title: Anger

text: Immanuel Kant rejects revenge as vicious. Regarding the latter, David Hume argues that because "anger and hatred are passions inherent in our very frame and constitution, the lack of them is sometimes evidence of weakness and imbecility". Martha Nussbaum has also agreed that even "great injustice" is no "excuse for childish and undisciplined behavior". Two main differences between the modern understanding and ancient understanding of anger can be detected, Kemp and Strongman state: one is that early philosophers were not concerned with possible harmful effects of the suppression of anger; the other is that, recently, studies of anger take the issue of gender differences into account. Soraya Chemaly has in contrast argued that anger is "a critically useful and positive emotion" which "warns us, as humans, that something is wrong and needs to change" when "being threatened with indignity, physical harm, humiliation and unfairness" and therefore "a powerful force for political good". Furthermore, she argues that women and minorities are not allowed to be angry to the same extent as white men. In a similar vein, Rebecca Traister has argued that holding back anger has been an impediment to the progress of women's rights.


title: Anger

text: The American psychologist Albert Ellis has suggested that anger, rage, and fury partly have roots in the philosophical meanings and assumptions through which human beings interpret transgression. According to Ellis, these emotions are often associated and related to the leaning humans have to absolutistically depreciating and damning other peoples' humanity when their personal rules and domain are transgressed.


title: Anger

text: In Judaism, anger is a negative trait. In the Book of Genesis, Jacob condemned the anger that had arisen in his sons Simon and Levi: "Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce; and their wrath, for it was cruel."


title: Anger

text: Maimonides rules that one who becomes angry is as though that person had worshipped idols. Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi explains that the parallel between anger and idol worship is that by becoming angry, one shows a disregard of Divine Providence – whatever had caused the anger was ultimately ordained from Above – and that through coming to anger one thereby denies the hand of God in one's life.


title: Anger

text: In its section dealing with ethical traits a person should adopt, the "Kitzur Shulchan Aruch" states: "Anger is also a very evil trait and it should be avoided at all costs. You should train yourself not to become angry even if you have a good reason to be angry."


title: Anger

text: In modern writing s, Rabbi Harold Kushner finds no grounds for anger toward God because "our misfortunes are none of His doing". In contrast to Kushner's reading of the Bible, David Blumenthal finds an "abusing God" whose "sometimes evil" actions evoke vigorous protest, but without severing the protester's relationship with God.


title: Anger

text: Wrath is one of the Seven Deadly Sins in Catholicism; and yet the Catechism of the Catholic Church states (canons 1772 and 1773) that anger is among the passions, and that "in the passions, as movements of the sensitive appetite, there is neither good nor evil". The neutral act of anger becomes the sin of wrath when it's directed against an innocent person, when it's unduly unbending or long-lasting, or when it desires excessive punishment. "If anger reaches the point of a deliberate desire to kill or seriously wound a neighbor, it is gravely against charity; it is a mortal sin" (CCC 2302). Hatred is the sin of desiring that someone else may suffer misfortune or evil, and is a mortal sin when one desires grave harm (CCC 2302-03).


title: Anger

text: Medieval Christianity vigorously denounced wrath as one of the seven cardinal, or deadly sins, but some Christian writers at times regarded the anger caused by injustice as having some value. Saint Basil viewed anger as a "reprehensible temporary madness". Joseph F. Delany in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1914) defines anger as "the desire of vengeance" and states that a reasonable vengeance and passion is ethical and praiseworthy. Vengeance is sinful when it exceeds its limits in which case it becomes opposed to justice and charity. For example, "vengeance upon one who has not deserved it, or to a greater extent than it has been deserved, or in conflict with the dispositions of law, or from an improper motive" are all sinful. An unduly vehement vengeance is considered a venial sin unless it seriously goes counter to the love of God or of one's neighbor.


title: Anger

text: A more positive view of anger is espoused by Roman Catholic pastoral theologian Henri J.M. Nouwen. Father Nouwen points to the spiritual benefits in anger toward God as found in both the Old Testament and New Testament of the Bible. In the Bible, says Father Nouwen, "it is clear that only by expressing our anger and hatred directly to God will we come to know the fullness of both his love and our freedom".


title: Anger

text: Georges Bernanos illustrates Nouwen's position in his novel "The Diary of a Country Priest". The countess gave birth to the son she had long wanted, but the child died. She was fiercely angry. When the priest called, the countess vented her anger toward her daughter and husband, then at the priest who responded gently, "open your heart to [God]". The countess rejoined, "I've ceased to bother about God. When you've forced me to admit that I hate Him, will you be any better off?" The priest continued, "you no longer hate Him. Hate is indifference and contempt. Now at last you're face to face with Him... Shake your fist at Him, spit in His face, scourge Him." The countess did what the priest counseled. By confessing her hate, she was enabled to say, "all's well".


title: Anger

text: Everyone experiences anger, Andrew D. Lester observes, and furthermore anger can serve as "a spiritual friend, a spiritual guide, and a spiritual ally". Denying and suppressing anger is contrary to St. Paul's admonition in his Epistle to the Ephesians 4:26. When anger toward God is denied and suppressed, it interferes with an individual's relation with God. Expressing one's anger toward God can deepen the relationship. C. FitzSimons Allison holds that "we worship God by expressing our honest anger at him".


title: Anger

text: Biblical scholar Leonard Pine concludes from his studies in the Book of Habakkuk that "far from being a sin, proper remonstration with God is the activity of a healthy faith relationship with Him". Other biblical examples of anger toward God include the following:


title: Anger

text: In Hinduism, anger is equated with sorrow as a form of unrequited desire. The objects of anger are perceived as a hindrance to the gratification of the desires of the angry person. Alternatively if one thinks one is superior, the result is grief. Anger is considered to be packed with more evil power than desire. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna regards greed, anger, and lust as signs of ignorance that lead to perpetual bondage. As for the agitations of the bickering mind, they are divided into two divisions. The first is called avirodha-prīti, or unrestricted attachment, and the other is called virodha-yukta-krodha, anger arising from frustration. Adherence to the philosophy of the Māyāvādīs, belief in the fruitive results of the karma-vādīs, and belief in plans based on materialistic desires are called avirodha-prīti.


title: Anger

text: Jñānīs, karmīs and materialistic planmakers generally attract the attention of conditioned souls, but when the materialists cannot fulfill their plans and when their devices are frustrated, they become angry. Frustration of material desires produces anger.


title: Anger

text: Anger is defined in Buddhism as: "being unable to bear the object, or the intention to cause harm to the object". Anger is seen as aversion with a stronger exaggeration, and is listed as one of the five hindrances. Buddhist monks, such as Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of Tibetans in exile, sometimes get angry. Most often a spiritual person is aware of the emotion and the way it can be handled. Thus, in response to the question: "Is any anger acceptable in Buddhism?' the Dalai Lama answered:


title: Anger

text: Buddhist scholar and author Geshe Kelsang Gyatso has also explained Buddha's teaching on the spiritual imperative to identify anger and overcome it by transforming difficulties:


title: Anger

text: Anger (Arabic:غضب, "ghadab") in Islam is considered to be instigated by Satan ("Shaitan"). Factors stated to lead to anger include selfishness, arrogance and excessive ambition. Islamic teachings also state that anger hinders the faith ("iman") of a person. The Quran attributes anger to prophets and believers as well as Muhammad's enemies. It mentions the anger of Moses ("Musa") against his people for worshiping a golden calf and at the moment when Moses strikes an Egyptian for fighting against an Israelite. The anger of Jonah ("Yunus") is also mentioned in the Quran, which led to his departure from the people of Nineveh and his eventual realization of his error and his repentance. The removal of anger from the hearts of believers by God (Arabic: "") after the fighting against Muhammad's enemies is over. In general, suppression of anger (Arabic: کاظم, "kazm") is deemed a praiseworthy quality in the hadis. Ibn Abdil Barr, the Andalusian Maliki jurist explains that controlling anger is the door way for restraining other blameworthy traits ego and envy, since these two are less powerful than anger. The hadis state various ways to diminish, prevent and control anger. One of these methods is to perform a ritual ablution, a different narration states that the angry person should lie down and other narrations instruct the angry person to invoke God and seek refuge from the Devil, by reciting "I take refuge with Allah/God from the accursed Devil."


title: Anger

text: It has also been stated by the Imam Ali, the "Commander of the faithful" and the son-in-law of prophet Muhammad that "A moment of patience in a moment of anger saves a thousand moments of regret." As well as "Anger begins with madness, and ends in regret."


title: Anger

text: In many religions, anger is frequently attributed to God or gods. Primitive people held that gods were subject to anger and revenge in anthropomorphic fashion. The Hebrew Bible says that opposition to God's will results in God's anger. Reform rabbi Kaufmann Kohler explains:


title: Jason Giambi

text: Jason Gilbert Giambi (; born January 8, 1971) is an American former professional baseball first baseman and designated hitter. In his Major League Baseball (MLB) career, which began in 1995, Giambi played for the Oakland Athletics, New York Yankees, Colorado Rockies, and Cleveland Indians. He is the older brother of the late MLB player Jeremy Giambi.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi was the American League (AL) MVP in 2000 while with the Athletics, and is a five-time All-Star, who led the AL in walks four times; in on-base percentage three times; and in doubles and slugging percentage once each; he also won the Silver Slugger Award twice.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi attended Sacred Heart Private Catholic School in Covina, California. He then attended South Hills High School in his native West Covina, where he was a three-sport standout. Giambi was on the baseball team, whose roster also included his brother Jeremy and three other future major league players: infielder Shawn Wooten, pitchers Aaron Small and Cory Lidle. He batted .386 during his three years of varsity baseball, leading his team to the state finals as a senior. He was voted MVP in both baseball and basketball. In American football, he was an All-League quarterback. Giambi was selected in the 43rd round (1,118th overall) by the Milwaukee Brewers during the 1989 MLB draft. He did not sign and went on to attend college.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi attended Cal State Long Beach, where he played college baseball for the Long Beach State 49ers baseball team. Giambi played collegiate summer baseball for the Alaska Goldpanners, in the Alaska Baseball League.


