title: Rook (bird)

text: Examination of stomach contents show that about 60% of the diet is vegetable matter and the rest is of animal origin. Vegetable foods include cereals, potatoes, roots, fruit, acorns, berries and seeds while the animal part is predominantly earthworms and insect larvae, which the bird finds by probing the ground with its strong bill. It also eats beetles, spiders, millipedes, slugs, snails, small mammals, small birds, their eggs and young, and occasionally carrion.


title: Rook (bird)

text: In urban sites, human food scraps are taken from rubbish dumps and streets, usually in the early hours or at dusk when it is relatively quiet. Like other corvids, rooks will sometimes favour sites with a high level of human interaction, and can often be found scavenging for food in tourist areas or pecking open garbage sacks. Rooks have even been trained to pick up litter in a theme park in France.


title: Rook (bird)

text: The male usually initiates courtship, on the ground or in a tree, by bowing several times to the female with drooping wings, at the same time cawing and fanning his tail. The female may respond by crouching down, arching her back and quivering her wings slightly, or she may take the initiative by lowering her head and wings and erecting her partially spread tail over her back. Further similar displays are often followed by begging behaviour by the female and by the male presenting her with food, before coition takes place on the nest. At this stage, nearby male rooks often mob or attack the mating pair, and in the ensuing struggle, any male that finds himself on top of the female will attempt to copulate with her. She terminates these unwanted advances by exiting the nest and perching nearby. A mated pair of rooks will often fondle each other's bills, and this behaviour is also sometimes seen in autumn.


title: Rook (bird)

text: Nesting in a rookery is always colonial, usually in the very tops of large trees, often on the remnants of the previous year's nest. In hilly regions, rooks may nest in smaller trees or bushes, and exceptionally on chimneys or church spires. Both sexes participate in nest-building, with the male finding most of the materials and the female putting them in place. The nest is cup-shaped and composed of sticks, consolidated with earth and lined with grasses, moss, roots, dead leaves and straw. Small branches and twigs are broken off trees, though as many are likely to be stolen from nearby nests as are collected direct, and the lining material is also often taken from other nests.


title: Rook (bird)

text: Eggs are usually three to five in number (sometimes six and occasionally seven) and may be laid by the end of March or early April in Britain, but in the harsher conditions of eastern Europe and Russia, it may be early May before the clutch is completed. The background colour is bluish-green to greyish-green but this is almost completely obscured by the heavy blotching of ashy grey and brown. The eggs average in size. They are incubated for 16–18 days, almost entirely by the female who is fed by the male. After hatching, the male brings food to the nest while the female broods the young. After ten days, she joins the male in bringing food, which is carried in a throat pouch. The young are fledged by the 32nd or 33rd day but continue to be fed by the parents for some time thereafter. There is normally a single clutch each year, but there are records of birds attempting to breed in the autumn.


title: Rook (bird)

text: In autumn, the young birds of the summer collect into large flocks together with unpaired birds of previous seasons, often in company with jackdaws. It is during this time of year that spectacular aerial displays are performed by the birds. The species is monogamous, with the adults forming long-term pair bonds. Partners often support each other in agonistic encounters and a bird may return to its partner after a quarrel where bill twining, an affiliative behaviour, may take place.


title: Rook (bird)

text: The call is usually described as "caw" or "kaah", and is somewhat similar to that of the carrion crow, but less raucous. It is variable in pitch and has several variants, used in different situations. The call is given both in flight and while perched, at which time the bird fans its tail and bows while making each caw. Calls in flight are usually given singly, in contrast to the carrion crow's, which are in groups of three or four. Other sounds are made around the rookery; a high-pitched squawk, a "burring" sound and a semi-chirruping call. Solitary birds occasionally "sing", apparently to themselves, uttering strange clicks, wheezes and human-like notes; the song has been described as a "base or guttural reproduction of the varied and spluttering song" of starlings.


title: Rook (bird)

text: Although outside of captivity rooks have not shown probable tool-use, captive rooks have shown the ability to use and understand puzzles. One of the most commonly tested puzzles is the Trap-Tube Problem. Rooks learned how to pull their reward out of the tube while avoiding a trap on one side.


title: Rook (bird)

text: In captivity, when confronted with problems, rooks have been documented as one of several species of birds capable of using tools as well as modifying tools to meet their needs. Rooks learned that if they push a stone off a ledge into a tube, they will get food. The rooks then discovered they could find and bring a stone and carry it to the tube if no stone was there already. They also used sticks and wire, and figured out how to bend a wire into a hook to reach an item. Rooks also understood the notion of water levels. When given stones and a tube full of water with a reward floating, they not only understood that they needed to use the stones but also the best stone to use.


title: Rook (bird)

text: In one set of experiments, rooks managed to knock a reward off a platform by rolling a stone down a tube toward the base of the platform. Rooks also seemed to understand the idea that a heavier stone will be more likely to knock the platform over. In this same test, rooks showed they understood that they needed to pick a stone of a shape that would roll easily.


title: Rook (bird)

text: Rooks also show the ability to work together to receive a reward. In order to receive a reward, multiple rooks had to pull strings along the lid of a box in order for it to move and them to reach the reward. Rooks seem to have no preference regarding working as a group comparative to working singly.


title: Rook (bird)

text: They also seem to have a notion of gravity, comparable to a six-month-old baby and exceeding the abilities of chimpanzees. Although they do not use tools in the wild, research studies have demonstrated that rooks can do so in cognition tests where tools are required, and can rival, and in some circumstances outperform, chimpanzees.


title: Rook (bird)

text: Farmers have observed rooks in their fields and thought of them as vermin. After a series of poor harvests in the early 1500s, introduced a Vermin Act in 1532 "ordeyned to dystroye Choughes (i.e. jackdaws), Crowes and Rokes" to protect grain crops from their predations. This act was only enforced in piecemeal fashion, but passed the "Act for the Preservation of Grayne" in 1566 that was taken up with more vigour and large numbers of birds were culled.


title: Rook (bird)

text: Francis Willughby mentions rooks in his "Ornithology" (1678): "These birds are noisome to corn and grain: so that the husbandmen are forced to employ children, with hooting and crackers, and rattles of metal, and, finally by throwing of stones, to scare them away." He also mentions scarecrows "placed up and down the fields, and dressed up in a country habit, which the birds taking for countrymen dare not come near the grounds where they stand". It was some time before more observant naturalists like John Jenner Weir and Thomas Pennant appreciated that in consuming ground-based pests, the rooks were doing more good than harm.


title: Rook (bird)

text: Rookeries were often perceived as nuisances in rural Britain, and it was previously the practice to hold rook shoots where the juvenile birds, known as "branchers", were shot before they were able to fly. These events were both a social occasion and a source of food (the rook becomes inedible once mature) as rook and rabbit pie was considered a delicacy.


title: Rook (bird)

text: Rooks have a wide distribution and large total population. The main threats they face are from changes in agricultural land use, the application of seed dressings and pesticides, and persecution through shooting. Although total numbers of birds may be declining slightly across the range, this is not at so rapid a rate as to cause concern, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the bird's conservation status as being of "least concern".


title: Canadian English

text: Canadian English (CanE, CE, en-CA) encompasses the varieties of English native to Canada. According to the 2016 census, English was the first language of 19.4 million Canadians or 58.1% of the total population; the remainder spoke French (20.8%) or other languages (21.1%). In Quebec, 7.5% of the population are anglophone, as most of Quebec's residents are native speakers of Quebec French.


title: Canadian English

text: Phonologically, Canadian and American English are classified together as North American English, emphasizing the fact that most cannot distinguish the typical accents of the two countries by sound alone. While Canadian English tends to be closer to American English in most regards, it does possess elements from British English and some uniquely Canadian characteristics. The precise influence of American English, British English and other sources on Canadian English varieties has been the ongoing focus of systematic studies since the 1950s.


title: Canadian English

text: Canadians and Americans themselves often have trouble differentiating their own two accents, particularly when someone speaks with an urban Standard Canadian English accent because it sounds very similar to Western American English. There is also evidence that Standard Canadian English and Western American English have been undergoing a very similar vowel shift since the 1980s. Canadian English varies very little from Central Canada to British Columbia. But, some noticeably different accents can be found in the Atlantic provinces, most especially in Newfoundland with Newfoundland English. Accent differences can sometimes be heard between those who live in urban centres versus those living in rural settings.


title: Canadian English

text: In the early 20th century, western Canada was largely populated by farmers from Central and Eastern Europe who were not anglophones. At the time, most anglophones there were re-settlers from Ontario or Quebec who had British, Irish and/or Loyalist ancestry. Throughout the 20th century, the prairies underwent anglicization and linguistic homogenization through education and exposure to Canadian and American media.


title: Canadian English

text: The term "Canadian English" is first attested in a speech by the Reverend A. Constable Geikie in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857 (see DCHP-1 Online, s.v. "Canadian English", Avis "et al.," 1967). Geikie, a Scottish-born Canadian, reflected the Anglocentric attitude that would be prevalent in Canada for the next hundred years when he referred to the language as "a corrupt dialect", in comparison with what he considered the proper English spoken by immigrants from Britain.


title: Canadian English

text: Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over a period of more than two centuries. The first large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States—as such, Canadian English is believed by some scholars to have derived from northern American English. Canadian English has been developing features of its own since the early 19th century. The second wave from Britain and Ireland was encouraged to settle in Canada after the War of 1812 by the governors of Canada, who were worried about American dominance and influence among its citizens. Further waves of immigration from around the globe peaked in 1910, 1960 and at the present time had a lesser influence, but they did make Canada a multicultural country, ready to accept linguistic change from around the world during the current period of globalization.


title: Canadian English

text: The languages of Aboriginal peoples in Canada started to influence European languages used in Canada even before widespread settlement took place, and the French of Lower Canada provided vocabulary, with words such as "toque" and "portage", to the English of Upper Canada.


