title: Hulagu Khan

text: Hulagu's brother Möngke Khan had been installed as Great Khan in 1251. Möngke charged Hulagu with leading a massive Mongol army to conquer or destroy the remaining Muslim states in southwestern Asia. Hulagu's campaign sought the subjugation of the Lurs of southern Iran, the destruction of the Nizari Ismaili state (the Assassins), the submission or destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, the submission or destruction of the Ayyubid states in Syria based in Damascus, and finally, the submission or destruction of the Bahri Mamluke Sultanate of Egypt. Möngke ordered Hulagu to treat kindly those who submitted and utterly destroy those who did not. Hulagu vigorously carried out the latter part of these instructions.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Hulagu marched out with perhaps the largest Mongol army ever assembled – by order of Möngke, two-tenths of the empire's fighting men were gathered for Hulagu's army in 1253. He arrived at Transoxiana in 1255. He easily destroyed the Lurs, and the Assassins surrendered their impregnable fortress of Alamut without a fight, accepting a deal that spared the lives of their people in early 1256.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Hulagu's Mongol army set out for Baghdad in November 1257. Once near the city he divided his forces to threaten the city on both the east and west banks of the Tigris. Hulagu demanded surrender, but the caliph, Al-Musta'sim, refused. Due to the treason of Abu Alquma, an advisor to Al-Muta'sim, an uprising in the Baghdad army took place and Siege of Baghdad began. The attacking Mongols broke dikes and flooded the ground behind the caliph's army, trapping them. Much of the army was slaughtered or drowned.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: The Mongols under Chinese general Guo Kan laid siege to the city on January 29, 1258, constructing a palisade and a ditch and wheeling up siege engines and catapults. The battle was short by siege standards. By February 5 the Mongols controlled a stretch of the wall. The caliph tried to negotiate but was refused. On February 10 Baghdad surrendered. The Mongols swept into the city on February 13 and began a week of destruction. The Grand Library of Baghdad, containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Citizens attempted to flee but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Death counts vary widely and cannot be easily substantiated: A low estimate is about 90,000 dead; higher estimates range from 200,000 to a million. The Mongols looted and then destroyed. Mosques, palaces, libraries, hospitals—grand buildings that had been the work of generations—were burned to the ground. The caliph was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. "Il Milione", a book on the travels of Venetian merchant Marco Polo, states that Hulagu starved the caliph to death, but there is no corroborating evidence for that. Most historians believe the Mongol and Muslim accounts that the caliph was rolled up in a rug and the Mongols rode their horses over him, as they believed that the earth would be offended if touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons were killed. Baghdad was a depopulated, ruined city for several centuries. Smaller states in the region hastened to reassure Hulagu of their loyalty, and the Mongols turned to Syria in 1259, conquering the Ayyubid dynasty and sending advance patrols as far ahead as Gaza.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: A thousand squads of northern Chinese sappers accompanied the Mongol Khan Hulagu during his conquest of the Middle East.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: In 1260 Mongol forces combined with those of their Christian vassals in the region, including the army of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia under Hethum I, King of Armenia and the Franks of Bohemond VI of Antioch. This force conquered Muslim Syria, a domain of the Ayyubid dynasty. They captured Aleppo by siege and, under the Christian general Kitbuqa, seized Damascus on March 1, 1260. A Christian Mass was celebrated in the Umayyad Mosque and numerous mosques were profaned. Many historical accounts describe the three Christian rulers Hethum, Bohemond, and Kitbuqa entering the city of Damascus together in triumph, though some modern historians such as David Morgan have questioned this story as apocryphal.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: The invasion effectively destroyed the Ayyubids, which was until then a powerful dynasty that had ruled large parts of the Levant, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula. The last Ayyubid king, An-Nasir Yusuf, had been killed by Hulagu this same year. With Baghdad ravaged and Damascus weakened, the center of Islamic power shifted to the Mamluk sultan's capital of Cairo.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Hulagu intended to send forces southward through Palestine toward Cairo. So he had a threatening letter delivered by an envoy to the Mamluk Sultan Qutuz in Cairo demanding that Qutuz open his city or it would be destroyed like Baghdad. Then, because food and fodder in Syria had become insufficient to supply his full force, and because it was a regular Mongol practice to move troops to the cooler highlands for the summer, Hulagu withdrew his main force to Iran near Azerbaijan, leaving behind two tumens (20,000 men) under Kitbuqa, which Hulagu considered sufficient. Hulagu then personally departed for Mongolia to play his role in the imperial succession conflict occasioned by the death some eight months earlier of Great Khan Möngke. But upon receiving news of how few Mongols now remained in the region, Qutuz quickly assembled his well-trained and equipped 12,000-strong army at Cairo and invaded Palestine. He then allied himself with a fellow Mamluk leader, Baybars in Syria, who not only needed to protect his own future from the Mongols but was eager to avenge for Islam the Mongol capture of Damascus, looting of Baghdad, and conquest of Syria.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: The Mongols, for their part, attempted to form a Frankish-Mongol alliance with (or at least, demand the submission of) the remnant of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, now centered on Acre, but Pope Alexander IV had forbidden such an alliance. Tensions between Franks and Mongols also increased when Julian of Sidon caused an incident resulting in the death of one of Kitbuqa's grandsons. Angered, Kitbuqa had sacked Sidon. The Barons of Acre, contacted by the Mongols, had also been approached by the Mamluks, seeking military assistance against the Mongols. Although the Mamluks were traditional enemies of the Franks, the Barons of Acre recognized the Mongols as the more immediate menace. Instead of taking sides, the Crusaders opted for a position of cautious neutrality between the two forces. In an unusual move, however, they allowed the Egyptian Mamluks to march northward without hindrance through Crusader territory and even let them camp near Acre to resupply.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: When news arrived that the Mongols had crossed the Jordan River in 1260, Sultan Qutuz and his forces proceeded southeast toward the 'Spring of Goliath' (Known in Arabic as 'Ain Jalut') in the Jezreel Valley. They met the Mongol army of about 20,000 in the Battle of Ain Jalut and fought relentlessly for many hours. The Mamluk leader Baybars mostly implemented hit-and-run tactics in an attempt to lure the Mongol forces into chasing him. Baybars and Qutuz had hidden the bulk of their forces in the hills to wait in ambush for the Mongols to come into range. The Mongol leader Kitbuqa, already provoked by the constant fleeing of Baybars and his troops, decided to march forwards with all his troops on the trail of the fleeing Egyptians. When the Mongols reached the highlands, Egyptians appeared from hiding, and the Mongols found themselves surrounded by enemy forces as the hidden troops hit them from the sides and Qutuz attacked the Mongol rear. Estimates of the size of the Egyptian army range from 24,000 to 120,000. The Mongols broke free of the trap and even mounted a temporarily successful counterattack, but their numbers had been depleted to the point that the outcome was inevitable. Almost the whole Mongol army that had remained in the region, including Kitbuqa, were either killed or captured that day. The battle of Ain Jalut established a high-water mark for the Mongol conquest.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Hulagu returned to his lands by 1262. When he massed his armies to attack the Mamluks and avenge the defeat at Ain Jalut, however, he was instead drawn into civil war with Batu Khan's brother Berke. Berke Khan, a Muslim convert and the grandson of Genghis Khan, had promised retribution in his rage after Hulagu's sack of Baghdad and allied himself with the Mamluks. He initiated a large series of raids on Hulagu's territories, led by Nogai Khan. Hulagu suffered a severe defeat in an attempted invasion north of the Caucasus in 1263. This was the first open war between Mongols and signaled the end of the unified empire. In retaliation for his failure, Hulagu killed Berke's ortogh, and Berke did the same in return.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Even while Berke was Muslim, out of Mongol brotherhood he at first resisted the idea of fighting Hulagu. He said, "Mongols are killed by Mongol swords. If we were united, then we would have conquered all of the world." But the economic situation of the Golden Horde due to the actions of the Ilkhanate led him to declare jihad because the Ilkhanids were hogging the wealth of North Iran and because of the Ilkhanate's demands for the Golden Horde not to sell slaves to the Mamluks.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Hulagu's mother Sorghaghtani successfully navigated Mongol politics, arranging for all of her sons to become Mongol leaders. She was a Christian of the Church of the East (often referred to as "Nestorianism") and Hulagu was friendly to Christianity. Hulagu's favorite wife, Doquz Khatun, was also a Christian, as was his closest friend and general, Kitbuqa. Hulagu sent multiple communications to Europe in an attempt to establish a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Muslims. In 1262, he sent his secretary Rychaldus and an embassy to "all kings and princes overseas". The embassy was apparently intercepted in Sicily by Manfred, King of Sicily, who was allied with the Mamluk Sultanate and in conflict with Pope Urban IV, and Rychaldus was returned by ship.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: On April 10, 1262, Hulagu sent a letter, through John the Hungarian, to Louis IX of France, offering an alliance. It is unclear whether the letter ever reached Louis IX in Paris — the only manuscript known to have survived was in Vienna, Austria. The letter stated Hulagu's intention to capture Jerusalem for the benefit of the Pope and asked for Louis to send a fleet against Egypt:


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Despite many attempts, neither Hulagu nor his successors were able to form an alliance with Europe, although Mongol culture in the West was in vogue in the 13th century. Many new-born children in Italy were named after Mongol rulers, including Hulagu: names such as Can Grande ("Great Khan"), Alaone (Hulagu), Argone (Arghun), and Cassano (Ghazan) are recorded.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Hulagu Khan fell seriously ill in January 1265 and died the following month on the banks of Zarrineh River (then called Jaghatu) and was buried on Shahi Island in Lake Urmia. His funeral was the only Ilkhanate funeral to feature human sacrifice. His tomb has never been found.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Hulagu Khan laid the foundations of the Ilkhanate and thus paved the way for the later Safavid dynastic state, and ultimately the modern country of Iran. Hulagu's conquests also opened Iran to both European influence from the west and Chinese influence from the east. This, combined with patronage from his successors, would develop Iran's distinctive excellence in architecture. Under Hulagu's dynasty, Iranian historians began writing in Persian rather than Arabic. It is recorded however that he converted to Buddhism as he neared death, against the will of Doquz Khatun. The erection of a Buddhist temple at Ḵoy testifies his interest in that religion. Recent translations of various Tibetan monks' letters and epistles to Hulagu confirms that he was a lifelong Buddhist, following the Kagyu school.


