and other French cities. In Valence, the downtown shopping district was boarded up; the city had removed trash cans, park benches and protective fencing around trees in preparation. Paving stones had been tarred over to eliminate the risk of their being used as projectiles. According to the préfecture, 1850 people demonstrated in downtown Tours, which had likewise been boarded up.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The demonstrations of "Act XII" focused on denouncing the number of serious injuries caused by police violence during anti-government demonstrations. According to the French government, around 2,000 civilians were injured in protests between November 2018 and February 2019, including four serious eye injuries. The government agency that investigates police abuses has opened 116 investigations into police conduct during the protests, including ten for serious eye injuries. A group of 59 lawyers published an open letter denouncing the treatment of protesters in the courts, including rushed judgments against protesters without regard for their rights, which they contrasted with the slow pace of investigations into reports of police violence.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Earlier in the week, France's highest court denied a request to ban police from using "flash balls" or "defensive ball launchers", known as LBDs, that shoot rubber projectiles, which have been blamed for a number of serious injuries. French Interior Minister Christophe Castaner admitted in media interviews that the weapon could cause injuries and had been used more than 9,000 times since yellow vests demonstrations began. The day before the Act XII protests, the government warned the public that police would not hesitate to use weapons to combat violence by demonstrators, since they had been authorized by the court. On Saturday, thousands in Paris participated in a "march of the injured" calling for the weapon to be banned. Injured protesters marched at the front, some wearing eye patches with a target sign on them. Jerome Rodrigues, a well-known participant in the movement who lost an eye in the previous week's demonstrations, was received warmly with applause by the crowds.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Most of the demonstrations during Act XII were peaceful. As in prior weeks, 80,000 security officials had been mobilized, including 5,000 in Paris. In Paris, police used tear gas and water cannons at Place de la Republique in the city center to force demonstrators back after clashes with protesters, some hooded or masked, and some who set fire to bins and a scooter. Despite these incidents, the media reported that demonstrations "remained relatively calm compared to previous weekends". Two police officers were injured and two protesters arrested in Morlaix; two officers injured and one demonstrator arrested in Nantes; and in Lille, where between 1,800 and 3,000 protesters marched, 20 were arrested.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The twelfth week of protests occurred as the French parliament was considering a new law proposed by Macron's governing party restricting the right to protest. The proposed law would outlaw covering one's face during a street demonstration (whether with a helmet, mask, or scarf), punishable by a €15,000 ($) fine or imprisonment, and allow local police to establish blacklists of people not allowed to participate in street protests. The proposed law was opposed by some members of parliament inside and outside Macron's party.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: About 41,500 protesters (5,000 in Paris) took to the streets again on Saturday 16 February, for the 14th consecutive weekend.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In Paris, a group of individuals involved in the march confronted the high-profile Jewish philosopher and academician Alain Finkielkraut with anti-Semitic verbal abuse. Police stepped in to protect him, and Macron later said that this behavior was an "absolute negation" of what made France great and would not be tolerated. The man leading the insults against the philosopher on published video-recordings of the event was detained for questioning on Tuesday on charges of hate speech. Police indicated he was close to the Salafi movement in 2014.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Leaders of the movement stated on 8 March 2019 that a protest (which had already been dubbed "The Ultimatum") was planned for the following weekend of 16 March.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: 200 people were taken into custody in Paris after the Champs-Elysées was again targeted by rioters. Luxury stores including Fouquet's, Hugo Boss and Xiaomi were among the 80 businesses damaged, pillaged or set ablaze. Anne Hidalgo, the Mayor of Paris, called upon the government to do something about the political and social fracture.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In response, the French government announced it would deploy the military, in addition to extra police and gendarmery forces. The soldiers were drafted from Operation Sentinelle, active since the January 2015 terror attacks in Paris.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: A new wave of yellow vest protests was initiated in Paris for the 45th consecutive week. Over a hundred demonstrators were taken into custody after they attempted to enter Avenue Champs-Elysees by force.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: People participated in the protests of 14 March 2020 in spite of the imminent COVID-19 national lockdown, but leaders of the movement, like Maxime Nicolle and Jérôme Rodrigues, called on staying safe at home. The lockdown effectively put an end to the weekly protests.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: As of 22 December 2018, 10 fatalities had been linked to the protests in France, one of which resulted from police action.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: By late December, over 1,843 protesters and 1,048 police had been injured. Injuries included tens of facial trauma (jaws or even eyes) caused by police non-lethal weapon ammunition, nicknamed "flash-ball" despite not being of the type, that are supposed to be fired at the legs, not at the head, and are accurate enough for this purpose.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: As of 14 January 2019, 94 had been reported as seriously injured, including 14 with monocular blindness and one who had to be treated for a brain hemorrhage and left in an artificial coma (from which he emerged on the following Friday).