title: Canadian English

text: While the process of the making of Canadian English—its documentation and codification—goes back to the 1930s, the 1960s were the key period. Like other social developments in Canada, the general acceptance of Canadian English has taken its time. According to a recent study, a noticeable shift in public discourse can only be seen in the middle of the first decade of the 2000s, when Canadian English was seen as a "given", generally accepted default variety, while before such statements were usually "balanced" by doubts.


title: Canadian English

text: Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare, yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged. An overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically relevant work, is Dollinger (2012, updated to 2017). Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on the history of CanE have argued from the "language-external" history, i.e. social and political history. An exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis "et al." 1967 "Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles" offered real-time historical data through its quotations. Recently, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English with historical linguistic data. DCHP-1 is now available in open access. Most notably, Dollinger (2008) pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE (Corpus of Early Ontario English, 1776–1849) and offers a developmental scenario for 18th- and 19th-century Ontario. Recently, Reuter (2015), with a 19th-century newspaper corpus from Ontario, has confirmed the scenario laid out in Dollinger (2008).


title: Canadian English

text: Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American conventions, the two dominant varieties, and adds some domestic idiosyncrasies. For many words, American and British spelling are both acceptable. Spelling in Canadian English co-varies with regional and social variables, somewhat more so, perhaps, than in the two dominant varieties of English, yet general trends have emerged since the 1970s.


title: Canadian English

text: Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canada's trade history. For instance, the British spelling of the word "cheque" probably relates to Canada's once-important ties to British financial institutions. Canada's automobile industry, on the other hand, has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of "tire" (hence, "Canadian Tire") and American terminology for automobiles and their parts (for example, "truck" instead of "lorry", "gasoline" instead of "petrol", "trunk" instead of "boot").


title: Canadian English

text: Canada's political history has also had an influence on Canadian spelling. Canada's first prime minister, John A. Macdonald, once advised the Governor General of Canada to issue an order-in-council directing that government papers be written in the British style.


title: Canadian English

text: A contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for Hansard transcripts of the Parliament of Canada . Many Canadian editors, though, use the "Canadian Oxford Dictionary", often along with the chapter on spelling in "Editing Canadian English", and, where necessary (depending on context), one or more other references.


title: Canadian English

text: Throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings, for example, "color" as opposed to the British-based "colour". Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger (2010) and Grue (2013). The use of such spellings was the long-standing practice of the Canadian Press perhaps since that news agency's inception, but visibly the norm prior to World War II. The practice of dropping the letter "u" in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the early days of printing in which movable type was set manually. Canadian newspapers also received much of their international content from American press agencies, therefore it was much easier for editorial staff to leave the spellings from the wire services as provided.


title: Canadian English

text: In the 1990s, Canadian newspapers began to adopt the British spelling variants such as "-our" endings, notably with "The Globe and Mail" changing its spelling policy in October 1990. Other Canadian newspapers adopted similar changes later that decade, such as the Southam newspaper chain's conversion in September 1998. The "Toronto Star" adopted this new spelling policy in September 1997 after that publication's ombudsman discounted the issue earlier in 1997. The "Star" had always avoided using recognized Canadian spelling, citing the "Gage Canadian Dictionary" in their defence. Controversy around this issue was frequent. When the "Gage Dictionary" finally adopted standard Canadian spelling, the "Star" followed suit. Some publishers, e.g. "Maclean's", continue to prefer American spellings.


title: Canadian English

text: The first Canadian dictionaries of Canadian English were edited by Walter Spencer Avis and published by Gage Ltd. The "Beginner's Dictionary" (1962), the "Intermediate Dictionary" (1964) and, finally, the "Senior Dictionary" (1967) were milestones in Canadian English lexicography. In November 1967 A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles (DCHP) was published and completed the first edition of Gage's Dictionary of Canadian English Series. The DCHP documents the historical development of Canadian English words that can be classified as "Canadianisms". It therefore includes words such as mukluk, Canuck, and bluff, but does not list common core words such as desk, table or car. Many secondary schools in Canada use the graded dictionaries. The dictionaries have regularly been updated since: the "Senior Dictionary," edited by Robert John Gregg, was renamed "Gage Canadian Dictionary". Its fifth edition was printed beginning in 1997. Gage was acquired by Thomson Nelson around 2003. The latest editions were published in 2009 by HarperCollins. On 17 March 2017 a second edition of DCHP, the online Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2 (DCHP-2), was published. DCHP-2 incorporates the c. 10 000 lexemes from DCHP-1 and adds c. 1 300 novel meanings or 1 002 lexemes to the documented lexicon of Canadian English.


title: Canadian English

text: In 1997, the "ITP Nelson Dictionary of the Canadian English Language" was another product, but has not been updated since.


title: Canadian English

text: In 1998, Oxford University Press produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, entitled "The Oxford Canadian Dictionary". A second edition, retitled "The Canadian Oxford Dictionary", was published in 2004. Just as the older dictionaries it includes uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether "colour" or "color" was the more popular choice in common use. Paperback and concise versions (2005, 2006), with minor updates, are available.


title: Canadian English

text: In terms of the major sound systems (phonologies) of English around the world, Canadian English aligns most closely to American English, both being grouped together under a common North American English sound system; the mainstream Canadian accent ("Standard Canadian") is often compared to the very similar and largely overlapping "General American" accent, an accent widely spoken throughout the United States and perceived there as being relatively lacking in any noticeable regional features.


title: Canadian English

text: The provinces east of Ontario show the largest dialect diversity. Northern Canada is, according to William Labov, a dialect region in formation, and a homogeneous English dialect has not yet formed. A very homogeneous dialect exists in Western and Central Canada, a situation that is similar to that of the Western United States. Labov identifies an "Inland Canada" region that concentrates all of the defining features of the dialect centred on the Prairies, with periphery areas with more variable patterns including the metropolitan areas of Vancouver and Toronto. This dialect forms a dialect continuum with the far Western US English, sharply differentiated from the Inland Northern US English of the central and eastern Great Lakes region.


title: Canadian English

text: Canadian English raises the diphthong onsets /ə, ʌ/ before voiceless segments; diphthongs /ai/ and /au/.


title: Canadian English

text: Standard Canadian English is socially defined. It is the variety spoken, in Chambers' (1998: 252) definition, by Anglophone or multilingual residents, who are second generation or later (i.e. born in Canada) and who live in urban settings. Applying this definition, c. 36% of the Canadian population speak Standard Canadian English in the 2006 population, with 38% in the 2011 census.


title: Canadian English

text: The literature has for a long time conflated the notions of Standard Canadian English (StCE) and regional variation. While some regional dialects are close to Standard Canadian English, they are not identical to it. To the untrained ear, for instance, a BC middle-class speaker from a rural setting may sound like Standard Canadian English, but, given Chambers' definition, such a person, because of the rural provenance, would not be included in the accepted definition (see the previous section). The "Atlas of North American English", while being the best source for US regional variation, is not a good source for Canadian regional variation, as its analysis is based on only 33 Canadian speakers. Boberg's (2005, 2008) studies offer the best data for the delimitation of dialect zones. The results for vocabulary and phonetics overlap to a great extent, which has allowed the proposal of dialect zones. Dollinger and Clarke distinguish between:


title: Canadian English

text: First Nations and Inuit from Northern Canada speak a version of Canadian English influenced by the phonology of their first languages. European Canadians in these regions are relatively recent arrivals, and have not produced a dialect that is distinct from southern Canadian English.


title: Canadian English

text: Many in the Maritime provinces – Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island – have an accent that sounds more like Scottish English and, in some places, Irish English than General American. Outside of major communities, dialects can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from province to province, reflecting ethnic origin as well as a past in which there were few roads and many communities, with some villages very isolated. Into the 1980s, residents of villages in northern Nova Scotia could identify themselves by dialects and accents distinctive to their village. The dialects of Prince Edward Island are often considered the most distinct grouping.


title: Canadian English

text: The dialect spoken in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, an autonomous dominion until 31 March 1949, is often considered the most distinctive Canadian English dialect. Some Newfoundland English differs in vowel pronunciation, morphology, syntax, and preservation of archaic adverbial-intensifiers. The dialect can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from region to region, reflecting ethnic origin as well as a past in which there were few roads and many communities, and fishing villages in particular remained very isolated. A few speakers have a transitional pin–pen merger.


title: Canadian English

text: Canadian raising is quite strong throughout the province of Ontario, except within the Ottawa Valley. The Canadian Shift is also a common vowel shift found in Ontario. The retraction of was found to be more advanced for women in Ontario than for people from the Prairies or Atlantic Canada and men.


title: Canadian English

text: In the southern part of Southwestern Ontario (roughly in the line south from Sarnia to St. Catharines), despite the existence of the many characteristics of West/Central Canadian English, many speakers, especially those under 30, speak a dialect which is influenced by the Inland Northern American English dialect, though there are minor differences such as Canadian raising (e.g. "ice" vs "my").


title: Canadian English

text: The north and northwestern parts of Southwestern Ontario, the area consisting of the Counties of Huron, Bruce, Grey, and Perth, referred to as the "Queen's Bush" in the 19th century, did not experience communication with the dialects of the southern part of Southwestern Ontario and Central Ontario until the early 20th century. Thus, a strong accent similar to Central Ontarian is heard, yet many different phrasings exist. It is typical in the area to drop phonetic sounds to make shorter contractions, such as: "prolly" (probably), "goin"' (going), and "Wuts goin' on tonight? D'ya wanna do sumthin'?" It is particularly strong in the County of Bruce, so much that it is commonly referred to as being the Bruce Cownian (Bruce Countian) accent. Also 'er' sounds are often pronounced 'air', with "were" sounding more like "wear".