title: Hulagu Khan

text: Hulagu also patronized Nasir al-Din Tusi and his researches in Maragheh observatory. Another of his proteges were Juvayni brothers Ata Malik and Shams al-Din Juvayni. His reign as the ruler of Ilkhanate was peaceful and tolerant to diversity.


title: Rainbow table

text: A rainbow table is an efficient way to store data that has been computed in advance to facilitate cracking passwords. To protect stored passwords from compromise in case of a data breach, organizations avoid storing them directly, instead transforming them using a scrambling function – typically a cryptographic hash. One line of attack against this protection is to precompute the hashes of likely or possible passwords, and then store them in a dataset. However, such a dataset can become too big as the range of possible passwords grows. Rainbow tables address this problem by storing chains of possible passwords to save space. Undoing the chains takes significant computation time, but overall this tradeoff makes certain classes of attacks practical.


title: Rainbow table

text: Rainbow tables partition a function (the hash), whose domain is a set of values and whose codomain is a set of keys derived from those values, into chains such that each chain is an alternating sequence of values and keys, followed by a final value. Each item in the chain is derived from the previous item so that the chain may be algorithmically reproduced from the first value in the chain: A key derivation function produces a key from a preceding value, and a reduction function produces a value from a preceding key. The first value and last value of each chain are precomputed and stored, making the chain a row in a virtual table where each even-numbered field contains a value and each odd-numbered field contains the corresponding key. Such a table may be used to discover a secret value (password) given its associated key. It is a practical example of a space–time tradeoff, requiring less processing but using more storage than a brute-force attack which calculates a key on each iteration, but requiring more processing and less storage than a simple table. Use of a key derivation function that employs a salt makes rainbow tables infeasible for recovering a secret value from a key.


title: Rainbow table

text: Rainbow tables were invented by Philippe Oechslin as an application of an earlier, simpler algorithm by Martin Hellman.


title: Rainbow table

text: For user authentication, a password is stored either as plaintext or as a key produced from an algorithm that usually involves a hash function. Since a password stored as plaintext may be easily stolen by an actor who gains access to storage, a key corresponding to the password is typically stored instead. Thus, no one – including the authentication system – can learn a password merely by looking at stored value.


title: Rainbow table

text: When a user enters a password for authentication, a key is computed for it and then compared to the key stored for that user. Authentication fails if the two keys do not match; moreover, authentication would equally fail if a key were entered directly as a password, since a different key would be computed for it.


title: Rainbow table

text: To learn a password from a key is to find a string which, when input into the key derivation function, creates that same key. This is the same as inverting the key derivation function.


title: Rainbow table

text: Although a brute-force attack (e.g. dictionary attack) might be used to attempt to invert a key derivation function, brute-force becomes infeasible when the set of possible passwords is large enough. An alternative to brute-force is to use precomputed hash chain tables. Rainbow tables are a special kind of such table that overcome certain technical difficulties.


title: Rainbow table

text: The term, "rainbow tables", was first used in Oechslin's initial paper. The term refers to the way different reduction functions are used to increase the success rate of the attack. The original method by Hellman uses many small tables with a different reduction function each. Rainbow tables are much bigger and use a different reduction function in each column. When colors are used to represent the reduction functions, a rainbow appears in the rainbow table.


title: Rainbow table

text: Figure 2 of Oechslin's paper contains a black-and-white graphic that illustrates how these sections are related. For his presentation at the Crypto 2003 conference, Oechslin added color to the graphic in order to make the rainbow association more clear. The enhanced graphic that was presented at the conference is shown to the right.


title: Rainbow table

text: Given a key derivation function K and a finite set of secret values V, the goal is to precompute a map that, given any output "k" of the key derivation function, may be used to locate an element "v" in V such that K("v") = "k", or determine that there is no such "v" in V. The simplest way to do this is to compute K("v") for all "v" in V, but then storing the table requires Θ(|V|"n") bits of space, where |V| is the size of the set V and "n" is the size of an output of K, which is prohibitive for large |V|. Chains are a technique for decreasing this space requirement. To create a chain, a function, called a "reduction function" is used. Given a key, it produces a value in V. It is not necessary that the reduction function produce exactly the inverse map of the key derivation function. It is an independent function with the domain and codomain of the key derivation function swapped. A "chain" of alternating values and keys is formed. For example, where V is the set of lowercase alphabetic 6-character values, and keys were 32 bits long, a chain might look like this:


title: Rainbow table

text: To generate the table, choose a random set of "initial values" from V, compute chains having some fixed length "t", storing the first and last value of each chain as the "starting point" and "endpoint", respectively. In the example chain above, "aaaaaa" is the starting point and "kiebgt" is the endpoint.


title: Rainbow table

text: Now, given a key "k" to invert (find the corresponding secret value for), compute its own chain starting with "k" by applying R, then K, then R, and so on, searching at each step for a match between the current value and an endpoint in the table. When a match is found, "k" is almost surely in that chain, which may be reproduced from its starting point, and value immediately "k" target secret value "v". This works because assuming that all possible values are represented in the virtual table whose rows are the chains, then the chain formed from "k" corresponds to one of those chains, and iterating through it eventually produces the value that is the endpoint for that chain in the table.


title: Rainbow table

text: Since "" is one of the endpoints in our table, the corresponding starting pair "" in the chain may be followed until is reached:


title: Rainbow table

text: Note however that this chain does not "always" contain the key "k"; it may so happen that the chain starting at "k" merges with a chain having a different starting point. For example, the chain of key FB107E70, also leads to kiebgt:


title: Rainbow table

text: But is not in the chain starting at "aaaaaa". This is called a "false alarm". In this case, the match is ignored and the chain of "k" is extended looking for another match. If the chain of "k" gets extended to length "t" with no good matches, then the password was never produced in any of the chains.


title: Rainbow table

text: It is not necessary to invert keys to create the table, which is created once and then repeatedly used for the lookups. Increasing the length of the chain decreases the size of the table. However, it also increases the time required to perform lookups, and this is the time-memory trade-off of the rainbow table. In a simple case of one-item chains, the lookup is very fast, but the table is very big. Once chains get longer, the lookup slows, but the table size goes down.


title: Rainbow table

text: Simple hash chains have several flaws, the most serious of which is that if two chains "collide" (produce the same value), they will merge and consequently the table will not cover as many passwords despite having the same computational cost to generate. Because chains are not stored in their entirety, this is impossible to detect efficiently. For example, if the third value in chain 3 matches the second value in chain 7, the two chains will cover almost the same sequence of values, but their final values will not be the same. The key derivation function K is unlikely to produce collisions as it is usually considered an important security feature not to do so, but the reduction function R, because of its need to correctly cover the likely plaintexts, cannot be collision resistant.


title: Rainbow table

text: Other difficulties result from the importance of choosing the correct function for R. Picking R to be the identity is little better than a brute force approach. Only when the attacker has a good idea of what the likely plaintexts will be they can choose a function R that makes sure time and space are only used for likely plaintexts, not the entire space of possible passwords. In effect R shepherds the results of prior key calculations back to likely plaintexts but this benefit comes with the drawback that R likely won't produce every possible plaintext in the class the attacker wishes to check denying certainty to the attacker that no passwords came from their chosen class. Also it can be difficult to design the function R to match the expected distribution of plaintexts.


title: Rainbow table

text: Rainbow tables effectively solve the problem of collisions with ordinary hash chains by replacing the single reduction function R with a sequence of related reduction functions R through R. In this way, for two chains to collide and merge they must hit the same value "on the same iteration": consequently, the final values in these chain will be identical. A final postprocessing pass can sort the chains in the table and remove any "duplicate" chains that have the same final values as other chains. New chains are then generated to fill out the table. These chains are not "collision-free" (they may overlap briefly) but they will not merge, drastically reducing the overall number of collisions.


title: Rainbow table

text: Using sequences of reduction functions changes how lookup is done: because the key of interest may be found at any location in the chain, it's necessary to generate "k" different chains. The first chain assumes the key is in the last key position and just applies R; the next chain assumes the hash value is in the second-to-last hash position and applies R, then K, then R; and so on until the last chain, which applies all the reduction functions, alternating with K. This creates a new way of producing a false alarm: an incorrect "guess" of the position of the hash value may needlessly evaluate a chain.


title: Rainbow table

text: Although rainbow tables have to follow more chains, they make up for this by having fewer tables: simple hash chain tables cannot grow beyond a certain size without rapidly becoming inefficient due to merging chains; to deal with this, they maintain multiple tables, and each lookup must search through each table. Rainbow tables can achieve similar performance with tables that are "k" times larger, allowing them to perform a factor of "k" fewer lookups.


title: Rainbow table

text: Rainbow tables use a refined algorithm with a different reduction function for each "link" in a chain, so that when there is a key collision in two or more chains, the chains will not merge as long as the collision doesn't occur at the same position in each chain. This increases the probability of a correct crack for a given table size, at the cost of squaring the number of steps required per lookup, as the lookup routine now also needs to iterate through the index of the first reduction function used in the chain.


title: Rainbow table

text: Rainbow tables are specific to the key function they were created for e.g., MD5 tables can crack only MD5 hashes. The theory of this technique was invented by Philippe Oechslin as a fast form of time/memory tradeoff, which he implemented in the Windows password cracker Ophcrack. The more powerful RainbowCrack program was later developed that can generate and use rainbow tables for a variety of character sets and hashing algorithms, including LM hash, MD5, and SHA-1.


