title: Spectral density

text: The spectrum of a physical process formula_2 often contains essential information about the nature of formula_5. For instance, the pitch and timbre of a musical instrument are immediately determined from a spectral analysis. The color of a light source is determined by the spectrum of the electromagnetic wave's electric field formula_6 as it fluctuates at an extremely high frequency. Obtaining a spectrum from time series such as these involves the Fourier transform, and generalizations based on Fourier analysis. In many cases the time domain is not specifically employed in practice, such as when a dispersive prism is used to obtain a spectrum of light in a spectrograph, or when a sound is perceived through its effect on the auditory receptors of the inner ear, each of which is sensitive to a particular frequency.


title: Spectral density

text: However this article concentrates on situations in which the time series is known (at least in a statistical sense) or directly measured (such as by a microphone sampled by a computer). The power spectrum is important in statistical signal processing and in the statistical study of stochastic processes, as well as in many other branches of physics and engineering. Typically the process is a function of time, but one can similarly discuss data in the spatial domain being decomposed in terms of spatial frequency.


title: Spectral density

text: Any signal that can be represented as a variable that varies in time has a corresponding frequency spectrum. This includes familiar entities such as visible light (perceived as color), musical notes (perceived as pitch), radio/TV (specified by their frequency, or sometimes wavelength) and even the regular rotation of the earth. When these signals are viewed in the form of a frequency spectrum, certain aspects of the received signals or the underlying processes producing them are revealed. In some cases the frequency spectrum may include a distinct peak corresponding to a sine wave component. And additionally there may be peaks corresponding to harmonics of a fundamental peak, indicating a periodic signal which is "not" simply sinusoidal. Or a continuous spectrum may show narrow frequency intervals which are strongly enhanced corresponding to resonances, or frequency intervals containing almost zero power as would be produced by a notch filter.


title: Spectral density

text: In physics, the signal might be a wave, such as an electromagnetic wave, an acoustic wave, or the vibration of a mechanism. The "power spectral density" (PSD) of the signal describes the power present in the signal as a function of frequency, per unit frequency. Power spectral density is commonly expressed in watts per hertz (W/Hz).


title: Spectral density

text: When a signal is defined in terms only of a voltage, for instance, there is no unique power associated with the stated amplitude. In this case "power" is simply reckoned in terms of the square of the signal, as this would always be "proportional" to the actual power delivered by that signal into a given impedance. So one might use units of V Hz for the PSD. "Energy spectral density" (ESD) would have units would be V s Hz, since energy has units of power multiplied by time (e.g., watt-hour).


title: Spectral density

text: In the general case, the units of PSD will be the ratio of units of variance per unit of frequency; so, for example, a series of displacement values (in meters) over time (in seconds) will have PSD in units of meters squared per hertz, m/Hz.


title: Spectral density

text: In the analysis of random vibrations, units of "g" Hz are frequently used for the PSD of acceleration, where "g" denotes the g-force.


title: Spectral density

text: Mathematically, it is not necessary to assign physical dimensions to the signal or to the independent variable. In the following discussion the meaning of "x(t)" will remain unspecified, but the independent variable will be assumed to be that of time.


title: Spectral density

text: Energy spectral density describes how the energy of a signal or a time series is distributed with frequency. Here, the term energy is used in the generalized sense of signal processing; that is, the energy formula_7 of a signal formula_2 is:


title: Spectral density

text: The energy spectral density is most suitable for transients—that is, pulse-like signals—having a finite total energy. Finite or not, Parseval's theorem (or Plancherel's theorem) gives us an alternate expression for the energy of the signal:


title: Spectral density

text: is the value of the Fourier transform of formula_2 at frequency formula_13 (in Hz). The theorem also holds true in the discrete-time cases. Since the integral on the right-hand side is the energy of the signal, the value offormula_14 can be interpreted as a density function multiplied by an infinitesimally small frequency interval, describing the energy contained in the signal at frequency formula_13 in the frequency interval formula_16.


title: Spectral density

text: The function formula_18 and the autocorrelation of formula_2 form a Fourier transform pair, a result also known as the Wiener–Khinchin theorem (see also Periodogram).


title: Spectral density

text: As a physical example of how one might measure the energy spectral density of a signal, suppose formula_20 represents the potential (in volts) of an electrical pulse propagating along a transmission line of impedance formula_21, and suppose the line is terminated with a matched resistor (so that all of the pulse energy is delivered to the resistor and none is reflected back). By Ohm's law, the power delivered to the resistor at time formula_22 is equal to formula_23, so the total energy is found by integrating formula_23 with respect to time over the duration of the pulse. To find the value of the energy spectral density formula_18 at frequency formula_13, one could insert between the transmission line and the resistor a bandpass filter which passes only a narrow range of frequencies (formula_27, say) near the frequency of interest and then measure the total energy formula_28 dissipated across the resistor. The value of the energy spectral density at formula_13 is then estimated to be formula_30. In this example, since the power formula_23 has units of V Ω, the energy formula_28 has units of V s Ω = J, and hence the estimate formula_33 of the energy spectral density has units of J Hz, as required. In many situations, it is common to forget the step of dividing by formula_21 so that the energy spectral density instead has units of V Hz.


title: Spectral density

text: This definition generalizes in a straightforward manner to a discrete signal with a countably infinite number of values formula_35 such as a signal sampled at discrete times formula_36:


title: Spectral density

text: where formula_38 is the discrete-time Fourier transform of formula_39  The sampling interval formula_40 is needed to keep the correct physical units and to ensure that we recover the continuous case in the limit formula_41  But in the mathematical sciences the interval is often set to 1, which simplifies the results at the expense of generality. (also see normalized frequency)


title: Spectral density

text: The above definition of energy spectral density is suitable for transients (pulse-like signals) whose energy is concentrated around one time window; then the Fourier transforms of the signals generally exist. For continuous signals over all time, one must rather define the "power spectral density" (PSD) which exists for stationary processes; this describes how the power of a signal or time series is distributed over frequency, as in the simple example given previously. Here, power can be the actual physical power, or more often, for convenience with abstract signals, is simply identified with the squared value of the signal. For example, statisticians study the variance of a function over time formula_2 (or over another independent variable), and using an analogy with electrical signals (among other physical processes), it is customary to refer to it as the "power spectrum" even when there is no physical power involved. If one were to create a physical voltage source which followed formula_2 and applied it to the terminals of a one ohm resistor, then indeed the instantaneous power dissipated in that resistor would be given by formula_44 watts.


title: Spectral density

text: The average power formula_45 of a signal formula_2 over all time is therefore given by the following time average, where the period formula_47 is centered about some arbitrary time formula_48:


title: Spectral density

text: However, for the sake of dealing with the math that follows, it is more convenient to deal with time limits in the signal itself rather than time limits in the bounds of the integral. As such, we have an alternative representation of the average power, where formula_50 and formula_51 is unity within the arbitrary period and zero elsewhere.


title: Spectral density

text: Clearly in cases where the above expression for P is non-zero (even as T grows without bound) the integral itself must also grow without bound. That is the reason that we cannot use the energy spectral density itself, which "is" that diverging integral, in such cases.


title: Spectral density

text: In analyzing the frequency content of the signal formula_2, one might like to compute the ordinary Fourier transform formula_54; however, for many signals of interest the Fourier transform does not formally exist. Regardless, Parseval's theorem tells us that we can re-write the average power as follows.


title: Spectral density

text: From here, we can also view formula_56 as the Fourier transform of the time convolution of formula_57 and formula_58


title: Spectral density

text: Now, if we divide the time convolution above by the period formula_60 and take the limit as formula_61, it becomes the autocorrelation function of the non-windowed signal formula_62, which is denoted as formula_63, provided that formula_2 is ergodic, which is true in most, but not all, practical cases..


title: Spectral density

text: From here we see, again assuming the ergodicity of formula_2, that the power spectral density can be found as the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function (Wiener–Khinchin theorem).


title: Spectral density

text: The power of the signal in a given frequency band formula_67, where formula_68, can be calculated by integrating over frequency. Since formula_69, an equal amount of power can be attributed to positive and negative frequency bands, which accounts for the factor of 2 in the following form (such trivial factors depend on the conventions used):


title: Spectral density

text: More generally, similar techniques may be used to estimate a time-varying spectral density. In this case the time interval formula_60 is finite rather than approaching infinity. This results in decreased spectral coverage and resolution since frequencies of less than formula_72 are not sampled, and results at frequencies which are not an integer multiple of formula_72 are not independent. Just using a single such time series, the estimated power spectrum will be very "noisy"; however this can be alleviated if it is possible to evaluate the expected value (in the above equation) using a large (or infinite) number of short-term spectra corresponding to statistical ensembles of realizations of formula_2 evaluated over the specified time window.


title: Spectral density

text: Just as with the energy spectral density, the definition of the power spectral density can be generalized to discrete time variables formula_35. As before, we can consider a window of formula_76 with the signal sampled at discrete times formula_77 for a total measurement period formula_78.


title: Spectral density

text: Note that a single estimate of the PSD can be obtained through a finite number of samplings. As before, the actual PSD is achieved when formula_80 (and thus formula_60) approaches infinity and the expected value is formally applied. In a real-world application, one would typically average a finite-measurement PSD over many trials to obtain a more accurate estimate of the theoretical PSD of the physical process underlying the individual measurements. This computed PSD is sometimes called a periodogram. This periodogram converges to the true PSD as the number of estimates as well as the averaging time interval formula_60 approach infinity (Brown & Hwang).


title: Spectral density

text: If two signals both possess power spectral densities, then the cross-spectral density can similarly be calculated; as the PSD is related to the autocorrelation, so is the cross-spectral density related to the cross-correlation.


title: Spectral density

text: Given two signals formula_2 and formula_84, each of which possess power spectral densities formula_1 and formula_86, it is possible to define a cross power spectral density (CPSD) or cross spectral density (CSD). To begin, let us consider the average power of such a combined signal.