title: Canadian English

text: Residents of the Golden Horseshoe (including the Greater Toronto Area) are known to merge the second with the in "Toronto", pronouncing the name variously as , or even or . This is not unique to Toronto; Atlanta is often pronounced "Atlanna" by residents. In the Greater Toronto Area, the "th" sound is sometimes pronounced . Sometimes is elided altogether, resulting in "Do you want this one er'iss one?" The word "southern" is often pronounced with . In the area north of the Regional Municipality of York and south of Parry Sound, notably among those who were born in the surrounding communities, the cutting down of syllables and consonants often heard, e.g. "probably" is reduced to "prolly" or "probly" when used as a response. In Greater Toronto, the diphthong tends to be fronted (as a result the word "about" is pronounced as ). The Greater Toronto Area is diverse linguistically, with 43 percent of its people having a mother tongue other than English. As a result Toronto English has distinctly more variability than Inland Canada.


title: Canadian English

text: In Eastern Ontario, Canadian raising is not as strong as it is in the rest of the province. In Prescott and Russell, parts of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry and Eastern Ottawa, French accents are often mixed with English ones due to the high Franco-Ontarian population there. In Lanark County, Western Ottawa and Leeds-Grenville and the rest of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry, the accent spoken is nearly identical to that spoken in Central Ontario and the Quinte area.


title: Canadian English

text: A linguistic enclave has also formed in the Ottawa Valley, heavily influenced by original Scottish, Irish, and German settlers, and existing along the Ontario-Quebec boundary, which has its own distinct accent known as the Ottawa Valley twang (or brogue). Phonetically, the Ottawa Valley twang is characterized by the lack of Canadian raising as well as the cot–caught merger, two common elements of mainstream Canadian English. This accent is quite rare in the region today.


title: Canadian English

text: English is a minority language in Quebec (with French the majority), but has many speakers in Montreal, the Eastern Townships and in the Gatineau-Ottawa region. A person whose mother tongue is English and who still speaks English is called an "Anglophone", versus a "Francophone", or French speaker.


title: Canadian English

text: Many people in Montreal distinguish between words like "marry" versus "merry" and "parish" versus "perish", which are homophones to most other speakers of Canadian English. Quebec Anglophones generally pronounce French street names in Montreal as French words. "Pie IX" Boulevard is pronounced as in French: not as "pie nine" but as (compare French /pi.nœf/). On the other hand, Anglophones pronounce the final "d" as in "Bernard" and "Bouchard"; the word "Montreal" is pronounced as an English word and "Rue Lambert-Closse" is known as "Clossy Street" (vs French /klɔs/). In the city of Montreal, especially in some of the western suburbs like Côte-St-Luc and Hampstead, there is a strong Jewish influence in the English spoken in those areas. A large wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union before and after World War II is also evident today. Their English has a strong Yiddish influence, and there are some similarities to English spoken in New York. Words used mainly in Quebec and especially in Montreal are: "stage" for "apprenticeship" or "internship", "copybook" for a notebook, "dépanneur" or "dep" for a convenience store, and "guichet" for an ABM/ATM. It is also common for Anglophones, particularly those of Greek or Italian descent, to use translated French words instead of common English equivalents such as "open" and "close" for "on" and "off" or "Open the lights, please" for "Turn on the lights, please".


title: Canadian English

text: Western Canadian English describes the English spoken in the four most western provinces—British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. British Columbia, in particular is a sub-zone on the lexical level.


title: Canadian English

text: British Columbia English shares dialect features with both Standard Canadian English and the American Pacific Northwest English. In Vancouver, speakers exhibit more vowel retraction of before nasals than people from Toronto, and this retraction may become a regional marker of West Coast English. raising (found words such as bag, vague and bagel), a prominent feature in western American speakers, is also found in Vancouver speakers. Younger speakers in the Greater Vancouver area do not raise as much, but keep the drop in intonation, causing "about" to sound slightly like "a baht", in the same vein as certain south Californian "surfer accents". The "o" in such words as "holy, goal, load, know," etc. is pronounced as a close-mid back rounded vowel, , but not as rounded as in the Prairies where there are strong Scandinavian, Slavic and German influences, which can lend to a more stereotypical "Canadian" accent.


title: Canadian English

text: There are a handful of syntactical practices unique to Canadian English. When writing, Canadians may start a sentence with "As well", in the sense of "in addition"; this construction is a Canadianism.


title: Canadian English

text: North American English prefers "have got" to "have" to denote possession or obligation (as in "I've got a car" vs. "I have a car"); Canadian English differs from American English in tending to eschew plain "got" ("I got a car"), which is a common third option in very informal US English.


title: Canadian English

text: The grammatical construction ""be done" something" means roughly ""have/has finished" something". For example, "I am done my homework" and "The dog is done dinner" are genuine sentences in this dialect, respectively meaning "I have finished my homework" and "The dog has finished dinner". Another example, "Let's start after you're done all the coffee", means "Let's start after you've finished all the coffee". This is not exactly the same as the standard construction ""to be done with" something", since "She is done the computer" can only mean "She is done with the computer" in one sense: "She has finished (building) the computer".


title: Canadian English

text: Date and time notation in Canadian English is a mixture of British and American practices. The date can be written in the form of either "" or "1 July 2017"; the latter is common in more formal writing and bilingual contexts. The Government of Canada only recommends writing all-numeric dates in the form of YYYY-MM-DD (e.g. 2017-07-01), following ISO 8601. Nonetheless, the traditional DD/MM/YY and MM/DD/YY systems remain in everyday use, which can be interpreted in multiple ways: 01/07/17 can mean either 1 July 2017 or 7 January 2017. Private members' bills have repeatedly attempted to clarify the situation. In business communication and filing systems the YYMMDD is used to assist in automatic ordering of electronic files.


title: Canadian English

text: The government also recommends use of the 24-hour clock, which is widely used in contexts such as transportation schedules, parking meters, and data transmission. Many speakers of English use the 12-hour clock in everyday speech, even when reading from a 24-hour display, similar to the use of the 24-hour clock in the United Kingdom.


title: Canadian English

text: Where Canadian English shares vocabulary with other English dialects, it tends to share most with American English, but also has many non-American terms distinctively shared instead with Britain. British and American terms also can coexist in Canadian English to various extents, sometimes with new nuances in meaning; a classic example is (British) often used interchangeably with (American), though, in Canadian speech, the latter can more narrowly mean a trip elsewhere and the former can mean general time off work. In addition, the vocabulary of Canadian English also features some words that are seldom (if ever) found elsewhere. A good resource for these and other words is the Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, which is currently being revised at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia. The Canadian public appears to take interest in unique "Canadianisms": words that are distinctively characteristic of Canadian English—though perhaps not exclusive to Canada; there is some disagreement about the extent to which "Canadianism" means a term actually unique to Canada, with such an understanding possibly overstated by the popular media. As a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Canada shares many items of institutional terminology and professional designations with the countries of the former British Empire—for example, , for a police officer of the lowest rank, and .


title: Canadian English

text: The term "college", which refers to post-secondary education in general in the US, refers in Canada to either a post-secondary technical or vocational institution, or to one of the colleges that exist as federated schools within some Canadian universities. Most often, a "college" is a community college, not a university. It may also refer to a CEGEP in Quebec. In Canada, might denote someone obtaining a diploma in business management (this would be an associate degree in the United States); while is the term for someone earning a bachelor's degree. For that reason, in Canada does not have the same meaning as , unless the speaker or context clarifies the specific level of post-secondary education that is meant.


title: Canadian English

text: Within the public school system the chief administrator of a school is generally "the principal", as in the United States, but the term is not used preceding their name, i.e. "Principal Smith". The assistant to the principal is not titled as "assistant principal", but rather as "vice-principal", although the former is not unknown. This usage is identical to that in Northern Ireland.


title: Canadian English

text: Canadian universities publish "calendars" or "schedules", not "catalogs" as in the US. Canadian students "write" or "take" exams (in the US, students generally "take" exams while teachers "write" them); they rarely "sit" them (standard British usage). Those who supervise students during an exam are sometimes called "invigilators" as in Britain, or sometimes "proctors" as in the US; usage may depend on the region or even the individual institution.


title: Canadian English

text: Successive years of school are usually referred to as "grade one", "grade two", and so on. In Quebec, the speaker (if Francophone) will often say "primary one", "primary two" (a direct translation from the French), and so on; while Anglophones will say "grade one", "grade two". (Compare American "first grade, second grade" (sporadically found in Canada), and English/Welsh "Year 1, Year 2", Scottish/Northern Irish "Primary 1, Primary 2" or "P1, P2", and Southern Irish "First Class, Second Class" and so on.). The year of school before grade 1 is usually called "Kindergarten", with the exception of Nova Scotia, where it is called "grade primary".


title: Canadian English

text: In the US, the four years of high school are termed the freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (terms also used for college years); in Canada, the specific levels are used instead (i.e., "grade nine"). As for higher education, only the term "freshman" (often reduced to "frosh") has some currency in Canada. The American usages "sophomore", "junior" and "senior" are not used in Canadian university terminology, or in speech. The specific high-school grades and university years are therefore stated and individualized; for example, "the grade 12s failed to graduate"; "John is in his second year at McMaster". The "first year", "third year" designation also applies to Canadian law school students, as opposed to the common American usage of "1L", "2L" and "3L".


title: Canadian English

text: Canadian students use the term "marks" (more common in England) or "grades" (more common in the US) to refer to their results. Usage is very mixed, although "marks" more commonly refer to a single score whereas "grades" often refers to the cumulative score in that class.


title: Canadian English

text: Unlike in the United States, use of metric units within a majority of (but not all) industries is standard in Canada, as a result of the partial national adoption of the metric system during the mid-to-late 1970s that was eventually stalled; this has spawned some colloquial usages such as "klick" for kilometre (as also heard in the US military).


title: Canadian English

text: Nonetheless, US units are still used in many situations. Imperial volumes are also used, albeit very rarely—although many Canadians and Americans mistakenly conflate the measurement systems despite their slight differences from each other.