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 29 November, François Ruffin, the founder of left-wing "" magazine, organized a mobilizing meeting with various French left-wing movements, at which Frédéric Lordon spoke of the Yellow Vests, saying "If the Nuitdeboutistes who got all wound up into deforestation and anti-specist commissions can't get moving when "this" happens, then they are the lowest of the low".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Angered by Macron's education reforms and plans to change the baccalauréat (a secondary-school leaving exam), students protested in cities across France. Students expressed concern that these reforms will lead to further inequalities of access to higher education between students in urban, peri-urban, and rural areas.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 6 December, over 140 students were arrested outside a school in Mantes-la-Jolie. A video of the mass arrest—showing students kneeling with their hands behind their heads—inspired indignation. Jean-Michel Blanquer, the French Education Minister, said that although he was "shocked" by the scene, it needed to be viewed "in context". Amnesty International issued a report about the incident. On the same day, "France Bleu" reported that Saint-Étienne was "under siege". It was in this context that the mayor of Saint-Étienne suggested, first by tweet then by press release, that the Festival of Lights in neighboring Lyon be canceled to free up police in the region.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: University students have reportedly joined the movement, denouncing the planned increase of tuition fees for foreign students from non-EU countries.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Overall, by mid-December, trade losses of €2 billion ($) had been reported as a result of the blocked roundabouts leading to commercial zones and the closures of urban chains. The chain supermarkets, in particular, reported that traffic had been down significantly, estimating the overall loss at around €600 million ($) as of 13 December.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: A terror attack on 11 December 2018 at the Strasbourg Christmas market contributed to heightened public security concerns and smaller demonstrations in Act V. Conspiracy theories began to be circulated on social media forthwith, suggesting that the attack, which had been perpetrated by a 29-year-old man with multiple criminal convictions, was in fact a manufactured event.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Vinci SA, which operates roughly half of France's highway concessions, stated in its annual report to investors that traffic had dropped nine percent in the final three months of 2018 as a result of the protests. CEO Xavier Huillard said the fourth quarter loss "wiped out the increase in traffic of the first 10 months".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The riots have led to a declining number of tourists to Paris in 2019, with hotel owners reporting fewer bookings in the run-up to the summer tourist season. Cancellations have risen as visitors are scared off from traveling to France for safety and security concerns, while corporate trips have also sought to avoid Paris because the protests have turned the city into a liability. Overall, France reported the largest decreases in international tourist activity in Europe, compared to countries such as the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain and Germany.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: A video of comedian Anne-Sophie Bajon, known as La Bajon, in the role of Emmanuel Macron's lawyer wearing a yellow vest, has been seen several million times on social networks. Dancer Nadia Vadori-Gauthier improvised choreography in the street during demonstrations with the fumes of the various gases and fires of cars. On 15 December 2018, on the sidelines of the demonstration on the Champs-Élysées, Deborah De Robertis organized a demonstration in which five women appear topless in front of the French police, with a costume reminiscent of the French Goddess of Liberty Marianne. A video of a performance by yellow vests protesters at a roundabout of Michel Fugain's 1975 hit song "Les Gentils, Les Méchants" ("The Good Ones, The Evil Ones") received over 800,000 views online. A restaurant in Nîmes created a yellow vests-inspired hamburger, served on a bright yellow bun, with a circular "roundabout" beef patty, onions from the vegetable plot of the Élysée Palace, "tear gas" pepper sauce, and "CRS sauce" made of cream, ricotta, and Saint Môret cheese (a reference to the French riot police, the "Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité").