title: Jason Giambi

text: The Oakland Athletics selected Giambi in the second round (58th overall) of the 1992 Major League Baseball draft. He started his career that year with the short-season Single-A Southern Oregon A's of the Northwest League, where he hit .317 in 13 games. He was a member of the fourth place United States national baseball team at the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona.


title: Jason Giambi

text: The Athletics invited Giambi to spring training in 1993. He then spent the 1993 season playing for the Modesto A's, the Oakland Athletics' Single-A farm team. Giambi also played for the Huntsville Stars in the Southern League and the Kauai Emeralds in the Hawaii Winter Baseball league.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi made his major league debut with the Athletics in 1995. Originally used occasionally as an outfielder, third baseman, and first baseman, Giambi assumed the full-time first base job upon the trade of Mark McGwire to the St. Louis Cardinals in 1997. Giambi led the team in 1998 with 27 home runs, 110 runs batted in and a .295 batting average. In 1999, Giambi hit .315 with 33 homers, 105 walks (second in the league), and 123 RBIs (sixth). He came in eighth in MLB Most Valuable Player Award voting.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi hit two home runs in Oakland's 2000 season opener on April 3, the first Athletics player to ever do so. In the 2000 season, he led the league in on-base percentage (.476; leading the majors) and walks (137; a personal high and still the most walks in the AL since 1991). He hit .333 (seventh in the league) with 43 homers (second; a career high), 137 RBIs (fourth; a career high), 108 runs (10th), and a .647 slugging percentage (third). Giambi narrowly won the American League Most Valuable Player Award over Frank Thomas.


title: Jason Giambi

text: His 2001 season was nearly identical. He led the league for the second year in a row in both on-base percentage (.477; a career best, and still the highest OBP in the AL since 1995) and walks (129). He also led the league in slugging percentage (.660; a career best), doubles (47; a career high), times on base (320), and extra base hits (87). He batted .342 (second in the American League; a career high) with 38 homers (seventh), 109 runs (sixth), and 120 RBIs (eighth). He was second in the league in intentional walks (24), the only time in his career that he was in the top 10 in this category. He finished a close second in MVP voting to Ichiro Suzuki, and won the Silver Slugger Award.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Both years, he led the Athletics to the post-season, both times losing in the American League Division Series to the New York Yankees in five games.


title: Jason Giambi

text: On December 13, 2001, Giambi signed a seven-year $120-million deal with the New York Yankees. In line with Yankee team rules, Giambi cut his long hair and shaved his goatee. The signing upset many Athletics fans, who felt betrayed by the departure of their team leader. Giambi became an object of the A's fans' wrath whenever New York visited Oakland. During a game on May 14, 2005, he was hit with a beer thrown by an unruly fan on his way back to the dugout.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi continued slugging with New York in 2002. He led the league for the second consecutive year in times on base (300), had 109 walks (second), was third in the league with both a .435 OBP and 15 HBP, had 41 home runs (fourth), 120 runs (fourth; a career high), and a .598 slugging percentage (fourth), knocked in 122 runs (fifth), and batted .314 (sixth). He came in fifth in AL MVP voting, and again won the Silver Slugger Award. He also hit an "ultimate grand slam"—a walk-off grand slam against the Twins in a rain-soaked extra-inning game, that won that game 13–12.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Although his average dipped to .250 in 2003, he led the league in walks (129) for the third time in his career and in HBP (21) and percent of plate appearances that were walks (19.4%), maintained an extremely high on-base percentage (.412; third in the league), hit 41 home runs (fourth), and had 107 RBIs (eighth). He was also second in the major leagues in fly ball percentage (52.0%). He remained one of the most patient hitters in the majors. At the same time, he also led the league in strikeouts (140), the only season that he has even been in the top 10 in the league in that category.


title: Jason Giambi

text: On July 30, 2004, test results confirmed that Giambi had a benign tumor, which placed him on the disabled list. He was treated for the tumor, and returned to the team for their game against the Kansas City Royals on September 14. That year, Giambi was voted in as the starting first baseman in the 2004 MLB All-Star Game despite finishing the year with a .208 batting average and just 12 home runs. Giambi's performance in 2004 was so poor that he was not added to the Yankees postseason roster.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Towards the middle of the 2005 season, Giambi saw a resurgence in his career. On July 31, he hit his 300th career home run off of Esteban Yan of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. This was his 14th home run of the month, tying Mickey Mantle for the Yankee record for home runs in July. Giambi ended the 2005 season leading the major leagues in walk percentage (20.6%) and leading the American League in walks for the fourth time in his career (109), and in OBP for the third time in his career (.440, as well as in fly ball percentage (47.7%); second in MLB to Todd Helton), and had an OPS of .975, placing him fifth in the AL. He hit 32 homers (10th in the league), the seventh time in his career in which he has hit 30 or more, and was fourth in HBP (19) and at-bats per home run (13.0). Giambi was named the AL Comeback Player of the Year.


title: Jason Giambi

text: In 2006, Giambi was named the American League Player of the Month for April, hitting .344 with nine home runs and driving in 27 runs. However, he was left off the 2006 American League All-Star roster. He finished the season leading the majors in walk percentage (19.8%) and leading the league in % Pitches Taken (64.4), second in walks (110), HBP (16), and pitches seen per PA (4.37), fifth in at bats per home run (12.1), sixth in on-base percentage (.416), seventh in home runs (37) and slugging percentage (.558), eighth in intentional walks (12), and ninth in RBIs (113), despite playing in only 139 games (half of them at DH, and half at 1B) for the second year in a row. He performed the unusual feat of having as many RBIs as hits, and for the third time in his career had more walks than strikeouts.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi's numbers were down precipitously in the 2007 season due to an injury, in which he hit just .236 with 14 home runs and 39 RBIs. He played in just 83 games, 53 of which as a designated hitter. Giambi got off to a horrible start in the 2008 season, hitting below .200 for more than a month. However, by June, he had turned his season around and become one of the team's most productive players.


title: Jason Giambi

text: On September 3, 2008, Giambi walked into a bathroom door in his hotel room while in Florida before playing against the Tampa Bay Rays. The accident caused him to split his eyelid open but he played through the injury later that night and went 1-for-4 with one RBI, helping the Yankees win the second game of the series.


title: Jason Giambi

text: On September 21, 2008, Giambi recorded the final hit in Yankee Stadium, when he drove in Brett Gardner with an RBI single.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi ended the season with a home run every 14.3 at-bats, beating out Alex Rodriguez to lead the team by a small margin. He was also one of only three players to hit a home run while pinch hitting in 2008, and the only one to do it twice. However, on November 4, 2008, the Yankees declined their option on Giambi for the 2009 season making him a free agent.


title: Jason Giambi

text: On January 6, 2009, Giambi agreed to sign with the Oakland Athletics. He officially re-joined the A's the next day, and was given his old No. 16 jersey. Giambi hit his first home run since returning to the Athletics on April 25, 2009.


title: Jason Giambi

text: On May 23, 2009, Giambi hit his 400th career home run in an 8–7 loss to the Arizona Diamondbacks. He was placed on the disabled list on July 20. At the time, Giambi had the lowest batting average in the majors, and fourth-lowest slugging percentage in the American League. On August 7, 2009, he was released by the A's.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Looking for a veteran bat to help their playoff push, the Colorado Rockies agreed to a deal with Giambi on August 23, 2009. He was assigned to their AAA affiliate, the Colorado Springs Sky Sox. Giambi chose to wear the number 23 for his jersey number. His first RBI with the Rockies came in the form of a bases loaded walk in his first plate appearance on September 1, 2009, after being promoted to the club upon roster expansion earlier that day. That year, he had many clutch hits which kept the Rockies in contention for the National League Wild Card. He quickly became a fan favorite in Colorado.


title: Jason Giambi

text: On January 23, 2010, Giambi reached an agreement to return to the Rockies. On September 12, Giambi hit a walk-off home run against the Arizona Diamondbacks, extending the winning streak for the Rockies to 10 games.


title: Jason Giambi

text: The Colorado Rockies announced on January 17, 2011 a deal to put Giambi in the team's minor league organization with a spring training invite for the 2011 season. Giambi made the 2011 Opening Day roster out of spring training.


title: Jason Giambi

text: On May 19, 2011, against the Philadelphia Phillies, Giambi hit three home runs in one game, the first such game for him of his career. The three home runs came in his first three at-bats. Giambi is also the second oldest player to accomplish the feat; at age 41, Stan Musial was the oldest player to hit three home runs in one game on July 8, 1962.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi became a free agent after the 2012 season and was a finalist for the Rockies major league managerial opening, which eventually went to Walt Weiss. Giambi was offered the position of Colorado's hitting coach but turned it down.


title: Jason Giambi

text: The Cleveland Indians signed Giambi to a minor league contract on February 9, 2013. Giambi made the Indians major league roster following spring training. On July 29, 2013, Giambi became the oldest player to hit a walk-off home run. He broke his own record for oldest player to hit a walk-off home run in a season saving win for the Indians against the White Sox on September 24, 2013.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi was re-signed by the Indians on October 31, 2013 to a one-year minor league deal. The deal included an invitation to Spring Training. Giambi was hit by an Edwin Jackson pitch on March 7, 2014. This resulted in a broken rib, and Giambi missed the first 18 games of the season. He was activated on April 21.