title: Canadian English

text: For example, most English Canadians state their weight and height in pounds and feet/inches, respectively. This is also the case for many Quebec Francophones. Distances while playing golf are always marked and discussed in yards, though official scorecards may also show metres. Temperatures for cooking or pools are often given in Fahrenheit, while the weather is given in Celsius. Directions in the Prairie provinces are sometimes given using miles, because the country roads generally follow the mile-based grid of the Dominion Land Survey. Motor vehicle speed limits are measured in kilometres per hour.


title: Canadian English

text: Canadians measure property, both residential and commercial, floor areas are in square feet or square metres, property is in square feet, square metres, acres or hectares. Fuel efficiency is less frequently discussed in miles per US gallon, more often the metric L/100 km despite gasoline being sold by the litre. The Letter paper size of 8.5 inches × 11 inches is used instead of the international and metric equivalent A4 size of 210 mm × 297 mm. Beer cans are 355 mL (12 US oz), while beer bottles are typically 341 mL (12 Imperial oz), and draft beer is sold by the pint.


title: Canadian English

text: Building materials are used in soft conversions of imperial sizes, but often purchased in relation to the imperial sizes. Example 8" concrete masonry unit can be referred to as a 8" CMU or 190 CMU. The actual material used in the US and Canada is the same.


title: Canadian English

text: "Expressway" may also refer to a limited-access road that has control of access but has at-grade junctions, railway crossings (for example, the Harbour Expressway in Thunder Bay.) Sometimes the term "Parkway" is also used (for example, the Hanlon Parkway in Guelph). In Saskatchewan, the term 'grid road' is used to refer to minor highways or rural roads, usually gravel, referring to the 'grid' upon which they were originally designed. In Quebec, freeways and expressways are called autoroutes.


title: Canadian English

text: In Alberta, the generic "Trail" is often used to describe a freeway, expressway or major urban street (for example, Deerfoot Trail, Macleod Trail or Crowchild Trail in Calgary, Yellowhead Trail, Victoria Trail or Mark Messier/St.Albert Trail in Edmonton). The British term "motorway" is not used. The American terms "turnpike" and "tollway" for a toll road are not common. The term "throughway" or "thruway" was used for first tolled limited-access highways (for example, the Deas Island Throughway, now Highway 99, from Vancouver, BC, to Blaine, Washington, USA or the Saint John Throughway (Highway 1) in Saint John, NB), but this term is not common anymore. In everyday speech, when a particular roadway is not being specified, the term "highway" is generally or exclusively used.


title: Canadian English

text: Lawyers in all parts of Canada, except Quebec, which has its own civil law system, are called "barristers and solicitors" because any lawyer licensed in any of the common law provinces and territories must pass bar exams for, and is permitted to engage in, both types of legal practice in contrast to other common-law jurisdictions such as England, Wales and Ireland where the two are traditionally separated (i.e., Canada has a fused legal profession). The words "lawyer" and "counsel" (not "counsellor") predominate in everyday contexts; the word "attorney" refers to any personal representative. Canadian lawyers generally do not refer to themselves as "attorneys", a term that is common in the United States.


title: Canadian English

text: The equivalent of an American "district attorney", meaning the barrister representing the state in criminal proceedings, is called a "crown attorney" (in Ontario), "crown counsel" (in British Columbia), "crown prosecutor" or "the crown", on account of Canada's status as a constitutional monarchy in which the Crown is the locus of state power.


title: Canadian English

text: The words "advocate" and "notary" – two distinct professions in Quebec civil law – are used to refer to that province's approximate equivalents of barrister and solicitor, respectively. It is not uncommon for English-speaking advocates in Quebec to refer to themselves in English as "barrister(s) and solicitor(s)", as most advocates chiefly perform what would traditionally be known as "solicitor's work", while only a minority of advocates actually appear in court. In Canada's common law provinces and territories, the word "notary" means strictly a notary public.


title: Canadian English

text: Within the Canadian legal community itself, the word "solicitor" is often used to refer to any Canadian lawyer in general (much like the way the word "attorney" is used in the United States to refer to any American lawyer in general). Despite the conceptual distinction between "barrister" and "solicitor", Canadian court documents would contain a phrase such as ""John Smith, "solicitor" for the Plaintiff"" even though "John Smith" may well himself be the barrister who argues the case in court. In a letter introducing him/herself to an opposing lawyer, a Canadian lawyer normally writes something like ""I am the "solicitor" for Mr. Tom Jones."


title: Canadian English

text: The word "litigator" is also used by lawyers to refer to a fellow lawyer who specializes in lawsuits even though the more traditional word "barrister" is still employed to denote the same specialization.


title: Canadian English

text: Judges of Canada's superior courts, which exist at the provincial and territorial levels, are traditionally addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady". This varies by jurisdiction, and some superior court judges prefer the titles "Mister Justice" or "Madam Justice" to "Lordship".


title: Canadian English

text: Masters are addressed as ""Mr. Master"" or simply ""Sir."" In British Columbia, masters are addressed as ""Your Honour.""


title: Canadian English

text: Judges of provincial or inferior courts are traditionally referred to in person as ""Your Honour"". Judges of the Supreme Court of Canada and of the federal-level courts prefer the use of ""Mister/Madam (Chief) Justice"". Justices of The Peace are addressed as ""Your Worship"". ""Your Honour"" is also the correct form of address for a Lieutenant Governor.


title: Canadian English

text: A serious crime is called an indictable offence, while a less-serious crime is called a summary offence. The older words felony and misdemeanour, which are still used in the United States, are not used in Canada's current "Criminal Code" (R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46) or by today's Canadian legal system. As noted throughout the "Criminal Code", a person accused of a crime is called "the accused" and not "the defendant", a term used instead in civil lawsuits.


title: Canadian English

text: In Canada, "visible minority" refers to a non-aboriginal person or group visibly not one of the majority race in a given population. The term comes from the Canadian Employment Equity Act, which defines such people as "persons, other than Aboriginal people, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour." The term is used as a demographic category by Statistics Canada. The qualifier "visible" is used to distinguish such minorities from the "invisible" minorities determined by language (English vs. French) and certain distinctions in religion (Catholics vs. Protestants).


title: Canadian English

text: A county in British Columbia means only a regional jurisdiction of the courts and justice system and is not otherwise connected to governance as with counties in other provinces and in the United States. The rough equivalent to "county" as used elsewhere is a "Regional District".


title: Canadian English

text: Terms common in Canada, Britain and Ireland but less frequent or nonexistent in the United States are:


title: Canadian English

text: A strong Canadian raising exists in the prairie regions together with certain older usages such as "chesterfield" and "front room" also associated with the Maritimes. Aboriginal Canadians are a larger and more conspicuous population in prairie cities than elsewhere in the country and certain elements of aboriginal speech in English are sometimes to be heard. Similarly, the linguistic legacy, mostly intonation but also speech patterns and syntax, of the Scandinavian, Slavic and German settlers – who are far more numerous and historically important in the Prairies than in Ontario or the Maritimes – can be heard in the general milieu. Again, the large Métis population in Saskatchewan and Manitoba also carries with it certain linguistic traits inherited from French, Aboriginal and Celtic forebears.


title: Canadian English

text: In farming communities with substantial Ukrainian, German or Mennonite populations, accents, sentence structure and vocabulary influenced by these languages is common. These communities are most common in the Saskatchewan Valley region of Saskatchewan and Red River Valley region of Manitoba.


title: Canadian English

text: Descendants of marriages between Hudson's Bay Company workers of mainly Scottish descent and Cree women spoke Bungi, a creole that blends Cree and English. A few Bungi speakers can still be found in Manitoba. It is marked by no masculine, feminine or third-person pronouns.


title: Canadian English

text: British Columbian English decreasingly uses several words borrowed from the Chinook Jargon. The most famous and widely used of these terms are "skookum" and "saltchuck". In the Yukon, "cheechako" is used for newcomers or greenhorns.


title: Canadian English

text: Northern Ontario English has several distinct qualities stemming from its large Franco-Ontarian population. As a result several French and English words are used interchangeably. A number of phrases and expressions may also be found in Northern Ontario that are not present in the rest of the province, such as the use of "camp" for a summer home where Southern Ontario speakers would idiomatically use cottage.


title: Canadian English

text: In the early 2010s, certain words from London slang, Jamaican Patois, and Arabic were popularized among Toronto youth, especially in immigrant communities, which have fallen into a new separate category of sociolect, notably named Multicultural Toronto English. These examples included words such as "mandem", "styll", "wallahi", "wasteman", and "yute".


title: Canadian English

text: One of the most distinctive Canadian phrases is the spoken interrogation or tag "eh". The only usage of "eh" exclusive to Canada, according to the "Canadian Oxford Dictionary", is for "ascertaining the comprehension, continued interest, agreement, etc., of the person or persons addressed" as in, "It's four kilometres away, eh, so I have to go by bike." In that case, "eh?" is used to confirm the attention of the listener and to invite a supportive noise such as "mm" or "oh" or "okay". This usage is also common in Queensland, Australia and New Zealand. Other uses of "eh" – for instance, in place of "huh?" or "what?" meaning "please repeat or say again" – are also found in parts of the British Isles and Australia. It is common in Northern/Central Ontario, the Maritimes and the Prairie provinces. The word "eh" is used quite frequently in the North Central dialect, so a Canadian accent is often perceived in people from North Dakota, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.


title: Canadian English

text: A "rubber" in the US and Canada is slang for a condom. In Canada, it sometimes means an eraser (as in the United Kingdom and Ireland).