title: Spectral density

text: Using the same notation and methods as used for the power spectral density derivation, we exploit Parseval's theorem and obtain


title: Spectral density

text: where, again, the contributions of formula_1 and formula_86 are already understood. Note that formula_91, so the full contribution to the cross power is, generally, from twice the real part of either individual CPSD. Just as before, from here we recast these products as the Fourier transform of a time convolution, which when divided by the period and taken to the limit formula_92 becomes the Fourier transform of a cross-correlation function.


title: Spectral density

text: where formula_94 is the cross-correlation of formula_2 with formula_84 and formula_97 is the cross-correlation of formula_84 with formula_2. In light of this, the PSD is seen to be a special case of the CSD for formula_100. For the case that formula_2 and formula_84 are voltage or current signals, their Fourier transforms formula_54 and formula_104 are strictly positive by convention. Therefore, in typical signal processing, the full CPSD is just one of the CPSDs scaled by a factor of two.


title: Spectral density

text: For discrete signals "x" and "y", the relationship between the cross-spectral density and the cross-covariance is


title: Spectral density

text: The goal of spectral density estimation is to estimate the spectral density of a random signal from a sequence of time samples. Depending on what is known about the signal, estimation techniques can involve parametric or non-parametric approaches, and may be based on time-domain or frequency-domain analysis. For example, a common parametric technique involves fitting the observations to an autoregressive model. A common non-parametric technique is the periodogram.


title: Spectral density

text: The spectral density is usually estimated using Fourier transform methods (such as the Welch method), but other techniques such as the maximum entropy method can also be used.


title: Spectral density

text: The concept and use of the power spectrum of a signal is fundamental in electrical engineering, especially in electronic communication systems, including radio communications, radars, and related systems, plus passive remote sensing technology. Electronic instruments called spectrum analyzers are used to observe and measure the power spectra of signals.


title: Spectral density

text: The spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) of an input signal. If the signal being analyzed can be considered a stationary process, the STFT is a good smoothed estimate of its power spectral density.


title: Spectral density

text: Primordial fluctuations, density variations in the early universe, are quantified by a power spectrum which gives the power of the variations as a function of spatial scale.


title: Spectral density

text: Power spectral-analysis have been used to examine the spatial structures for climate research. These results suggests atmospheric turbulence link climate change to more local regional volatility in weather conditions.


title: Jess McMahon

text: Roderick James "Jess" McMahon Sr. (October 29, 1882 – November 21, 1954) was an American professional wrestling and professional boxing promoter, and the patriarch of the McMahon family. It is not certain if either he or his son Vincent J. McMahon was the founder of Capitol Wrestling Corporation. While some sources state that it was his son, other sources mention him as the founder of the company.


title: Jess McMahon

text: Roderick James McMahon was born October 29, 1882 in Queens, New York City, to hotel owner Roderick McMahon (1846–1922) and Elizabeth McMahon (1848–1911), from County Galway. His parents had recently moved from Ireland to New York City. He and his older siblings Lauretta (born 1876), Catharine (born 1878) and Edward (born 1880) attended Manhattan College. McMahon graduated with a commercial diploma at the age of 17. The McMahon brothers showed a higher interest in sports than in a banking career.


title: Jess McMahon

text: By 1909, the McMahon brothers were managing partners of the Olympic Athletic Club and bookers at the Empire and St. Nichols Athletic Clubs, located in Harlem. Because of a loss of public interest in boxing, the two McMahons expanded their affairs in 1911, founding the New York Lincoln Giants, a black baseball team, which played at Olympic Field in Harlem. With a team that included five of the best black players in the nation (who the McMahons recruited away from teams in Chicago and Philadelphia), the Lincoln Giants dominated black and white opponents for three seasons. In 1914, financial difficulties forced them to sell the team; however, they retained the contracts of many of the players, and for three more years they operated another team, the Lincoln Stars, using Lenox Oval on 145th Street as a home field. Touring with the squad, McMahon and his brother ventured to Havana, Cuba, in 1915, where they co-promoted the 45-round fight between Jess Willard and then-champion Jack Johnson.


title: Jess McMahon

text: In the 1930s, the McMahons operated the Commonwealth Casino, on East 135th Street in Harlem. Boxing was the primary attraction. The McMahons booked black fighters to cater to Harlem's growing black population; fights between blacks and whites drew the largest, racially mixed crowds. In 1922, they established a black professional basketball team, the Commonwealth Big 5, to try to attract patrons to the casino. For two years, the team defeated black and white opponents, including Harlem's other black professional team, the Rens. Sportswriters considered the Big 5 the best black team in the nation, although they could not defeat the dominant white team of the time, the Original Celtics. Despite their success, the Big 5 did not attract large crowds, and the McMahons shut the team down after the 1923/1924 season, leaving the Rens to become the dominant black team of the 1920s and 1930s.


title: Jess McMahon

text: After 1915, Jess anchored in Long Island, where he became the first McMahon to promote professional wrestling, at the Freeport Municipal Stadium. The wrestling wars led McMahon to ally himself with another independent faction, captained by Carlos Louis Henriquez. Together they booked the Coney Island and Brooklyn Sport Stadiums, with Carlos being the main fan favorite. The formation of "the Trust" calmed the New York territory enough to allow McMahon access to a larger pool of wrestlers. Among those wrestlers were Jim Browning, Hans Kampfer, Mike Romano and Everette Marshall. By 1937, wrestling's popularity was waning. However, while most bookers left the city for fresher ground, Jess dug in for the long haul. His contacts allowed him to freely trade wrestlers with promoters in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland and Connecticut. A perpetual force in Northeastern sports, McMahon may be more remembered for his spell as matchmaker at the Garden than for his 20 years as a wrestling promoter.


title: Jess McMahon

text: McMahon married a young New York City woman named Rose E. Davis in 1912 who was of Irish descent, and together they had three children: sons Roderick James Jr. and Vincent, and daughter Dorothy. On November 22, 1954, as a result of a cerebral hemorrhage, Jess died at a hospital in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. Upon his death, his second son, Vincent, took over the business, eventually creating the World Wide Wrestling Federation promotion, known today as WWE.


title: Eminem singles discography

text: American rapper Eminem has released 57 singles as a lead artist and nine promotional singles. He has also featured in 22 singles as a guest artist, while entering the charts with over 100 additional songs.


title: Eminem singles discography

text: Eminem's debut single, "Just Don't Give a Fuck", was released in 1998 and was included in "Slim Shady EP", as well as in his second studio album, "The Slim Shady LP", which featured a re-worked version of the song. Eminem's first song to enter the "Billboard" Hot 100 was "My Name Is", which was released in 1999 and became the most successful single from "The Slim Shady LP". It and "Guilty Conscience" both reached the top 5 in the UK.


title: Eminem singles discography

text: The lead single from Eminem's third studio album, "The Marshall Mathers LP", was the song "The Real Slim Shady", which became his first entry in the top ten of the "Billboard" Hot 100. The third single from the album, "Stan", featured vocals from British singer Dido, sampled from her song "Thank You". "Stan" was the album's most successful single outside of the States, while it failed to reach the top 50 in Eminem's home country.


title: Eminem singles discography

text: In 2002, Eminem released the singles "Without Me" and "Cleanin' Out My Closet" from his album "The Eminem Show", as well as the single "Lose Yourself" from the "8 Mile" soundtrack, which became his first number one song on the Hot 100 and remained on the top for 12 weeks. The song also reached the top of various national charts worldwide.


title: Eminem singles discography

text: In 2009, the song "Crack a Bottle", a collaboration with label-mates Dr. Dre and 50 Cent, became Eminem's second number one on the Hot 100 and broke the record for opening week download sales in the US, with 418,000 copies sold in the first week.


title: Eminem singles discography

text: "Recovery"s singles "Not Afraid" and "Love the Way You Lie" featuring Rihanna, both released in 2010, became Eminem's third and fourth number one songs on the Hot 100; the latter also reached the top of various national charts worldwide. In June 2014, his song "Not Afraid" was diamond certified by the RIAA, thus making Eminem the first artist with two digital diamond awards by RIAA.


title: Eminem singles discography

text: In August 2013, Eminem released the single "Berzerk" which debuted number 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and preceded his eighth studio album "The Marshall Mathers LP 2". The album spawned the singles "Survival", which was showcased during the "" reveal trailer, "Rap God", and "The Monster" featuring Rihanna. "The Monster" became Eminem's fifth No. 1 single on the Hot 100, tying him with rappers Ludacris and P. Diddy for rappers with the most No. 1 singles in the US. In May 2014, Eminem was announced as the most-streamed artist of all time on Spotify.