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In late November 2018, polls showed that the movement had widespread support in France (ranging from 73 to 84 percent). An opinion poll conducted after 1 December events found that 73 percent of French people supported the "gilets jaunes" and that 85 percent were opposed to the violence in Paris.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Truckers were targeted by protesters, and the industry made their displeasure with the situation known to the government in an open letter. Two labor unions, CGT and FO who had initially called on truckers to start striking on 9 December, retracted their call on 7 December, after having consulted the government and their membership.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The recently named Minister of the Interior, Christophe Castaner, blamed Marine Le Pen, Macron's opponent in the 2017 presidential election, and her "Rassemblement National" party for the violence on 24 November 2018 after she had reportedly urged people to go to the Champs Élysées. Le Pen responded that letting people assemble on the Champs Élysées was the government's responsibility and accused the Minister of the Interior of trying to increase the tension to discredit the movement.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Although President Macron had been insisting that the fuel tax increases would go through as planned, on 4 December 2018 the government announced that the tax rises would be put on hold, with Prime Minister Édouard Philippe saying that "no tax deserves to endanger the unity of the nation".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In early December 2018, the prime minister announced that the price of the Électricité de France blue tariffs would not increase before March 2019.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On Sunday, 9 December, the Elysée called trade unions and employers' organizations to invite them to meet on Monday 10 December so Macron could "present the measures" he intended to announce later in the day. On 10 December, Macron condemned the violence but acknowledged the protesters' anger as "deep, and in many ways legitimate". He subsequently promised a minimum wage increase of €100 per month from 2019, canceled a planned tax increase for low-income pensioners, and made overtime payments as well as end-of-year bonuses tax-free. However, Macron refused to reinstate a wealth tax he scrapped upon entering into office.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Amnesty International called on police to "end use of excessive force against protesters and high school children in France".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Police, unlike other public sector employees, either saw their wages raised by €120–150 per month ($-) by an agreement signed on 20 December, or received an annual €300 ($) bonus by an amendment voted into law the previous day. Nicolas Chapuis, writing for "Le Monde", says this was likely due to 85% turnout in recent police union elections and the exceptional levels of activity.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In May 2019, Édouard Philippe changed his view on his main political decision for saving lives, allowing a speed limit, agreeing that the speed limit of local roads become managed at local level (département) rather than decided by the Prime Minister.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Adam Gopnik writes that "gilets jaunes" can be viewed as part of a series of French street protests stretching back to at least the strikes of 1995. Citing historian Herrick Chapman, he suggests General de Gaulle's centralization of power when creating the French Fifth Republic was so excessive that it made street protests the only "dynamic alternative to government policy".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: 1 December riots in Paris were widely acknowledged to have been the most violent since May 1968. Paris-based journalist John Lichfield said that the 1968 events had a joyous side to them, largely absent from the yellow vest movement, but that both movements were similar in that they lacked recognized leaders, much as the banlieues riots of 2005 had.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: According to French scholar Béatrice Giblin, comparisons between the "gilets jaunes" and the "Bonnets Rouges"—who opposed a new eco-tax in 2013—were inapt because the latter "had been taken in hand by real leaders, such as the mayor of Carhaix, or the great bosses of Brittany" whereas that was not the case for the yellow jackets.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Some have compared the yellow vests to other modern populist movements such as the Occupy movement in the United States, the Five Star Movement in Italy, and Orbanism in Hungary. Others have drawn parallels to popular revolts in late-medieval Europe like the Jacquerie, to Poujadism, to the Brownshirts, and to the French Revolution.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 27 January 2019 a counter-demonstration occurred in Paris by a group identifying themselves by the "foulards rouges" ("red scarves") they chose to wear. They put out a joint statement with other groups saying: "We denounce the insurrectional climate created by the yellow vests. We also reject the threats and constant verbal abuse (aimed at non-yellow vests)".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Concerns that the yellow vests movement was providing a new forum for extremist views were more frequently reported in the media after Alain Finkielkraut was insulted in week XIV. , an expert on anti-Semitism, said that while "the "gilets jaunes" are not an anti-Semitic movement, each Saturday there are anti-Semitic expressions by groups of the extreme right or extreme left." Jean-Yves Camus, an expert on French political extremism, identified an "inherent weakness of a movement that lets the people speak" as being that anyone (whether far left, far right, radical Islamist, or anti-Zionist) can say whatever they want in the street with little concern for propriety or legality.