title: Canadian English

text: The word "bum" can refer either to the buttocks (as in Britain), or to a homeless person (as in the US). The "buttocks" sense does not have the indecent character it retains in British use, as it and "butt" are commonly used as a polite or childish euphemism for ruder words such as "arse" (commonly used in Atlantic Canada and among older people in Ontario and to the west) or "ass", or "mitiss" (used in the Prairie Provinces, especially in northern and central Saskatchewan; probably originally a Cree loanword). Older Canadians may see "bum" as more polite than "butt", which before the 1980s was often considered rude.


title: Canadian English

text: Similarly the word "pissed" can refer either to being drunk (as in Britain), or being angry (as in the US), though anger is more often said as "pissed off", while "piss drunk" or "pissed up" is said to describe inebriation (though "piss drunk" is sometimes also used in the US, especially in the northern states).


title: Canadian English

text: The term "Canuck" simply means "Canadian" in its demonymic form, and, as a term used even by Canadians themselves, it is not considered derogatory. (In the 19th century and early 20th century it tended to refer to French-Canadians.) The only Canadian-built version of the popular World War I-era American Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" training biplane aircraft, the JN-4C, 1,260 of which were built, got the "Canuck" nickname; so did another aircraft, the Fleet Model 80, built from the mid-1940s until the late 1950s. The nickname Janey Canuck was used by Anglophone women's rights writer Emily Murphy in the 1920s and the "Johnny Canuck" comic book character of the 1940s. Throughout the 1970s, Canada's winning World Cup men's downhill ski team was called the "Crazy Canucks" for their fearlessness on the slopes. It is also the name of the Vancouver Canucks, the National Hockey League team of Vancouver, British Columbia.


title: Canadian English

text: The term "hoser", popularized by Bob & Doug McKenzie, typically refers to an uncouth, beer-swilling male and is a euphemism for "loser" coming from the earlier days of hockey played on an outdoor rink and the losing team would have to hose down the ice after the game so it froze smooth. Bob & Doug also popularized the use of "Beauty, eh", another western slang term which may be used to describe something as being of interest or note or deserving approval.


title: Canadian English

text: A "Newf" or "Newfie" is someone from Newfoundland and Labrador; sometimes considered derogatory. In Newfoundland, the term "Mainlander" refers to any Canadian (sometimes American, occasionally Labradorian) not from the island of Newfoundland. "Mainlander" is also occasionally used derogatorily.


title: Canadian English

text: In the Maritimes, a "Caper" or "Cape Bretoner" is someone from Cape Breton Island, a "Bluenoser" is someone with a thick, usually southern Nova Scotia accent or as a general term for a Nova Scotian (including Cape Bretoners), while an "Islander" is someone from Prince Edward Island (the same term is used in British Columbia for people from Vancouver Island, or the numerous islands along it). A "Haligonian" refers to someone from the city of Halifax.


title: Canadian English

text: Cape Bretoners and Newfies (from Newfoundland and Labrador) often have similar slang. "Barmp" is often used as the sound a car horn makes, example: "He cut me off so I barmped the horn at him". When saying "B'y", while sounds like the traditional farewell, it is a syncopated shortening of the word "boy", referring to a person, example: "How's it goin, b'y?". Another slang that is commonly used is "doohickey" which means an object, example: "Pass me that doohickey over there". When an individual uses the word "biffed", they mean that they threw something. Example: "I got frustrated so I biffed it across the room".


title: Canadian English

text: In 2011, just under 21.5 million Canadians, representing 65% of the population, spoke English most of the time at home, while 58% declared it their mother language. English is the major language everywhere in Canada except Quebec, and most Canadians (85%) can speak English. While English is not the preferred language in Quebec, 36.1% of the Québécois can speak English. Nationally, Francophones are five times more likely to speak English than Anglophones are to speak French – 44% and 9% respectively. Only 3.2% of Canada's English-speaking population resides in Quebec—mostly in Montreal.


title: Canadian English

text: Attitude studies on Canadian English are somewhat rare. A perceptual study on Albertan and Ontarians exists in combination with older literature from the 1970s–80s. Sporadic reports can be found in the literature, e.g. on Vancouver English, in which more than 80% believe in a "Canadian way of speaking", with those with a university education reporting higher than those without.


title: Canadian English

text: Jaan Lilles argues in an essay for "English Today" that there is no variety of "Canadian English". He acknowledges that no variety of English is more "real" or "natural" than any other, but that, in the words of American linguist John Algeo, "All linguistic varieties are fictions." According to Lilles, Canadian English is simply not a "useful fiction". He goes on to argue that too often national identity is conflated with linguistic identity, and that in the case of "Canadian English", supposedly unique features of Canadian speakers, such as certain lexical terms such as "muskeg" are artificially exaggerated to distinguish Canadian speech primarily from that found in the United States.


title: Canadian English

text: Dollinger, Stefan (2015). The Written Questionnaire in Social Dialectology: History, Theory, Practice. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. The book's examples are exclusive taken from Canadian English and represent one of the more extensive collections of variables for Canadian English.


title: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X

text: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X is the 33rd season of the American CBS competitive reality television series "Survivor". It featured two initial tribes of ten new castaways divided by generation: Gen X, born between 1963 and 1982, and Millennials, born between 1984 and 1997 (no one born in 1983 was cast this season). It is the third season to divide the castaways into tribes by age, following "" and "", and the second season to film in Fiji, following "", which was filmed in a different location. The season premiered on September 21, 2016 with a 90-minute episode and ended on December 14, 2016 when Adam Klein was unanimously awarded the title of Sole Survivor over Ken McNickle and Hannah Shapiro by a jury vote of 10–0–0.


title: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X

text: This season featured the first full cast evacuation, where all contestants were removed on the second day of competition due to Severe Tropical Cyclone Zena; the castaways were returned to their camps the next morning and no additional time was needed to complete the game.


title: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X

text: The cast is composed of 20 new players, initially split into two tribes containing ten members each: Takali ("Gen X") and Vanua ("Millennials"). The tribe names come from the Fijian words for "open ocean" and "homeland", respectively. On Day 13, the remaining castaways were redistributed into three tribes, including new tribe Ikabula, named after the Fijian word for "turtle". On Day 21, the remaining castaways were merged into one tribe, which they named Vinaka after the Fijian word for "thank you". Notable castaways this season include David Wright, a writer on the FOX animated sitcom "Family Guy", and Smosh Games YouTuber Mari Takahashi.


title: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X

text: Michaela Bradshaw and Zeke Smith returned the following season for "". David Wright returned for "". Adam Klein returned to compete on "".


title: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X

text: Outside of "Survivor", Bret LaBelle and Chris Hammons competed as a team in "The Amazing Race 31". Michelle Schubert competed on the eleventh season of "American Ninja Warrior". Jay Starrett appeared on the second season of the MTV reality series "Ex on the Beach", the , , and of the MTV reality competition series "The Challenge". Bradshaw competed on the of "The Challenge".


title: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X

text: The 20 new castaways were initially divided into tribes based on generation. The Gen X tribe was fractured between two alliances—one led by Paul and Chris, and the other by David and Ken—while the Millennial tribe's majority was run by Jay and Michelle. With 16 players remaining, the castaways were divided into three tribes, during which Millennial outsiders Adam and Zeke worked with the Gen X-ers against the majority Millennial alliance.


title: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X

text: The four initial alliances regrouped at the merge: the core Millennial alliance; the Millennial outsider alliance of Adam, Hannah and Zeke; Chris's alliance; and David and Ken's alliance. While the latter three alliances initially formed a majority coalition, it eventually splintered as David and Zeke targeted each other. Zeke rallied together the remnants of Chris's alliance and the core Millennial alliance, while Adam and Hannah joined David's alliance; David's alliance ultimately won out, and Adam, David, Hannah and Ken were able to eliminate all others, though Adam's attempts to betray David for being the largest strategic threat remaining were thwarted by Hannah and Ken's unwavering loyalty.


title: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X

text: With only the four remaining, Hannah and Ken decided to join Adam to eliminate David. At the final Tribal Council, the jury lambasted Ken and Hannah for following David too long, while Adam was applauded for being loyal but also willing to eliminate threats, which led the jury to unanimously vote Adam as Sole Survivor.


