title: University of Exeter

text: Exeter University also affiliates with Bristol University Air Squadron (BUAS), which serves the Universities of Bristol, Bath, Exeter, UWE, Bath Spa and Plymouth.


title: University of Exeter

text: A number of Exeter's alumni have made significant contributions in many fields, including science, academia, government and law, arts, journalism and sport.


title: University of Exeter

text: Notable alumni in the fields of government and law include Abdullah Gül, the 11th President of Turkey, Ameenah Gurib, 6th President of Mauritius, Mehmet Şimşek, former Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey, Zewde Gebre-Sellassie former Deputy Prime Minister of Ethiopia, Prem Nababsing, former Deputy Prime Minister of Mauritius, Sigrid Kaag, Dutch Minister for Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation (Netherlands) since October 2017, Lau Kong Wah, Secretary for Home Affairs of Hong Kong, Tengku Zafrul Aziz, Minister of Finance (Malaysia), Gabriel Makhlouf, Governor of the Central Bank of Ireland since September 2019, and Secretary to the New Zealand Treasury between 2011–19, Ambiga Sreenevasan, Malaysian lawyer and human rights advocate (LLB Law, 1970s),


title: University of Exeter

text: and Jean-Marie Seroney, Kenyan human rights advocate, legislator, and an Amnesty International prisoner of conscience, Tito Karnavian, retired police general and Minister of Home Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia (Police Studies, 1993), Patrick Kwateng Acheampong, former Inspector General of Police of the Ghana Police Service (MA Police Studies and Criminal Justice, 1990), Ahmad Shah of Pahang, Sultan of Pahang, constitutional monarch, and head of state of Malaysia (1979-1984), George L. Savvides, Attorney-General of the Republic of Cyprus and former Minister of Justice and Public Order, and Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, ruler of the Sharjah emirate.


title: University of Exeter

text: In UK domestic politics and government, alumni include Sajid Javid, former Chancellor of the Exchequer and Home Secretary of the United Kingdom (Economics and politics), James Brokenshire, Minister for Security and former Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government, Jeremy Wright QC, former Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, Mark Lancaster, Minister of State for the Armed Forces since June 2017, John Pullinger, the National Statistician, Andrew Lansley, former Secretary of State for Health, and Leader of the House of Commons (BA Politics), Caroline Lucas, MP and former leader of the Green Party of England and Wales (BA English, 1983, PhD, 1990), Fiona Shackleton, Baroness Shackleton of Belgravia, family law solicitors and personal solicitor to Prince William and Prince Harry (Law, 1970s), Luke Pollard, Shadow Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, and Lynne Owens, Director-General of the National Crime Agency.


title: University of Exeter

text: Alumni in arts, journalism and entertainment include J. K. Rowling, author of the Harry Potter books (French and Classics, 1986), Robert Bolt, Tony Award-winning playwright and two-time Academy Award award-winning screenwriter, Vanessa Kirby, BAFTA award-winning actress in Netflix's "The Crown" (English, 2008), Stephen Dillane, BAFTA and Tony Award-winning actor best known for his work in "Game of Thrones" (History and political science),


title: University of Exeter

text: Thom Yorke lead singer of Radiohead (English and Fine Arts), Nina Allan, author of speculative fiction and winner of the Grand Prix de l'Imaginaire for Best Foreign Novel in 2014 (Russian literature), Steve Backshall, BAFTA award-winning television presenter, Samantha Baines, actress and comedian (BA(Hons) Drama), Steve Bell, political cartoonist, Tom Deacon, comedian and Radio 1 DJ (Drama, 2007), Frank Gardner, the BBC's Security Correspondent (Arabic, 1980s), Tim Montgomerie, British political activist and blogger, Clemmie Moodie, associate features editor at the "Daily Mirror" (English, 2003), James Pearce, journalist and presenter for BBC Sport (Politics), Rob Walker, British sports commentator and television presenter, Ben Collins, racing driver known for being The Stig on the BBC motoring television show "Top Gear" (Law, 1997), Matthew Wright, broadcaster and journalist (English and Drama), and Will Young, singer (Politics).


title: University of Exeter

text: In academia, graduates include Andrew D. Hamilton, president of New York University and former vice-chancellor of University of Oxford (Chemistry), Sir Michael Berry FRS and is known for the Berry Phase in quantum mechanics and receiving an Ig Nobel Prize for magnetically levitating a frog (BSc Physics, 1962), Imogen Coe, biochemist and Dean of Ryerson University, James Mourilyan Tanner, British paediatric endocrinologist known for the Tanner scale.