title: Eminem singles discography

text: From 2017 to 2020, Eminem released various hit singles, including "River" featuring Ed Sheeran, "Lucky You" featuring Joyner Lucas, "Killshot", and "Godzilla" featuring Juice Wrld. The latter two debuted at number 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The Duchy of Cornwall () is one of two royal duchies in England, the other being the Duchy of Lancaster. The eldest son of the reigning British monarch obtains possession of the duchy and the title of 'Duke of Cornwall' at birth or when his parent succeeds to the throne, but may not sell assets for personal benefit and has limited rights and income while a minor.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The current duke is Prince William. When the monarch has no male children, the rights and responsibilities of the duchy revert to the Crown.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The Duchy Council, called the Prince's Council, meets twice a year and is chaired by the duke. The Prince's Council is a non-executive body which provides advice to the duke with regard to the management of the duchy. The duchy also exercises certain legal rights and privileges across Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly, including some that elsewhere in England belong to the Crown. The duke appoints a number of officials in the county and acts as the port authority for the main harbour of the Isles of Scilly.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The government considers the duchy to be a crown body and therefore exempt from paying corporation tax. The tax exempt status of the duchy has been challenged, and from 1993 to his accession to the throne in 2022, Prince Charles, the Duke of Cornwall, voluntarily paid income tax on the duchy income.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The principal activity of the duchy is the management of its land holdings in England of . This includes of land in Cornwall itself which comprises 13% of the whole Duchy estate. Half of the estate is on Dartmoor in Devon, with other large holdings in Herefordshire, Somerset and almost all of the Isles of Scilly. The duchy also has a portfolio of financial investments.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The administration of the duchy is regulated by the "Duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall (Accounts) Act 1838", which requires Treasury's supervision and for the accounts to be presented to both Houses of Parliament.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The duchy has special legal rights, such as the rules on "bona vacantia". This right to ownerless property operates in favour of the duchy rather than the Crown, such that the property of anyone who dies in the county of Cornwall without a will or identifiable heirs, and assets belonging to dissolved companies whose registered office was in Cornwall, pass to the duchy. In 2007, £130,000 was realised from the right of "bona vacantia", and given to a charitable fund.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The duchy was created with the express purpose of providing income to the heir apparent to the throne; however, the terms of the original creation limit the title Duke of Cornwall to the eldest son of the monarch if, and only if, that son is also the heir-apparent; since 2015, the eldest child (regardless of sex) of the monarch would usually be her heir-apparent, but no change has been made to allow an eldest daughter to take the title Duchess of Cornwall. The Duke of Cornwall has the 'interest in possession' of the duchy's assets (such as estates) which means they enjoy its net income, do not have its outright ownership and do not have the right to sell capital assets for their own benefit.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: In 1913 the Government Law Officers gave an opinion that the Duke of Cornwall is not liable to taxation on income from the Duchy. However, from 1993 to his accession to the throne in 2022, Prince Charles voluntarily agreed to pay income tax at the normal rates (see: Finances of the British Royal Family).


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: Since the passing into law of the Sovereign Grant Act 2011, revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall will pass to the heir to the throne, regardless of whether that heir is the Duke of Cornwall. In the event that the heir is a minor, 10% of the revenues will pass to the heir, with the balance passing to the Crown.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The duchy generated an income of £21.7m in 2017–18. This paid for most of the official and charitable activities of the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall, as well as the official offices of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and Prince Harry.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The duchy was established on 17 March 1337 by the Royal Great Charter out of the former Earldom of Cornwall by Edward III for his son, Edward, Prince of Wales, the "Black Prince", who became the first Duke of Cornwall. The charter established that the Duke of Cornwall is to be the eldest surviving son of the monarch and the heir to the throne. Additional charters were issued later by Edward III. The duchy consisted of the title and honour, and the land holdings that supported it financially. The charter afforded the duke certain rights and responsibilities in the county, including the right to appoint the county's sheriff and to the profits from the county courts, the stannaries and the ports. The duchy estate, which was based on the holdings of the previous earls, did not comprise the whole of the county, and much of it lay outside Cornwall. The extent of the estate has varied as various holdings have been sold and others acquired over the years, both within Cornwall and in other counties.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: Under the charter, the manors of the earldom passed to the duchy. The original 17 manors, all in Cornwall, are known as the "antiqua maneria". Those outside Cornwall given to the duchy at its creation are known as the "forinseca maneria" (foreign manors), with estates incorporated later becoming known as the "annexata maneria". The first duke ordered a survey called "The Caption of Seisin of the Duchy of Cornwall" in May 1337 to determine the extent of duchy holdings of Cornish land including manors, castles and knights' fees, profits from the stannary courts and shrievalty of Cornwall, and other revenues.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: We have made and created Henry our most dear first-begotten Son, Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall and Earl of Chester, and have given and granted, and by our Charter have confirmed to him the said Principality, Duchy, and Earldom, that he may preside there, and by presiding, may direct and defend the said parts. We have invested him with the said Principality, Duchy, and Earldom, "per sertum in capite et annulum in digito aureum ac virgam auream juxta morem".


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: With the death of Prince Arthur in 1502, the Prince's Council became defunct. From 1547 to 1603, there was no male royal heir to hold the title of duke, and the duchy reverted to the Crown, in effect becoming a department of the Exchequer. The council was revived in 1611 to deal with a food crisis.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: On the death of King Charles I, the Crown lands came under the control of Parliament; this lasted until the restoration of King Charles II in 1660.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: In 1975, the then Prince Charles established the Duke of Cornwall's Benevolent Fund to benefit south west communities, with revenue coming from the net proceeds from Cornwall "bona vacantia". In August 1980 the Highgrove estate was purchased by the Duchy of Cornwall for a figure believed to be between £800,000 and £1,000,000 with funds raised for its purchase by the sale of three properties from the duchy's holdings, including part of the village of Daglingworth in Gloucestershire.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: In 1988, West Dorset District Council allocated land in the ducal estate, west of Dorchester, for housing development, which became known as Poundbury. The Duchy Originals company was set up in 1992 to use produce from farms on the ducal estate, with some proceeds going to his charities. Duchy Originals was licensed out to Waitrose in 2009 after losses in 2008. In 2006, Llwynywermod was purchased by the Duchy as a residence for the Duke in Wales.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: In 1995, the duchy granted a 99-year lease of the uninhabited islets of the Isles of Scilly, plus the untenanted land on the five inhabited islands, to the Isles of Scilly Wildlife Trust for an annual payment of a single daffodil. On 7 February 2005, the Duchy of Cornwall's finances came under public scrutiny by the House of Commons Public Accounts Committee.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: Under the Land Registration Act 2002, the Duchy was required by October 2013 to have filed with the Land Registry mineral rights given to the Duchy in 1337. Some land owners of Talskiddy were surprised that these rights would be expressly inserted into their registers of title upon being informed of the filing in February 2012.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: In January 2012, the Duchy purchased a warehouse at Milton Keynes from Waitrose. The Duchy was involved in the Truro Eastern District Centre (TEDC) project. The TEDC project would see a park and ride, a recycling centre, 110 homes and a Waitrose at the junction of Union Hill and Newquay Road. The project received Cornwall Council approval in March 2012, but the Truro Council challenged it in court. This brought questions over the relationship between the Duchy and Waitrose.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: In 2013 permission was given for the building of Nansledan, an urban extension to Newquay in Cornwall, which the Duchy had been planning since the early 2000s. Construction began a few months later.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: In 2013, the Duchy's office in Cornwall moved from Liskeard to Restormel Manor's old farm buildings. In 2014, the Duchy purchased the southern half of the Port Eliot estate from Lord St Germans. By 2015, Prince William had started attending the twice-yearly Duchy Council.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The duchy owns – 0.2% of UK land – in over 23 counties, including farming, residential, and commercial properties, as well as an investment portfolio.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: Most property is tenanted out, particularly farmland, while the forest land and holiday cottages are managed directly by the Duchy. The estate's holiday cottage business is centred on Restormel Manor, near Lostwithiel.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The Duchy owns The Oval cricket ground in London, which was built on land in Kennington that formed part of the original Duchy estate. The Duchy has ventured into planned development with Poundbury, near Dorchester in Dorset.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: Besides Poundbury, the duchy is involved with Nansledan, a 540-acre extension to the coastal town of Newquay, Cornwall. In 2012, work began on a 174-home development at Tregunnel Hill, southwest of Newquay, referred to locally as "Surfbury", after the Poundbury project in Dorset. Plans were approved in December 2013 that would include 800 homes, shops, a supermarket and a primary school. The intention is that Nansledan will evolve into a community of more than 4,000 homes supporting a similar number of jobs.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: Both the Duchy of Cornwall and the Duchy of Lancaster—since 1399 held by the monarch in a personal capacity—have special legal rights not available to other landed estates: for example, the rules on "bona vacantia", the right to ownerless property, operate in favour of the holders of the duchies rather than the Crown, such that the property of anyone who dies in the county of Cornwall without a will or identifiable heirs, and assets belonging to dissolved companies whose registered office was in Cornwall, pass to the duchy. In 2007, £130,000 was realised from the right of "bona vacantia", and given to a charitable fund. The duke owns freehold about three-fifths of the Cornish foreshore and the 'fundus', or bed, of navigable rivers and has right of wreck on all ships wrecked on Cornish shores, including those afloat offshore, and also to royal fish—i.e. whales, porpoises, and sturgeon. The Duchy of Cornwall is the Harbour Authority for St Mary's Harbour. There are separate attorneys-general for the duchies. The High Sheriff of Cornwall is appointed by the Duke of Cornwall, not the monarch, in contrast to the other counties of England and Wales. The duke had a ceremonial role in summoning the Cornish Stannary Parliament.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: In "Bruton v. ICO" the first tier tribunal found that the duchy was a public authority for the purposes of the Environmental Information Regulations 2004. "The Guardian" reported in 2011 that, since 2005, the Prince of Wales has been asked to give his consent to a number of draft bills on matters ranging from town planning to gambling, because it could affect the interests of the Duchy of Cornwall. Andrew George, Liberal Democrat MP for St Ives, commented that "The duchy asserts that it is merely a private estate. Most people will be astonished to learn that it appears to have effective powers of veto over the government." Writing in the "Guardian", lawyer David Gollancz commented that: "The duchy exercises a unique range of legal powers, which elsewhere are reserved for the crown... It seems anomalous, and worrying, that such a huge estate, created and conferred by law and exercising significant legal powers, should be able to escape public scrutiny by calling itself a private estate." The requirement for the Prince of Wales to give consent to draft bills that could affect the interests of the Duchy of Cornwall is not a new power granted to Prince Charles, but a centuries-old parliamentary practice that involved the same requirement for consent being conferred on previous dukes of Cornwall ("see Prince's Consent").