title: Jason Giambi

text: On August 2, 2014, Giambi gave up his 25 jersey number to Jim Thome to have it unofficially retired by the Indians; Giambi switched his jersey number to 72 that day. On the jersey that he gave to Thome, Giambi put down a message to Thome saying "Jim, It was an honor to be the last person to wear your uniform number in Cleveland Indians history! – Jason Giambi" It was kept a secret from the fans, the players, Thome himself and his family, happening after Thome signed the one-day contract and threw out the first pitch.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Late in 2003, Giambi was named by FBI officers investigating the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO) as being one of the baseball players believed to have received anabolic steroids from trainer Greg Anderson.


title: Jason Giambi

text: In December 2004, the "San Francisco Chronicle" reported it had seen Giambi's 2003 grand jury testimony in the BALCO investigation. The newspaper said that in his testimony, Giambi admitted to using several different steroids during the off-seasons from 2001 to 2003, and injecting himself with human growth hormone during the 2003 season. In a press conference prior to the 2005 season, Giambi apologized publicly to the media and his fans, though he did not specifically state what for. The lawyer who illegally leaked the testimony later pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to 2 and a half years in prison.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi apologized again on May 16, 2007, this time specifically for using steroids, and urged others in the sport to do the same. "I was wrong for using that stuff", he told "USA Today". "What we should have done a long time ago was stand up—players, ownership, everybody—and said, 'We made a mistake.'" When asked why he used steroids, Giambi responded: "Maybe one day I'll talk about it, but not now." Giambi did speak with George J. Mitchell, after being forced to do so by Bud Selig. Subsequently, in December 2007, the Mitchell Report included Giambi along with his brother Jeremy Giambi, who also admitted to using steroids during his career.


title: Jason Giambi

text: The prosecution in the Barry Bonds perjury case indicated they intended to call both Jason and Jeremy Giambi to testify against Bonds in his March 2009 trial.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi married Kristian on February 2, 2002. His wife is the designer and owner of a lingerie and loungewear company called Brulee. Giambi is one of the owners of Casa Cielo (also owned by Scott Deskins of SCC Development in Austin, Texas) in Cabo San Lucas, Mexico. It is an home on top of the Pedregal sign. His co-owned property was put up for auction in 2019. Giambi's siblings include former major-leaguer Jeremy Giambi, who died in 2022, and a sister named Julie.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi has appeared as the featured athlete on the cover of several video games throughout his career.


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi has also been featured as a playable character in "Backyard Baseball 2001" as well as "Backyard Baseball 2003".


title: Jason Giambi

text: Giambi also appeared in "The Bronx Is Burning", a television drama that debuted on ESPN in 2007, as a taxi cab driver.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Chuck Taylor All-Stars or Converse All Stars (also referred to as "Converse", "Chuck Taylors", "Chucks", "Cons", "All Stars", and "Chucky Ts") is a model of casual shoe manufactured by Converse (a subsidiary of Nike, Inc. since 2003) that was initially developed as a basketball sneakers in the early 20th century. The design of the Chuck Taylor All Star has remained largely unchanged since its introduction in the early 1920s. The shoe consists of a stitched upper portion, a toe cap that is usually made of white rubber, and an outsole that is usually made of brown or tan rubber. Although Chuck Taylors are made of various materials such as leather or suede, the original and most widely known version of the shoe is made from cotton canvas. The innovative detail of the original shoe was the "loose lining" of soft canvas that was intended to provide flexibility and prevent blisters.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: The Chuck Taylor II, an updated model, was announced by company management in July 2015. Incorporating Nike technology made from Ethylene Vinyl Acetate or EVA, it retains the outward appearance of the original shoe while including a full-length Lunarlon insole.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Converse started making an early basketball shoe in 1917 and redesigned it in 1922, when Chuck Taylor asked the company to create a better shoe with more support and flexibility. After Converse added Taylor's signature to the ankle patch they became known as Chuck Taylor All Stars. By the 1960s the company had captured about 70 to 80 percent of the basketball shoe market, but the shoe declined in popularity during the 1970s when basketball players wore competing brands. Chuck Taylor All Stars enjoyed a comeback in popularity in the 1980s as retro-style casual footwear.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Marquis Mills Converse founded the Converse Rubber Shoe Company in 1908 in Malden, Massachusetts. In 1917 the company designed the forerunner of the modern All Star shoe that it marketed under the name of "Non-Skids". The shoe was composed of a rubber sole and canvas upper and was designed for basketball players.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: In 1921, Charles "Chuck" Taylor, an American semi-professional basketball player, joined Converse as a salesman. Within a year of Taylor's arrival, the company had adopted his ideas for improvements to the shoe's design to enhance its flexibility and ankle support. The restyled shoe also incorporated a distinctive All-Star logo on the circular patch that protected the ankle. After Taylor's signature was added to the ankle patch as his endorsement, they became known as Chuck Taylor All Stars, the first celebrity-endorsed athletic shoe.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: To promote sales of Converse All Star shoes to basketball players, Taylor held basketball clinics in high school and college gyms and YMCAs all across the United States and taught the fundamentals of the game. During the 1926–27 season Taylor also served as a player-manager of the company-sponsored basketball team called the Converse All Stars. The Chicago-based touring team was established to promote sales of the company's All Star basketball shoes.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Numerous professional basketball players were soon wearing All Stars. Converse All Stars were the official shoe of the Olympics from 1936 to 1968. During World War II All Stars were the official athletic training shoes of the U.S. armed forces.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: By the 1950s, Chuck Taylor All Stars had become a standard among high school, collegiate, and professional basketball players.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: In the 1960s, Converse had captured about 70 to 80 percent of the basketball shoe market, with Converse Chuck Taylor All Stars being worn by ninety percent of professional and college basketball players. Due in large part to the sale of its All Stars, the company began to expand and open more factories.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Converse began to struggle financially during the 1970s, due to competition and poor business decisions as the shoe lost its popularity among basketball players. Many athletes switched to shoes with leather uppers and harder rubber soles made by Converse as well as its competitors. Tree Rollins was thought to be the last player to regularly wear canvas Converse All Stars in the NBA during the 1979–1980 season, although Micheal Ray Richardson and Mickey Johnson briefly wore leather All Stars with the New Jersey Nets after 1982.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Chuck Taylor All Stars regained popularity in the 1980s and 1990s, making a shift to casual, retro-style footwear. The athletic shoe evolved into the shoe of choice and a favorite for subcultures, particularly artists and musicians. By 2000 Converse had sold more than 600 million pairs of All Stars during its eighty years of manufacturing them.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: While Converse dominated the U.S. basketball shoe market from the 1920s until the 1970s, it began to struggle in the late 1970s due to competition, poor business decision-making, and lack of sufficient funds. In subsequent years Converse filed for bankruptcy multiple times and fell into further debt. Nike acquired Converse in 2003 for an estimated $305 million and continues to market Chuck Taylor All Stars.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Converse's manufacturing operations for Chuck Taylor All Stars, as well as the company's other shoes, was moved from the United States to other countries such as China, India, Vietnam and Indonesia.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: In October 2014, after years of sending unsuccessful cease and desist letters, Converse filed a lawsuit against 31 companies for allegedly infringing on its sneaker style’s bumper toe, striped midsole, and toe cap. The brand argued that these companies were violating a common-law trademark by importing “knockoff” sneakers with similar elements. The list included shoe brands by major retailers, including Walmart, Skechers, Ed Hardy, Ralph Lauren and Fila. A number of companies settled with Converse and were dropped from the list.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: In November 2015, Charles Bullock, chief administrative judge at the International Trade Commission, preliminarily ruled that several brands Converse filed against were violating Converse’s outsole design trademarks, i.e. the pattern on the bottom of the sole of the shoe. Judge Bullock further ruled that while Skechers "Twinkle Toes" brands did share similarities to Converse, "Twinkle Toes" were different enough and marketed in a way for it not be mistaken for Chuck Taylor All-Stars. Judge Bullock also ruled that most of the shoes sold by Highline United under the Ash brand did not infringe and that Converse did not have a valid common law mark for its midsole.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: On June 23, 2016, the International Trade Commission ruled that Converse's alleged trade dress for the midsole design of a combined toe cap, toe bumper, and stripe was not entitled to trademark protection under the common law and found invalid Converse's federal trademark registration.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: When first designed in the early decades of the twentieth century, the Converse All Star had three main styles: a monochromatic shoe with a black canvas upper and black rubber soles, an all-white, high-top model with blue and red trim (designed for the 1936 Olympic Games), and an all black leather and rubber shoe.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: By 1923 the Converse All Star shoe was designed in its present-day form after the company made improvements to the design based on Chuck Taylor's input. The restyled Converse All Star basketball shoe also had a distinctive five-pointed-star logo displayed on the high-top shoe's ankle patch. In addition, Taylor's signature was incorporated