title: University of Exeter

text: In business, graduates include Neil Woodford, British fund manager and the founding partner of Woodford Investment Management, Belabbes Benkredda, Algerian-German social innovator, founder of The Munathara Initiative (MA in Middle East Politics), Dennis Gillings, British-born American billionaire statistician and entrepreneur, and the founder of the Fortune 500 company Quintiles (BA, 1966 and PhD, 1972), and Henry Staunton, chairman of WHSmith.


title: University of Exeter

text: Graduates within the military include General Sir Patrick Sanders, Chief of the General Staff, Admiral Sir Jonathon Band, former First Sea Lord of the United Kingdom (Economics, 1970s), Lieutenant Colonel Lucy Giles, first female College Commander at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst commanding New College and Otto Kretschmer (Silent Otto), the most successful German U-boat commander in the Second World War.


title: Cinderella with Four Knights

text: Cinderella with Four Knights () is a South Korean television series directed by Kwon Hyuk-chan and Lee Min-woo, and starring Park So-dam, Jung Il-woo, Ahn Jae-hyun, Lee Jung-shin, Choi Min, and Son Na-eun. It aired on tvN from August 12 to October 1, 2016.


title: Cinderella with Four Knights

text: Based on the novel with the same title published in 2011, the series is about a group of passionate young people in their 20s who happen to live together. It drew parallels to the 2009 TV series "Boys Over Flowers".


title: Cinderella with Four Knights

text: Eun Ha-won (Park So-dam) is a bright high school senior who dreams of becoming a teacher. Unfortunately, she loses her mother in a tragic accident. When her father remarries, her cruel stepmother moves in and steals Ha-won's college tuition. She is forced to take on part-time jobs to make payments for her mother's memorial and her college tuition. She meets an older man, chairman of large corporation who convinces her to move into his mansion with his three grandsons who are heirs to his family fortune. Between the rebel-minded loner Kang Ji-woon (Jung Il-woo), playboy money machine Kang Hyun-min (Ahn Jae-hyun) and the super-sweet singer Kang Seo-woo (Lee Jung-shin), Ha-won finds herself in the middle of the hottest love quadrangle to ever befall a modern fairy tale. Rounding out the mansion's chaebol lifestyle are Lee Yoon-sung (Choi Min) who serves as the cousins' handsome bodyguard, and Park Hye-ji (Son Na-eun), a girl who has been neighbors and in love with Hyun-min since childhood.