title: Rainbow table

text: In the simple case where the reduction function and the key have no collision, given a complete rainbow table (one that makes sure to find the corresponding password given any hash) the size of the password set |"P"|, the time "T" that had been needed to compute the table, the length of the table "L" and the average time "t" needed to find a value matching a given key are directly related:


title: Rainbow table

text: Thus the 8-character lowercase alphanumeric passwords case (|"P"| ≃ 3×10) would be easily tractable with a personal computer while the 16-character lowercase alphanumeric passwords case (|"P"| ≃ 10) would be completely intractable.


title: Rainbow table

text: A rainbow table is ineffective against one-way hashes that include large salts. For example, consider a password hash that is generated using the following function (where "" is the concatenation operator):


title: Rainbow table

text: The salt value is not secret and may be generated at random and stored with the password hash. A large salt value prevents precomputation attacks, including rainbow tables, by ensuring that each user's password is hashed uniquely. This means that two users with the same password will have different password hashes (assuming different salts are used). In order to succeed, an attacker needs to precompute tables for each possible salt value. The salt must be large enough, otherwise an attacker can make a table for each salt value. For older Unix passwords which used a 12-bit salt this would require 4096 tables, a significant increase in cost for the attacker, but not impractical with terabyte hard drives. The SHA2-crypt and bcrypt methods—used in Linux, BSD Unixes, and Solaris—have salts of 128 bits. These larger salt values make precomputation attacks against these systems infeasible for almost any length of a password. Even if the attacker could generate a million tables per second, they would still need billions of years to generate tables for all possible salts.


title: Rainbow table

text: Another technique that helps prevent precomputation attacks is key stretching. When stretching is used, the salt, password, and some intermediate hash values are run through the underlying hash function multiple times to increase the computation time required to hash each password. For instance, MD5-Crypt uses a 1000 iteration loop that repeatedly feeds the salt, password, and current intermediate hash value back into the underlying MD5 hash function. The user's password hash is the concatenation of the salt value (which is not secret) and the final hash. The extra time is not noticeable to users because they have to wait only a fraction of a second each time they log in. On the other hand, stretching reduces the effectiveness of brute-force attacks in proportion to the number of iterations because it reduces the number of attempts an attacker can perform in a given time frame. This principle is applied in MD5-Crypt and in bcrypt. It also greatly increases the time needed to build a precomputed table, but in the absence of salt, this needs only be done once.


title: Rainbow table

text: An alternative approach, called key strengthening, extends the key with a random salt, but then (unlike in key stretching) securely deletes the salt. This forces both the attacker and legitimate users to perform a brute-force search for the salt value. Although the paper that introduced key stretching referred to this earlier technique and intentionally chose a different name, the term "key strengthening" is now often (arguably incorrectly) used to refer to key stretching.


title: Rainbow table

text: Rainbow tables and other precomputation attacks do not work against passwords that contain symbols outside the range presupposed, or that are longer than those precomputed by the attacker. However, tables can be generated that take into account common ways in which users attempt to choose more secure passwords, such as adding a number or special character. Because of the sizable investment in computing processing, rainbow tables beyond fourteen places in length are not yet common. So, choosing a password that is longer than fourteen characters may force an attacker to resort to brute-force methods.


title: Rainbow table

text: Specific intensive efforts focused on LM hash, an older hash algorithm used by Microsoft, are publicly available. LM hash is particularly vulnerable because passwords longer than 7 characters are broken into two sections, each of which is hashed separately. Choosing a password that is fifteen characters or longer guarantees that an LM hash will not be generated.


title: Rainbow table

text: Nearly all distributions and variations of Unix, Linux, and BSD use hashes with salts, though many applications use just a hash (typically MD5) with no salt. The Microsoft Windows NT/2000 family uses the LAN Manager and NT LAN Manager hashing method (based on MD4) and is also unsalted, which makes it one of the most popularly generated tables. Rainbow tables have seen reduced usage as of 2020 as salting is more common and GPU-based brute force attacks have become more practical. However, rainbow tables are available for eight and nine character NTLM passwords.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: The First War of Scottish Independence was the first of a series of wars between English and Scottish forces. It lasted from the English invasion of Scotland in 1296 until the "de jure" restoration of Scottish independence with the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton in 1328. "De facto" independence was established in 1314 at the Battle of Bannockburn. The wars were caused by the attempts of the English kings to establish their authority over Scotland while Scots fought to keep English rule and authority out of Scotland.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: The term "War of Independence" did not exist at the time. The war was given that name retrospectively many centuries later, after the American War of Independence made the term popular, and after the rise of modern Scottish nationalism.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: When King Alexander III ruled Scotland, his reign had seen a period of peace and economic stability. On 19 March 1286, however, Alexander died after falling from his horse. The heir to the throne was Alexander's granddaughter, Margaret, Maid of Norway. As she was still a child and in Norway, the Scottish lords set up a government of guardians. Margaret fell ill on the voyage to Scotland and died in Orkney on the 26th of September 1290. The lack of a clear heir led to a period known as Competitors for the Crown of Scotland or the "Great Cause", with several families laying claim to the throne.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: With Scotland threatening to descend into civil war, King Edward I of England was invited in by the Scottish nobility to arbitrate. Before the process could begin, he insisted that all of the contenders recognise him as lord paramount. In early November 1292, at a great feudal court held in the castle at Berwick-upon-Tweed, judgement was given in favour of John Balliol having the strongest claim in law.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Edward proceeded to reverse the rulings of the Scottish lords and even summoned King John Balliol to stand before the English court as a common plaintiff. John was a weak king, known as "Toom Tabard" or "Empty Coat". John renounced his homage in March 1296.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: That same month Edward invaded Scotland and stormed Berwick-upon-Tweed, sacking the then-Scottish border town. In April, the Scots were defeated at the Battle of Dunbar in East Lothian. By July, Edward had forced John to abdicate. Edward instructed his officers to receive formal homage from some 1,800 Scottish nobles (many of the rest being prisoners of war at that time).


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Throughout Scotland, there was widespread discontent and disorder after the English Crown extended its dominion over Scotland. Acts of defiance were targeted at local English officials. In 1297, the country erupted in open revolt. Andrew de Moray and William Wallace emerged as the first significant Scottish patriots.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Andrew de Moray was the son of a northern landowner, Andrew de Moray of Petty. Andrew and his father were both captured in the rout after the Battle of Dunbar in April 1296. Andrew the younger was initially held captive in Chester Castle on the Anglo-Welsh border, from which he escaped during the winter of 1296–97. He returned to his father's castle at Avoch on the northern shore of the Moray Firth, where he raised his banner in the name of Scotland's king, John Balliol. Moray quickly gathered a band of like-minded patriots, and employing hit-and-run guerrilla tactics, began to attack and devastate every English-garrisoned castle from Banff to Inverness. The entire province of Moray was soon in revolt against King Edward I's men, and before long Moray had secured Moray province, leaving him free to turn his attention to the rest of the northeast of Scotland.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: William Wallace rose to prominence in May 1297, when he killed William Haselrig, the English sheriff of Lanark, and members of his garrison at Lanark. It is possible Richard Lundie helped in the attack. When news of Wallace's attack on the English rippled throughout Scotland, men rallied to him. The rebels were supported by Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow, who longed for the defeat of the English. The blessing of Wishart gave Wallace and his soldiers a degree of respectability. Previously, Scottish nobles had considered them mere outlaws. He was soon joined by William Douglas and others.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: In early June, Wallace and Douglas planned a symbolic strike to liberate Scone, the seat of the English-appointed Justiciar of Scotland, William de Ormesby. It was from Scone, a site held sacred by the Scots, that Ormesby had been dispensing English justice. Ormesby was forewarned of Wallace's imminent assault and hastily fled.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: On hearing about the start of an aristocratic uprising, Edward I, although engaged in events in France, sent a force of foot soldiers and horsemen under Henry Percy and Robert Clifford to resolve the "Scottish problem". On receiving reports that William Douglas had defected to the rebels, Edward dispatched Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, together with his father's vassals of Annandale, to attack Douglas's stronghold in Lanarkshire. Whilst traveling north to face Douglas, Bruce began to think about where his loyalties truly lay. He decided to follow the Scottish cause, being quoted as saying, "No man holds his flesh and blood in hatred, and I am no exception. I must join my own people and the nation in whom I was born."