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: For some Cornish activists, Cornwall itself is described, "de jure", as a duchy as opposed to an ordinary county, and the duchy estates are distinguished from the duchy itself, having themselves been annexed and united to "the aforesaid duchy". The Royal Commission on the Constitution in 1973 recommended that Cornwall be officially referred to as "the duchy" on what it described as "appropriate occasions" given the nature of the county's "special relationship" with the Crown. The designation is sometimes found used informally in respect of the county as whole.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: Historically all justices of the assizes who visited Cornwall were also permanent members of the Prince's Council which oversees the Duchy of Cornwall and advises the duke. There are on record at least three instances in which the prince overruled the king by instructing his officials to ignore or disobey orders issued to them by the King's Chancery.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: The government considers the duchy to be a Crown body and therefore exempt from paying corporation tax. The tax position of the duchy has been challenged by British republicans. In 2012, following a ruling that the duchy was separate from Prince Charles for the purposes of regulation, Republic (the campaign for an elected head of state) asked HM Revenue and Customs to investigate whether the duchy should still be exempt from tax. The tax exemption is based on the assumption that the duchy estate is inseparable from the tax exempt person of Prince Charles.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: Since 1993, the Prince of Wales has voluntarily paid income tax on the duchy income less amounts which he considers to be official expenditure. The Prince paid a voluntary contribution to the treasury of 50% of his Duchy income from the time he became eligible for its full income at the age of 21 in 1969, and paid 25% from his marriage in 1981 until the current arrangement commenced in 1993. Tax is calculated after deducting official expenditure, the biggest source of which is the Prince's staff of about 110 who assist with his performance of official duties, including private secretaries and a valet working in his office at Clarence House and at Highgrove House. The official expenditure of the Prince of Wales is not audited by the National Audit Office.


title: Duchy of Cornwall

text: Traditionally, Cornish people refer to the Duke of Cornwall in the Loyal Toast, much like the Duke of Normandy in the Channel Islands, or the Duke of Lancaster in the county palatine of Lancaster (Lancashire).


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The Sikorsky S-92 is an American twin-engine medium-lift helicopter built by Sikorsky Aircraft for the civil and military helicopter markets. The S-92 was developed from the Sikorsky S-70 helicopter and has similar parts such as flight control and rotor systems.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The H-92 Superhawk is a military version of the S-92 in the utility transport role, capable of carrying 22 troops. The H-92 can also be configured for specific missions, including search and rescue and executive transportation. The CH-148 Cyclone is a shipboard maritime helicopter variant developed for the Royal Canadian Air Force to support naval operations of the Royal Canadian Navy. The Sikorsky VH-92 is a variant under development to replace the United States Marine Corps' Marine One U.S. Presidential transport fleet.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: After the 1973 oil crisis, major oil and gas companies began exploration further offshore, thus creating a need for aircraft such as the S-92 with sufficient capability.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: Sikorsky Aircraft first displayed a S-92 mockup of the planned helicopter in 1992. The S-92 was to be offered for sale beginning in 1993, but due to a decline in the international market for helicopters, this was delayed. In 1995 Sikorsky formed Team S-92 with international partners and launched the helicopter program at the Paris Airshow that year. Sikorsky developed the S-92 to compete with civil aircraft such as the Aerospatiale/Eurocopter Super Puma. The helicopter uses a new airframe with dynamic components based on the S-70/H-60 components. The S-92 took its maiden flight on December 23, 1998 at the Sikorsky Development Flight Center, West Palm Beach, Florida.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: In July 2000, Sikorsky announced design changes to the S-92. The fuselage of prototype #3 was lengthened by 16 in (40 cm) aft of the cockpit, the tail pylon was shortened by 41 in (1.04 m), and the horizontal stabilizer was repositioned from the left side opposite the tail rotor to the right side at the base of the tail pylon. The modifications to the tail solved a pitch stability issue discovered during flight testing, and were reported to allow the aircraft to meet a key requirement of the Nordic Standard Helicopter Program (NSHP) for shipboard stowage. The lengthening of the fuselage and shortening of the tail pylon shifted the aircraft center of gravity (CG) forward, permitting a more level attitude in flight. The longer fuselage allowed for an additional row of three seats, as well as a larger passenger door option for Search and Rescue (SAR) customers. Sikorsky incorporated the changes into the following two prototypes as the production standard configuration. Some reports suggested that the modifications were actually to resolve damage from structural design flaws.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The S-92 is built and customized in Sikorsky's Coatesville, Pennsylvania facility. The S-92 received Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) part 29 type certification on December 19, 2002, and received International European Aviation Safety Agency/Joint Aviation Authorities (EASA/JAA) certification on June 8, 2004. In June 2009, Sikorsky Aircraft entered into a joint-venture with Tata Advanced Systems for S-92 manufacturing in India for export and domestic markets. A US$200 million manufacturing plant will be operational in Hyderabad by 2010. Initially, TASL will supply the complete cabins for the S-92 to Sikorsky. The first cabin was delivered in November 2010.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The S-92 is multi-purpose helicopter powered by twin GE CT7-8A turboshaft engines and has an aluminum airframe and some composite components. The four-bladed fully articulated composite main rotor blade is wider and has a longer radius than the Sikorsky S-70. The tapered blade tip sweeps back and angles downward to reduce noise and increase lift. Most of the rotor system components aside from the blades are titanium.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The S-92 features an active vibration control system, using vibration sensors and structurally mounted force generators to increase flight comfort and lower acoustic levels to below certification requirements. A 2008 study by Norway's Flymedisinsk Institute found that the S-92's vibration levels were 42 percent above that of the Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma; Sikorsky disputed this finding, saying that the study hadn't used their latest anti-vibration technology. In February 2011, as published on a Norwegian newspaper's website, the noise and vibration levels were reportedly subject to health concerns, allegedly causing tinnitus and heart problems.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: A number of safety features such as flaw tolerance, bird strike capability, and engine burst containment have been incorporated into the design. Adherence to FAA FAR part 29 has led the FAA certification board to call the S-92 the "safest helicopter in the world". The S-92 was not able to meet the Federal Aviation Regulation "run dry" specification for loss of oil pressure in the main gearbox, but was certified with an exemption due to the unlikelihood of such a situation occurring; this was a factor in the fatal crash of Cougar Helicopters Flight 91 in 2009.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The S-92 received FAA certification in 2002, and International certification in June 2004. The first S-92 was delivered in late 2004 to launch customer PHI, Inc.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: Sikorsky entered a Search and rescue variant of the H-92 in U.S. Air Force's CSAR-X combat search and rescue competition beginning in 2006. Its competitors were the AgustaWestland EH101 and HH-47, but by December 2012 all other manufacturers had withdrawn. "Flight International" magazine expects Sikorsky to bid a version of its MH-60 special operations helicopter.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: After Sikorsky successfully challenged in court the preferred supplier status of NHIndustries NH90 for the Nordic Standard Helicopter Programme an open competition was held. Sikorsky entered the S-92 as a candidate for the Norwegian All Weather Search and Rescue Helicopter (NAWSARH) that is planned to replace the Royal Norwegian Air Force Westland Sea King Mk.43B in 2015. The other candidates for the NAWSARH contract of 10 to 12 helicopters were AgustaWestland AW101, Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, Eurocopter EC225, and NHIndustries NH90. The V-22 was eliminated from the competition in 2012. The S-92 was removed from the competition in July 2013 and was subsequently won by AgustaWestland with an order for 16 AW101s.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The S-92 competed with the Eurocopter EC225 for the UK Search and Rescue – Helicopter (SAR-H) program. In February 2010, the S-92 was selected by the UK in a £6bn deal to replace 40 Sea King search and rescue helicopters with 25 to 30 S-92s; it subsequently announced that Soteria, the preferred supplier, will not be used due to irregularities with its bid. The UK government subsequently opted for a smaller £2.5bn contract with the Bristow Group to operate 11 S-92s (and 11 AW189s) from 10 bases.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The Irish Coast Guard replaced its Sikorsky S-61N fleet with the S-92, beginning in 2012. The aircraft are operated by CHC Helicopter.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: In the wake of the deadly 2016 crash of a Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma contracted by Statoil, that company announced that it would not use that type again and instead use the Sikorsky S-92 to meet its needs, stipulating that operators it contracts with, such as CHC Helikopter Service, will be required to use such equipment.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The S-92A is the civilian variant and is available in a number of versions. The civil transport version has an airliner-type interior that seats 19 passengers. The utility transport version has 22 side-facing seats with a full cabin width rear ramp. The interior cabin area can also be configured to accommodate up to three airline-style LD3 cargo containers. Additional stowage space is available in the area located in the aft ramp compartment. During development it was referred to as the S-92C Helibus.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: The H-92 Superhawk is the military variant of the S-92. It has been demonstrated to the U.S. Air Force, Marine Corps and Coast Guard. The H-92 has more powerful GE CT7-8C engines, rated at and, unlike the S-92, has fly-by-wire flight controls. The search and rescue variant provides space for seats, litters, auxiliary fuel cell and SAR emergency equipment.