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Finkielkraut, interviewed by BFM-TV, was especially concerned with the viral nature of what he called a new type of "anti-racist" anti-Semitism, which he says consists of comparing the "Israeli colonization of Palestine" with Nazism. He named Dieudonné and Alain Soral as those responsible for propagating this new form of anti-Semitism.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: According to a study conducted in February 2019, half of all yellow vest protesters (50%) said they believed in a "global Zionist conspiracy".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The Gilets noirs movement arose partly in response to perceived racist, anti-immigrant, and pro-fascist sentiment among the Gilets jaunes.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: For the first time after the Coronavirus lockdown, protesters returned to the streets; more than 250 protesters were arrested by the police. Some of the protesters wore black clothes and carried the flag of an anti-fascist movement, suggesting the presence of radical demonstrators dubbed "black blocs" often blamed for violence at street marches in France.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Yellow vests launched fireworks at a police station in Paris and struck the building with metal bars. No injuries occurred. This protest is suspected to be linked to the disapproval of French police brutality issues. Delinquent youth also appeared in the group of around 40 people, some unrelated to the cause.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Demonstrations (sometimes called "marches of freedom" or "marches of freedom and justice") gathered several thousand people (including yellow vests) in several French cities on the evening of 17 November, at the initiative of a union of journalists and human rights defense associations. Violence breaks out in Paris. Several employed journalists are handled by police officers, photographer Taranis News and French journalist 3 Paris Ile-de-France have been taken into police custody (receive a reminder of the law), provoking strong criticism from the audiovisual group and journalists' unions – who also see effects national law enforcement plan published two months ago.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Other demonstrations were being held on 21 November in about 20 cities. This is also the case on 28 November, this time in more than seventy cities. Between 46,000 (Interior Ministry) and 200,000 people (organizers) demonstrated that day in Paris, between 133,000 and 500,000 in France. Syrian photojournalist Ameer Al Halbi was wounded in the face with a baton. The Reporter Without Borders filed a complaint for intentional violence by a person with public authority106. According to the Ministry of the Interior, several dozen police officers and gendarmes were wounded, and one of them, in Paris, was pushed to the ground and then severely beaten.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 5 December, about 90 parades parade across France and gather, according to the Interior Ministry, about 50,000 people; clashes with police took place in Paris, Dijon, Nantes and Lyon, which, according to Gerald Darmanin, led to 95 arrests and resulted in 67 injuries among police, including 48 in Paris. In addition, the protester was severely wounded in the arm, probably by a GM2L bomb.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The Paris demonstration on 12 December 2020, gathered 5,000 protesters against the police and took place "without major incidents" against Le Monde113, but MPs, associations and unions during the demonstrations condemned "arbitrary arrests". Gerald Darmanin mentions 142 arrests and welcomes the position of the forces security that would enable the avoidance of violence. Police have been in prison several times (32 times according to Mediapart) to arrest potentially violent people; but according to footage broadcast by Mediapart, these attacks occur "for no apparent reason". Of the 142 arrested, 5 were convicted, including only two for acts of violence.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 22 December 2020, the State Council, seized by La Quadrature du Net, ruled that the monitoring of these demonstrations by the Paris police prefecture using drones was illegal.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Tens of thousands of protesters marched across France on 16 January 2021, to condemn a security law that critics say would restrict police filming and posting pictures on social media, especially to document cases of police brutality. A new rally against the protection of police officers was held on 30 January, with significantly fewer demonstrators than in November and December 2020. In the afternoon and evening, there were occasional incidents between the police and the demonstrators. Police used batons, tear gas and water cannons. The following Saturday, 6 February 2021, three protests took place in Bordeaux. Fabienne Buccio, the prefect, has issued a new prefecture decree banning all processions, parades and gatherings on the streets of the inner city. She is especially afraid that she will "join these declared demonstrations of individuals who are openly hostile to the police and who want to create disturbances in the public order in the city center." Protests were also held in Nantes, Toulouse, Paris and Nancy, where occasional incidents took place at the end of the procession.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The announcement of president Macron on 12 July 2021 of a COVID-19 vaccination obligation for all health care workers by 15 September, as well as the obligation for people older than twelve to show a "sanitary pass" as of August for admittance to cafés, restaurants, cinemas, hospitals, senior citizens' homes, trains, shopping malls, and other public venues led to protests across France. The 'sanitary pass' should prove that someone is either vaccinated, has recently tested negative, or has recovered from COVID-19. Macron's motivation was: "We are in a new race against time", "Vaccination is the only way to protect yourself and others".