title: Cinderella with Four Knights

text: The "Sky House" is the clubhouse of the luxury golf resort South Cape Owners Club on the southern coast of Changseon Island in Namhae County in the Southern Gyeongsang Province in South Korea.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: Michael Francis O'Dwyer (28 April 1864 – 13 March 1940) was an Irish Indian Civil Service (ICS) officer and later the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, British India, between 1913 and 1919.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: During O'Dwyer's tenure as Punjab's Lieutenant Governor the Jallianwala Bagh massacre occurred in Amritsar, on 13 April 1919. As a result, his actions are considered among the most significant factors in the rise of the Indian independence movement. O'Dwyer endorsed Reginald Dyer's action at Jallianwala Bagh and made it clear that he considered Dyer's orders to shoot at the crowds was correct. He subsequently administered martial law in Punjab, on 15 April and backdated it to 30 March 1919. In 1925, he published "India as I Knew It" in which he wrote that his time as administrator in Punjab was preoccupied by the threat of terrorism and the spread of political agitation. In 1940, in retaliation for the massacre, O'Dwyer was assassinated by the Indian revolutionary Udham Singh.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: Michael Francis O'Dwyer was born on 28 April 1864 in Barronstown, Limerick Junction, County Tipperary, to John, a landowner of Barronstown, Solohead, and Margaret (née Quirke) O'Dwyer, of Toem, both in County Tipperary, Ireland. He was the sixth son in a family of fourteen children, At the age of seven, he was sent to be schooled at St Stanislaus College, Rahan, County Offaly.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: Later, he attended Mr Wren's educational crammer school in Powis Square, London, and subsequently passed the open entrance competition for the Indian Civil Service in 1882. After completing two years of probation at Balliol College, Oxford, he passed the final examination in 1884 in fourth place overall. At the time, the ICS examination was highly competitive, with no more than 1200 ICS officers in office at one time, and he was likely influenced by the reputations of the likes of Lord Lawrence, one of the first British civil administrators in India. In his third year he obtained a first class in jurisprudence. Philip Woodruff wrote of O'Dwyer's upbringing:Michael O'Dwyer was one of the fourteen children of an unknown Irish land-owner of no great wealth, as much farmer as landlord. He was brought up in a world of hunting and snipe-shooting, of threatening letters and houghed cattle, where you were for the Government or against it, where you passed every day the results of lawlessness in the blackened walls of empty houses. It was a world very different from the mild and ordered life of southern England... One gets the impression [of O'Dwyer when at Balliol] of a man who seldom opened a book without a purpose, whose keen hard brain acquired quickly and did not forget but had little time for subtleties.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: In 1882, his family home in Ireland was fired upon by Irish nationalists, and the following year, his father died after a second stroke. Of his siblings, two brothers served in India, and two others became Jesuit priests.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: In 1885, he travelled to India as an ICS officer and was first posted to Shahpur in Punjab. He distinguished himself in land revenue settlement work and in 1896 was made director of land records and agriculture in Punjab. Subsequently, he was placed in charge of the settlements of Alwar and Bharatpur states.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: After a year and a half of travels around Europe and Russia, he was selected by Lord Curzon for a significant role in the organisation of the new North-West Frontier Province and its separation from Punjab. From 1901 to 1908, he was revenue commissioner; from 1908 to 1909, he was acting resident in Hyderabad; and from 1910 to 1912, he was agent to the governor-general in Central India.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: In December 1912, during Lord Hardinge of Penshurst's tenure as Viceroy, O'Dwyer was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Punjab. When he assumed charge in May 1913, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India and was cautioned by the Viceroy Hardinge that "the Punjab was the Province about which the Government were then the most concerned; that there was much inflammable material lying about; which required very careful handling if an explosion was to be avoided".


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: O'Dwyer worked closely with the military authorities and sought the aid of local rural Punjabi leaders to organise a centralised system for the recruitment of soldiers for the First World War effort in exchange for compensation, including major land grants and formal titles. As a result, most of the recruits were drawn from rural areas of the Punjab, which ultimately left a number of families without their breadwinners. Those who returned from the war aspired to a reward and a better life. The co-operation between the civil and military leaders and the leading rural Punjabis, as later described by the historian Tan Tai Yong, laid "the foundations of a militarized bureaucracy in colonial Punjab".


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: Of the Indian recruits for the War from the whole of India, the 360,000 from the Punjab formed more than half. In 1917, O'Dwyer's efforts in recruiting Punjabi men for the war effort earned him appointment as a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Indian Empire, when India's Viceroy was Lord Chelmsford. However, during the war, there was also a growing home rule movement.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: He played a significant role in persuading the British government in India to pass the 1915 Defence of India Act, which gave him considerable powers. Passed on 18 March 1915, the Act allowed special tribunals for revolutionary crimes to take place without possibilities for appeal. He opposed the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms for fear that his efforts in recruitment through the rural leaders would be destroyed by increasing powers to “urban elites”.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: From mid-March 1919, under O’Dwyer's orders, the CID in Amritsar kept a close surveillance of two Gandhian non-violent Indian nationalists; the Muslim barrister Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Hindu physician Dr. Satyapal. O'Dwyer subsequently summoned both to Deputy Commissioner Miles Irving's house in the Civil Lines on 10 April 1919 from where they were arrested and secretly escorted to Dharamasala, at the foot of the Himalayas, to be kept under house arrest. As the news of the arrest became widespread, supporters began to gather near Irving's home, and what initially began as a peaceful attempt to make enquiries ended up in a violent clash. On 13 April 1919, a meeting was called to take place at Jallianwala Bagh to protest the arrest.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: It was during O'Dwyer's tenure as Lieutenant Governor of Punjab that the Jallianwala Bagh massacre occurred in Amritsar on 13 April 1919, three days after the onset of the riots. According to British estimates, 379 unarmed civilians were killed by Gurkha troops under the command of Brigadier General Reginald Dyer. Some estimates are greater, with more than 1500 casualties. According to then civil surgeon Dr Smit 1,526 people had been killed. O'Dwyer was informed of the event at 3 am the following day. When he received Dyer's initial report, O'Dwyer gave permission to General William Beynon to send a telegram to Dyer that stated "your action correct and the lieutenant-governor approves".