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: into the high-top's ankle patch, resulting in the design that became known as the Chuck Taylor All Star.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: In 1949, Converse made a black-and-white version of the All Star. In 1957, it introduced the low-cut "Oxford"-style version of the shoe, and in time the company began to produce All Stars in multiple colors and prints. Today, Converse makes the Chuck Taylor All Star in a variety of colors, styles, prints and fabrics.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Only the high-cut shoe design features the ankle patch with the All Star logo, but the heel of the shoe's high- and low-cut designs include a glued-on label with an "ALL★STAR" logo. The low-cut shoes also have a tag with the same logo as the heel stitched onto the tongue. In 2013 the logo appearing on the heel and tongue was slightly altered to include "CONVERSE" in addition to "ALL★STAR," but the ankle patches of the high-cut shoes remained unchanged.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: In 2013, Converse launched the Chuck Taylor All Star '70, which featured a build similar to the All Stars used for basketball that were built in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This retro model was different from the then-current Chuck Taylor All Stars, as various changes that happened to the All Star shoes over the intervening three decades. The '70 model featured thicker canvas, a higher rubber midsole and foxing, thicker cushioning, a smaller toe cap, extra material that was stitched on the side wall behind the toe cap for reinforcement, a one-piece rubber bottom sole versus the three piece sole on the modern All Stars, and a black heel patch versus a white one on the modern All Star.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: On July 28, 2015, Converse released the Chuck Taylor All Star II. This shoe differed from the standard, modern version of the Chuck Taylor All Star in several ways, including a thicker Tencel canvas; a higher rubber midsole and foxing that was similar in size to the All Star '70, but it had lighter weight rubber; a thicker Lunarlon cushioning; a slightly smaller toe cap; two elastic bands at the base of the tongue, to avoid slippage to the sides; a sewn-on ankle patch on the high-tops; a two-piece rubber bottom sole versus the three piece sole on the modern All Stars; a heel patch with 3D letters versus a flat one on the modern All Star version.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: A few months after the release of the Chuck II, several special series were released with different canvas textures such as the Chuck II Knit, the Chuck II Shield Canvas, and the Chuck II Rio Open Knit, to celebrate the Rio Olympics. A year after the release, the Chuck II was considered a commercial failure, with retailers reporting poor sales.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: In June 2017, Converse announced a new line of sneakers for release in the United States that was designed by Hiroshi Fujiwara, Tinker Hatfield, and Mark Parker. A hi-top and a low-top range were planned, with initial color offerings in silver, royal blue, red, green, black, pink, and blue. A luxe range in white or black patent leather were also planned for business casual wear. These shoes would follow the classic Chuck Taylor design, but featured several improvements: a circular knit upper with a futuristic shiny finish; a cushioned foam rubber sole similar to the Air Jordans; a Neoprene tongue; and a TPU-fused toecap.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Although Chuck Taylor All-Stars had vanished from the professional basketball scene by 1979, they continued to flourish in popular culture and fashion as casual footwear. Chuck Taylors have played a role in several subcultures, which the company has promoted as part of the brand's ongoing cultural popularity. In addition, Chuck Taylor All-Stars have been portrayed in film, art, and music culture, as well as some sports subcultures such as powerlifting and skateboarding.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Chuck Taylors are culturally associated with authenticity. They were popularized by James Dean for rebels and outcasts. They were also associated with Andy Warhol, Kurt Cobain, the Ramones, and Karl Lagerfeld.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: While campaigning with running mate and future President Joe Biden in 2020, then-California senator Kamala Harris made a fashion statement by wearing Chuck Taylors as a substitute for high heels at their public appearances.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Chuck Taylor All Star shoes have been worn by actors in feature films that include Elvis Presley in "Change of Habit" (1969), Sylvester Stallone in "Rocky" (1976), several cast members of "Animal House" (1978), basketball players in "Grease" (1978), Tom Hanks in "Bachelor Party" (1984), Michael J. Fox in "Back to the Future" (1985), the cast members of "Hoosiers" (1986), and Mike Myers and Dana Carvey in "Wayne's World" (1992). The video dust jacket of "Hoosiers" also featured the black high-tops.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: The cast of several popular network television series such as "Dennis the Menace" (1959–64), "M*A*S*H" (1972–83), and "Happy Days" (1974–1984) have worn Converse All Star shoes. They are also prominent in many Chuck Lorre sitcoms, being the primary sneakers worn by Leonard Hofstadter from "The Big Bang Theory" and Christy Plunkett from "Mom". David Tennant wore the footwear during his tenure as the Tenth Doctor on the BBC sci-fi series "Doctor Who".


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: In 2015, Converse released the Converse All-Star Andy Warhol collection, in partnership with the Andy Warhol Foundation. In honor of Warhol's contributions to visual art, Converse designed the All-Star shoe to commemorate Warhol's subcultural influence.


title: Chuck Taylor All-Stars

text: Although originally intended for basketball, powerlifting athletes have embraced Chuck Taylors as ideal shoes with flat rubber soles that enforce correct posture on movements such as deadlifts, squats, and bench presses. Seventy-one-year-old Pete Bennett set a world record for the squat in his age class at in a pair of Chuck Taylors. The canvas material allows powerlifters to push their feet to the outside on squats which helps keep their knees out and activates their glutes. The low-top Chuck Taylors provide complete ankle mobility, as the canvas does not cover the ankles.


title: Working Girl

text: Working Girl is a 1988 American romantic comedy-drama film directed by Mike Nichols, written by Kevin Wade, and starring Harrison Ford, Sigourney Weaver, and Melanie Griffith. Its plot follows an ambitious secretary from Staten Island who takes over her new boss's role while the boss is laid up with a broken leg. The secretary, who has been going to business night school, pitches a profitable idea, only to have the boss attempt to take credit.


title: Working Girl

text: The film's opening sequence follows Manhattan-bound commuters on the Staten Island Ferry accompanied by Carly Simon's song "Let the River Run", for which she received the Academy Award for Best Original Song and the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. The film was met with critical acclaim, and was a major box office success, grossing a worldwide total of $103 million.


title: Working Girl

text: "Working Girl" was nominated for six Academy Awards in 1989, including Best Picture, Best Director for Nichols, and Best Actress for Griffith, while both Weaver and Joan Cusack were nominated for Best Supporting Actress. The film also won four Golden Globe Awards (from six nominations) in 1989, including Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, Best Actress – Musical or Comedy for Griffith, and Best Supporting Actress for Weaver.


title: Working Girl

text: Tess McGill (Melanie Griffith) is an ambitious, working class 30-year-old from Staten Island with a bachelor's degree in business that she earned by taking evening classes. She works as a stockbroker's secretary in lower Manhattan, aspiring to reach an executive position. Tess is treated like a bimbo by her boss and male co-workers, who nonetheless benefit from her intelligence and business instincts. Fed up with being humiliated by her boss, Tess quits in dramatic fashion.


title: Working Girl

text: Tess soon finds a job as an administrative assistant to Katharine Parker (Sigourney Weaver), a young associate in Mergers and Acquisitions. Seemingly supportive as fellow female professional, Katharine encourages Tess to share ideas. Tess suggests an idea for a merger between Trask Industries and a radio station. Katharine seems intrigued but eventually tells Tess it wouldn't work out.


title: Working Girl

text: When Katharine injures her leg skiing, she asks Tess to house-sit. While staying there, Tess discovers some meeting notes and realizes Katharine plans to pass off the merger idea as her own.


title: Working Girl

text: Tess decides to use her boss' absence, connections, and clothes to move ahead with her merger plans. She schedules a meeting with Jack Trainer (Harrison Ford), a mergers and acquisitions associate from another company. With her friend Cyn's (Joan Cusack) help, she cuts her hair to look more professional and raids Katherine's closet for more stylish clothing.


title: Working Girl

text: At the meeting with Trainer and his associates, Tess lacks confidence and leaves believing the meeting was a failure. Jack, however, arrives at her office and wants to move forward with her idea. Jack quickly secures a radio network acquisition for Trask Industries and bristles when Tess attempts to meet with the Trask CEO, Oren Trask (Philip Bosco) on her own, which he soon realizes is because her plan is to meet with him while crashing his daughter's wedding. Despite Jack's misgivings, Tess's charm and quick thinking secures Trask's interest in the merger.


title: Working Girl

text: Jack and Tess grow closer as they prepare the financials for the merger proposal, which is ultimately a success. They give in to their attraction and end up in bed. Tess is tempted to tell him the truth, but demurs when she discovers Jack is also involved with Katharine, though he was going to break up with her before her injury.


title: Working Girl

text: Katharine returns home the same day as the meeting to finalize the merger. While Tess is helping her get settled, Jack arrives to end things with Katharine, who pressures him to propose. He dodges the conversation and runs to the merger meeting. Tess accidentally leaves her appointment book in Katharine's apartment before leaving for the same meeting, which leads to Katharine discovering what Tess has been up to.


title: Working Girl

text: Katharine pushes her way into the meeting and outs Tess as her secretary, accusing her of having stolen the idea. Tess begins to protest but feels nobody would believe her. She leaves, apologizing profusely.


title: Working Girl

text: Days later, Tess clears out her desk and then bumps into Jack, Katharine, and Trask at the lobby elevators. A confrontation between Katharine and Tess leads Jack to stand up for Tess. When Tess reveals she's discovered a hole in the deal, Trask abandons Katharine in a closing elevator and hears Tess's explanation for how she came up with the merger idea.


title: Working Girl

text: When Trask confronts Katharine, she is unable to explain where she got the merger idea. He promises to have her fired for her actions and offers Tess an entry-level job with Trask Industries, which she happily accepts.


title: Working Girl

text: Tess arrives for her first day at her new job at Trask and is shown to an office where she meets Alice, the woman Tess assumes she will be working for; however, Alice explains that she is actually Tess's secretary. Tess insists they work together as colleagues, showing she will be very different from Katharine. She then calls Cyn from her own office to tell her she has finally made it.


title: Working Girl

text: Screenwriter Kevin Wade was inspired to write the screenplay after visiting New York City in 1984 and witnessing throngs of career women walking through the streets in tennis shoes while carrying their high-heels.