title: Sikorsky S-92

text: In July 2004, the H-92 Superhawk was selected by Canada for its Maritime Helicopter Programme (MHP) as the CH-148 Cyclone. Canada ordered 28 helicopters in November 2004. The program has been delayed multiple times. As of November 2019, nineteen CH-148 Cyclones have been built, delivered, and accepted by the government of Canada. The Canadian military declared initial operational capacity in June 2018, and expects full operational capacity by 2022.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The Battle of Carrhae () was fought in 53 BC between the Roman Republic and the Parthian Empire near the ancient town of Carrhae (present-day Harran, Turkey). An invading force of seven legions of Roman heavy infantry under Marcus Licinius Crassus was lured into the desert and decisively defeated by a mixed cavalry army of heavy cataphracts and light horse archers led by the Parthian general Surena. On such flat terrain, the Legion proved to have no viable tactics against the highly-mobile Parthian horsemen, and the slow and vulnerable Roman formations were surrounded, exhausted by constant attacks, and eventually crushed. Crassus was killed along with the majority of his army. It is commonly seen as one of the earliest and most important battles between the Roman and Parthian Empires and one of the most crushing defeats in Roman history. According to the poet Ovid in Book 6 of his poem "Fasti", the battle occurred on the 9th day of June.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Crassus, a member of the First Triumvirate and the wealthiest man in Rome, had been enticed by the prospect of military glory and riches and decided to invade Parthia without the official consent of the Senate. Rejecting an offer from the Armenian King Artavasdes II to allow Crassus to invade Parthia via Armenia, Crassus marched his army directly through the deserts of Mesopotamia. His forces clashed with Surena's troops near Carrhae. Surena's cavalry killed or captured most of the Roman soldiers. Crassus himself was killed when truce negotiations turned violent.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: His death ended the First Triumvirate. The following four-year period of peace between the remaining two members of the Triumvirate, Julius Caesar and Pompey, argues against the view that Crassus had been a peacekeeper within the group and supports the views of most Roman historians that friction between Crassus and Pompey had always been a greater cause of tension than that between Caesar and Pompey.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The war in Parthia resulted from political arrangements intended to be mutually beneficial for Marcus Licinius Crassus, Pompeius Magnus, and Julius Caesar, the so-called First Triumvirate. In March and April 56 BC, meetings were held at Ravenna and Luca, in Caesar's province of Cisalpine Gaul, to reaffirm the weakening alliance formed four years earlier. It was agreed that the Triumvirate would marshal its supporters and resources to secure legislation for prolonging Caesar's Gallic command and to influence the upcoming elections for 55 BC, with the objective of a second joint consulship for Crassus and Pompeius. The Triumvirate aimed to expand their faction's power by traditional means: military commands, placing political allies in office and advancing legislation to promote their interests. Pressure in various forms was brought to bear on the elections: money, influence from patronage and friendship and the force of 1000 troopers brought from Gaul by Crassus's son Publius. The faction secured the consulship and most of the other offices that were sought. Legislation passed by the tribune Trebonius (the "Lex Trebonia") granted extended proconsulships of five years, matching that of Caesar in Gaul, to the two outgoing consuls. The Spanish provinces would go to Pompeius. Crassus arranged to have Syria with the transparent intention of going to war with Parthia.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Meanwhile, in Parthia, a war of succession had broken out in 57 BC after King Phraates III had been killed by his sons Orodes II and Mithridates IV, who then began fighting each other over the throne. In the first stage, Orodes emerged victorious and appointed his brother as king of Media (his "de facto" governor) as a compromise. However, another armed clash made Orodes force Mithridates to flee to Aulus Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Syria. Gabinius sought to interfere in the succession dispute on behalf of Mithridates so that Rome could make him its puppet king and seize control of Parthia in the process. However, Gabinius abandoned his plans and opted to intervene in Ptolemaic Egyptian affairs instead.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Mithridates proceeded to invade Babylonia on his own with some initial success but was soon confronted by the army of the Parthian commander Surena.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Gabinius's successor, Crassus, also sought to ally himself with Mithridates and invaded Parthia's client-state Osroene in 54 BC but wasted most of his time in waiting for reinforcements on the Balikh River's left bank while Surena besieged, defeated and executed Mithridates in Seleucia on the Tigris. Orodes, now unopposed in his own realm, marched north to invade Rome's ally Armenia, where King Artavasdes II soon defected to the Parthian side.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The notoriously wealthy Marcus Crassus was around 62 when he embarked on the Parthian invasion. Greed is often regarded by the ancient sources, particularly his biographer Plutarch, as his major character fault and his motive for going to war. The historian Erich S. Gruen believed that Crassus's purpose was to enrich the public treasury since personal wealth was not what Crassus most lacked. Most modern historians tend to view insatiable greed, envy of Pompey's military exploits and rivalry as his motivations since his long-faded military reputation had always been inferior to that of Pompeius and, after five years of war in Gaul, to that of Caesar. His major military achievements had been the defeat of Spartacus in 71 BC and his victory at the Battle of the Colline Gate for Sulla a decade earlier. Plutarch noted that Caesar wrote to Crassus from Gaul and endorsed the plan to invade Parthia, an indication that he regarded Crassus's military campaign as complementary and not merely rivalrous to his own.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Another factor in Crassus's decision to invade Parthia was the expected ease of the campaign. The Roman legions had easily crushed the numerically superior armies of other eastern powers such as Pontus and Armenia, and Crassus expected Parthia to be an easy target.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Cicero, however, suggested an additional factor: the ambitions of the talented Publius Crassus, who had commanded successful campaigns in Gaul under Caesar. Upon his return to Rome as a highly decorated officer, Publius took steps to establish his own political career. Roman sources view the Battle of Carrhae not only as a calamity for Rome and a disgrace for Marcus Crassus but also as a tragedy that cut short Publius Crassus's promising career.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Some Romans objected to the war against Parthia. Cicero calls it a war "nulla causa" ("with no justification") on the grounds that Parthia had a treaty with Rome. The tribune Ateius Capito put up strenuous opposition and infamously conducted a public ritual of execration as Crassus prepared to depart.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Despite protests and dire omens, Marcus Crassus left Rome on November 14, 55 BC. Publius Crassus joined him in Syria during the winter of 54–53 BC and brought with him the thousand Celtic cavalry troopers from Gaul who remained loyal to their young leader until their death.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Crassus arrived in Syria in late 55 BC and immediately set about using his immense wealth to raise an army. According to Plutarch, he assembled a force of seven legions for a total of about 28,000 to 35,000 heavy infantry. He also had about 4,000 light infantry, and 4,000 cavalry, including the 1000-strong Gallic cavalry that Publius had brought with him. With the aid of Hellenic settlements in Syria and the support of about 6,000 cavalry from Artavasdes, the Armenian king, Crassus marched on Parthia. Artavasdes advised him to take a route through Armenia to avoid the desert and offered him reinforcements of a further 10,000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Crassus refused the offer and decided to take the direct route through Mesopotamia and to capture the great cities in the region. In response, the Parthian king, , divided his army and took most of the soldiers, mainly foot archers with a small amount of cavalry, to punish the Armenians himself. He sent the rest of his forces, an all-cavalry force under the command of "spahbod" Surena, to scout out and harass Crassus's army. Orodes did not anticipate that Surena's heavily outnumbered force would be able to defeat Crassus and merely wanted to delay him. Plutarch described Surena's force as "a thousand mail-clad horsemen and a still greater number of light-armed cavalry". Including slaves and vassals, Surena's expedition numbered ten thousand in total, supported by a baggage train of one thousand camels.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Crassus received directions from the Osroene chieftain Ariamnes, who had assisted Pompey in his eastern campaigns. Crassus trusted Ariamnes, who, however, was in the pay of the Parthians. He urged Crassus to attack at once and falsely stated that the Parthians were weak and disorganized. He then led Crassus's army into the most desolate part of the desert, far from any water. Crassus then received a message from Artavasdes that claimed that the main Parthian army was in Armenia, and the letter begged him for help. Crassus ignored the message and continued his advance into Mesopotamia. He encountered Surena's army near the town of Carrhae.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: After being informed of the presence of the Parthian army (which numbered roughly 10,000), Crassus's army panicked. Crassus' commanding general, Cassius, recommended that the army be deployed in the traditional Roman fashion, with infantry forming the centre and cavalry on the wings. At first, Crassus agreed, but he soon changed his mind and redeployed his men into a hollow square, each side formed by twelve cohorts. That formation would protect his forces from being outflanked but at the cost of mobility. The Roman forces advanced and came to a stream. Crassus's generals advised him to make camp and to attack the next morning to give his men a chance to rest. Publius, however, was eager to fight and managed to convince Crassus to confront the Parthians immediately.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The Parthians went to great lengths to intimidate the Romans. Firstly, they beat a great number of hollow drums and the Roman troops were unsettled by the loud and cacophonous noise. Surena then ordered his cataphracts to cover their armour in cloths and advance. When they were within sight of the Romans, they simultaneously dropped the cloths and revealed their shining armour. The sight was designed to intimidate the Romans.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Though Surena had originally planned to shatter the Roman lines with a charge by his cataphracts, he judged that it would not yet be enough to break them. Thus, he sent his horse archers to surround the Roman square. Crassus sent his skirmishers to drive the horse archers off, but they were driven back by the latter's arrows. The horse archers then engaged the legionaries. The legionaries were protected by their large shields ("scuta") and armour, but they could not cover the entire body. Some historians describe the arrows partially penetrating the Roman shields and nailing the shields to the limbs of the Roman infantry and nailing their feet to the ground. However, Plutarch wrote in his accounts that the Romans were met with a shower of arrows that passed through every kind of cover, hard and soft alike. Other historians state that most wounds inflicted were nonfatal hits to exposed limbs.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The Romans repeatedly advanced towards the Parthians to attempt to engage in close-quarters fighting, but the horse archers were always able to retreat safely and loosed Parthian shots as they withdrew. The legionaries then formed the testudo formation by locking their shields together to present a nearly-impenetrable front to missiles. However, that formation severely restricted their ability in melee combat. The Parthian cataphracts exploited that weakness and repeatedly charged the Roman line, which caused panic and inflicted heavy casualties. When the Romans tried to loosen their formation to repel the cataphracts, the latter rapidly retreated, and the horse archers resumed shooting at the legionaries, who were now more exposed.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Crassus now hoped that his legionaries could hold out until the Parthians ran out of arrows. However, Surena used thousands of camels to resupply his horse archers. Upon this realisation, Crassus dispatched his son Publius with 1,300 Gallic cavalry, 500 archers and eight cohorts of legionaries to drive off the horse archers. The horse archers feigned retreat and drew off Publius' force, which suffered heavy casualties from arrow fire.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Once Publius and his men were sufficiently separated from the rest of the army, the Parthian cataphracts confronted them while the horse archers cut off their retreat. In the ensuing combat, the Gauls fought bravely, but their inferiority in weapons and armor was evident. They eventually retreated to a hill, where Publius committed suicide while the rest of his men were slaughtered, with only 500 being taken alive.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Crassus, unaware of his son's fate but realising that Publius was in danger, ordered a general advance. He was confronted with the sight of his son's head on a spear. The Parthian horse archers began to surround the Roman infantry and shot at them from all directions. Meanwhile, the cataphracts mounted a series of charges that disorganised the Romans.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The Parthian onslaught did not cease until nightfall. Crassus, deeply shaken by his son's death, ordered a retreat to the nearby town of Carrhae and left behind 4000 wounded, who were killed by the Parthians the next morning.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Four Roman cohorts got lost in the dark and were surrounded on a hill by the Parthians, with only 20 Romans surviving.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The next day, Surena sent a message to the Romans and offered to negotiate with Crassus. Surena proposed a truce to allow the Roman army to return to Syria safely in exchange for Rome giving up all territory east of the Euphrates. Surena either sent an embassy to the Romans by the hills or went himself to state he wanted a peace conference on an evacuation.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Crassus was reluctant to meet with the Parthians, but his troops threatened to mutiny otherwise. At the meeting, a Parthian pulled at Crassus's reins and sparked violence in which Crassus and his generals were killed.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: After his death, the Parthians allegedly poured molten gold down his throat in a symbolic gesture mocking Crassus's renowned greed. Plutarch reports that Crassus' severed head was then used as a prop for part of a play, Euripides' Bacchae, performed at a banquet before the king. The remaining Romans at Carrhae attempted to flee, but most were captured or killed. According to the ancient historian Plutarch, Roman casualties amounted to about 20,000 killed and 10,000 captured, which made the battle one of the costliest defeats in Roman history. Parthian casualties were minimal.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Rome was humiliated by this defeat, which was made even worse by the fact that the Parthians had captured several Legionary Eagles. It is also mentioned by Plutarch that the Parthians found the Roman prisoner-of-war who most resembled Crassus, dressed him as a woman and paraded him through Parthia for all to see. This was a direct attack on Roman military culture, as the Parthians ordered the other Roman prisoners to hail this false Crassus as Imperator while on parade, a direct mockery of a Roman triumph.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: , with the rest of the Parthian Army, defeated the Armenians and captured their country. However, Surena's victory invoked the jealousy of the Parthian king, who ordered Surena's execution. Following Surena's death, himself took command of the Parthian army and led an unsuccessful military campaign into Syria.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The Battle of Carrhae was one of the first major battles between the Romans and Parthians. It was the victory that led Parthia to invade Syria and Armenia several times, with varying successes. Rome also realised that its legionaries could not effectively fight against Parthian cavalry.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Gaius Cassius Longinus, a quaestor under Crassus, led approximately 10,000 surviving soldiers from the battlefield back to Syria, where he governed as a proquaestor for two years, defending Syria from 's further attacks. He received praise from Cicero for his victory. Cassius later played a key role in the conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar in 44 BC.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The 10,000 Roman prisoners of war appear to have been deported to Alexandria Margiana (Merv) near the Parthian Empire's northeastern border in 53 BC, where they reportedly married to local people. It has been hypothesized that some of them founded the Chinese city of Liqian after they had become soldiers for the Xiongnu during the Battle of Zhizhi against the Han dynasty, but that is disputed.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: The capture of the golden "aquilae" (legionary battle standards) by the Parthians was considered a grave moral defeat and evil omen for the Romans. When he was assassinated, Caesar was planning a retaliatory war. It was said that there would have been harsh retribution if Caesar won because the surviving son of Crassus would be among the Roman forces.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: However, the fall of the Roman Republic intervened, and the beginning of imperial monarchy at Rome followed. Sulla's first march on Rome in 88 BC had begun the collapse of the republican form of government, but the death of Crassus and the loss of his legions utterly reconfigured the balance of power at Rome. An old theory ran that the death of Crassus, along with the death of Julia in 54, Pompey's wife and Caesar's daughter, may have severed the ties between Caesar and Pompey, and the First Triumvirate no longer existed. As a result, civil war broke out. Caesar won, and the Republic quickly became an autocratic dictatorship.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Several historians note the lapse of time between Crassus's death and the outbreak of civil war. Gaius Stern has claimed that the death nearly cut the links the First Triumvirate enjoyed with the blue-blooded aristocracy, leaving the entire state vulnerable to the friction that eventually turned into civil war. Thus, an immediate effect of the battle may have been the elimination of certain private checks and balances (such as Crassus's relationship to Metellus Pius Scipio) that had kept a lid on political tensions.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: In a regional context, however, the battle had little negative impact for Rome in the long-term as the following retaliatory invasion of Rome by Parthia in 40 BC was stopped and repulsed by Publius Ventidius Bassus, it did not prevent an invasion of Parthia by Mark Anthony in 36 BC (although this campaign ended in failure as well).