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: O'Dwyer and several other senior officials and military officers supported Dyer's actions both initially, when only limited information had been received, and later, when more detailed information of the scale of the killings became available. Subsequently, martial law was imposed on 15 April and backdated to 30 March. As a result, his actions are considered one of the most significant factors in the rise of the Indian independence movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi. On 21 April 1919 in Dyer's defence, O'Dwyer stated to Viceroy Chelmsford that "the Amritsar business cleared the air, and if there was to be holocaust anywhere, and one regrets that there should be, it was best at Amritsar".


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: One theory surrounding the massacre, as described by Pearay Mohan and historian Raja Ram, is one of a "premeditated plan" conspired by O'Dwyer and others, including a young Punjabi youth Hans Raj. Other historians including Nick Lloyd, K. L. Tuteja, Anita Anand (journalist) and Kim A. Wagner have found that theory to lack evidence and that there was no conspiracy that Hans Raj was an "agent provocateur".


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: O'Dwyer had contended without evidence that Dyer's violent suppression of the civilian demonstration was justified because the illegal gathering was part of a premeditated conspiracy to rebellion, which was timed supposedly to coincide with a rumoured Afghan invasion.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: Although O'Dwyer had implemented martial law in the Punjab, he denied responsibility for the consequences on the grounds that the government had relieved him of its general implementation. However, he could not disclaim responsibility for the decision, after severe rioting in Gujranwala, to send an aeroplane to bomb and strafe the area. During the course of the operation, at least a dozen people, including children, were killed.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: The next year, on 24 June 1920, the opposition Labour Party Conference at Scarborough unanimously passed a resolution, which denounced the "cruel and barbarous actions" of British colonial officials in Punjab and demanded they be put on trial, the dismissal of O'Dwyer and Chelmsford and the repeal of the Rowlatt Act. The delegates rose in their places as a tribute to those killed at Jallianwala Bagh. After the Punjab disturbances, O'Dwyer was relieved of his office. O'Dwyer's response to the Amritsar troubles was that that was "what comes of having that Jew in Whitehall" in reference to Montagu.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: In 1922, Sir Sankaran Nair referred to O'Dwyer in his book, "Gandhi and Anarchy", and stated that "before the reforms it was in the power of the Lieutenant-Governor, a single individual, to commit the atrocities in the Punjab which we know only too well". O'Dwyer subsequently successfully sued Nair for libel and was awarded £500 damages. Heard before Mr Justice McCardie in the Court of King's Bench in London over five weeks from 30 April 1924, it was one of the longest civil law hearings in legal history. O'Dwyer saw the trial as a way of providing justifications for Dyer's actions at the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: O'Dwyer, aged 75, was shot dead at a joint meeting of the East India Association and the Central Asian Society (now Royal Society for Asian Affairs) in Caxton Hall in Westminster, London, on 13 March 1940, by an Indian freedom fighter, Udham Singh, in retaliation for the massacre in Amritsar.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: O'Dwyer was hit by two bullets and died instantly. Lord Zetland, the Secretary of State for India, was presiding over the meeting and was wounded. Zetland, recovering from his injuries, later opted for early retirement from his position of Secretary of State for India and was succeeded by Leo Amery as Secretary of State for India. Udham Singh made no attempt to escape and was arrested at the scene. O'Dwyer was later buried in Brookwood Cemetery, near Woking.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: He married Una Eunice, daughter of Antoine Bord of Castres, France, on 21 November 1896. The couple had two children. She established 'Lady O'Dwyer's Punjab Comforts Fund', one of several charitable organisations created in India during the First World War to raise money and other gifts to provide comforts for troops serving with the Indian Army. She was created a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in her own right in the 1919 Birthday Honours, in which their daughter, Una Mary O'Dwyer, was created a Member of the Order of the British Empire.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: In his book "India as I knew it" (1925), O'Dwyer disclosed that his time as administrator in Punjab was preoccupied by the threat of terrorism and the spread of political agitation.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: In 1933, he published "The O'Dwyers of Kilnamanagh: The History of an Irish Sept", a historical and genealogical treatise detailing the O'Dwyer (Ó Duibhir) noble family that had commanded the area around Thurles from the pre-Norman era until it lost its castles and land during the Cromwellian confiscations of the 17th century.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: In later life, he wrote frequently to "The Times" to condemn the Gandhian non-cooperation movement and to endorse British rule in India.