title: Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X

text: This season received mainly positive reception by critics and fans alike, for the cast and their high level of gameplay, though the editing of the season received some criticism. Editor of "Entertainment Weekly", Dalton Ross, ranked it as the 11th-best season of the series, praised the season as a whole stating that the finale was "yet another great piece of theater in what turned out to be a great season of "Survivor". A season that remains great due to the crowning of a solid winner in Adam." He felt that "the season went from not bad to pretty good to legitimately great over the course of a few months," which he attributes to David's fake idol, calling it "the best fake immunity idol of all time" and "[how hard] the entire cast was playing." He praised the cast in particular and felt it was "an incredible season in general." Daniel Fienerg of "The Hollywood Reporter" initially had mixed feeling towards the season, calling it a "dud," but became much more positive towards the season later, stating that the season "had one of the strongest home stretches of any Survivor season in recent memory, if not any Survivor season ever." In 2020, "The Purple Rock Podcast" ranked "Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X" as the 13th-best season in the series, stating that the season has "several enjoyable narrative arcs, some nice interactions between the players, and some of those delicious tears that Probst loves so much." Later in the year, "Inside Survivor" ranked the season 21st out of 40 writing that "'Millennials vs. Gen-X' is such a zeitgeisty gimmick that screams ‘desperate ploy for ratings.’ However, ludicrous theme aside, the season itself is highly enjoyable with an array of memorable characters, exciting gameplay, and one of the most emotional endings in the show's history." In 2021, "Rob Has a Podcast" ranked "Millennials vs. Gen X" 12th during the "Survivor All-Time Top 40 Rankings" podcast.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: Captain Hector Barbossa is a fictional character of the "Pirates of the Caribbean" franchise, appearing in all five films in the series. Starting out as a villainous undead pirate in "" (2003), the character dies at the end of the film. However, he is revealed to have been brought back to life at the end of "" before appearing in anti-heroic roles as a Pirate Lord in "" (2007), a privateer with the Royal Navy in "" (2011), and finally as the rich and influential leader of his own pirate fleet in "" (2017). Throughout the series, the character has been conceptualized as a "dark trickster" and the evil counterpart of Captain Jack Sparrow.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: Originally, Rush was second choice for the role behind Robert De Niro, who turned it down as he expected the film to flop like previous pirate films did. While in the first film, Barbossa was conceptualized as a villain, as a "dark trickster" and evil counterpart to Jack Sparrow, Rush felt that he was playing the unsung hero of the film, who only dreamed about lifting the curse and living as a rich rogue with his prized pirate bride. Johnny Depp proposed the character's first name "Hector" on set of the first film, although it is never mentioned in the film. As it appeared only on the DVD commentary, writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio originally thought it was fan-made when they saw it on the Internet, and decided to use it nonetheless. Actor Geoffrey Rush has expressed fondness with the potential and development of his character, who evolved throughout the series and ventured into different terrains every film, which kept him challenged as an actor: while he was only a classical evil villain in the first film, he turned into a pirate politician, hosting a "G 20 summit of pirate lords", and in the fourth film has turned legitimate and works for the king. As for the fifth installment, Rush has referred to Barbossa as a "corporate pirate" who has amassed immense influence and wealth for his fleet and brags of his showcased riches, although it is revealed in the fifth film that part of the reason Barbossa turned to piracy was the difficult feelings he had to live with after giving up his daughter for adoption. Also, he commented on the selfless sacrifice Barbossa makes to save his daughter, referring to it as a nice and final conclusion to the character's journey of redemption. Due to this, Rush stated that he cannot see himself portraying the character in a potential sequel again, with the exception of a short cameo as a ghost "annoying Jack Sparrow with his wisdom." Barbossa's name is based on Ottoman admiral, Hayreddin Barbarossa.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: Information concerning Barbossa's childhood and youth stem from actor Geoffrey Rush, who devised a backstory for the character in order to portray him more convincingly. According to Rush, Barbossa was born to an impoverished Portuguese noblewoman by an unknown father and hailed from Lisbon in Portugal, a fact that is also deduced by Jack Sparrow based upon his accent in "". Longing to escape a life of poverty, he ran away from home aged 13 to pursue life as a sailor. At first, Barbossa wanted to be an honest sailor with the merchant marine, but seeing the grandeur of the captains' cabins on the ships on which he served, he realized that a man from his station could never afford a lifestyle like that whilst remaining an honest sailor, choosing a life of piracy instead.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: Nothing is known about his early exploits as a pirate prior to "The Price of Freedom". In the novel, Barbossa, in his early 40s, is the captain of the pirate schooner "Cobra". After plundering a French ivory barque, his ship is attacked and sunk by a crew of rogue pirates, and he is narrowly saved from drowning by his crew members Pintel and Ragetti. After managing to reach Tortuga, the then-Pirate Lord of the Caribbean brings them to Shipwreck Cove to report the incident to an assembly of pirates. A few months later, Jack Sparrow finds out that the attacker is Barbossa's old friend Boris Palachnik, the Pirate Lord of the Caspian Sea. The attackers are brought before a pirate court that summons Davy Jones, who confirms Palachnik's guilt. Visiting Palachink in prison, Barbossa is unknowingly granted the title of Pirate Lord of the Caspian Sea, as Palachink gives him his Piece of Eight and his ship. However, before Barbossa can claim his new vessel, the rogue pirates break out of prison and escape on his ship. After that, he is intent to join Captain Teague's hunting party and has his Piece of Eight carved into a wooden eye for his crew mate Ragetti.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: Shortly after Jack Sparrow attains the "Black Pearl", Barbossa joins him as his first mate. In the book series "", Tia Dalma tasks them with securing seven vials of shadow gold to stop the evil Shadow Lord from gaining total control over the seas by destroying the Brethren Court with his Shadow Army. Over the course of the novels, they are able to collect all vials shattered across the world by allying with or fighting against the other Pirate Lords. They are able to defeat the Shadow Lord with the combined efforts of all Pirate Lords, after which Jack wants to sail for Tortuga to recruit a new crew. Barbossa offers him to handle that in his stead, implying that he recruited men with the intent to mutineer against his captain.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: Ten years before the events of "", Barbossa led a mutiny against Jack Sparrow and marooned him on an uncharted island. Arriving at the treasure of Isla de Muerta, 882 identical pieces of Aztec gold, they claim it and spend it all. They realize too late that the cursed gold has turned them into undead. Shortly after the mutiny, Barbossa has Bootstrap Bill Turner killed by attaching a cannon to his foot and throwing him overboard. The crew spend the next years retrieving the Aztec gold and amassing treasure, unable to find the last piece of gold, as Bootstrap Bill had sent it to his son.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: When Elizabeth Swan falls into the sea wearing Will's medallion, it alerts the cursed pirates to its location. Barbossa has Port Royal attacked and Elizabeth captured, who poses as "Elizabeth Turner". Mistaking her for Bootstrap Bill's child, he takes her to the Isla de Muerta to use her blood in a ritual to break the curse, which fails. Will reveals himself as Bootstrap's son and offers Barbossa his blood in exchange for Elizabeth's safety. Barbossa has Elizabeth and Jack marooned on exactly the same uncharted island where he marooned Jack years earlier. Before Barbossa can perform the ritual, Jack Sparrow arrives to the island on board a Royal Navy ship and confronts Barbossa. A fight ensues between Barbossa and Jack. As Will breaks the curse, Barbossa is shot to death by his old captain.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: However, it is revealed in the closing scene of "" that Barbossa was revived by Tia Dalma, who is actually the sea goddess Calypso in human form. In return, he struck a bargain with her to free her from her human body with the help of the Brethren Court. In order to do so, it is necessary that Jack Sparrow is rescued from Davy Jones' Locker. Their negotiations with Pirate Lord Sao Feng, who possesses a map to the Locker, are interrupted by an ambush by the East India Trading Company. Sao Feng agrees to provide them with the map and a crew.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: After successfully freeing Jack, they are again attacked by the East India Trading Company, as Sao Feng had betrayed them. Nevertheless, they reach Shipwreck Cove, where Barbossa leads a meeting of the nine Pirate Lords. He proposes to free Calypso, which leads to a fight between the parties. When Elizabeth Swann is elected Pirate King, she decides to make a final stand against the trading company. After negotiations fail, Barbossa frees Calypso with the Pieces of Eight and the wrathful sea goddess creates a maelstrom, in which Barbossa captains the "Black Pearl" in a duel with the "Flying Dutchman". During the fight, he officiates the marriage of Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: Some time later, he steals the "Black Pearl" from Jack once again and sails away, planning to use Sao Feng's map to find the Fountain of Youth. However, Jack has stolen the map from him in anticipation. Sometime after these events he fathers Carina Smyth and leaves her in an orphanage after her mother's death.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: In "", set over a decade and seven years after , it is revealed that Barbossa had lost the "Black Pearl" to Edward "Blackbeard" Teach, who attacked the ship without warning and used his magical sword to turn the ship against his crew. Barbossa lost his right leg in the attack, and vowed to avenge the "Pearl" by killing Blackbeard. He joined the Royal Navy as a privateer to attain a new ship and safety from prosecution. He excelled so much at his new station that King George II personally tasked him with finding the Fountain of Youth. Barbossa forces Joshamee Gibbs, now in possession of the map, into assisting him on his quest. When they arrive at White Cap Bay, their ship is sunk by mermaids. Making their way through the jungle, Barbossa reaches the ship of Ponce de Leon in search for the two chalices required for the ritual, where he meets Jack Sparrow. The two decide to team up to retrieve the missing chalices from the Spanish camp, where they get captured, and later escape with the chalices. Reaching the Fountain, Barbossa engages Blackbeard in a duel, eventually mortally wounding him with his poisoned blade. He claims Blackbeard's ship, crew, and sword as payment for his lost leg and returns to a life of piracy.


title: Hector Barbossa

text: One year later, during "", Barbossa has achieved great success as a pirate and rules the Caribbean with his 10 ship fleet, even having acquired a golden peg leg. After three of his ships are sunk by the undead pirate hunter Captain Armando Salazar, whom Jack Sparrow had unintentionally unleashed, Barbossa confronts Salazar and offers to lead him to Jack Sparrow. Jack escapes to an island; the ghosts cannot step on land. An enraged Salazar starts slaughtering Barbossa's crew until Barbossa persuades Salazar to send him to fetch Sparrow. He double-crosses Salazar and allies with Sparrow, freeing the "Black Pearl" with Blackbeard's sword and once again captaining it. Upon seeing Carina's diary, he realizes she is his daughter. However, he chooses not to tell her of her true parentage in order to allow her to keep her idealized picture of her father, whom she imagines to be an astronomer. When they reach the island where the Trident of Poseidon is located, a fight between them and Salazar ensues, which later continues on the bottom of the ocean. Barbossa has himself lowered down with the ship's anchor to rescue Jack, Henry, and Carina. When Carina falls, Barbossa catches her, revealing a tattoo of the star constellation Carina, after which Carina realizes he is her father. Barbossa sacrifices his life to protect Carina from an approaching Salazar. Following these events, Carina takes up the last name Barbossa.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: Fueled by Ramen LLC is an American record label owned by Warner Music Group and distributed by 300 Elektra Entertainment. The label, founded in Gainesville, Florida in 1996, is now based in New York City.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: John Janick conceived of the label while attending high school, but it was not until he enrolled at the University of Florida in Gainesville and teamed up with Less Than Jake drummer-lyricist Vinnie Fiorello that Fueled By Ramen became a reality. The name of the label was inspired by only being able to afford a diet of inexpensive instant ramen at the time, due to having invested most of their money into making records.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: Ramen's first major success came in 1998 with the self-titled EP from Jimmy Eat World, which enabled the label to buy its first office space in Tampa.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: Ramen early on partnered with the independent distribution arm of Warner, ADA; Warner's Lyor Cohen finally making a deal for Ramen that led Janick to say "We operate like an indie label that’s very small and nimble and can do their own thing, but we have the resources of a major company."