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Marine Le Pen, challenger of Macron in the 2022 French presidential election, immediately condemned the vaccination obligation as "indecent insolence" attesting to "ingratitude" towards the health care workers. On Wednesday 14 July, the French National day called 'Bastille Day', in Paris some 2,250 people protested against these new corona restrictions. Demonstrations were also held in Toulouse, Bordeaux, Montpellier, Nantes and 48 other places, totalling around 19,000 protesters. Slogans chanted: "Down with dictatorship", "Down with the health pass". A demonstrator equated the health pass with "segregation". Objects and fireworks were thrown at the police, who answered with tear gas and arrests.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On Saturday 17 July, nationwide some 114,000 people protested against the two new measures. On 24 July, some 160,000 people around France protested against the measures. Protesters chanted: "Liberty! Liberty!" Projectiles including chairs were thrown at the police in Paris, who reacted with tear gas and water cannons.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 25 July, the French Senate nevertheless agreed to the measures except the pass obligation for children under 18 years old.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 31 July, over 200,000 people nationwide protested against these plans. Thousands around Place de la Bastille in Paris chanted: ""Liberté!"" [Freedom!]. Signs accused Macron of being a dictator. A bus driver motivated his protest as: "I'm not an anti-vaxxer [...] But this is going to fast, I want to wait and see". A hospital worker said: "These vaccines are experimental ; there's no way I'm gonna take it". A placard in Paris cited Macron: ' ""Je ne rendrai pas la vaccination obligatoire", Emmanuel Macron, Novembre 2020" ' ["I will not make vaccination obligatory", Macron, Nov. 2020]. Another: ' "De la démocratie à la dictature il n'y a qu'un «PASS»" ' [From democracy to dictatorship is only one step [or] one pass]. Another: ' [].