title: Michael O'Dwyer

text: He was portrayed by Dave Anderson in the 2000 Bollywood movie "Shaheed Udham Singh" and by Shaun Scott in the 2021 Bollywood movie "Sardar Udham".


title: Databricks

text: Databricks is an American enterprise software company founded by the creators of Apache Spark. Databricks develops a web-based platform for working with Spark, that provides automated cluster management and IPython-style notebooks.


title: Databricks

text: Databricks grew out of the AMPLab project at University of California, Berkeley that was involved in making Apache Spark, an open-source distributed computing framework built atop Scala. The company was founded by Ali Ghodsi, Andy Konwinski, Arsalan Tavakoli-Shiraji, Ion Stoica, Matei Zaharia, Patrick Wendell, and Reynold Xin.


title: Databricks

text: In November 2017, the company was announced as a first-party service on Microsoft Azure via the integration Azure Databricks.


title: Databricks

text: The company develops Delta Lake, an open-source project to bring reliability to data lakes for machine learning and other data science use cases.


title: Databricks

text: In June 2020, Databricks acquired Redash, an open-source tool designed to help data scientists and analysts visualize and build interactive dashboards of their data.


title: Databricks

text: In February 2021 together with Google Cloud, Databricks provided integration with the Google Kubernetes Engine and Google's BigQuery platform.


title: Databricks

text: In August 2021, Databricks finished their eighth round of funding by raising $1.6 billion and valuing the company at $38 billion.


title: Databricks

text: In October 2021, Databricks made its second acquisition of German no-code company 8080 Labs. 8080 Labs makes bamboolib, a data exploration tool that does not require coding to use.


title: Databricks

text: In September 2013, Databricks announced it raised $13.9 million from Andreessen Horowitz and said it aimed to offer an alternative to Google's MapReduce system. Microsoft was a noted investor of Databricks in 2019, participating in the company's Series E at an unspecified amount. The company has raised $1.9 billion in funding, including a $1 billion Series G led by Franklin Templeton at a $28 billion post-money valuation in February 2021. Other investors include Amazon Web Services, CapitalG (a growth equity firm under Alphabet, Inc.) and Salesforce Ventures.


title: Databricks

text: Databricks develops and sells a cloud data platform using the marketing term "lakehouse", a portmanteau based on the terms "data warehouse" and "data lake". Databricks' lakehouse is based on the open source Apache Spark framework that allows analytical queries against semi-structured data without a traditional database schema. In October, 2022, Lakehouse received FedRAMP authorized status for use with the U.S. federal government and contractors.


title: Databricks

text: Databricks' Delta Engine launched in June 2020 as a new query engine that layers on top of Delta Lake to boost query performance. It is compatible with Apache Spark and MLflow, which are also open source projects from Databricks.


title: Databricks

text: In November 2020, Databricks introduced Databricks SQL (previously known as SQL Analytics) for running business intelligence and analytics reporting on top of data lakes. Analysts can query data sets directly with standard SQL or use product connectors to integrate directly with business intelligence tools like Tableau, Qlik, Looker, and ThoughtSpot.


title: Databricks

text: Databricks offers a platform for other workloads, including machine learning, data storage and processing, streaming analytics, and business intelligence.


title: Databricks

text: The company has also created Delta Lake, MLflow and Koalas, open source projects that span data engineering, data science and machine learning. In addition to building the Databricks platform, the company has co-organized massive open online courses about Spark and a conference for the Spark community called the Data + AI Summit, formerly known as Spark Summit.


title: Databricks

text: Databricks is headquartered in San Francisco. It also has operations in Canada, the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Singapore, Australia, Germany, France, Japan, China, South Korea, India, and Brazil.


title: Astronomical object

text: An astronomical object, celestial object, stellar object or heavenly body is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists in the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms "object" and "body" are often used interchangeably. However, an astronomical body or celestial body is a single, tightly bound, contiguous entity, while an astronomical or celestial "object" is a complex, less cohesively bound structure, which may consist of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures.


title: Astronomical object

text: Examples of astronomical objects include planetary systems, star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies, while asteroids, moons, planets, and stars are astronomical bodies. A comet may be identified as both body and object: It is a "body" when referring to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust, and an "object" when describing the entire comet with its diffuse coma and tail.