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: In 2004, Fall Out Boy's Pete Wentz introduced Fueled By Ramen to fellow Chicago pop-rock outfit The Academy Is..., who released their debut album "Almost Here", the following year. Soon thereafter, Janick joined forces with Wentz to create Decaydance Records and released a series of albums from a disparate-sounding group of acts ranging from the alternative hip hop of Gym Class Heroes to the indie-pop combo The Hush Sound. In September 2005, Decaydance and Fueled By Ramen released "A Fever You Can't Sweat Out", the RIAA triple-platinum-certified debut album from Las Vegas' Panic! at the Disco.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: In 2006, Vinnie Fiorello left the label, citing disagreements in the direction of future signees and loss of passion in the music the label was investing itself in.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: In 2007, the label opened an office in midtown Manhattan, and that same year Paramore's album "Riot!" debuted in the top 20 of the U.S. "Billboard" 200, was certified gold and a year later gained platinum status. Panic! at the Disco's second studio album "Pretty. Odd." achieved similar success, debuting at number 2 on the "Billboard" 200 charts, selling over 139,000 copies in its first week, and gaining platinum success. Later in 2016, Panic! at the Disco's fifth studio album "Death of a Bachelor" debuted at number 1, selling 196,000 copies in its first week, making it the fastest-selling album in the label's history.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: In 2012, Fueled By Ramen signed musical duo Twenty One Pilots. They released their label debut album "Vessel" in 2013, which included songs, "Ode to Sleep", "Holding on to You", "House of Gold", and "Car Radio". In 2015, they released their breakthrough studio album "Blurryface", which included singles, "Tear in My Heart", "Fairly Local", "Stressed Out", "Heavydirtysoul" and "Ride". The album peaked at number 1 on the US Billboard Top 200 charts, and was certified quintuple platinum after selling over 5 million copies in the U.S. alone. "Stressed Out" is the most viewed music video on Fueled by Ramen's YouTube channel, accumulating over 2.5 billion views as of August 2022.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: In June 2018, Warner Music Group announced that Fueled by Ramen, amongst other labels, would be included in a new parent label, Elektra Music Group. It officially launched on October 1, 2018. In June 2022, Elektra Music Group, and subsequently Fueled by Ramen, was merged into the new umbrella label group 300 Elektra Entertainment.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: Twelve albums released by Fueled By Ramen have been certified Platinum (some multiple times) by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of one million units or more:


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: "Blurryface", the label's highest selling-album, was certified quintuple platinum for sales of at least five million units; "Some Nights", "A Fever You Can't Sweat Out", and "Riot!" were certified triple platinum for sales of at least three million units; and "Death of a Bachelor" and "Vessel" were certified double platinum for sales of at least two million units.


title: Fueled by Ramen

text: This list was compiled based on information found on the Elektra Music webpage for Fueled by Ramen and the label's discography.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: The MD Helicopters MD 500 series is an American family of light utility civilian and military helicopters. The MD 500 was developed from the Hughes 500, a civilian version of the US Army's OH-6A Cayuse/Loach. The series currently includes the MD 500E, MD 520N, and MD 530F.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: The MD 500 was initially produced by Hughes Helicopters as the "Hughes 500". Since being introduced in 1967, numerous models have been produced, often featuring a more powerful engine or a five-bladed main rotor in place of the original four-blade counterpart. The MD 500 has been commonly used for utility work, particularly the "MD 530F"; it has also proven to be popular with law enforcement agencies. Production of the type was continued into the twenty-first century by Hughes' successor companies, McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Systems, and subsequently MD Helicopters. While the MD 500 series has been largely operated by civil customers, it has occasionally seen military use, even to the extent of performing front line combat operations. The Salvadoran Air Force deployed their examples during the Salvadoran Civil War, leading to several losses. North Korea also covertly obtained a fleet of MD500s for military purposes, some of which have been allegedly configured into gunships.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: The Hughes 500/MD 500 series can be traced back to the early 1960s and the issuing of a requirement for a Light Observation Helicopter (LOH) for the United States Army. Following a competitive tendering process, Hughes' Model 369 was selected as the winning bid, triumphing over rival submission from the helicopter manufacturers Bell and Hiller. On 27 February 1963, under the service designation of OH-6 Cayuse, the maiden flight of the type was performed.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: The MD 500 series features shock-absorbing landing skid struts, a turboshaft engine mounted at a 45-degree angle toward the rear of the cabin pod, a fuel tank cell under the floor and the battery in the nose. The engine exhaust port is located at the end of the cabin pod underneath the tailboom. It has a short-diameter main rotor system and a short tail, which gives it an agile control response and also makes it less susceptible to weather-cocking. It had a distinctive atypical teardrop-shaped fuselage, a feature that sometimes led to personnel referring to it as the "flying egg".


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: Hughes had allegedly succeeded in the LOH contest with its OH-6 helicopter by submitting a very low and aggressive price per airframe (without an engine), to the point where the company allegedly lost money . Due to price escalations for both the OH-6 and spare components, the U.S. Army opted to reopen bids for the programme in 1967. Seeking to profitably produce the type, Hughes offered the machine at a more realistic unit price of $56,550, however, this bid was undercut by the redesigned Bell OH-58 Kiowa, a militarised version of the JetRanger series. Despite this, some OH-6 helicopters were still ordered by the U.S. Army, though at a much reduced number.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: Even prior to the first flight of the OH-6, Hughes had announced that it was working on a civilian version of the rotorcraft, which would be marketed as the Hughes 500. It was available in basic five- and seven-seat configurations. A utility version with a more powerful engine was offered as the 500U (later called the 500C).


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: During 1976, the improved Hughes 500D became the primary model. It with outfitted with a more powerful engine, a T-tail, and a new five-blade main rotor; furthermore, a four-blade tail rotor could be optionally installed.The 500D was replaced by the 500E from 1982 with a pointed nose and various interior improvements, such as greater head- and legroom, as well as a more pointed nose. The 530F was a more powerful version of the 500E optimized for hot and high work, being furnished with an enlarged main rotor and more powerful Allison 250-C30 engine, capable of producing up to 425 hp.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: During January 1984, Hughes Helicopters, the original manufacturer of the 500 series, was acquired by the American aircraft manufacturer McDonnell Douglas. Accordingly, starting in August 1985, the 500E and 530F were rebranded as the MD 500E and MD 530F Lifter respectively. Following the merger between Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, the division was briefly owned by the new entity; Boeing opted to quickly sell the former MD civil helicopter lines to the newly-created MD Helicopters in early 1999. Military variants are marketed under the "MD 500 Defender" name.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: The MD 520N introduced a revolutionary advance in helicopter design, dispensing with a conventional anti-torque tail rotor in favor of the Hughes/McDonnell-Douglas-developed NOTAR system. Exhaust from a fan is directed through slots in the tailboom, using the Coandă effect to counteract the torque of the main rotor, and a controllable thruster at the end of the tailboom is used for yaw control. Because the fan is enclosed in the tailboom, tail rotor noise—the major source of noise from most conventional helicopters—was significantly reduced. It also eliminated the vulnerable exposed tail rotor blades, eliminating the possibility of persons being injured or killed on the ground and the cause for many confined area manoeuvring accidents.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: McDonnell Douglas originally intended to develop the standard MD 520N alongside the more powerful hot-and-high optimized MD 530N; both were launched in January 1989 and were based on the conventional MD 500E. The MD 530N was the first to fly, on December 29, 1989, and the MD 520N first flew on May 1, 1990. Development of the MD 530N was suspended when McDonnell Douglas decided that the MD 520N met most customer requirements for the 530N. Certification for the MD 520N was awarded on September 13, 1991, and the first was delivered on December 31 that year.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: In 2000, MD Helicopters announced enhancements to the MD 520N, including an improved Rolls-Royce 250-C20R+ engine with 3% to 5% more power for better performance on warm days, and changes to the diffuser and fan rigging, also increased range.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: The MD 500 series had proven to be popular with civilian operators, with which the type has seen use for a diverse range of purposes. According to Flying magazine, it has been particularly popular in circumstances where the primary passenger and pilot are both in the front seats, as can be typical in aerial observation, utility, and law enforcement work. A minority have been used for executive transportation, for which suitable rear seating is typically provisioned; it is more common to see it used as a private/personal helicopter instead.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: While numerous operators have opted to procure MD 500s with the newer Rolls-Royce 250-C20 engine, which provides greater reliability and power output than older counterparts, some operators have reportedly chosen to remove these engines and substitute them with Vietnam-era surplus engines which are available even into the twenty-first century at a considerably lower purchase cost.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: At the start of the Salvadoran Civil War, the Salvadoran Air Force operated a total of six MD 500D helicopters. Amid the conflict, these were supplemented by a further nine MD 500Es that were supplied by the United States in 1983. The type was typically operated in the gunship role, having been armed with both 7.62 mm Miniguns and unguided rockets; additional mission roles included aerial reconnaissance and liaison duties. A single MD 500D and a pair of MD 500Es were lost to Soviet-supplied SA-7 missiles between 1989 and 1990. By the end of the conflict, only one MD 500D and six MD 500Es were reportedly in an operational condition.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: During the 1980s, North Korea managed to circumvent US export restrictions and covertly purchase a total of 87 civilian-type Hughes MD 500s through a legitimate West German export firm before the US government learned of the illegal action by North Korea and acted to prevent any further deliveries to the country. Once they had arrived in North Korea, efforts continued to be made to conceal their existence, and are believed to have been flown only sparingly at least for a large portion of their service life. There have been allegations that at least sixty of the helicopters delivered to North Korea have been modified to serve as helicopter gunships. As South Korea produces the MD 500 domestically (under license) for use by its own armed forces, the modified helicopters operated by North Korea were deemed useful in conducting covert or deceptive operations against South Korea (such as incursions past the border).