title: Working Girl

text: Melanie Griffith read the screenplay for "Working Girl" over a year before the production began, and expressed interest in playing the role of Tess McGill. Approximately a year later, Mike Nichols agreed to direct the film after reading the screenplay while shooting his film "Biloxi Blues" in Alaska. Following Nichols' attachment, Griffith had a formal audition for the role. Nichols was so determined for Griffith to have the part that he threatened to drop out of the production if the studio, 20th Century Fox, would not hire her.


title: Working Girl

text: Following the casting of Sigourney Weaver and Harrison Ford—both major stars at that point—the studio agreed to cast Griffith, as they felt Weaver and Ford's involvement gave them a higher chance of box-office success.


title: Working Girl

text: Principal photography of "Working Girl" began on February 16, 1988, in New York City. Many scenes were shot in the New Brighton section of Staten Island in New York City. One half-day of shooting to complete the skiing accident scene took place in New Jersey. Four different buildings portrayed the offices of Petty Marsh—1 State Street Plaza; the Midday Club, which served as the company's club room; the lobby of 7 World Trade Center (one of the buildings destroyed in the September 11 attacks); and the reading floor of the L. F. Rothschild Building. One Chase Manhattan Plaza was featured at the end of the film as the Trask Industries building. Filming completed on April 27, 1988, with the final sequence being shot on the Staten Island Ferry.


title: Working Girl

text: Throughout the shoot, Griffith was in the midst of struggling with a years-long alcohol and cocaine addiction, which at times interfered with the shoot. "There were a lot of things that happened on "Working Girl" that I did that were not right,” Griffith recalled in 2019. "It was the late ‘80s. There was a lot going on party-wise in New York. There was a lot of cocaine. There was a lot of temptation." After Nichols realized that Griffith had arrived on set high on cocaine, the shoot was temporarily shut down for 24 hours. Griffith elaborated on the experience:


title: Working Girl

text: Three weeks after filming was completed, Griffith entered a rehabilitation facility to receive treatment for her addiction. Ironically, according to the biography "Mike Nichols: A Life", written by Mark Harris, Nichols had been battling a cocaine addiction of his own around the same time.


title: Working Girl

text: The film's main theme "Let the River Run" was written, composed, and performed by American singer-songwriter Carly Simon, and won her an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, and a Grammy Award for Best Original Song, making Simon the first artist to win this trio of awards for a song composed and written, as well as performed, entirely by a single artist. As a single, "Let the River Run" reached No. 49 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100 and No. 11 on the "Billboard" Adult Contemporary chart in early 1989.


title: Working Girl

text: The film's additional soundtrack was scored by Simon and Rob Mounsey. The soundtrack album was released by Arista Records on August 29, 1989, and peaked at No. 45 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Working Girl

text: The film was released in the United States on December 21, 1988, in 1,051 theaters and grossed $4.7 million on its opening weekend. It went on to make $63.8 million in North America and $39.2 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $103 million.


title: Working Girl

text: The film received generally positive reviews from critics. It currently has an 85% "Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 46 reviews, and an average score of 6.90/10. The site's consensus is; "A buoyant corporate Cinderella story, "Working Girl" has the right cast, right story, and right director to make it all come together." The film also has a weighted average score of 73 out of 100 at Metacritic based on reviews from 17 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Working Girl

text: "Chicago Sun-Times" film critic Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars and wrote, "The plot of "Working Girl" is put together like clockwork. It carries you along while you're watching it, but reconstruct it later and you'll see the craftsmanship". In her review for the "Washington Post", Rita Kempley described Melanie Griffith as "luminous as Marilyn Monroe, as adorable as one of Disney's singing mice. She clearly has the stuff of a megastar, and the movie glows from her". Janet Maslin, in her review for "The New York Times", wrote, "Mike Nichols, who directed "Working Girl", also displays an uncharacteristically blunt touch, and in its later stages the story remains lively but seldom has the perceptiveness or acuity of Mr. Nichols's best work". In his review for "Time", Richard Corliss wrote, "Kevin Wade shows this in his smart screenplay, which is full of the atmospheric pressures that allow stars to collide. Director Mike Nichols knows this in his bones. He encourages Weaver to play (brilliantly) an airy shrew. He gives Ford a boyish buoyancy and Griffith the chance to be a grownup mesmerizer".


title: Working Girl

text: "Working Girl" was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1989 by CBS/Fox Video; "Family Portrait", one of the shorts from "The Tracey Ullman Show" featuring "The Simpsons", was included before the movie on the VHS release. The film was released on DVD on April 17, 2001, by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. Special features included two theatrical trailers and three TV spots. The film was released on Blu-ray on January 6, 2015. The special features from the DVD release were carried over for the Blu-ray release.


title: Working Girl

text: "Working Girl" was also made into a short-lived NBC television series in 1990, starring Sandra Bullock as Tess McGill. It lasted 12 episodes.


title: Working Girl

text: A Broadway musical version is in the works as of 2017, with a score to be written by Cyndi Lauper from Fox Stage Productions and Aged in Wood Productions. For Aged in Wood, the producers were Robyn Goodman and Josh Fiedler. Instead of a production company on "Working Girl", the musical adaptation was switched to a license production by Aged in Wood Productions since Disney took over ownership of Fox Stage in 2019.


title: Working Girl

text: A reboot of "Working Girl" has reported to be in development at Hulu, with Ilana Peña adapting the script. Selena Gomez is in talks to produce.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: In quantum mechanics, the Hamiltonian of a system is an operator corresponding to the total energy of that system, including both kinetic energy and potential energy. Its spectrum, the system's "energy spectrum" or its set of "energy eigenvalues", is the set of possible outcomes obtainable from a measurement of the system's total energy. Due to its close relation to the energy spectrum and time-evolution of a system, it is of fundamental importance in most formulations of quantum theory.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The Hamiltonian is named after William Rowan Hamilton, who developed a revolutionary reformulation of Newtonian mechanics, known as Hamiltonian mechanics, which was historically important to the development of quantum physics. Similar to vector notation, it is typically denoted by formula_1, where the hat indicates that it is an operator. It can also be written as formula_2 or formula_3.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The Hamiltonian of a system represents the total energy of the system; that is, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all particles associated with the system. The Hamiltonian takes different forms and can be simplified in some cases by taking into account the concrete characteristics of the system under analysis, such as single or several particles in the system, interaction between particles, kind of potential energy, time varying potential or time independent one.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: By analogy with classical mechanics, the Hamiltonian is commonly expressed as the sum of operators corresponding to the kinetic and potential energies of a system in the form


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: is the kinetic energy operator in which formula_7 is the mass of the particle, the dot denotes the dot product of vectors, and


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: is the momentum operator where a formula_9 is the del operator. The dot product of formula_9 with itself is the Laplacian formula_11. In three dimensions using Cartesian coordinates the Laplace operator is


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Although this is not the technical definition of the Hamiltonian in classical mechanics, it is the form it most commonly takes. Combining these yields the familiar form used in the Schrödinger equation:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: which allows one to apply the Hamiltonian to systems described by a wave function formula_14. This is the approach commonly taken in introductory treatments of quantum mechanics, using the formalism of Schrödinger's wave mechanics.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: One can also make substitutions to certain variables to fit specific cases, such as some involving electromagnetic fields.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: is the potential energy function, now a function of the spatial configuration of the system and time (a particular set of spatial positions at some instant of time defines a configuration) and


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: is the kinetic energy operator of particle formula_19, formula_20 is the gradient for particle formula_19, and formula_22 is the Laplacian for particle :


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: However, complications can arise in the many-body problem. Since the potential energy depends on the spatial arrangement of the particles, the kinetic energy will also depend on the spatial configuration to conserve energy. The motion due to any one particle will vary due to the motion of all the other particles in the system. For this reason cross terms for kinetic energy may appear in the Hamiltonian; a mix of the gradients for two particles:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: where formula_27 denotes the mass of the collection of particles resulting in this extra kinetic energy. Terms of this form are known as "mass polarization terms", and appear in the Hamiltonian of many electron atoms (see below).


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: For formula_15 interacting particles, i.e. particles which interact mutually and constitute a many-body situation, the potential energy function formula_29 is "not" simply a sum of the separate potentials (and certainly not a product, as this is dimensionally incorrect). The potential energy function can only be written as above: a function of all the spatial positions of each particle.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: For non-interacting particles, i.e. particles which do not interact mutually and move independently, the potential of the system is the sum of the separate potential energy for each particle, that is


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: where the sum is taken over all particles and their corresponding potentials; the result is that the Hamiltonian of the system is the sum of the separate Hamiltonians for each particle. This is an idealized situation—in practice the particles are almost always influenced by some potential, and there are many-body interactions. One illustrative example of a two-body interaction where this form would not apply is for electrostatic potentials due to charged particles, because they interact with each other by Coulomb interaction (electrostatic force), as shown below.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The Hamiltonian generates the time evolution of quantum states. If formula_32 is the state of the system at time formula_33, then


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: This equation is the Schrödinger equation. It takes the same form as the Hamilton–Jacobi equation, which is one of the reasons formula_2 is also called the Hamiltonian. Given the state at some initial time (formula_36), we can solve it to obtain the state at any subsequent time. In particular, if formula_2 is independent of time, then