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On Saturday 7 August, 237,000 people protested on 198 locations in France, the authorities reported. In Paris, Lyon, Toulouse, rioters pelted the police with all sorts of things, police reacted with tear gas and charges and arrests. The sanitary pass obligation came into effect on 9 August, civilians risk a fine of 135 euros for disobedience, and business owners risk a 45,000 euro fine or one year in prison and the closure of their business.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 14 August 2021, between 200,000 and 250,000 people according to the police and the organizers have again demonstrated, in more than 200 locations in France, against the "pass sanitaire" and the obligated vaccination of health care personnel. Placards compared the sanitary pass with 'Apartheid', and people chanted slogans about the "health dictatorship". Police in Lyon used pepper spray against rioters.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Thousands of people demonstrated again on the streets of France on Saturday, 21 August, against the government's policy of vaccination against Covid-19 amid concerns from human rights groups over the anti-Semitic mood in the protest movement.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: More than 141,000 people marched the following Saturday, 4 September, against the health pass this weekend, which is another drop in the number of the eighth consecutive Saturday of protests. There were 215 marches across France, five of them in Paris, attracting 18,000 people to the capital, according to the Interior Ministry. The total number of people – 141,655 – is down from last weekend, when nearly 160,000 people came out across the country/


title: Yellow vests protests

text: More than 120,000 people demonstrated on Saturday, 11 September, in France, according to official data, in protest against health passes.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Since then, these protests grew smaller; on Saturday, 18 September 2021, the demonstrators in France against the sanitary pass and obligated vaccination counted 80,000.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: About 20,000 people gathered on 16 October across France for the same reasons. There were occasional clashes between police and protesters in Paris.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The 2021–2022 French West Indies unrest is a social conflict that has been taking place since November 17, 2021 in the French West Indies, particularly in Guadeloupe and Martinique. Unrest has also been reported in other Overseas Territories like Saint Pierre and Miquelon.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Following the French government's decision to introduce compulsory vaccination for health care workers and the health pass in several public places, acts of vandalism, a general strike, and demonstrations began, first in Guadeloupe and then in Martinique.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The French convoy protest le Convoi de la Liberté ("the liberty convoy") is an ongoing protest in Paris inspired by the Canadian convoy protests. They are protesting COVID-19 restrictions as well as president Emmanuel Macron.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Officials in Paris and Brussels banned protests relating to the Freedom Convoy, following information from organizers of a similar event opposed to France's Health Pass that five convoys from across France are due to reach Paris between February 11 and 14.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On April 16, after Macron's victory in the first round of presidential voting, left-wing demonstrators clashed with police. French security forces fired tear gas as the anti-right-wing demonstrators marched, before allowing the protests to resume.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On April 24, after Macron's victory in the second round of presidential voting, protests broke out in many departments. In the area of Chatelet, riot police charged and sprayed tear gas on demonstrators. Students protested outside of the Sorbonne, expressing their disillusionment with the lack of choice in second-round voting.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: The largest "yellow vest" protest outside France was held in Taipei with over 10,000 demonstrating on 19 December. Their principal concern was tax justice. Some protests in other countries are related to the central concerns of the French movement (taxation, high-living costs, representation, and income disparity). Others are related primarily by the use of the readily-available symbol.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Riot police in Brussels were pelted with billiard balls, cobblestones, and rocks on 30 November, and responded with water cannons; 60 arrests were made for disturbing the public order. Several oil depots had been blocked in Wallonia as of 16 November 2018, though protesters' attempts to block the Russian Lukoil depot in Brussels were quickly thwarted by police. Some members of the movement began working to form a party for the Belgian federal elections in 2019 under the name "Mouvement citoyen belge". On 8 December, when protesters calling for the resignation of Prime Minister Charles Michel tried to breach a riot barricade, police used tear gas and water cannons to disperse the demonstrators. The protesters involved were throwing stones, flares and other objects at police, resulting in around 100 arrests.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: As of 12 January, three people had died during "gilets jaunes" protests in Belgium: two drivers were killed in mid-December by sudden traffic queues caused by roadblocks and one protester was fatally hit by a truck when his group tried to block the E25 highway between Liège and Maastricht on 11 January.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: In Canada, the Yellow Vests is a far right and alt-right movement. Starting in late 2018 after the France protests, the Canadian Yellow Vests groups began to gain popularity. The Canadian group incorporates a xenophobic message, is against the federal Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act, and is pro-petrochemical-pipeline, but is primarily focused on anti-immigration, anti-Islam, anti-semitic and white supremacist rhetoric.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: Beginning in late December 2018, various yellow-vest-wearing protest movements have been seen across the country. This protest movement, known as Yellow Vests Canada, does not follow the same goals as the French movement. Protests have had occasional outbreaks of violence. Groups of various protesters wearing yellow vests have taken place in at least a 30 cities and towns across Canada as of January 2019.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: An early yellow vest protest, which included "hundreds of vehicles", was held in Medicine Hat, Alberta, organized by Tamara Lich, who was later arrested for organizing the 2022 convoy protest in Ottawa.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: A controversial event in February 2019 known as the "United We Roll" truck convoy attracted several Yellow Vest participants to the grounds of Parliament Hill in Ottawa. Prominent political officials such as federal Conservative Party leader Andrew Scheer and People's Party leader Maxime Bernier addressed the crowd. Scheer and Bernier drew criticism for appearing at the United We Roll event when it was revealed that alt-right personality Faith Goldy, formerly of controversial Internet outlet Rebel Media, was also in attendance and made a presentation to the participants, several of whom carried signs and chanted slogans accusing Prime Minister Justin Trudeau of "treason" and demanding that Canada withdraw from the non-binding United Nations Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM). Conservative Senator David Tkachuk was also at the rally and was criticized for his remarks calling upon truck drivers to "roll over every Liberal left in the country". Liberal Minister of Natural Resources Amarjeet Sohi and NDP MP Nathan Cullen were among the members of Parliament who expressed concern that the presence of mainstream political leaders at the rally was lending legitimacy to the movement. Anti-racism activist Evan Balgord, director of the Canadian Anti-Hate Network, condemned Scheer for his support of an organization whose members have repeatedly promulgated conspiracy theories and made death threats against Muslims, immigrants, members of Parliament, and Prime Minister Trudeau. A spokesperson for Scheer denied that the Conservative leader intended to lend support to racist and/or violent groups, telling columnist Martin Patriquin that "We can't control who shows up to these events."