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: The modified MD 500 helicopters were finally revealed by North Korea in an obviously visible manner, even to international observers, during the country’s annual Victory Parade held in Pyongyang on 27 July 2013, which commemorated the 60th anniversary of the end of the Korean War in 1953. According to analysists, it is visible that the North Korea's fleet of MD 500s have been modified significantly so that they can function as light attack helicopters. Amongst these changes was mounting points and interfacing apparatus to allow them to fire Soviet-designed AT-3 Sagger anti-tank wire-guided missiles.


title: MD Helicopters MD 500

text: The MD 500 is widely operated by private individuals, companies and law enforcement agencies around the world.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: Ichthyosaurs (Ancient Greek for "fish lizard" – and ) are large extinct marine reptiles. Ichthyosaurs belong to the order known as Ichthyosauria or Ichthyopterygia ('fish flippers' – a designation introduced by Sir Richard Owen in 1842, although the term is now used more for the parent clade of the Ichthyosauria).


title: Ichthyosaur

text: Ichthyosaurs thrived during much of the Mesozoic era; based on fossil evidence, they first appeared around 250 million years ago (Ma) and at least one species survived until about 90 million years ago, into the Late Cretaceous. During the Early Triassic epoch, ichthyosaurs and other ichthyosauromorphs evolved from a group of unidentified land reptiles that returned to the sea, in a development similar to how the mammalian land-dwelling ancestors of modern-day dolphins and whales returned to the sea millions of years later, which they gradually came to resemble in a case of convergent evolution. Ichthyosaurs were particularly abundant in the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic periods, until they were replaced as the top aquatic predators by another marine reptilian group, the Plesiosauria, in the later Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, though previous views of ichthyosaur decline during this period are probably overstated. Ichthyosaurs diversity declined due to environmental volatility caused by climatic upheavals in the early Late Cretaceous, becoming extinct around the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary approximately 90 million years ago.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: Science became aware of the existence of ichthyosaurs during the early nineteenth century, when the first complete skeletons were found in England. In 1834, the order Ichthyosauria was named. Later that century, many excellently preserved ichthyosaur fossils were discovered in Germany, including soft-tissue remains. Since the late twentieth century, there has been a revived interest in the group, leading to an increased number of named ichthyosaurs from all continents, with over fifty valid genera being now known.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: Ichthyosaur species varied from in length. Ichthyosaurs resembled both modern fish and dolphins. Their limbs had been fully transformed into flippers, which sometimes contained a very large number of digits and phalanges. At least some species possessed a dorsal fin. Their heads were pointed, and the jaws often were equipped with conical teeth to catch smaller prey. Some species had larger, bladed teeth to attack large animals. The eyes were very large, for deep diving. The neck was short, and later species had a rather stiff trunk. These also had a more vertical tail fin, used for a powerful propulsive stroke. The vertebral column, made of simplified disc-like vertebrae, continued into the lower lobe of the tail fin. Ichthyosaurs were air-breathing, warm-blooded, and bore live young. They may have had a layer of blubber for insulation.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: The first known illustrations of ichthyosaur bones, vertebrae, and limb elements were published by the Welshman Edward Lhuyd in his "Lithophylacii Brittannici Ichnographia" of 1699. Lhuyd thought that they represented fish remains. In 1708, the Swiss naturalist Johann Jakob Scheuchzer described two ichthyosaur vertebrae assuming they belonged to a man drowned in the Universal Deluge. In 1766, an ichthyosaur jaw with teeth was found at Weston near Bath. In 1783, this piece was exhibited by the Society for Promoting Natural History as those of a crocodilian. In 1779, ichthyosaur bones were illustrated in John Walcott's "Descriptions and Figures of Petrifications". Towards the end of the eighteenth century, British fossil collections quickly increased in size. Those of the naturalists Ashton Lever and John Hunter were acquired in their totality by museums; later, it was established that they contained dozens of ichthyosaur bones and teeth. The bones had typically been labelled as belonging to fish, dolphins, or crocodiles; the teeth had been seen as those of sea lions.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: The demand by collectors led to more intense commercial digging activities. In the early nineteenth century, this resulted in the discovery of more complete skeletons. In 1804, Edward Donovan at St Donats uncovered a ichthyosaur specimen containing a jaw, vertebrae, ribs, and a shoulder girdle. It was considered to be a giant lizard. In October 1805, a newspaper article reported the find of two additional skeletons, one discovered at Weston by Jacob Wilkinson, the other, at the same village, by Reverend Peter Hawker. In 1807, the last specimen was described by the latter's cousin, Joseph Hawker. This specimen thus gained some fame among geologists as 'Hawker's Crocodile'. In 1810, near Stratford-upon-Avon, an ichthyosaur jaw was found that was combined with plesiosaur bones to obtain a more complete specimen, indicating that the distinctive nature of ichthyosaurs was not yet understood, awaiting the discovery of far better fossils.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: In 1811, in Lyme Regis, along what is now called the Jurassic Coast of Dorset, the first complete ichthyosaur skull was found by Joseph Anning, the brother of Mary Anning, who in 1812 while still a young girl, secured the torso of the same specimen. Their mother, Molly Anning, sold the combined piece to squire Henry Henley for £23. Henley lent the fossil to the London Museum of Natural History of William Bullock. When this museum was closed, the British Museum bought the fossil for a price of £47.5s; it still belongs to the collection of the now independent Natural History Museum and has the inventory number BMNH R.1158. It has been identified as a specimen of "Temnodontosaurus platyodon".


title: Ichthyosaur

text: In 1814, the Annings' specimen was described by Professor Everard Home, in the first scientific publication dedicated to an ichthyosaur. Intrigued by the strange animal, Home tried to locate additional specimens in existing collections. In 1816, he described ichthyosaur fossils owned by William Buckland and James Johnson. In 1818, Home published data obtained by corresponding with naturalists all over Britain. In 1819, he wrote two articles about specimens found by Henry Thomas De la Beche and Thomas James Birch. A last publication of 1820 was dedicated to a discovery by Birch at Lyme Regis. The series of articles by Home covered the entire anatomy of ichthyosaurs, but highlighted details only; a systematic description was still lacking.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: Home felt very uncertain how the animal should be classified. Though most individual skeletal elements looked very reptilian, the anatomy as a whole resembled that of a fish, so he initially assigned the creature to the fishes, as seemed to be confirmed by the flat shape of the vertebrae. At the same time, he considered it a transitional form in-between fishes and crocodiles, not in an evolutionary sense, but as regarded its place in the "scala naturae", the "Chain of Being" hierarchically connecting all living creatures. In 1818, Home noted some coincidental similarities between the coracoid of ichthyosaurians and the sternum of the platypus. This induced him to emphasize its status as a transitional form, combining, like the platypus, traits of several larger groups. In 1819, he considered it a form between newts, like Olm, and lizards; he now gave a formal generic name: "Proteo-Saurus". However, in 1817, Karl Dietrich Eberhard Koenig had already referred to the animal as "Ichthyosaurus", "fish saurian" from Greek ἰχθύς, "ichthys", "fish". This name at the time was an invalid "nomen nudum" and was only published by Koenig in 1825, but was adopted by De la Beche in 1819 in a lecture where he named three "Ichthyosaurus" species. This text would only be published in 1822, just after De la Beche's friend William Conybeare published a description of these species, together with a fourth one. The type species was "Ichthyosaurus communis", based on a now lost skeleton. Conybeare considered that "Ichthyosaurus" had priority relative to "Proteosaurus". Although this is incorrect by present standards, the latter name became a "forgotten" "nomen oblitum". In 1821, De la Beche and Conybeare provided the first systematic description of ichthyosaurs, comparing them to another newly identified marine reptile group, the Plesiosauria. Much of this description reflected the insights of their friend, the anatomist Joseph Pentland.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: In 1835, the order Ichthyosauria was named by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville. In 1840, Richard Owen named an order Ichthyopterygia as an alternative concept.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: The discovery of a hitherto unsuspected extinct group of large marine reptiles generated much publicity, capturing the imagination of both scientists and the public at large. People were fascinated by the strange build of the animals, especially the large scleral rings in the eye sockets, of which it was sometimes erroneously assumed these would have been visible on the living animal. Their bizarre form induced a feeling of alienation, allowing people to realise the immense span of time passed since the era in which the ichthyosaur swam the oceans. Not all were convinced that ichthyosaurs had gone extinct: Reverend George Young found a skeleton in 1819 at Whitby; in his 1821 description, he expressed the hope that living specimens could still be found. Geologist Charles Lyell to the contrary, assumed that the Earth was eternal so that in the course of time the ichthyosaur might likely reappear, a possibility lampooned in a famous caricature by De la Beche.


title: Ichthyosaur

text: Public awareness was increased by the works of the eccentric collector Thomas Hawkins, a pre-Adamite believing that ichthyosaurs were monstrous creations by the devil: "Memoirs of Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri" of 1834 and "The Book of the Great Sea-Dragons" of 1840. The first work was illustrated by mezzotints by John Samuelson Templeton. These publications also contained scientific descriptions and represented the first textbooks of the subject. In the summer of 1834, Hawkins, after a taxation by William Buckland and Gideon Mantell, sold his extensive collection, then the largest of its kind in the world, to the British Museum. However, curator Koenig quickly discovered that the fossils had been heavily restored with plaster, applied by an Italian artist from Lucca; of the most attractive piece, an "Ichthyosaurus" specimen, almost the entire tail was fake. It turned out that Professor Buckland had been aware of this beforehand, and the museum was forced to reach a settlement with Hawkins, and gave the fake parts a lighter colour to differentiate them from the authentic skeletal elements.