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: The confederacy of men that Bruce joined included James the Steward, Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow and William Douglas. Dissension broke out in the Scottish camp when the Scottish and English armies met in July 1297 near Irvine. The aristocratic revolt apparently halted before it even started, but its leaders led long and futile negotiations. It has been suggested that this was a deliberate move in order to provide space and time for Wallace to levy and train men. Percy and Clifford assumed that this was the end of the problem and retired back to the south, only to be followed once more by Wallace and Moray. These two divided their forces and in a short time again forced the English south of the Forth, leaving them holding only the castle of Dundee.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: While laying siege to Dundee Castle, Wallace heard that an English army was again advancing north, this time under John de Warenne, Earl of Surrey. Wallace put the leading men of the town of Dundee in charge of the castle's siege and moved to halt the advance of the English army. Wallace and Moray, who had recently combined their forces, deployed on the Ochil Hills overlooking the bridge crossing the River Forth at Stirling and prepared to meet the English in battle.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: At the time, Wallace and Moray were both in their late twenties and neither could yet claim to be Scottish national heroes. Whereas some of the Scottish nobility had given in to English demands for allegiance (whilst still supporting the Scottish cause), Wallace's force remained unequivocally dedicated to the struggle for Scottish independence.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: On 11 September 1297, Scottish forces, under the joint command of Moray and Wallace, met the Earl of Surrey's army, at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. The Scottish army deployed to the north-east of the bridge, and let the vanguard of Surrey's army cross the bridge before attacking. The English cavalry proved ineffective on the boggy ground around the bridge, and many of them were killed. The bridge collapsed when English reinforcements were crossing. The English on the opposite side of the river then fled the battlefield. The Scots suffered relatively light casualties, but the death from wounds of Andrew Moray dealt a profound blow to the Scottish cause. Stirling Bridge was the first key victory for the Scots.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: After clearing the English out of Scotland, Wallace turned his mind to the administration of the country. One of his early intentions was to reestablish commercial and diplomatic ties with Europe and win back the overseas trade that Scotland had enjoyed under Alexander III. Any evidence of his administrative acumen was probably destroyed by Edward's officials after his execution. There is, however, one Latin document in the archives of the Hanseatic town of Lübeck, which was sent on 11 October 1297 by "Andrew de Moray and William Wallace, leaders of the kingdom of Scotland and the community of the realm." It told the merchants of Lübeck and Hamburg that they now had free access to all parts of the kingdom of Scotland, which had, by favour of God, been recovered by war from the English.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Only one week after this document was signed, Wallace mounted an invasion of England. Crossing into Northumberland, the Scots followed the English army fleeing south in disarray. Caught between two armies, hundreds of refugees fled to safety behind the walls of Newcastle. The Scots laid waste a swathe of countryside before wheeling west into Cumberland and pillaging all the way to Cockermouth, before Wallace led his men back into Northumberland and fired 700 villages. On his return from England, laden with booty, Wallace found himself at the pinnacle of his power.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: In March 1298, Wallace was knighted, reputedly by one of the leading nobles of Scotland, and was appointed Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland in the name of the exiled King John Balliol. He began preparations for a confrontation with Edward.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: In January 1298, Philip IV of France had signed a truce with Edward that did not include Scotland, thereby deserting his Scots allies. Edward returned to England from campaigning in France in March and called for his army to assemble. He moved the seat of government to York.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: On 3 July he invaded Scotland, intending to crush Wallace and all those daring to assert Scotland's independence. On 22 July, Edward's army attacked a much smaller Scottish force led by Wallace near Falkirk. The English army had a technological advantage. Longbowmen slaughtered Wallace's spearmen and cavalry by firing scores of arrows over great distances. Many Scots were killed at the Battle of Falkirk. (It is impossible to give a precise number of the dead.) Despite the victory, Edward and his army soon returned to England and thus failed to subdue Scotland completely.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: But the defeat had ruined Wallace's military reputation. He retreated to thick woods nearby and resigned his guardianship in December.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Wallace was succeeded as Guardian of the Kingdom jointly by Robert Bruce and John Comyn, but they could not see past their personal differences. This brought another shift in the political situation. During 1299, diplomatic pressure from France and Rome persuaded Edward to release the imprisoned King John into the custody of the Pope. The papacy also condemned Edward's invasions and occupation of Scotland in the Papal bull "Scimus, Fili". The bull ordered Edward to desist his attacks and start negotiations with Scotland. However, Edward ignored the bull.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: William Wallace was sent to Europe to try to gain further support for the Scottish cause. Wallace went to France to seek the aid of Philip IV, and he possibly went on to Rome. William Lamberton, Bishop of St Andrews, was appointed as a third, neutral Guardian to try to maintain order between Bruce and Comyn. The Scots also recaptured Stirling Castle.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: In May 1300, Edward I led a campaign into Scotland, invading Annandale and Galloway. Edward I's invasion force in the 1300 border campaign is one of the best-documented English armies of the medieval period. The king issued summons in December 1299 asking for feudal service from his magnates across the realm (with the exception of Wales, which Edward stated 'have leave to remain home, because of all the great work they have done in our service in the past'). The roll recording for the army showed that 40 knights and 366 mounted serjeants responded to this request with unpaid service, with a serjeant being counted as equal in worth to one half of a knight. Also accompanying them was 850 paid househeld men, mostly from the royal household. Several earls, such as the Earl of Gloucester and the Earl of Lincoln, showed up in person, but most did not. The cavalry were divided into four battalions, each consisting of 15–20 bannerets (60–80 total), each in command of on average 13 knights and squires (780–1,040 total).


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Edward also requested 16,000 infantry from his magnates, but was only able to muster 9,000 infantry, giving his army a total count of around 10,000. The infantry were grouped into units of 100, each commanded by an armoured serjeant, which were further subdivided into units of 20. The average daily rate of pay was 2d (two pence) for a spearman or billman, 12d (one shilling) for a serjeant, 24d (two shillings) for a knight, 6d for a hobelar, 6d for a mounted archer, 4-6d for a crossbowman, and 3d for a foot archer.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: With the success of the English at Falkirk two years earlier, Edward must have felt in a position to bring Scotland under full control permanently. To do this required further campaigning, eliminating the last opposition and securing castles that were (or would be) centres of resistance. The English took control of Caerlaverock Castle, but apart from some small skirmishes, there was no action. In August, the Pope sent a letter demanding that Edward withdraw from Scotland. Due to the lack of success, Edward arranged a truce with the Scots on 30 October and returned to England.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: That year, Robert Bruce finally resigned as joint guardian and was replaced by Ingram de Umfraville. In May 1301, de Umfraville, John Comyn and William Lamberton resigned as joint guardians and were replaced by John de Soulis as sole guardian. Soulis was appointed largely because he was not part of either the Bruce or the Comyn camps, and was a patriot. He was an active guardian, and made renewed efforts to have John Balliol returned to the Scottish throne.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: In July 1301, Edward launched his sixth campaign into Scotland, aiming to conquer Scotland in a two-pronged attack. One army was commanded by his son, Edward, Prince of Wales, the other, the larger, was under his own command. The prince was to take the southwestern lands and the greater glory, so his father hoped. But the prince held cautiously to the Solway coast. Scot forces, commanded by de Soulis and de Umfraville, attacked the prince's army at Lochmaben in early September and maintained contact with his army as it captured Robert the Bruce's Turnberry Castle. They also threatened the king's army at Bothwell, which he captured in September. The two English armies met to winter at Linlithgow without having damaged the Scots' fighting ability. In January 1302, Edward agreed to a nine-month truce.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: It was around this time that Robert the Bruce, along with other nobles, gave his allegiance to Edward I, even though he had been on the side of the patriots until then. There are many reasons that may have prompted his turning. Not the least of them possibly was that Bruce found it loathsome to continue sacrificing his followers, family and inheritance for the exiled Scottish king John Balliol. There were rumours that Balliol would return with a French army and regain the Scottish throne. Soulis supported the return of Balliol as did many other nobles, but the return of John as king would lead to the Bruces losing any chance of ever gaining the throne themselves. Also, Robert's father was old and ill, and may have wished his son to seek peace with Edward, who, he was convinced, would eventually be victorious over the Scots. The elder Bruce would have seen that, if the rebellion failed and his son were against Edward, he would lose everything; titles, lands, and probably his life. Edward also had come to see that he needed a Scottish noble like Bruce as a friend, rather than as an enemy. He was facing both excommunication by the Pope for his actions and a possible invasion by the French.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Robert the Bruce's defection to the English king's side was not total. He sent a letter to the monks at Melrose Abbey in March 1302 that effectively weakened his usefulness to the English king. Apologizing for having called the monks to service in his army when there had been no national call up, Bruce pledged that, henceforth, he would "never again" require the monks to serve unless it was to "the common army of the whole realm", for national defence.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: More serious to the Scottish patriots than the apparent defection of Bruce was the loss of support from Philip IV of France and subsequently, the Pope. Philip faced revolt at home and became too involved in his own difficulties to care about the Scots. He thus created a schism between the Scots' cause and the Pope, The Pope's support for the Scots faded without Philip's influence. It seemed that Philip had such difficulties that he signed a peace treaty with Edward that did not include any protection for the Scots. This act the Scots knew spelled their doom. A powerful Scottish delegation, led by Soulis, went to Paris that autumn to try to head off such an event. In his absence, Comyn was appointed as Guardian.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: In November 1302, when the temporary truce between the Scots and the English ended, Edward delayed calling up his army until spring. Over that winter, however, he sent John Segrave and an army on a scouting expedition into the area west of Edinburgh. They were ambushed by Comyn and Simon Fraser, who had ridden all night to meet them. The Scots attack led to the capture of the severely wounded Segrave and, although his army later rescued him, the Scots were exultant at their victory. Their successes, however, were rendered useless when, in May 1303, Philip formally signed a peace with England and omitted any consideration for the Scots.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Edward I was now free from embarrassment abroad and at home, and having made preparations for the final conquest of Scotland, he commenced his invasion in the middle of May 1303. His army was arranged in two divisions—one under himself and the other under the Prince of Wales. Edward advanced in the east and his son entered Scotland by the west, but his advance was checked at several points by Wallace. King Edward reached Edinburgh by June, then marched by Linlithgow and Stirling to Perth. Comyn, with the small force under his command, could not hope to defeat Edward's forces. Edward stayed in Perth until July, then proceeded, via Dundee, Montrose and Brechin, to Aberdeen, arriving in August. From there, he marched through Moray, before his progress continued to Badenoch, before re-tracing his path back south to Dunfermline, where he stayed through the winter.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Early in 1304, Edward sent a raiding party into the borders, which put to flight the forces under Fraser and Wallace. With the country now under submission, all the leading Scots surrendered to Edward in February, except for Wallace, Fraser, and Soulis, who was in France. Terms of submission were negotiated on 9 February by John Comyn, who refused to surrender unconditionally, but asked that prisoners of both sides be released by ransom and that Edward agree there would be no reprisals or disinheritance of the Scots. The laws and liberties of Scotland would be as they had been in the day of Alexander III, and any that needed alteration would be with the advice of Edward and the advice and assent of the Scots nobles.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Excepting William Wallace and John de Soulis, it seemed that all would be forgiven after some of the more famous leaders were exiled from Scotland for various periods. Forfeited estates could be recovered by payment of fines levied in amounts deemed appropriate for each individual's betrayal. Inheritances would continue as they always had, allowing the landed nobility to pass on titles and properties as normal.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: De Soulis remained abroad, refusing to surrender. Wallace was still at large in Scotland and, unlike all the nobles and bishops, refused to pay homage to Edward. Edward needed to make an example of someone, and, by refusing to capitulate and accept his country's occupation and annexation, Wallace became the unfortunate focus of Edward's hatred. He would be granted no peace unless he put himself utterly and absolutely under Edward's will. It was also decreed that James Stewart, de Soulis and Ingram de Umfraville could not return until Wallace was given up, and Comyn, Alexander Lindsay, David Graham and Simon Fraser were to actively seek his capture.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: In May, having eliminated most Scottish opposition, Edward turned his attention to Stirling Castle, laying siege to it with great determination. Asked by its defender, William Oliphant, if he had permission to surrender or must hold the castle, Edward refused, saying, "If he thinks it will be better for him to defend the castle than yield it, he will see." After three months of bombardment with every siege engine Edward could bring to bear, the defenders still held the castle. When they could hold out no longer, they offered to surrender unconditionally, but Edward refused to accept. He would first bombard the castle with "Warwolf", his new trebuchet. After a day, the defenders of the destroyed castle were allowed to submit; about fifty men surrendered.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Meanwhile, while Robert Bruce outwardly maintained his loyalty to Edward, he was secretly advancing his own ambition and, while assisting Edward in the settlement of the Scottish government, on 11 June 1304, with both of them having witnessed the efforts of their countrymen at Stirling, Bruce and William Lamberton made a pact that bound them, each to the other, in "friendship and alliance against all men." If one should break the secret pact, he would forfeit to the other the sum of ten thousand pounds. Though both had already surrendered to the English, the pact signaled their commitment to their future perseverance for the Scots and their independence. They now intended to bide their time until the death of the elderly king of England.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Scotland lay defenceless and Edward set about amalgamating her into England. Homage was again paid to Edward by the nobles, and a parliament was held in May 1305 to elect those who would meet later in the year with the English parliament to establish rules for the governance of Scotland by the English. The Earl of Richmond, Edward's nephew, was to head the subordinate government of Scotland and control the castles of Roxburgh and Jedburgh. Justices were to be appointed in pairs, one Englishman and one Scot. Militarily strategic localities were to be controlled by English sheriffs and constables, but most others by Scots. A council was formed to advise the Earl of Richmond, including Bruce, Comyn and Lamberton. For all the apparent participation by Scots in the government, however, the English held the real power.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: While all this took place, William Wallace was finally captured at Robroyston near Glasgow on 3 August 1305. He was delivered to the English by retainers in the service of John Menteith. Wallace had been easily the most hunted man in Scotland for years, but especially for the past eighteen months.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: He was quickly taken through the Scottish countryside, his legs bound beneath his horse, towards London, where, after a show trial, the English authorities had him executed on 23 August 1305, at the Elms of Smithfield in the traditional manner for a traitor. He was hanged, then drawn and quartered, and his head placed on a spike on London Bridge. The English government displayed his limbs separately in Newcastle, Berwick, Stirling, and Perth.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: On 15 September, the English parliament met with the Scottish representatives to decide the ordinances of government for Scotland. In the midst of listing punishments to be meted out to other Scots, Edward ordered Robert Bruce to put his castle at Kildrummy "in the keeping of such a man as he himself will be willing to answer for". This suggests that Edward suspected Robert was not entirely trustworthy and may have been plotting behind his back. Bruce, as Earl of Carrick and now 7th Lord of Annandale, held huge estates and property in both Scotland and England, and had a claim to the Scottish throne. He also had a large family to protect. In addition to his wife Elizabeth and daughter Marjory, there were his brothers, Edward, Alexander, Thomas and Nigel, his sisters, Christian, Isabel (Queen of Norway), Margaret, Matilda and Mary, and his nephews Domhnall II, Earl of Mar and Thomas Randolph. If he claimed the throne, he would throw the country into yet another series of wars.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: The pact which Bruce had made with Lamberton was not so secretly managed, and suspicions were awakened. This led to a conference with Comyn in which Bruce proposed, as the best means of preventing future trouble and for restoring their own privileges and the rights of Scots, that they should henceforward enter into an understanding with each other. Under this, Comyn would support Bruce's claim to the throne and receive Bruce's lands as compensation or vice versa. For some unknown motive, probably a desire to ruin his rival, Comyn revealed the conspiracy to Edward. Bruce was at the English court at this time and, after being forewarned, fled back to Scotland.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: Bruce arrived in Dumfries and found Comyn there. At a private meeting with Comyn on 6 February 1306 at the Greyfriars Church, Bruce reproached Comyn for his treachery, which Comyn denied. Furious, Bruce drew his dagger and stabbed, though not mortally, his betrayer. As Bruce ran from the church, his attendants, Kirkpatrick and Lindsay, entered and, finding Comyn still alive, killed him. Bruce and his followers then forced the local English judges to surrender their castle. Bruce realised that the die had been cast and that he had no alternative except to become either a king or a fugitive. The murder of Comyn was an act of sacrilege, and he faced a future as an excommunicate and an outlaw. However his pact with Lamberton and the support of the Scottish church, who were prepared to take his side in defiance of Rome, proved to be of great importance at this key moment when Bruce asserted his claim to the Scottish throne.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: He went to Glasgow and met with the Bishop of Glasgow, Robert Wishart. Rather than excommunicate Bruce, Wishart absolved him and urged people to rise in his support. They both then travelled to Scone, where they were met by Lamberton and other prominent churchmen and nobles. Less than seven weeks after the killing in Dumfries, at Scone Abbey on 25 March 1306, Robert Bruce was crowned as King Robert I of Scotland.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: He then began a new campaign to free his kingdom. After being defeated at the Battle of Methven, he was driven from the Scottish mainland as an outlaw. His wife, three of his brothers, his sisters, and daughter were captured by the English. The three brothers were hanged, drawn and quartered. Bruce later came out of hiding in 1307. The Scots thronged to him, and he defeated the English in a number of battles. His forces continued to grow in strength, encouraged in part by the death of Edward I in July 1307. The Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 was an especially important Scottish victory, after which English released the female relatives of Bruce for exchange.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