title: Yellow vests protests

text: On 15 June 2019, a number of Yellow Vests Canada protesters joined groups protesting LGBT individuals at a Pride Festival in Hamilton, Ontario, and several people were injured.


title: Yellow vests protests

text: According to the Canadian Anti-Hate Network (CAHN), there is a direct link between the Yellow vests protesters in Canada and 2022 Canada convoy protests, also known as the Freedom Convoy 2022. Associates of the Yellow vest protests in Canada also organized the much smaller 2019 convoy "United We Roll" (UWR) convoy. Starting in 2018, Tamara Lich, attended Yellow vests events and promoted the movement as early as 2018, before becoming one of its organizers. Lich was the Freedom Convoy's main fundraiser and organizer. Pat King, who was another Freedom Convoy organizer, was also active in the Yellow vest protests, the Wexit separation movement, and United We Roll. CAHN said that Yellow vest Facebook groups posts contained "calls for Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's arrest and execution" which was also a major theme of the Canada convoy protests.


The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of the United Nations. Its job is to advance scientific knowledge about climate change caused by human activities. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established the IPCC in 1988. The United Nations endorsed the creation of the IPCC later that year. It has a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland, hosted by the WMO. It has 195 member states who govern the IPCC. The member states elect a bureau of scientists to serve through an assessment cycle. A cycle is usually six to seven years. The bureau selects experts to prepare IPCC reports. It draws the experts from nominations by governments and observer organisations The IPCC has three working groups and a task force, which carry out its scientific work.


title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: The IPCC informs governments about the state of knowledge of climate change. It does this by examining all the relevant scientific literature on the subject. This includes the natural, economic and social impacts and risks. It also covers possible response options. The IPCC does not conduct its own original research. It aims to be objective and comprehensive. Thousands of scientists and other experts volunteer to review the publications. They compile key findings into "Assessment Reports" for policymakers and the general public; Experts have described this work as the biggest peer review process in the scientific community.


text: The IPCC is an internationally accepted authority on climate change. Leading climate scientists and all member governments endorse its findings. Media, governments, civil society organisations and businesses cite its reports. IPCC reports play a key role in the annual climate negotiations held by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report was an important influence on the landmark Paris Agreement in 2015. The IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore for contributions to the understanding of climate change.


text: In 2015 the IPCC began its sixth assessment cycle. It will complete it in 2023. In August 2021, the IPCC published its Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report (IPCC AR6) on the physical science basis of climate change. "The Guardian" described this report as the "starkest warning yet" of "major inevitable and irreversible climate changes". Many newspapers around the world echoed this theme. In February 2022, the IPCC released its Working Group II report on impacts and adaptation. It published Working Group III's "mitigation of climate change" contribution to the Sixth Assessment in April 2022. The Sixth Assessment Report is due to conclude with a Synthesis Report in March 2023.


text: During this period of the Sixth Assessment Report, the IPCC has released three special reports. The first and most influential was the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C in 2018. In 2019 the Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL), and the Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) came out. The IPCC also updated its methodologies in 2019. So the sixth assessment cycle is the most ambitious in the IPCC's history.


text: The predecessor of the IPCC was the Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases (AGGG). Three organizations set up the AGGG in 1986. These were the International Council of Scientific Unions, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The AGGG reviewed scientific research on greenhouse gases. It also studied increases in greenhouse gases. Climate science was becoming more complicated and covering more disciplines. This small group of scientists lacked the resources to cover climate science.