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The exponential operator on the right hand side of the Schrödinger equation is usually defined by the corresponding power series in formula_2. One might notice that taking polynomials or power series of unbounded operators that are not defined everywhere may not make mathematical sense. Rigorously, to take functions of unbounded operators, a functional calculus is required. In the case of the exponential function, the continuous, or just the holomorphic functional calculus suffices. We note again, however, that for common calculations the physicists' formulation is quite sufficient.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: is a unitary operator. It is the "time evolution operator" or "propagator" of a closed quantum system. If the Hamiltonian is time-independent, formula_41 form a one parameter unitary group (more than a semigroup); this gives rise to the physical principle of detailed balance.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: However, in the more general formalism of Dirac, the Hamiltonian is typically implemented as an operator on a Hilbert space in the following way:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The eigenkets (eigenvectors) of formula_2, denoted formula_43, provide an orthonormal basis for the Hilbert space. The spectrum of allowed energy levels of the system is given by the set of eigenvalues, denoted formula_44, solving the equation:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: From a mathematically rigorous point of view, care must be taken with the above assumptions. Operators on infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces need not have eigenvalues (the set of eigenvalues does not necessarily coincide with the spectrum of an operator). However, all routine quantum mechanical calculations can be done using the physical formulation.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Following are expressions for the Hamiltonian in a number of situations. Typical ways to classify the expressions are the number of particles, number of dimensions, and the nature of the potential energy function—importantly space and time dependence. Masses are denoted by formula_7, and charges by formula_48.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The particle is not bound by any potential energy, so the potential is zero and this Hamiltonian is the simplest. For one dimension:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: For a particle in a region of constant potential formula_51 (no dependence on space or time), in one dimension, the Hamiltonian is:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: For a simple harmonic oscillator in one dimension, the potential varies with position (but not time), according to:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: where the angular frequency formula_55, effective spring constant formula_56, and mass formula_7 of the oscillator satisfy:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: where the three-dimensional position vector formula_61 using Cartesian coordinates is formula_62, its magnitude is


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Writing the Hamiltonian out in full shows it is simply the sum of the one-dimensional Hamiltonians in each direction:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: For a rigid rotor—i.e., system of particles which can rotate freely about any axes, not bound in any potential (such as free molecules with negligible vibrational degrees of freedom, say due to double or triple chemical bonds), the Hamiltonian is:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: where formula_66, formula_67, and formula_68 are the moment of inertia components (technically the diagonal elements of the moment of inertia tensor), and and formula_69 are the total angular momentum operators (components), about the formula_70, formula_71, and formula_72 axes respectively.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The Coulomb potential energy for two point charges formula_73 and formula_74 (i.e., those that have no spatial extent independently), in three dimensions, is (in SI units—rather than Gaussian units which are frequently used in electromagnetism):


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: However, this is only the potential for one point charge due to another. If there are many charged particles, each charge has a potential energy due to every other point charge (except itself). For formula_15 charges, the potential energy of charge formula_77 due to all other charges is (see also Electrostatic potential energy stored in a configuration of discrete point charges):


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: where formula_79 is the electrostatic potential of charge formula_77 at formula_81. The total potential of the system is then the sum over formula_82:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: For an electric dipole moment formula_85 constituting charges of magnitude formula_48, in a uniform, electrostatic field (time-independent) formula_87, positioned in one place, the potential is:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Since the particle is stationary, there is no translational kinetic energy of the dipole, so the Hamiltonian of the dipole is just the potential energy:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: For a magnetic dipole moment formula_91 in a uniform, magnetostatic field (time-independent) formula_92, positioned in one place, the potential is:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: where formula_96 is the "spin g-factor" (not to be confused with the gyromagnetic ratio), formula_97 is the electron charge, formula_98 is the spin operator vector, whose components are the Pauli matrices, hence


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: For a particle with mass formula_7 and charge formula_48 in an electromagnetic field, described by the scalar potential formula_102 and vector potential formula_103, there are two parts to the Hamiltonian to substitute for. The canonical momentum operator formula_104, which includes a contribution from the formula_103 field and fulfils the canonical commutation relation, must be quantized;


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: In many systems, two or more energy eigenstates have the same energy. A simple example of this is a free particle, whose energy eigenstates have wavefunctions that are propagating plane waves. The energy of each of these plane waves is inversely proportional to the square of its wavelength. A wave propagating in the formula_70 direction is a different state from one propagating in the formula_71 direction, but if they have the same wavelength, then their energies will be the same. When this happens, the states are said to be "degenerate".


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: It turns out that degeneracy occurs whenever a nontrivial unitary operator formula_115 commutes with the Hamiltonian. To see this, suppose that formula_116 is an energy eigenket. Then formula_117 is an energy eigenket with the same eigenvalue, since


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Since formula_115 is nontrivial, at least one pair of formula_116 and formula_117 must represent distinct states. Therefore, formula_2 has at least one pair of degenerate energy eigenkets. In the case of the free particle, the unitary operator which produces the symmetry is the rotation operator, which rotates the wavefunctions by some angle while otherwise preserving their shape.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The existence of a symmetry operator implies the existence of a conserved observable. Let formula_123 be the Hermitian generator of formula_115:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Thus, the expected value of the observable formula_123 is conserved for any state of the system. In the case of the free particle, the conserved quantity is the angular momentum.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Hamilton's equations in classical Hamiltonian mechanics have a direct analogy in quantum mechanics. Suppose we have a set of basis states formula_133, which need not necessarily be eigenstates of the energy. For simplicity, we assume that they are discrete, and that they are orthonormal, i.e.,


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Note that these basis states are assumed to be independent of time. We will assume that the Hamiltonian is also independent of time.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The instantaneous state of the system at time formula_33, formula_136, can be expanded in terms of these basis states:


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: The coefficients formula_139 are complex variables. We can treat them as coordinates which specify the state of the system, like the position and momentum coordinates which specify a classical system. Like classical coordinates, they are generally not constant in time, and their time dependence gives rise to the time dependence of the system as a whole.


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Each formula_139 actually corresponds to "two" independent degrees of freedom, since the variable has a real part and an imaginary part. We now perform the following trick: instead of using the real and imaginary parts as the independent variables, we use formula_139 and its complex conjugate formula_144. With this choice of independent variables, we can calculate the partial derivative


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: By applying Schrödinger's equation and using the orthonormality of the basis states, this further reduces to


title: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: which is precisely the form of Hamilton's equations, with the formula_151s as the generalized coordinates, the formula_148s as the conjugate momenta, and formula_153 taking the place of the classical Hamiltonian.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding is the practice of funding a project or venture by raising money from a large number of people, typically via the internet. Crowdfunding is a form of crowdsourcing and alternative finance. In 2015, over was raised worldwide by crowdfunding.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Although similar concepts can also be executed through mail-order subscriptions, benefit events, and other methods, the term crowdfunding refers to internet-mediated registries. This modern crowdfunding model is generally based on three types of actors – the project initiator who proposes the idea or project to be funded, individuals or groups who support the idea, and a moderating organization (the "platform") that brings the parties together to launch the idea.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding has been used to fund a wide range of for-profit, entrepreneurial ventures such as artistic and creative projects, medical expenses, travel, and community-oriented social entrepreneurship projects. Although crowdfunding has been suggested to be highly linked to sustainability, empirical validation has shown that sustainability plays only a fractional role in crowdfunding. Its use has also been criticized for funding quackery, especially costly and fraudulent cancer treatments.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding has a long history with many roots. Books have been crowdfunded for centuries; authors and publishers would advertise book projects in praenumeration or subscription schemes. The book would be written and published if enough subscribers signaled their readiness to buy the book once it was out. The subscription business model is not exactly crowdfunding, since the actual flow of money only begins with the arrival of the product. However, the list of subscribers has the power to create the necessary confidence among investors that is needed to risk the publication.


title: Crowdfunding

text: War bonds are theoretically a form of crowdfunding military conflicts. London's mercantile community saved the Bank of England in the 1730s when customers demanded their pounds to be converted into gold – they supported the currency until confidence in the pound was restored, thus crowdfunding their own money. A clearer case of modern crowdfunding is Auguste Comte's scheme to issue notes for the public support of his further work as a philosopher. The "Première Circulaire Annuelle adressée par l'auteur du "Système de Philosophie Positive"" was published on March 14, 1850, and several of these notes, blank and with sums have survived. The cooperative movement of the 19th and 20th centuries is a broader precursor. It generated collective groups, such as community or interest-based groups, pooling subscribed funds to develop new concepts, products, and means of distribution and production, particularly in rural areas of Western Europe and North America. In 1885, when government sources failed to provide funding to build a monumental base for the Statue of Liberty, a newspaper-led campaign attracted small donations from 160,000 donors.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding on the internet first gained popular and mainstream use in the arts and music communities. The first noteworthy instance of online crowdfunding in the music industry was in 1997, when fans of the British rock band Marillion raised US$60,000 in donations through an Internet campaign to underwrite an entire U.S. tour. The band subsequently used this method to fund their studio albums. This built on the success of crowdfunding via magazines, such as the 1992 campaign by the Vegan Society that crowdfunded the production of the "Truth or Dairy" video documentary. In the film industry, independent writer/director Mark Tapio Kines designed a website in 1997 for his then-unfinished first feature film "Foreign Correspondents". By early 1999, he had raised more than US$125,000 on the Internet from at least 25 fans, providing him with the funds to complete his film. In 2002, the "Free Blender" campaign was an early software crowdfunding precursor. The campaign aimed for open-sourcing the Blender 3D computer graphics software by collecting €100,000 from the community, while offering additional benefits for donating members.


title: Crowdfunding

text: The first company to engage in this business model was the U.S. website ArtistShare (2001). As the model matured, more crowdfunding sites started to appear on the web such as Kiva (2005), The Point (2008, precursor to Groupon), Indiegogo (2008), Kickstarter (2009), GoFundMe (2010), Microventures (2010), and YouCaring (2011).