text: In 1320, the Declaration of Arbroath was signed by the community of the realm of Scotland and sent to the Pope affirming Scottish independence from England. In 1327, Edward II of England was deposed and killed. The invasion of the North of England by Robert the Bruce forced Edward III of England to sign the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton on 1 May 1328, which recognised the independence of Scotland with Bruce as King. To further seal the peace, Robert's son and heir David married the sister of Edward III.


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: Kolamaavu Kokila () (abbrev. COCO) is a 2018 Indian Tamil-language black-comedy crime film written and directed by Nelson in his directorial debut, and produced by Lyca Productions. The film stars Nayanthara alongside a supporting cast including Yogi Babu, Saranya Ponvannan, R. S. Shivaji, Charles Vinoth, Hareesh Peradi and Jacqueline. Anirudh Ravichander composed the film's music.


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: The film received positive reviews from critics who praised the performances of the cast, use of black comedy, technical aspects, screenplay and direction. The film was released on 17 August 2018 and earned over . It was remade in Hindi language as "Good Luck Jerry" (2022).


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: The film opens with the killing of a police officer by a cocaine-dealer lord Bhai and his henchmen. Kokila struggles to find a job to take care of her parents and sister. She stumbles on the cocaine smuggling business of Mohan. When her mother is diagnosed with lung cancer, Kokila is forced to work for Mohan. Her cunningness earns her a name in the business. The new inspector Guru is a no-nonsense cop and cracks down on drug dealers. Kokila is almost caught a couple of times but manages to evade the authorities. She convinces Mohan to kill two of his henchmen suspected of leaking information and then decides to quit the business. Mohan seemingly agrees but tries to kill her, however an enraged Kokila brutally murders Mohan and his men and tries to flee with her family but is caught by Bobi, who had recruited her initially.


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: He demands that she deliver a one last consignment of 100 kilos to Alphonse. Kokila is forced to accept and enlists the help of her family. Shekhar and Lakshman Kumar join them unaware of their smuggling. She delivers the load, but it is revealed that she switched most of it for salt. She then tricks Bobi to double-cross Bhai and then frames him for swindling Bhai. She has him killed and continues the shipment run. On the way, she is caught by the police, who were Alphonse's men in disguise. She manages to avoid getting tortured and kills off her captors with the help of her family. Guru tracks her down and arrests her. Kokila makes a deal with him to nab Bhai and bring the whole drug business down. The plan works out, Bhai is shot dead by Guru, and Kokila and her family escape punishment and Guru helps the family by giving some financial support. In the end, the family starts a legitimate business of Kolam powder, calling it 'Kolamaavu Kokila'.


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: Nelson Dilipkumar, a creative director associated with the programs for the television channel Star Vijay, earlier announced a project in 2011 titled "Vettai Mannan" starring Silambarasan, Jai, Deeksha Seth and Hansika Motwani. But the film ran into production trouble, despite half of the film's shoot being completed. In July 2017, he was offered by Lyca Productions to direct a female-oriented film starring Nayanthara in the lead. Sources from the production house claimed that, the film will be a "black comedy on the lines of "Naanum Rowdy Dhaan"", with Anirudh Ravichander being roped in to compose music for the film. It further added that Nayanthara was impressed with the script and the production house had her dates as the actress relieved off all her other commitments. Post the announcement of the film, the team further discussed with Saranya Ponvannan and Yogi Babu to cast them in prominent roles, with Sivakumar Vijayan and R. Nirmal were announced as the cinematographer and editor. While the title was initially announced as "CoCo", it was further changed to "Kolamaavu Kokila".


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: The shoot began on 23 August 2017, with television anchor Jacqueline joined the cast during the first schedule. Nelson Dilipkumar added that the film will be shot extensively across Chennai and its outskirts. Despite eight days of shoot being continued, production came to a halt on 1 September after a strike organised by Film Employees Federation of South India which lasted for 12 days. Shooting of the film went ahead for four months and was completed on 5 January 2018.