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: It is rumoured that some of the survivors of Crassus's army ended up in China. In the 1940s, Homer H. Dubs, an American professor of Chinese history at the University of Oxford, suggested that the people of Liqian were descended from Roman soldiers taken prisoner after the battle. The prisoners, Dubs proposed, were resettled by the Parthians on their eastern border and may have fought as mercenaries at the Battle of Zhizhi between the Chinese and the Xiongnu in 36 BC. Chinese chroniclers mention the use of a "fish-scale formation" of soldiers as well as a double wooden palisade structure, which Dubs believed referred to the testudo formation and a defensive tactic that was unique to the Romans. To date, no artifacts that might confirm a Roman presence, such as coins or weaponry, have been discovered in Zhelaizhai, and Dubs' theories have not been accepted by the vast majority of historians.


title: Battle of Carrhae

text: Rob Gifford, commenting on the theory, described it as one of many "rural myths". Alfred Duggan used the possible fate of the Roman prisoners as the kernel of his novel "Winter Quarters", which suggested that they were employed as frontier guards on the eastern border of the Parthian Empire.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: Gleison Bremer Silva Nascimento (; born 18 March 1997), or simply Bremer, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for club Juventus and the Brazil national team.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: Born in Itapetinga, Bahia, Bremer joined Desportivo Brasil in 2014, aged 17. In 2016 he was loaned to São Paulo for one year, and was initially assigned to the under-20 squad. He made his professional debut with the reserves on 12 October of that year, coming on as a late substitute in a 3–0 home loss against Rio Claro, for the year's Copa Paulista.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: In March 2017, Bremer moved to Atlético Mineiro for a fee of R$ 380,000. Promoted to the main squad in June, he made his first team – and Série A – debut on 25 June, replacing injured Rodrigão in a 1–0 away win against Chapecoense. On 11 July 2017, Bremer renewed his contract until the end of 2021.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: On 10 July 2018, Bremer joined Italian club Torino on a five-year deal. He made his debut with the "Granata" on 12 August in the Coppa Italia against Cosenza (4–0), entering in the 23rd minutes of the second half in place of Armando Izzo. On 19 August he made his debut in Serie A, once again as a substitute for Izzo, in a game lost 1–0 against Roma. Bremer made his first appearance as a starter on 3 May 2019 in the Turin deby, a 1–1 draw against Juventus. In his first season with Torino he made a total of seven appearances between Serie A and the Coppa Italia, mainly as a reserve to Emiliano Moretti and Koffi Djidji.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: After Moretti's retirement at the end of the season, Walter Mazzarri began using Bremer as a starter at the beginning of the 2019–20 season. On 25 July 2019, he made his debut in UEFA competitions, in the first qualifying round of the Europa League against Debrecen. In the second qualifying round, he scored an own goal in a 3–2 home loss to Wolverhampton.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: In the 2020–21 season, Bremer began to play as a starter for Torino with more continuity, and on 30 November 2020 scored the match-winning goal in an away win against Genoa (1–0). On 28 January 2020, he scored a brace in the Coppa Italia, which ended in a 4–2 defeat against AC Milan. Following the resumption of the season, he played all games as a starter for Torino and contributed a further two goals. He ended the season with a total of 35 appearances and five goals in all competitions.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: On 2 February 2022, Bremer extended his contract with the club until 2024. His performances offered throughout the 2021–22 season earned him the award as the best defender of the Serie A season.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: On 20 July 2022, Bremer joined Juventus on a five-year deal. He made his competitive debut on 15 August, in a Serie A 3–0 win over Sassuolo. On 11 September, he scored his first goal for the "Bianconeri", in a 2–2 draw to Salernitana in the league.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: On 9 September 2022, Bremer received his first call up to the Brazil national team, for friendlies against Ghana and Tunisia. He made his debut against Ghana on 23 September, in a 3–0 win. On 7 November, he was named in the squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.


title: Gleison Bremer

text: Bremer is a physically strong centre-back with excellent aerial ability and sense of positioning. A versatile player, he has notable speed, and has said to be inspired by the Brazilian defender Lúcio.


title: Putlocker

text: Putlocker is one of various online file hosting index websites used for streaming entertainment media, particularly films and television series, for free. The initial website originated in the United Kingdom as early as 2011, and grew to receive millions of daily visitors after the shutdown of Megaupload. In May 2016, the website was blocked in the UK by a High Court order, and at its peak prior to a temporary closure in late 2016, Alexa Internet listed Putlocker as ranking among the top 250 most-visited websites worldwide. Putlocker has been reported by the Motion Picture Association (MPA) as a major piracy threat.


title: Putlocker

text: Putlocker's domain address has changed multiple times throughout its history, with a number of URLs bearing the Putlocker name being suspended or seized. It is not publicly known whether an official Putlocker website maintained by the original team remains available online, but at least fifty mirror or proxy websites, many of which use the Putlocker name, have been identified.


title: Putlocker

text: Putlocker originated in the United Kingdom under the URL putlocker.com. In early January 2012, the website received about 800,000 visitors a day, but after the popular website Megaupload was shut down due to copyright infringement, Putlocker began receiving approximately 1.6 million visitors a day. The website's operations officer, Adrian Petroff, found Megaupload's closure worrying, stating "who needs SOPA when a studio exec can make a wish/hit list and sites 'voluntarily' shut down?"


title: Putlocker

text: In March 2012, Putlocker was identified by Alfred Perry, vice president for worldwide content protection at Paramount Pictures, as one of the "top 5 rogue cyberlocker services". The website's URL was changed to putlocker.bz, an address which was seized by the Police Intellectual Property Crime Unit of the UK in June 2014, and was subsequently changed to putlocker.is, a domain located in Iceland. In India, Putlocker and its clones have been blocked since the website first gained prominence in 2011, this followed from a court injunction in a case filed by Reliance BIG Pictures, ordering the blocking of file sharing websites which hosted copyrighted content.