title: Crowdfunding

text: The phenomenon of crowdfunding is older than the term "crowdfunding". The earliest recorded use of the word was in August 2006. Crowdfunding is a part of crowdsourcing, which is a much wider phenomenon itself.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Reward-based crowdfunding has been used for a wide range of purposes, including album recording and motion-picture promotion, free software development, inventions development, scientific research, and civic projects.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Many characteristics of rewards-based crowdfunding, also called non-equity crowdfunding, have been identified by research studies. In rewards-based crowdfunding, funding does not rely on location. The distance between creators and investors on Sellaband was about 3,000 miles when the platform introduced royalty sharing. The funding for these projects is distributed unevenly, with a few projects accounting for the majority of overall funding. Additionally, funding increases as a project nears its goal, encouraging what is called "herding behavior". Research also shows that friends and family account for a large, or even majority, portion of early fundraising. This capital may encourage subsequent funders to invest in the project. While funding does not depend on location, observation shows that funding is largely tied to the locations of traditional financing options. In reward-based crowdfunding, funders are often too hopeful about project returns and must revise expectations when returns are not met.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Equity crowdfunding is the collective effort of individuals to support efforts initiated by other people or organizations through the provision of finance in the form of equity. In the United States, legislation that is mentioned in the 2012 JOBS Act will allow for a wider pool of small investors with fewer restrictions following the implementation of the act. Unlike non-equity crowdfunding, equity crowdfunding contains heightened "information asymmetries." The creator must not only produce the product for which they are raising capital, but also create equity through the construction of a company. Equity crowdfunding, unlike donation and rewards-based crowdfunding, involves the offer of securities which include the potential for a return on investment. Syndicates, which involve many investors following the strategy of a single lead investor, can be effective in reducing information asymmetry and in avoiding the outcome of market failure associated with equity crowdfunding.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Another kind of crowdfunding is to raise funds for a project where a digital security is offered as a reward to funders which is known as Initial coin offering (abbreviated to ICO). Value tokens are endogenously created by particular open decentralized networks that are used to incentivize client computers of the network to expend scarce computer resources on maintaining the protocol network. These value tokens may or may not exist at the time of the crowdsale, and may require substantial development effort and eventual software release before the token is live and establishes a market value. Although funds may be raised simply for the value token itself, funds raised on blockchain-based crowdfunding can also represent equity, bonds, or even "market-maker seats of governance" for the entity being funded. Examples of such crowdsales are Augur decentralized, distributed prediction market software which raised from more than 3500 participants; Ethereum blockchain; and "the Decentralized Autonomous Organization".


title: Crowdfunding

text: Debt-based crowdfunding, (also known as "peer-to-peer", "P2P", "marketplace lending", or "crowdlending") arose with the founding of Zopa in the UK in 2005 and in the US in 2006, with the launches of Lending Club and Prosper.com. Borrowers apply online, generally for free, and their application is reviewed and verified by an automated system, which also determines the borrower's credit risk and interest rate. Investors buy securities in a fund that makes the loans to individual borrowers or bundles of borrowers. Investors make money from interest on the unsecured loans; the system operators make money by taking a percentage of the loan and a loan servicing fee. In 2009, institutional investors entered the P2P lending arena; for example in 2013, Google invested $125 million in Lending Club. In 2014 in the US, P2P lending totaled about $5 billion. In 2014 in the UK, P2P platforms lent businesses £749 million, a growth of 250% from 2012 to 2014, and lent retail customers £547 million, a growth of 108% from 2012 to 2014. In both countries in 2014, about 75% of all the money transferred through crowdfunding went through P2P platforms. Lending Club went public in December 2014 at a valuation around $9 billion.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Litigation crowdfunding allows plaintiffs or defendants to reach out to hundreds of their peers simultaneously in a semi-private and confidential manner to obtain funding, either seeking donations or providing a reward in return for funding. It also allows investors to purchase a stake in a claim they have funded, which may allow them to get back more than their investment if the case succeeds (the reward is based on the compensation received by the litigant at the end of his or her case, known as a contingent fee in the United States, a success fee in the United Kingdom, or a "pactum de quota litis" in many civil law systems). LexShares is a platform that allows accredited investors to invest in lawsuits.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Running alongside reward-based crowdfunding, donation-based is second another popular form of crowdfunding. Donation-based crowdfunding is the collective effort of individuals to help charitable causes. In donation-based crowdfunding, funds are raised for religious, social environmental, or other purposes. Donors come together to create an online community around a common cause to help fund services and programs to combat a variety of issues including healthcare and community development. The major aspect of donor-based crowdfunding is that there is no reward for donating; rather, it is based on the donor's altruistic reasoning. Ethical concerns have been raised to the increasing popularity of donation-based crowdfunding, which can be affected by fraudulent campaigns and privacy issues.


title: Crowdfunding

text: The inputs of the individuals in the crowd trigger the crowdfunding process and influence the ultimate value of the offerings or outcomes of the process. Individuals act as agents of the offering, selecting, and promoting of the projects in which they believe. They sometimes play a donor role oriented towards providing help on social projects. In some cases, they become shareholders and contribute to the development and growth of the offering. Individuals disseminate information about projects they support in their online communities, generating further support (promoters).


title: Crowdfunding

text: The motivation for consumer participation stems from the feeling of being at least partly responsible for the success of others people's initiatives (desire for patronage), striving to be a part of a communal social initiative (desire for social participation), and seeking a payoff from monetary contributions (desire for investment). Additionally, individuals participate in crowdfunding to see new products before the public. Early access often allows funders to participate more directly in the development of the product. Crowdfunding is also particularly attractive to funders who are family and friends of a creator. It helps to mediate the terms of their financial agreement and manage each group's expectations for the project.


title: Crowdfunding

text: An individual who takes part in crowdfunding initiatives tends to have several distinct traits – innovative orientation, which stimulates the desire to try new modes of interacting with firms and other consumers; social identification with the content, cause, or project selected for funding, which sparks the desire to be a part of the initiative; and (monetary) exploitation, which motivates the individual to participate by expecting a payoff. Crowdfunding platforms are motivated to generate income by drawing worthwhile projects and generous funders. These sites also seek widespread public attention for their projects and platform.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding websites helped companies and individuals worldwide raise US$89 million from members of the public in 2010, $1.47 billion in 2011, and $2.66 billion in 2012 — $1.6 billion of the 2012 amount was raised in North America.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding is expected to reach US$1 trillion in 2025. A May 2014 report, released by the United Kingdom-based The Crowdfunding Centre and titled "The State of the Crowdfunding Nation", presented data showing that during March 2014, more than US$60,000 were raised on an hourly basis via global crowdfunding initiatives. Also during this period, 442 crowdfunding campaigns were launched globally on a daily basis.


title: Crowdfunding

text: The future growth potential of crowdfunding platforms also depends on their financing volume with venture capital. Between January 2017 and April 2020 globally 99 venture capital financing rounds for crowdfunding platforms took place with more than half a billion USD of total money raised. The median amount per venture capital financing rounds for crowdfunding was $5 million in the U.S. and $1.5 million in Europe between January 2017 and April 2020.


title: Crowdfunding

text: In 2015, it was predicted that over 2,000 crowdfunding sites would be available to choose from 2016. As of 2021, there are 1,478 crowdfunding organizations in the US (Crunchbase, 2021). Currently, the three largest crowdfunding platforms are Kickstarter, Indiegogo, and Crowd Supply. As of January 2021, Kickstarter has raised more than $5.6 billion spread over 197,425 projects.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding platforms have differences in the services they provide and the type of projects they support.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Curated crowdfunding platforms serve as "network orchestrators" by curating the offerings that are allowed on the platform. They create the necessary organizational systems and conditions for resource integration among other players to take place. Relational mediators act as an intermediary between supply and demand. They replace traditional intermediaries (such as traditional record companies, venture capitalists). These platforms link new artists, designers, project initiators with committed supporters who believe in the persons behind the projects strongly enough to provide monetary support. Growth engines focus on the strong inclusion of investors. They "disintermediate" by eliminating the activity of a service provider previously involved in the network. The platforms that use crowdfunding to seek stakes from a community of high net-worth private investors and match them directly with project initiators.


title: Crowdfunding

text: In the summer of 1885, crowdfunding averted a crisis that threatened the completion of the Statue of Liberty. Construction of the statue's pedestal stalled due to a lack of financing. Fundraising efforts for the project fell short of the necessary amount by more than a third. New York Governor Grover Cleveland refused to appropriate city funds for the project, and Congress could not agree on a funding package.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Recognizing the social and symbolic significance of the statue, publisher Joseph Pulitzer came to the rescue by launching a five-month fundraising campaign in his newspaper "The World". The paper solicited contributions by publishing articles that appealed to the emotions of New Yorkers. Donations of all sizes poured in, ranging from $0.15 to $250. More than 160,000 people across America gave, including businessmen, waiters, children, and politicians. The paper chronicled each donation, published letters from contributors on the front page, and kept a running tally of funds raised.


title: Crowdfunding

text: The campaign raised over $100,000 (roughly $2 million today) allowing the city to complete construction of the pedestal. Pulitzer and "The World" simultaneously saved the Statue of Liberty and gave birth to crowdfunding in American politics.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Marillion started crowdfunding in 1997. Fans of the British rock band raised $60,000 (£39,000) via the internet to help finance a North American tour. The Professional Contractors Group, a trade body representing freelancers in the UK, raised £100,000 over a two-week period in 1999 from some 2000 freelancers threatened by a government measure known as IR35. In 2003, jazz composer Maria Schneider (musician) launched the first crowdfunding campaign on ArtistShare for a new recording. The recording was funded by her fans and became the first recording in history to win a Grammy Award without being available in retail stores.