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: The film's six-song soundtrack and score is composed by Anirudh Ravichander, in his first collaboration with Nelson Dilipkumar. Lyrics for the songs were written by Vivek, Vignesh Shivan, Arunraja Kamaraj and actor Sivakarthikeyan, in his first stint as lyricist. After three songs — "Edhuvarayo", "Kalyana Vayasu" and "Orey Oru" — were released as singles on 8 March, 15 May and 13 June 2018, the soundtrack was released by Zee Music Company on 23 July 2018. The song "Kalyana Vayasu" was a viral hit, but Anirudh was accused of plagiarising the tunes from Sannan's "Don't Lie" and Chibz's "Feeling Me", for the song. Responding to the allegations, the composer revealed that he had used the license for the beat. The song was later removed from YouTube, citing the copyright issues and another version sung by Abhay Jodhpurkar was uploaded to YouTube on 25 January 2019, drawing criticism from its audience.


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: The soundtrack received positive response from critics. "Behindwoods" gave 3 out of 5 stars, saying that the album "is full of youthful exuberance" and "gives a trippy experience". Thinkal Menon of "The Times of India" reviewed the album as a "pleasant one" although it reminds of Anirudh's previous works". Moviecrow rated 3.75/5 stating "Anirudh Ravichander's knack for delivering catchy and immensely enjoyable tracks continues in Kolamaavu Kokila." Karthik Srinivasan of Milliblog called it as "one of Anirudh's best" further praising him for "producing massively entertaining music".


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: M.Suganth of The Times of India gave the film 3.5 out of 5 praising the direction and technical aspects and wrote "The film is an out-and-out star vehicle that keeps giving its star whistle-worthy moments. And most remarkably, it manages to stay true to its genre and ensures that the script comes before the star." Ashameera Aiyappan of The Indian Express gave the film 3 out of 5 writing " praising the performances, writing and technical aspects.


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: The film collected close to in first day and to in second day. The film collected in five days in Tamil Nadu. The film collected in United States, in Canada, in UK, in Australia and in Malaysia. In its first nine days, the film had grossed .


title: Kolamaavu Kokila

text: Despite the Dubbed version of this film, a Hindi remake of the film, "Good Luck Jerry" is being produced by Aanand L. Rai starring Janhvi Kapoor, who is reprising the role played by Nayanthara.


title: 2018 Texas gubernatorial election

text: The 2018 Texas gubernatorial election took place on November 6, 2018, to elect the Governor of Texas, concurrently with the election of Texas's Class I U.S. Senate seat, as well as other congressional, state and local elections throughout the United States and Texas. Incumbent Republican Governor Greg Abbott won re-election to a second term in office defeating Democratic nominee Lupe Valdez, the former sheriff of Dallas County, and Libertarian nominee Mark Tippetts, a former member of the Lago Vista city council.


title: 2018 Texas gubernatorial election

text: The Republican and Democratic party primaries were held on March 6, 2018, making them the first primaries of the 2018 electoral season. Abbott won the March 6 primary with 90% of the vote to receive the Republican nomination, while Democratic candidates Lupe Valdez and Andrew White advanced to a May 22 runoff. Valdez defeated White in the runoff with 53.1% of the vote and faced Abbott in the general election as the Democratic nominee.


title: 2018 Texas gubernatorial election

text: Valdez's nomination made her the first openly gay person nominated for governor by a major party in the state.


title: 2018 Texas gubernatorial election

text: Tippetts was nominated at the Libertarian Party of Texas' state convention in Houston April 13–15, 2018. He defeated three challengers, as well as the None Of The Above option, on the first ballot and received more than 70% approval from Libertarian party delegates.


title: 2018 Texas gubernatorial election

text: Despite considerably closer contests in other Texas state elections, Abbott handily won a second term with the highest margin of victory of any state official on the ballot, although Valdez also won the largest vote share for a Democratic gubernatorial candidate since Ann Richards in 1994. Tippetts' showing exceeded the previous record for most votes for a Libertarian nominee for Texas governor; that record had been set in 1990.


title: 2018 Texas gubernatorial election

text: The election also took place alongside a closer, higher-profile Senate race between Beto O'Rourke and Ted Cruz, which may have played a factor in making the Democratic gubernatorial candidate considerably more competitive than in 2014. Abbott won a majority among white Americans (72% to 26%), while Valdez won majorities among African Americans (80% to 16%) and Latinos (63% to 35%).


title: 2018 Texas gubernatorial election

text: Lupe Valdez and Andrew White proceeded to a run-off on May 22 since neither received 50% of the vote in the first round of the primary. Lupe Valdez won the runoff.


title: G Herbo

text: Herbert Randall Wright III (born October 8, 1995), better known by his stage name G Herbo (formerly Lil Herb), is an American rapper from Chicago.


title: G Herbo

text: G Herbo is signed to Machine Entertainment Group. He has released the mixtapes "Welcome to Fazoland" (2014), "Pistol P Project" (2014), "Ballin Like I'm Kobe" (2015), and "Strictly 4 My Fans" (2016). His studio albums are his debut "Humble Beast" (2017) and with Southside of 808 Mafia, "Swervo" (2018), his first major release through Epic Records. His third studio album, "PTSD" (2020), became his first top-ten entry on the "Billboard" 200, while his fourth album, "25", was released in 2021, and marked his first release through Republic Records.


title: G Herbo

text: Wright grew up in Chicago, Illinois. He dropped out of school when he was 16, having attended Hyde Park Academy High School. He was influenced by Meek Mill, Jeezy, Gucci Mane, Yo Gotti and Lil Wayne. He is close friends with fellow rapper Lil Bibby with whom he has collaborated on numerous songs. Both artists are associated with the family N.L.M.B., which was originally formed from the merger of No Limit, a renegade faction of the Almighty Black P. Stone Nation, and the Muskegon Boyz, a renegade faction of the Gangster Disciples, although the initials N.L.M.B. are also currently used by the gang to signify "Never Leave My Brothers," and "No Limit Muskegon Boys." Wright has stated that N.L.M.B. is a "brotherhood" rather than a gang.


title: G Herbo

text: G Herbo and Lil Bibby first gained attention with the song "Kill Shit", which has since been viewed over 50 million times on YouTube. Lil Herb and Lil Bibby gained broader attention within the hip-hop community when Canadian rapper Drake called them "the future".


title: G Herbo

text: Herbo's first mixtape, "Welcome to Fazoland", was released on February 17, 2014. The mixtape is named in honor of Fazon Robinson, one of the first of Herbo's friends to be killed by gun violence in Chicago. "Welcome to Fazoland" was met with broad critical acclaim, with "Fader" commenting that, "since drill rose to prominence a few years ago, lyrical bankruptcy has remained one of its most common critiques; Herb's way with words defies the stereotype."


title: G Herbo

text: In April 2014, Herbo collaborated with East Coast rapper Nicki Minaj on "Chiraq". He contributed to Common's "The Neighborhood" on his album, "Nobody's Smiling". Herb was selected for "XXL"s Show & Prove segment of the 2014 Freshman Class issue. Herbo also recorded "Fight or Flight (Remix)" with Chance the Rapper and Common.


title: G Herbo

text: On December 26, 2014, Herbo released the surprise mixtape "Pistol P Project", his second project of 2014.


title: G Herbo

text: On April 2, 2015, Herbo guest featured on Chief Keef's "Faneto (Remix)" with fellow Chicago rappers King Louie, Lil Bibby.


title: G Herbo

text: On June 9, 2015, after being omitted from the 2015 XXL Freshman Cover, Herbo released a single titled "XXL". In response, "XXL" gave compliments to the rapper, saying he "switches between different flows effortlessly". On June 13, 2016, "XXL" announced the 2016 Freshman Class, which includes Herbo.


title: G Herbo

text: On August 4, 2015, Herbo announced his third mixtape, "Ballin Like I'm Kobe", named in honor of his fallen friend Jacobi D. Herring. On September 3, 2015, it was announced that Wright had signed with Cinematic Music Group and had officially changed his rap moniker to G Herbo. On September 27, 2015, Herb announced that "Ballin Like I'm Kobe" would be released on September 29, 2015. On September 29, 2015, the mixtape was released to widespread critical acclaim.


title: G Herbo

text: On November 11, 2015, Herbo released a collaborative single, titled "Lord Knows", with New York rapper Joey Badass.


title: G Herbo

text: In an interview at SXSW on April 4, 2016, Herbo announced his debut albums' title, "Humble Beast", stating that "You can definitely expect an album in 2016." In mid 2016, he released two singles, "Pull Up" and "Drop". Herbo also dropped the single "Yeah I Know" in March 2016. Herbo also released a fourth single "Ain't Nothing to Me", with a music video being released on October 10, 2016. Herbo was featured on DJ Twin's song "They Know Us" with Sean Kingston and Lil Bibby. On November 17, 2016, Herb released the album art, release date, and track list for his fourth mixtape, "Strictly 4 My Fans". On the same day, he released the second single from the mixtape, "Strictly 4 My Fans (Intro)". It was also revealed that Herbo and Lil Bibby have a collaborative project, "No Limitation", in the works. On March 17, 2017, Herbo released Welcome To Fazoland 1.5, containing unreleased songs from Welcome To Fazoland. The single "Yea I Know", was released in March 2016. Three singles were released for "Humble Beast". The lead single, "Red Snow", was released on March 9, 2017. The second single, "I Like", was released on August 11, 2017. The third and final single "Everything", was released on August 25, 2017. "4 Minutes of Hell, Pt. 5" was released as a pre-order single on September 1, 2017. Later that month, on September 22, 2017, "Humble Beast" was released. Herbo later drops a deluxe edition of the album "Humble Beast" with more songs in 2018.