title: Putlocker

text: In 2014, "Putlocker" was reported as being one of the top trending search queries on Google Search in Canada for that year.


title: Putlocker

text: From around early October 2016, the putlocker.is address displayed an error stating that the website's host service was inaccessible. Around this time, the Motion Picture Association (MPA) reported Putlocker to the Office of the United States Trade Representative as a piracy threat. The MPAA revealed that Putlocker operated from Vietnam, and that its servers were hosted by the Swiss company Private Layer.


title: Putlocker

text: Prior to its closure, putlocker.is was listed among the 250 top websites globally and the top 150 in the United States, according to Alexa data. A mirror site under the address putlocker.today appeared shortly after the assumed termination of putlocker.is, and on October 17, 2016, an address under the name putlocker9.com was reported to be available.


title: Putlocker

text: On 2 November 2016, the putlocker.is address became active again, redirecting its users to the updated URL putlockers.ch. On 27 February 2017, the putlockers.ch address was suspended after a ruling by a "Tribunal d'arrondissement" of Luxembourg in favour of the Belgian Entertainment Association, and the URL transferred ownership to EuroDNS. The chief legal officer of EuroDNS, Luc Seufer, stated that EuroDNS is required to "prevent any 'reactivation' of this domain name [putlockers.ch] until its expiration date". Following the seizure of the putlockers.ch address, the previously used putlocker.is domain was made functional again.


title: Putlocker

text: In March 2017, it was reported that Ted Osius, then United States Ambassador to Vietnam, held a meeting with Truong Minh Tuan, Vietnam's Minister of Information and Communications, during which Osius urged for the criminal prosecution of Putlocker, along with the websites 123Movies and KissCartoon, for copyright infringement.


title: Putlocker

text: Not long after, putlocker.is, which changed to putlockertv.is and subsequently putlockers.cc, was reported to redirect visitors to a scamming site. In May 2017, at least three working sites bearing the Putlocker name were known to be available: putlocker.rs, with a Serbian top-level domain (TLD), putlockertv.ist, with an Istanbulite TLD, and putlockerhd.is, with an Icelandic one.


title: Putlocker

text: In July 2017, the "International Business Times" reported that "15% of internet users in the UK are either infringing copyright through streaming or illegal downloads, with pirated TV material primarily accessed through Kodi (16%) or Putlocker (17%)". In August 2017, Justice John Nicholas of the Federal Court of Australia ordered Australian internet service providers to block access to 42 piracy sites in a case brought by Village Roadshow, with Putlocker, KissCartoon, and GoMovies being among those ordered to be blocked.


title: Putlocker

text: In June 2018, Trevon Maurice Franklin of Fresno, California pleaded guilty to violating federal copyright law back in February 2016, when he downloaded the superhero film "Deadpool" from Putlocker and then uploaded it to Facebook eight days after the film was released theatrically in the United States. As a result, the film was viewed over 6 million times for free, with the total retail value of the copies being estimated at around $2,500. U.S. District Judge John A. Kronstadt set 27 September as the sentencing date for the federal class-A misdemeanor, which carries a possible penalty of up to one year in prison, along with a $100,000 fine. After missing the September 27 sentencing hearing, Franklin was sentenced in October to 24 days in federal detention followed by a year of supervised release, including 20 hours of community service per week.


title: Penalty shoot-out (association football)

text: A penalty shoot-out (officially kicks from the penalty mark) is a tie-breaking method in association football to determine which team is awarded victory in a match that cannot end in a draw, when the score is tied after the normal time as well as extra time (if used) have expired. In a penalty shoot-out, each team takes turns shooting at goal from the penalty mark, with the goal defended only by the opposing team's goalkeeper. Each team has five shots which must be taken by different kickers; the team that makes more successful kicks is declared the victor. Shoot-outs finish as soon as one team has an insurmountable lead. If scores are level after five pairs of shots, the shootout progresses into additional "sudden-death" rounds. Balls successfully kicked into the goal during a shoot-out do not count as goals for the individual kickers or the team, and are tallied separately from the goals scored during normal play (including extra time, if any). Although the procedure for each individual kick in the shoot-out resembles that of a penalty kick, there are some differences. Most notably, neither the kicker nor any player other than the goalkeeper may play the ball again once it has been kicked.


text: The penalty shoot-out is one of the three methods of breaking a draw that are approved by the Laws of the Game; the others are extra time and, for two-legged ties, the away goals rule. A shoot-out is usually used only after one or more of the other methods fail to produce a winner. The method of breaking a draw for a specific match is determined beforehand by the match organising body. In most professional level competitions, two 15-minute extra time periods are played if the score is tied at the end of regulation time, and a shoot-out is held if the score is still tied after the extra time periods.


text: Although widely employed in football since the 1970s, penalty shoot-outs have been criticised by many followers of the game, due primarily to their perceived reliance on luck rather than skill and their dependence on individual duels between opposing players, which is arguably not in keeping with football as a team sport. Conversely, some believe the pressure and unpredictability involved makes it one of the most thrilling finales to any sport.


text: During a shoot-out, players other than the kicker and the goalkeepers must remain in the centre circle. The kicking team's goalkeeper stands at the intersection of the goal line and the line marking the penalty area () near one of the assistant referees. Goals scored during the shoot-out are not commonly added to the goalscoring records of the players involved.


text: A draw is a common result in football. Shoot-outs are only used in competitions that require a match-winner at the end of the game – this is predominantly in knockout "cup" ties, as opposed to round-robin "leagues"; they decide which team progresses to the next round of a tournament, or win it. Usually extra time has been played first, but this is not necessary; exceptions include the Copa Libertadores, Copa América (quarter-finals, semi-finals, and third-place game), FA Community Shield, the EFL League Cup, and the Football League Trophy, all of which use shoot-outs straight after the end of normal time.


text: The rules of some competitions provide that a shoot-out may be used to decide placings in a round-robin group, in the unusual event that two teams who have faced each other in a final-day match finish the group with identical statistics, and no other teams has the same record. This was invoked in Group A of the 2003 UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship, in which Italy and Sweden held a shootout immediately after their drawn match. This rule is a recent innovation, and for example did not apply in Group F of the 1990 World Cup, where the Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands were separated by drawing of lots immediately after drawing their final-day match.


text: Several leagues, such as the J.League, have experimented with penalty shoot-outs immediately following a drawn league match, with the winner being awarded an extra point. In the United States and Canada, Major League Soccer initially also had a shoot-out immediately following the end of full-time, even during league matches, although these shoot-outs differed from standard penalty shoot-outs (see below).


text: A team that loses a penalty shoot-out is eliminated from the tournament while the winning team in the shoot-out advances to the next round or is crowned champion but the match is classed as a draw by FIFA. For instance, the Netherlands are considered to have concluded the 2014 FIFA World Cup undefeated, despite being eliminated at the semi-final stage.


text: The following is a summary of the procedure for kicks from the penalty mark. The procedure is specified in Law 10 ("Determining the Outcome of a Match") of the "Laws of the Game" (p. 71).


text: Defending against a penalty kick is one of the most difficult tasks a goalkeeper can face. Some decide which way they will dive beforehand, giving themselves time to reach the side of the goalmouth. A 2011 study published in the journal "Psychological Science" found goalkeepers dived to the right 71% of the time when their team was losing, but only 48% when ahead and 49% when tied, a phenomenon believed to be related to certain right-preferring behaviour in social mammals. Others try to read the kicker's motion pattern. Kickers may attempt to feint, or delay their shot to see which way the keeper dives. Shooting high and centre, in the space that the keeper will evacuate, carries the highest risk of shooting above the bar. If a keeper blocks a penalty kick during a match, there is a danger the kicker or a teammate may score from the rebound; this is not relevant in the case of a shoot-out.


text: Since the entire shoot-out is conducted at the same goal, the crowd behind the goal may favour one team and try to distract the other team's shooters. To forestall any potential advantage, in 2016 the Laws of the Game were modified to add a coin toss between the two teams prior to the shoot-out: the winner of the coin toss has the right to decide which goal is used for the shoot-out (previously, the decision was at the referee's discretion). The referee may change the goal only for safety reasons or if the selected goal or pitch are unusable.


text: A goalkeeper may not use distracting gamesmanship such as cleaning his boots or asking the referee to see if the ball is placed properly; this risks a caution for unsporting conduct. Bruce Grobbelaar's "wobbly legs" clowning distracted Francesco Graziani in the 1984 European Cup Final shootout. The keeper is forbidden from moving off the goal line to narrow the shooter's angle; the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final shootout caused controversy as replays showed that both keepers got away with this, as did Jerzy Dudek in the 2005 Champions League Final.


text: Between 1867 and 1970, the laws of association football did not provide for a method of breaking ties. The first association football tournament, the FA Cup, used extra time and replays to decide drawn games. This example was followed by other early knockout competitions.


text: In the early 1920s, some charity matches began using corner-kicks as a tie-breaker in order to avoid replays. In response, the laws of the game were amended in 1923 to state explicitly that the goal was the only means of scoring, and that a match that ended with equal number of goals scored was drawn.


text: In major competitions, when a replay or playoff was not possible, ties were previously broken by drawing of lots. Examples include Italy's win over the USSR in the semi-final of the 1968 European Championship (the final, also drawn, went to a replay).


text: However, variants of the modern shoot-out were used before then in several domestic competitions and minor tournaments. Domestic examples include the Yugoslav Cup from 1952, the Coppa Italia from 1958 to 1959, and the Swiss inter-regional Youth Cup from 1959 to 1960. International examples include the 1962 Uhrencup (at the suggestion of its founder Kurt Weissbrodt),


text: the final of the 1962 Ramón de Carranza Trophy (at the suggestion of journalist Rafael Ballester), and a silver medal playoff match between amateur teams representing Venezuela and Bolivia in the 1965 Bolivarian Games. Pavllo Bukoviku took and scored all KS Besa's kicks in a 5–2 shootout win in the 1963 Albanian Cup Final, a format devised by Anton Mazreku, the Albanian FA president.