text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency sought an international convention to restrict greenhouse gas emissions. The Reagan Administration worried that independent scientists would have too much influence. The WMO and UNEP therefore created the IPCC as an intergovernmental body in 1988. Scientists take part in the IPCC as both experts and government representatives. The IPCC produces reports backed by all leading relevant scientists. Member governments must also endorse the reports by consensus agreement. So the IPCC is both a scientific body and an organization of governments. Its job is to tell governments what scientists know about climate change. It also examines the impacts of climate change and options for dealing with it. The IPCC does this by assessing peer-reviewed scientific literature.


text: The United Nations endorsed the creation of the IPCC in 1988. The General Assembly resolution noted that human activity could change the climate. This could lead to severe economic and social consequences. It said increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases could warm the planet. This would cause the sea level to rise. The effects for humanity would be disastrous if timely steps were not taken.


text: The IPCC does not conduct original research. It produces comprehensive assessments on the state of knowledge of climate change. It prepares reports on special topics relevant to climate change. It also produces methodologies. These methodologies help countries estimate their greenhouse gas emissions and removals through sinks. Its assessments build on previous reports and scientific publications. Over the course of six assessments the reports reflect the growing evidence for a changing climate. And they show how this is due to human activity.


text: The IPCC has adopted its rules of procedure in the "Principles Governing IPCC Work". These state that the IPCC will assess:


text: Under IPCC rules its assessments are comprehensive, objective, open and transparent. They cover all the information relevant to the scientific understanding of climate change. This draws on scientific, technical and socioeconomic information. IPCC reports must be neutral regarding policy recommendations. However, they may address the objective factors relevant to enacting policies.


text: The chair of the IPCC is Korean economist Hoesung Lee. Lee has served since 8 October 2015 with the election of the new IPCC Bureau. His predecessor Rajendra K. Pachauri, elected in 2002, resigned in February 2015. Vice-Chair Ismail El Gizouli served as acting chair until the election of the new Bureau. The previous chairs were Robert Watson, elected in 1997, and Bert Bolin, elected in 1988.


text: The Panel consists of representatives appointed by governments. They take part in plenary sessions of the IPCC and its Working Groups. Non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations may attend as observers. Meetings of IPCC bodies are by invitation only. About 500 people from 130 countries attended the 48th Session of the Panel in Incheon, Republic of Korea. This took place in October 2018. They included 290 government officials and 60 representatives of observer organizations. The opening ceremonies of sessions of the Panel and of Lead Author Meetings are open to media. Otherwise IPCC meetings are closed.


text: The IPCC receives funding through a dedicated trust fund. UNEP and the WMO established the fund in 1989. The trust fund receives annual financial contributions from member governments. The WMO, UNEP and other organizations also contribute. Payments are voluntary and there is no set amount required. The WMO covers the operating costs of the secretariat. It also sets the IPCC's financial regulations and rules. The Panel sets the annual budget.


text: The IPCC bases its work on the decisions of the WMO and UNEP, which established the IPCC. It also supports the work of the UNFCCC. The main work of the IPCC is to prepare assessment and other reports. It also supports other activities such as the Data Distribution Centre. This helps manage data related to IPCC reports.


text: The IPCC has a "Gender Policy and Implementation Plan" to pay attention to gender in its work. It aims to carry out its work in an inclusive and respectful manner. The IPCC aims for balance in participation in IPCC work. This should offer all participants equal opportunity.


text: The IPCC enhanced its communications activities for the Fifth Assessment Report. For instance it made the approved report and press release available to registered media under embargo before the release. And it expanded its outreach activities with an outreach calendar. The IPCC held an Expert Meeting on Communication in February 2016, at the start of the Sixth Assessment Report cycle. Members of the old and new Bureaus worked with communications experts and practitioners at this meeting. This meeting produced a series of recommendations. The IPCC adopted many of them. One was to bring people with communications expertise into the Working Group Technical Support Units. Another was to consider communications questions early on in the preparation of reports.


text: Following these steps in communications, the IPCC saw a significant increase in media coverage of its reports. This was particularly the case with the "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C" in 2018 and "Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis", the Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report, in 2021. There was also much greater public interest, reflected in the youth and other movements that emerged in 2018.


text: IPCC reports are important for public awareness of climate change and related policymaking. This has led to a number of academic studies of IPCC communications, for example in 2021.