title: G Herbo

text: On March 16, 2018, Herbo went on radio station "K104" in Dallas, Texas, and did a freestyle to the beat used in the song "Who Run It". Six days later, the full remix was released on all music platforms. The freestyle caught so much attention, later the rapper Lil Uzi Vert eventually featured on his own remix to "Who Run It". Before this collaboration happened, Herbo released the single "Shook""." This song appeared on the deluxe edition to his album "Humble Beast", which was released in 2018. Throughout the year, he released a couple of other singles titled "Focused" and "Swervo". On July 27, 2018, Herbo released the album "Swervo", which included features from rappers 21 Savage, Chief Keef, Young Thug, and Juice Wrld. This album included the singles "Swervo", "Focused", and "Who Run It", but not the remix featuring Lil Uzi Vert. This album was entirely produced by Southside. They had worked together before but never on a full album. On December 14, 2018, Vic Mensa released his album titled "HOOLIGANS." Herbo was featured on the song "Rowdy""". In early 2019, the single "Up It" was released, this appeared on his second album entirely produced by Southside titled "Still Swervin," which was released on February 1, 2019.


title: G Herbo

text: On February 28, 2020, G Herbo released the album "PTSD" with 14 tracks and featuring A Boogie wit da Hoodie, BJ the Chicago Kid, Lil Durk, Chance the Rapper, Juice Wrld, Lil Uzi Vert, 21 Savage, Polo G, and multiple other artists. The album debuted at number 7 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: G Herbo

text: On December 18, 2020, G Herbo returned with a new song and video, "Statement". In it, he addresses and denies fraud charges brought against him and multiple other alleged associates earlier the month.


title: G Herbo

text: In a February 2021 interview, Lil Bibby said that G Herbo had contacted him with regards to completing work on their upcoming collaborative effort, "No Limitations". Bibby stated that he is ready to finish the project in 2021.


title: G Herbo

text: On March 5, Herbo returned with two new singles, "Break Yoself" and "Really Like That". Both songs sees Herbo "operating in a stripped-back mode, with eerie beats and a non-stop delivery". The songs are included on Herbo's fourth studio album, "25", which was released on July 2, 2021. The album has an additional 16 tracks.


title: G Herbo

text: Wright has a son, born in 2018, from his relationship with Ariana Fletcher. As of December 2020, he is engaged to Taina Williams, stepdaughter of rapper Fabolous; she gave birth to their first child, a boy, on May 27, 2021.


title: G Herbo

text: In February 2018, Wright and two other men were arrested after their limousine driver informed police that some of his passengers had weapons. Wright was observed in the rear driver-side passenger seat placing a Fabrique National handgun in the seat rear pocket. Neither Wright nor the other two men had Illinois firearm owner's identification cards, and all three were charged with aggravated unlawful use of a weapon, a felony under the Illinois Compiled Statutes. In 2019, Wright plead guilty to one count of unlawful use of a weapon, a misdemeanor, and was sentenced to two years of probation.


title: G Herbo

text: Wright was arrested in Atlanta on April 19, 2019, for simple battery after an alleged physical altercation with the mother of his child, Ariana "Ari" Fletcher. Fletcher shared her story on Instagram on Thursday, April 18, stating, "He kicked my door down to get in my house because I wouldn't let him in, beat the fuck out of me in front of my son. Then he took my son outside to his friends and had them drive off with my son, hid all my knifes in my house, broke my phone and locked me inside and beat the fuck out of me again…" She stated there were physical signs of abuse as well, such as a black eye, and scrapes, cuts and bruises all over her body. Wright was released one week later on $2,000 bail. Upon his release, he took to Instagram Live to discuss the altercation with Fletcher. In the video session, Herbo stated that Fletcher had stolen jewelry from his mother's house. Specifically he stated, "I've been quiet all this time. I ain't do no insurance claim or try to get you locked up. Nothing. You told me to come to Atlanta to get the jewelry back."


title: G Herbo

text: On December 2, 2020, Wright and several associates, Antonio "T-Glo" Strong, Wright's promoter and manager; South Side rapper Joseph "Joe Rodeo" Williams; and alleged co-conspirators Steven Hayes Jr., Demario Sorrells and Terrence Bender, all from Chicago, were indicted on 14 federal charges that included wire fraud, and aggravated identity theft, in a federal court in Massachusetts. It was alleged that Wright and his associates charged expensive trips, bought designer puppies, rented luxury villas in Jamaica, private jets, and all of these luxury services and purchases were from using stolen identification. It is alleged that the fraud amounted to millions of dollars over a four-year period dating back to 2016. Wright has maintained his innocence and according to his management team, he "looks forward to establishing his innocence in court".


title: G Herbo

text: In 2018, Wright contributed to the redevelopment of a former elementary school in Chicago, Anthony Overton Elementary School. In this building, Wright's goal was to include equipment that could potentially help young people who want to become musicians. He also aimed to include free programs and sports to keep youngsters busy so they are not involved in street life.


title: G Herbo

text: In July 2020, Wright launched Swervin' Through Stress, an initiative that provides Black youths with therapeutic resources to improve their mental health over a 12-week course. The project was inspired by his own experiences and the truama others faced within his community, as well as his complex post-traumatic stress disorder which stemmed from his own earlier therapy sessions. He elaborated, "I don't want to be that guy to have all the resources to change my neighborhood, change my city and the youth and do nothing with it. That's why it's so important to me to be honest".


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: Scenes from a Marriage () is a 1973 Swedish television miniseries written and directed by Ingmar Bergman. Over the course of six hour-long episodes, it explores the disintegration of the marriage between Marianne (Liv Ullmann), a divorce lawyer, and Johan (Erland Josephson), a psychology professor. The series spans a period of 10 years. Bergman's teleplay draws on his own experiences, including his relationship with Ullmann. It was shot on a small budget in Stockholm and Fårö in 1972.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: After initially airing on Swedish TV in six parts, the miniseries was condensed into a theatrical version and received positive reviews in Sweden and internationally. "Scenes from a Marriage" was also the subject of controversy for its perceived influence on rising divorce rates in Europe. The film was ineligible for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, but won the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film and several other honours. The miniseries and film version influenced filmmakers such as Woody Allen and Richard Linklater. It was followed by a sequel, "Saraband", in 2003, and stage adaptations. It was also adapted into an HBO miniseries in 2021.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: The TV miniseries' six episodes ran between 11 April and 16 May 1973. At about 50 minutes per episode, the miniseries totals 282 minutes.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: Scenes from each episode appear in the film version, which is 168 minutes long. The episode titles appear in the film version as chapter titles.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: Bergman wrote the teleplay for "Scenes From a Marriage" over three months. He drew on his personal experiences, including his relationship with Ullmann; his unhappy, eventually dissolved marriages to Käbi Laretei and Gun Hagberg; and the marriage of his parents, Karin and Erik Bergman. As a boy, he had witnessed his parents violently wrestling, with Karin slapping Erik and Erik pushing her against a wall. Ingmar also found his mother could be manipulative.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: The budget for "Scenes From a Marriage" was approximately a third that of Bergman's previous film, "Cries and Whispers". Half was covered by Swedish Television and half by foreign companies. It was filmed in Stockholm and Fårö between July and October 1972. Cinematographer Sven Nykvist emphasized close-ups and employed small indoor film sets. Nykvist later regretted not using more tracking shots when he learned the miniseries would have a theatrical release. The filming schedule was one week per episode.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: Ullmann compared performing in "Scenes From a Marriage" to appearing in a documentary, saying she "felt very connected to the role." She said she was becoming more involved in the feminist movement while making the miniseries. Due to Ullmann and Erland Josephson's comfort with their parts, the crew saved time by not having rehearsals.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: "Scenes From a Marriage" was broadcast as a miniseries in Sweden by SVT2 beginning on 11 April 1973. Polls indicated most of the viewers were women. A 169-minute theatrical version was screened in Sweden on 28 October 1974.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: In the United States, a 167-minute version of the miniseries was released in cinemas, with the 16 mm film modified to 35 mm. It opened in New York City on 21 September 1974. The full miniseries was later aired in the U.S. by PBS in March and April 1977, and numerous times in 1979. The Criterion Collection released the miniseries and theatrical version on a three-disc DVD in Region 1 in 2004, complete with interviews and an essay by Phillip Lopate.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: In Sweden, "Scenes From a Marriage" received positive reviews for its dialogue and realism, with Mauritz Edstrom calling it "one of Bergman's finest human portrayals". Åke Janzon said that while the miniseries was not a masterpiece, it demonstrated psychological tension. Swedish director Maj Wechselmann criticized it on feminist grounds, saying it failed to criticize marriage roles. Bergman replied that the miniseries was meant to depict "Marianne's liberation" and female "suppressed aggressions". One controversy revolved around allegations that "Scenes From a Marriage" led to higher divorce rates in Sweden and around Europe by teaching couples to communicate their conflicts. Swedish divorce rates allegedly doubled one year after the miniseries was broadcast in 1973. In 2013 Rachel Halliburton disputed these allegations in "Time Out" magazine, remarking that sexual and women's liberation were gaining prominence at the time and that the miniseries "as such was as much a symptom of what was happening to modern marriage as a cause".


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: In the United States, Roger Ebert gave the theatrical version a full four stars, praising it as "one of the truest, most luminous love stories ever made"; he named it "the best film of 1973". Vincent Canby, chief critic for "The New York Times", called the theatrical version "a movie of such extraordinary intimacy that it has the effect of breaking into mysterious components many things we ordinarily accept without thought, familiar and banal objects, faces, attitudes, and emotions, especially love. [...] Ullmann again establishes herself as one of the most fascinating actresses of our time." Canby also wrote that "Josephson gives an equally complex performance" but found the character less admirable. Don Druker of "Chicago Reader" criticized the editing for the theatre, saying that the film "shows its reassembled status rather badly," and that "moments of searing insight" were provided mainly by Ullmann.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: The film was included in ""The New York Times" Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made" in 2002. In 2004, essayist Phillip Lopate wrote that "Scenes from a Marriage" showed Bergman moving on from exploration of the silence of God to the subject of men, women, love and intimacy. Lopate found the film version "more harrowing and theatrical," while the miniseries "has the tendency to intersect with and form a more quotidian relationship to viewers’ lives; its characters become members of the family, and their resilience over time, regardless of the incessant crises thrown them by the script, induces a more good-humored, forgiving atmosphere." In 2007, Kristi McKim of "Senses of Cinema" wrote that the film "stunningly exemplified" the "tension" in "the emotional causes and effects of feeling incompatible desires within the modern world." The film has a 94% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 15 reviews. The film was included on BBC's 2018 list of the 100 greatest foreign-language films.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: "Scenes from a Marriage" sparked controversy when its ineligibility for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film was questioned. The supposed reason was that it aired on television before it played in cinemas, but at the time that did not necessarily render a film ineligible. In this case, it was because the TV broadcast occurred the year before its theatrical debut in 1974. The film's ineligibility prompted 24 filmmakers, including Frank Capra and Federico Fellini, to write an open letter demanding the rules for eligibility be revised.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: Bergman's 1980 television film "From the Life of the Marionettes" centres on a couple named Peter and Katarina, loosely based on the supporting characters of those names in "Scenes from a Marriage". Bergman also wrote the first stage adaptation of "Scenes from a Marriage" for the Residenztheater in Munich in 1981. "Saraband", a quasi-sequel set decades after the original miniseries, aired on Swedish television in 2003. In 2008, a theatrical adaption by Joanna Murray-Smith was performed at the Belgrade Theatre in Coventry, directed by Trevor Nunn and starring Imogen Stubbs and Iain Glen.