text: Israeli Yosef Dagan is credited with originating the modern shoot-out, after watching the Israeli team lose a 1968 Olympic quarter-final game against Bulgaria by drawing of lots in Mexico. Michael Almog, later president of the Israel Football Association, described Dagan's proposal in a letter published in "FIFA News" in August 1969. Koe Ewe Teik, the FA Malaysia's member of the referee's committee, led the move for its adoption by FIFA. FIFA's proposal was discussed on 20 February 1970 by a working party of the International Football Association Board (IFAB), which recommended its acceptance, although "not entirely satisfied" with it. It was adopted at IFAB's annual general meeting on 27 June 1970. In 2006, Deutsche Presse-Agentur reported a claim by former referee Karl Wald from Frankfurt am Main, that he had first proposed the shoot-out in 1970 to the Bavarian FA.


text: The adoption of the penalty shoot-out by IFAB came too late for the 1970 World Cup, whose rules still prescribed drawing of lots for any knockout match other than the final which ended drawn after extra-time (FIFA refused to announce in advance what would happen if the final itself ended up drawn). The technical report for the 1970 tournament recommended that drawing of lots should be abandoned in future tournaments, noting that "this suggestion has, however, since been cut across by the decision of the International Board as to the taking of penalty kicks to resolve such a deadlock situation." In the event, drawing of lots was never required to decide the winner of a knockout match in any World Cup finals, although it was used in a 1969 qualification tie when Morocco advanced at the expense of Tunisia.


text: In England, the first penalty shoot-out in a professional match took place in 1970 at Boothferry Park, Hull, between Hull City and Manchester United during the semi-final of the Watney Cup, and was won by Manchester United. The first player to take a kick was George Best, and the first to miss was Denis Law. Ian McKechnie, who saved Law's kick, was also the first goalkeeper to take a kick; his shot hit the crossbar and deflected over, putting Hull City out of the Cup.


text: Penalty shoot-outs were used to decide matches in UEFA's European Cup and Cup Winners' Cup in the 1970–71 season. On 30 September 1970, after a 4–4 aggregate draw in the first round of the Cup Winners' Cup, Honvéd won the first shoot-out 5–4 against Aberdeen, when Jim Forrest's shot hit the bar. Five weeks later, on 4 November 1970, the first ever European Cup shoot out took place between Everton F.C. and Borussia Mönchengladbach, with the side from England this time being the winners 4–3.


text: In the first round of the European Cup 1972–73, the referee prematurely ended a shoot-out between CSKA Sofia and Panathinaikos, with CSKA leading 3–2 but Panathinaikos having taken only four kicks. Panathinaikos complained to UEFA and the match was annulled and replayed the following month, with CSKA winning without the need for a shoot-out.


text: The final of the 1973 Campeonato Paulista ended in similar circumstances. Santos were leading Portuguesa 2–0 with each team having taken three shoot-out kicks, when referee Armando Marques mistakenly (as each team still had two shots to take, and therefore Portuguesa still had a chance of levelling the scoreline) declared Santos the winners. Portuguesa manager Otto Glória quickly led his team out of the stadium; this was allegedly to ensure the shoot-out could not resume once the mistake was discovered, and that instead the match would be replayed, giving Portuguesa a better chance of victory. When Santos counter-objected to a replay, Paulista FA president Osvaldo Teixeira Duarte annulled the original match and declared both teams joint champions.


text: The first major international tournament to be decided by a penalty shoot-out was the 1976 European Championship final between Czechoslovakia and West Germany. UEFA had made provision for a final replay two days later, but the teams decided to use a shoot-out instead. Czechoslovakia won the shootout 5–3, with the deciding kick being converted by Antonín Panenka with a "chip" after Uli Hoeneß had put the previous kick over the crossbar.


text: The first penalty shoot-out in the World Cup was on 9 January 1977, in the first round of African qualifying, when Tunisia beat Morocco. The first shoot-out in the finals tournament was in 1982, when West Germany beat France in the semifinal. If the 1982 final had been drawn, penalties would not have applied unless the replay was also drawn; from 1986, penalties were scheduled after the final as for the earlier knockout rounds.


text: The finals of eight major FIFA tournaments, including three men's World Cups, have gone to penalty shoot-outs:


text: The first penalty shoot out in a World Cup match was in the dramatic West Germany vs France semi-final match in 1982. After the penalty shoot-out ended equal, it went into sudden death.


text: Goalkeepers have been known to win shoot-outs by their kicking. For example, in a UEFA Euro 2004 quarter-final match, Portugal goalkeeper Ricardo saved a kick (without gloves) from England's Darius Vassell and then scored the winning shot. Another example is Vélez Sársfield's José Luis Chilavert in the Copa Libertadores 1994 finals. (Chilavert had a reputation as a dead-ball specialist and scored 41 goals during his club career.)


text: Antonín Panenka (Czechoslovakia) decided the penalty shoot-out at the final of the UEFA Euro 1976 against West Germany with a famous chip to the middle of the goal.


text: The English national team has lost seven (out of nine) penalty shoot-outs in major tournament finals, including losses to Germany in the semi-finals of the 1990 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 1996 (the latter following a win over Spain by the same method in the previous round). After Euro 1996, England lost four more shoot-outs in a row in major tournament finals, losing to Argentina at the 1998 World Cup, Portugal at Euro 2004 and the 2006 World Cup and Italy at Euro 2012, before finally breaking their losing streak at the 2018 World Cup against Colombia; this shoot-out also allowed England to progress into the quarter-finals for the first time in twelve years. England again lost a penalty shoot-out to Italy in the UEFA Euro 2020 final.


text: The Netherlands, meanwhile, lost four consecutive shoot-outs: against Denmark in Euro 1992, France in Euro 1996, Brazil in the 1998 World Cup, and Italy in Euro 2000, before finally winning one against Sweden in Euro 2004. In Euro 2000, the Netherlands had two penalty kicks during the match and four attempts in the shoot-out but only managed to convert one kick against Italian keeper Francesco Toldo. Frank de Boer had both a penalty kick and shoot-out kick saved by Toldo, who also saved from Paul Bosvelt to give Italy a 3–1 shootout victory. The Netherlands' fortunes seemed to improve during the 2014 World Cup, when they defeated Costa Rica on penalty kicks in their quarter-final match, only to lose their semi-final match against Argentina on penalties. The 2022 World Cup saw their losing a shoot-out against Argentina once again, but this time in the quarter-finals.


text: The Italians have lost six shoot-outs in major championships, notably being eliminated on penalties from three consecutive World Cups (1990–1998, including the 1994 final), the Euro 2008 quarter-finals, and the Euro 2016 quarter-finals. However, they have also won five shoot-outs, including the Euro 2000 semi-final against the Netherlands, the Euro 2012 quarter-final against England, the 2006 World Cup final against France, the Euro 2020 semi-final against Spain, and the Euro 2020 final against England.


text: On 16 November 2005, a place in the World Cup was directly determined by a penalty shoot-out for the first time. The 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifying playoff between Australia and Uruguay ended 1–1 on aggregate; Uruguay won the first leg 1–0 at home, and Australia won the second leg at home by the same score. A scoreless 30 minutes of extra time was followed by a shoot-out, which Australia won 4–2. This occurred again twice in qualifying matches for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, first on 29 March 2022 in the CAF third round between Egypt and Senegal, which Senegal won 3-1 on penalties after the two legs ended 1-1 on aggregate, and on 13 June 2022 in the AFC-CONMEBOL qualifying playoff between Australia and Peru, which Australia won 5-4 on penalties after the only fixture in the playoff went to a 0-0 draw. Delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic caused only one match to be played in neutral Qatar, rather than the traditional home-and-away playoff fixture.


text: During the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, Switzerland set an unwanted new record in the round of 16 shoot-out against Ukraine by failing to convert any of their penalties, losing 3–0. The goalkeeper Oleksandr Shovkovskyi (Ukraine) became the first not to concede a single goal in the penalty shoot-out, saving two of the Swiss attempts, with another shot hitting the crossbar. The result meant that Switzerland became the first nation to be eliminated from the World Cup without conceding any goals (and, moreover, the only nation to participate in a World Cup finals tournament without conceding a goal). Despite this loss, Switzerland beat France 5–4 on penalties in the Euro 2020 Round of 16.


text: The same competition featured a shoot-out between Germany and Argentina, the two most successful teams up to that point in terms of World Cup finals penalty shoot-outs: Each team had competed in three shoot-outs and won all of them. Germany won the shoot-out, leaving Germany alone with a 4–0 record in World Cup finals.


text: On 20 June 2007, a new UEFA record was established. The semi-final of the European under-21 Championships in Heerenveen between the Netherlands and England team finished 1–1. Thirty-two penalties were taken before the tie was broken. The Netherlands eventually won 13–12.


text: In the FA Cup, penalty kicks were used in the 1972 edition of the short-lived third-place playoff. They were introduced more generally in the 1991–92 season to decide matches still level after one replay and extra time. Previously there was no limit on the number of replays, which led to fixture disruption, especially disliked by the top clubs. Replays were often two or three days after the drawn match, which conflicted with the increased planning required after the Football Spectators Act 1989. The first team eliminated from the FA Cup on penalties was Scunthorpe United, beaten on 26 October 1991 by Rotherham United after a first-round replay. A shoot-out was first used in the FA Cup Final in 2005, when Arsenal beat Manchester United 5–4. The following year, Liverpool beat West Ham United in the FA Cup Final's second ever penalty shoot-out.


text: On 31 August 2005, a new English record was established when a shoot-out between Tunbridge Wells and Littlehampton Town in an FA Cup replay involved 40 kicks being taken, with Tunbridge Wells winning 16–15.