title: Crowdfunding

text: "Oliver Twisted" (Erik Estrada, Karen Black) was an early crowdfunded film. Subscribers of The Blue Sheet formed The Florida Film Investment Co (FFI) in January 1995, and started selling shares of stock at $10 a share to fund the $80,000 – $100,000 film. The Movie was filmed in Oct 1996. The film was distributed by RGH/Lion's Shares Pictures.


title: Crowdfunding

text: In 2004, Electric Eel Shock, a Japanese rock band, raised £10,000 from 100 fans (the Samurai 100) by offering them a lifetime membership on the band's guestlist. Two years later, they became the fastest band to raise a US$50,000 budget on SellaBand.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Franny Armstrong later created a donation system for her feature film "The Age of Stupid". Over five years, from June 2004 to June 2009 (release date), she raised £1,500,000.


title: Crowdfunding

text: As of late 2022, the highest reported funding by a crowdfunded project to date is "Star Citizen", an online space trading and combat video game being developed by Chris Roberts and Cloud Imperium Games; it has raised over $500M to date, and while it has a devoted fan base, criticism has arisen for being a potential scam.


title: Crowdfunding

text: On April 17, 2014, "The Guardian" media outlet published a list of "20 of the most significant projects" launched on the Kickstarter platform prior to the date of publication, including: Musician Amanda Palmer raised US$1.2 million from 24,883 backers in June 2012 to make a new album and art book.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Kickstarter has been used to successfully revive or launch television and film projects that could not get funding elsewhere. These are the current record holders for projects in the "film" category:


title: Crowdfunding

text: A number of private companies thrive off of crowdfunding and offer services related to a number of platforms. Examples include large companies like Backerkit that principally offer data analysis of campaigns, or Y Combinator, which acts as a startup accelerator and receives a significant number of its applicants from platforms such as Kickstarter and Indiegogo. The Italian-American company Atellani USA was originally founded with the intent to market, accelerate, and invest in startups wanting to publicize their ideas via crowdfunding platforms like Kickstarter, often designing the startup's campaign and online material.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding is being explored as a potential funding mechanism for creative work such as blogging and journalism, music, independent film (see crowdfunded film), and for funding startup companies.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Community music labels are usually for-profit organizations where "fans assume the traditional financier role of a record label for artists they believe in by funding the recording process". Since pioneering crowdfunding in the film industry, Spanner Films has published a "how-to" guide. A "Financial" article published in mid-September 2013 stated that "the niche for crowdfunding exists in financing films with budgets in the [US]$1 to $10 million range" and crowdfunding campaigns are "much more likely to be successful if they tap into a significant pre-existing fan base and fulfill an existing gap in the market." Innovative new platforms, such as RocketHub, have emerged that combine traditional funding for creative work with branded crowdsourcing—helping artists and entrepreneurs unite with brands "without the need for a middle man."


title: Crowdfunding

text: A variety of crowdfunding platforms have emerged to allow ordinary web users to support specific philanthropic projects without the need for large amounts of money. GlobalGiving allows individuals to browse through a selection of small projects proposed by nonprofit organizations worldwide, donating funds to projects of their choice. Microcredit crowdfunding platforms such as Kiva (organization) facilitate crowdfunding of loans managed by microcredit organizations in developing countries. The US-based nonprofit Zidisha applies a direct person-to-person lending model to microcredit lending for low-income small business owners in developing countries. In 2017, Facebook initiated "Fundraisers", an internal plug-in function that allows its users to raise money for nonprofits.


title: Crowdfunding

text: DonorsChoose.org, founded in 2000, allows public school teachers in the United States to request materials for their classrooms. Individuals can lend money to teacher-proposed projects, and the organization fulfills and delivers supplies to schools. There are also a number of own-branded university crowdfunding websites, which enable students and staff to create projects and receive funding from alumni of the university or the general public. Several dedicated civic crowdfunding platforms have emerged in the US and the UK, some of which have led to the first direct involvement of governments in crowdfunding. In the UK, Spacehive is used by the Mayor of London and Manchester City Council to co-fund civic projects created by citizens. Similarly, dedicated Humanitarian Crowdfunding initiatives are emerging, involving humanitarian organizations, volunteers, and supporters in solving and modeling how to build innovative crowdfunding solutions for the humanitarian community. Likewise, international organizations like the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) have been researching and publishing about the topic.


title: Crowdfunding

text: One crowdfunding project, iCancer, was used to support a Phase 1 trial of AdVince, an anti-cancer drug in 2016.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Research into the suitability of crowdfunding for civic investment in the UK highlights that the public sector has not fully realized the benefits of a crowdfunding approach.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Real estate crowdfunding is the online pooling of capital from investors to fund mortgages secured by real estate, such as "fix and flip" redevelopment of distressed or abandoned properties, equity for commercial and residential projects, acquisition of pools of distressed mortgages, home buyer down payments, and similar real estate related outlets. Investment, via specialized online platforms in the US, is generally completed under Title II of the JOBS Act and is limited to accredited investors. The platforms offer low minimum investments, often $100 – $10,000. There are over 75 real estate crowdfunding platforms in the United States. The growth of real estate crowdfunding is a global trend. During 2014 and 2015, more than 150 platforms have been created throughout the world, such as in China, the Middle East, or France. In Europe, some compare this growing industry to that of e-commerce ten years ago. Examples of real estate crowdfunding platforms are EquityMultiple, Fundrise, Yieldstreet, and RealtyMogul.


title: Crowdfunding

text: In Europe, the requirements towards investors are not as high as in the United States, lowering the entry barrier into the real estate investments in general. Real estate crowdfunding can include various project types from commercial to residential developments, planning gain opportunities, build to hold (such as social housing), and many more. The report from Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance addresses both real estate crowdfunding and "peer 2 peer" lending (property) in the UK.


title: Crowdfunding

text: One of the challenges of posting new ideas on crowdfunding sites is there may be little or no intellectual property (IP) protection provided by the sites themselves. Once an idea is posted, it can be copied. As Slava Rubin, founder of IndieGoGo, said: "We get asked that all the time, 'How do you protect me from someone stealing my idea?' We're not liable for any of that stuff." Inventor advocates, such as Simon Brown, founder of the UK-based United Innovation Association, counsel that ideas can be protected on crowdfunding sites through early filing of patent applications, use of copyright and trademark protection as well as a new form of idea protection supported by the World Intellectual Property Organization called Creative Barcode.


title: Crowdfunding

text: A number of platforms have also emerged that specialize in the crowdfunding of scientific projects, such as experiment.com, and The Open Source Science Project. In the scientific community, these new options for research funding are seen ambivalently. Advocates of crowdfunding for science emphasize that it allows early-career scientists to apply for their own projects early on, that it forces scientists to communicate clearly and comprehensively to a broader public, that it may alleviate problems of the established funding systems which are seen to fund conventional, mainstream projects, and that it gives the public a say in science funding. In turn, critics are worried about quality control on crowdfunding platforms. If non-scientists were allowed to make funding decisions, it would be more likely that "panda bear science" is funded, i.e. research with broad appeal but lacking scientific substance.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Initial studies found that crowdfunding is used within science, mostly by young researchers to fund small parts of their projects, and with high success rates. At the same time, funding success seems to be strongly influenced by non-scientific factors like humor, visualizations, or the ease and security of payment.


title: Crowdfunding

text: In order to fund online and print publications, journalists are enlisting the help of crowdfunding. Crowdfunding allows for small start-ups and individual journalists to fund their work without the institutional help of major public broadcasters. Stories are publicly pitched using crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter, Indiegogo, or Spot.us. The funds collected from crowdsourcing may be put toward travel expenses or purchasing equipment. Crowdfunding in journalism may also be viewed as a way to allow audiences to participate in news production and in creating a participatory culture. Though deciding which stories are published is a role that traditionally belongs to editors at more established publications, crowdfunding can give the public an opportunity to provide input in deciding which stories are reported. This is done by funding certain reporters and their pitches. Donating can be seen as an act that "bonds" reporters and their readers. This is because readers are expressing interest for their work, which can be "personally motivating" or "gratifying" for reporters.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Spot.us, which was closed in February 2015, was a crowdfunding platform that was specifically meant for journalism. The website allowed for readers, individual donors, registered Spot.us reporters, or news organizations to fund or donate talent toward a pitch of their choosing. While funders are not normally involved in editorial control, Spot.us allowed for donors or "community members" to become involved with the co-creation of a story. This gave them the ability to edit articles, submit photographs, or share leads and information. According to an analysis by Public Insight Network, Spot.us was not sustainable for various reasons. Many contributors were not returning donors and often, projects were funded by family and friends. The overall market for crowdfunding journalism may also be a factor; donations for journalism projects accounted for .13 percent of the $2.8 billion that was raised in 2013.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Larger crowdfunding platforms such as Indiegogo or Kickstarter, both of which are not journalism-specific, may garner more success for projects. This is because these large-scale platforms can allow journalists to reach new audiences. In 2017, 2.3 million out of Kickstarter's 7.9 million users had donated toward more than one project.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Traditionally, journalists are not involved in advertising and marketing. Crowdfunding means that journalists are attracting funders while trying to remain independent, which may pose a conflict. Therefore, being directly involved with financial aspects can call journalistic integrity and journalistic objectivity into question. This is also due to the fact that journalists may feel some pressure or "a sense of responsibility" toward funders who support a particular project. Crowdfunding can also allow for a blurred line between professional and non-professional journalism because if enough interest is generated, anyone may have their work published. Crowdfunding enables freelance journalists to travel to the sites to find the new sources.