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: "Knots Landing" creator David Jacobs based the series on "Scenes from a Marriage". Shashi Deshpande informally adapted it into the screenplay for Govind Nihalani's "Drishti" in 1990. In 1991, Woody Allen costarred in Paul Mazursky's "Scenes from a Mall", a dark comedy about a deteriorating marriage. Allen's similarly realist 1992 film "Husbands and Wives" is also influenced by "Scenes from a Marriage". Some critics compared Allen's "Annie Hall" (1977) to "Scenes from a Marriage".


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: In an April 2011 "New York Times" Opinionator article titled "Too Much Relationship Vérité", Virginia Heffernan compares "An American Family" to "Scenes from a Marriage":


title: Scenes from a Marriage

text: In June 2013, actor Ethan Hawke and director Richard Linklater said "Scenes from a Marriage" was the standard by which their "Before Midnight" must be judged. Russian director Andrey Zvyagintsev initially conceived "Loveless" (2017) as a remake of "Scenes from a Marriage", with critics also comparing Zvyagintsev's finished product to Bergman's miniseries. Noah Baumbach's "Marriage Story" (2019) also contains references to "Scenes from a Marriage".


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: Maamanithan () is a 2022 Indian Tamil-language drama film written and directed by Seenu Ramasamy and produced by Yuvan Shankar Raja under his YSR Productions banner. The film stars Vijay Sethupathi, Gayathrie, K. P. A. C. Lalitha, Guru Somasundaram, Anikha Surendran, Jewel Mary and Shaji Chen. In addition, Yuvan composed the soundtrack of this film along with his father, Ilaiyaraaja. The cinematography and editing were handled by M. Sukumar and A. Seekar Prasad


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: The film was theatrically released on 24 June 2022 after being delayed for five years and received critical acclaim from critics and audience.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: Radhakrishnan (Vijay Sethupathi) is a humble auto driver, who is sincere and extremely honest. He is content with his life which revolves around the auto, his wife Savithri (Gayathrie), and his 2 kids. His kids study in a government school, and he wishes to improve their standard of education by admitting them into a private school. To achieve this, he promises a real estate businessman Madhavan (Shaji) that he'll help him sell all the plots to his villagers, but gets cheated by Madhavan. The consequences he and his family face and the extent to which Radhakrishnan goes to find Madhavan forms the rest of the film.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: In April 2017, reports surfaced that Vijay Sethupathi had signed a new project with Seenu Ramasamy after the success of "Dharma Durai" (2016). Seenu Ramasamy started writing the script for the project with a tentative title "Maamanithan", with Yuvan Shankar Raja who earlier collaborated with Seenu in "Dharma Durai" and the unreleased film "Idam Porul Yaeval", expressed his interest in producing the film apart from working on the film's music. Later, Seenu also narrated the script to composer Ilaiyaraaja who also agreed to work with his son Yuvan.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: It was further reported that the film biopic of a popular leader who hails from the south Tamil Nadu region, with Vijay Sethupathi playing a politician in the film, however the team denied such claims. Seenu Ramasamy finished working on the script within May 2017, but shooting of the film delayed due to Sethupathi's commitments in other films.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: Samuthirakani was announced for a pivotal character in April 2018, who plays a straightforward villager in the film. Seenu Ramasamy revealed that "his character will be the silent type, with very little dialogue and there will be no pair for him in the film". Though the film marked Samuthirakani and Seenu collaborating after "Neerparavai" (2012), the former did not confirm his presence in the film. During the start of the shoot, Guru Somasundaram was announced a part of the pivotal cast, with Seenu stating his character as an important one which appears throughout the film. Guru Somasundaram played the role of a Muslim in the film.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: Seenu also cast Gayathrie playing for another pivotal character. He stated that "her role is that of a young woman who has finished her 10th standard and has taken up teaching typewriting". Other supporting casts include K. P. A. C. Lalitha, Shaji Chen, Jewel Mary.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: Manasvi Kottachi was cast as Sethupathi's daughter. Anikha was cast in a supporting role. During the schedule of Kerala, stills featuring Vijay Sethupathi and Malayalam actor Manikandan Achari went viral through internet, with the latter reported to play a supporting role in the film. Vijay Sethupathi plays an auto driver hailing from a rural family in the film.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: The film's shooting began in Madurai with a formal pooja (prayer ceremony) on 15 December 2018. The first schedule of the film began in Andipatti, near Madurai which took place for 20 days. On 23 January 2019, the team headed to Kerala to shoot few major sequences for the film. The Kerala schedule was completed in 13 days and the team shot few more sequences in Varanasi during early February and was wrapped on 12 February 2019. The entire filming was completed in 37 days.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: The film marked the first time collaboration of Ilaiyaraaja and his sons Karthik Raja and Yuvan Shankar Raja working together. Ilaiyaraaja's inclusion in the project was announced on 25 January 2018, when he was felicitated with Padma Vibushan by the Government of India, Yuvan stated that the collaboration with his father and brother, made his "journey of a music director being meaningful and purposeful". The film's director Seenu Ramasamy also thanked Yuvan for his initiative in bringing the Raja family collaborate on a project, in his interview with "The Times of India".


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: Recording for the film's soundtrack began during September 2019, and completed in May 2020. The album featuring five songs had lyrics written by Pa. Vijay and Palani Bharathi. Ilaiyaraaja took charge of recording the songs and film score, while Yuvan did the arrangements for the soundtrack. The first single track "Thattiputta" was released by U1 Records on 7 April 2021, which had vocals performed by Ilaiyaraaja and written by Pa. Vijay. Another song "Ye Rasa" was released on 28 May 2021, which also had a promotional video featuring Yuvan Shankar Raja.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: The film was scheduled for a theatrical release during September and October 2019, but was delayed indefinitely due to a lawsuit filed against the producers by Jayaseelan who earlier registered the same title for his film. In March 2021, Seenu Ramasamy tweeted that Yuvan Shankar Raja had acquired the title rights from Jayaseelan and further stated that the promotions will begin for the film under the title "Maamanithan". The producers started negotiating with streaming platforms for a direct digital release, as theatres being shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. "LetsOTT" revealed that the film is scheduled for a digital release through ZEE5 which purchased the digital rights, although no official confirmation has been made by the producers. The film was theatrically released on 24 June 2022.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: Both the Tamil Nadu and the Kerala distribution rights of the film has been bagged by R. K. Suresh under the banner Studio 9 Productions.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: The digital rights of the film has been acquired by Aha Tamil, while the satellite rights of the film has been acquired by Zee Tamil.


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: Srivatsan S of "The Hindu" after reviewing the film wrote "Just watch the man when he gets a meet-cute scene with Savithri or when he bursts out in anger at his to-be brother-in-law. Vijay Sethupathi makes it look genuine. Maamanithan is that script where both Sethupathi and Gayathrie do more for the film than what it does to them." Karthik Keramalu of "Firstpost" after reviewing the film stated "The new troubles for Sethupathi and Gayathrie are a far cry from the ones they encountered in "Naduvula Konjam Pakkatha Kaanom" (2012). In the decade that has passed since then, they have grown as actors individually, and as an on-screen couple that we can all shower our love upon." M Suganth of "The Times of India" gave 3.0 out of 5 stars and stated "Also, in these times when big-screen entertainment has largely come to mean action thrillers and fantasies, Maamanithan — a character-driven drama - does feel like the last of its species. And by the time that it ends, it turns into something more — a saga that is quietly affecting."


title: Maamanithan (film)

text: Manoj Kumar R of "The Indian Express" rated 3 out of 5 stars stating that "Maamanithan is Seenu Ramasamy's meditation on life. And according to him, the man who knows to be content living on less is great." Sudhir Srinivasan of "Cinema Express" gave 3.5 out of 5 stars stating that "The film is also a bit too keen to celebrate its protagonist as a selfless saint. Perhaps he is one, but it feels like there are other characters who deserve as much acknowledgement. Radhakrishnan's Muslim friend is a bit of a saint himself. And why, even Savithri, who has endured hardship all her life, has done a lot for their children. And yet, it feels like she doesn't quite get her due. But as I said, these are nuances, and in a film that never really has you riveted in its universe, does it matter? It's a pity because we don't get a lot of these films that speak of how greatness in our world is often found in the most unassuming of people, who quietly sacrifice themselves, so people around them can live better lives." Janani K of "India Today" gave the film 2.5 out of 5 and stated "Overall, Maamanithan is a moving drama with its heart in the right place." Soundarya Athimuthu of "The Quint" after reviewing the film stated that "Maamanithan has its heart at the right place for it instills hope in human relationships, explaining while there may be one or two who will cheat or hurt you, there will be dozens waiting to support and embrace you with love." "Indiaglitz" gave the film's rating 3 out of 5.0 and wrote "Go for this one for the solid performances of the cast and the relatable story moments."