title: Astronomical object

text: Astronomical objects such as stars, planets, nebulae, asteroids and comets have been observed for thousands of years, although early cultures thought of these bodies as gods or deities. These early cultures found the movements of the bodies very important as they used these objects to help navigate over long distances, tell between the seasons, and to determine when to plant crops. During the Middle-Ages, cultures began to study the movements of these bodies more closely. Several astronomers of the Middle-East began to make detailed descriptions of stars and nebulae, and would make more accurate calendars based on the movements of these stars and planets. In Europe, astronomers focused more on devices to help study the celestial objects and creating textbooks, guides, and universities to teach people more about astronomy.


title: Astronomical object

text: During the scientific revolution, in 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric model was published. This model described the Earth, along with all of the other planets as being astronomical bodies which orbited around the Sun located in the center of our solar system. Johannes Kepler discovered Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which are properties of the orbits which the astronomical bodies shared this was used to improve the heliocentric model. In 1584, Giordano Bruno proposed that all distant stars are their own suns, being the first in centuries to suggest this idea. Galileo Galilei was one of the first astronomers to use telescopes to observe the sky, in 1610 he observed four largest moons of Jupiter, now named the Galilean moons. Galileo also made observations of the phases of Venus, craters on the Moon, and sunspots on the Sun. Astronomer Edmond Halley was able to successfully predicted the return of Halley's Comet, which now bears his name in 1758. In 1781, Sir William Herschel discovered the new planet Uranus, being the first discovered planet not visible by the naked eye.


title: Astronomical object

text: In the 19th and 20th century, new technologies and scientific innovations allowed scientists to greatly expand their understanding of astronomy and astronomical objects. Larger telescopes and observatories began to be built and scientists began to print images of the moon and other celestial bodies on photographic plates. New wavelengths of light unseen by the human eye were discovered, and new telescopes were made that made it possible to see astronomical objects in other wavelengths of light. Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi pioneered the field of spectroscopy, which allowed them to observe the composition of stars and nebulae, and many astronomers were able to determine the masses of binary stars based on their orbital elements. Computers began to be used to observe and study massive amounts of astronomical data on stars, and new technologies such as the photoelectric photometer allowed astronomers to accurately measure the color and luminosity of stars, which allowed them to predict their temperature and mass. In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed by astronomers Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell independently of each other, which plotted stars based on their luminosity and color and allowed astronomers to easily examine stars. It was found that stars commonly fell on a band of stars called the main-sequence stars on the diagram. A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan and Philip Childs Keenan based on the Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram. Astronomers also began debating whether other galaxies existed beyond the Milky Way, these debates ended when Edwin Hubble identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, along with many others far from the Milky Way.


title: Astronomical object

text: The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical structure. At the largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy. Galaxies are organized into groups and clusters, often within larger superclusters, that are strung along great filaments between nearly empty voids, forming a web that spans the observable universe.


title: Astronomical object

text: Galaxies have a variety of morphologies, with irregular, elliptical and disk-like shapes, depending on their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies, which may lead to a merger. Disc galaxies encompass lenticular and spiral galaxies with features, such as spiral arms and a distinct halo. At the core, most galaxies have a supermassive black hole, which may result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters.


title: Astronomical object

text: The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which are typically assembled in clusters from the various condensing nebulae. The great variety of stellar forms are determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars may be found in multi-star systems that orbit about each other in a hierarchical organization. A planetary system and various minor objects such as asteroids, comets and debris, can form in a hierarchical process of accretion from the protoplanetary disks that surround newly formed stars.


title: Astronomical object

text: The various distinctive types of stars are shown by the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram)—a plot of absolute stellar luminosity versus surface temperature. Each star follows an evolutionary track across this diagram. If this track takes the star through a region containing an intrinsic variable type, then its physical properties can cause it to become a variable star. An example of this is the instability strip, a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti, RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables. The evolving star may eject some portion of its atmosphere to form a nebula, either steadily to form a planetary nebula or in a supernova explosion that leaves a remnant. Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of a companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object; either a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.


title: Astronomical object

text: The IAU definitions of planet and dwarf planet require that a Sun-orbiting astronomical body has undergone the rounding process to reach a roughly spherical shape, an achievement known as hydrostatic equilibrium. The same spheroidal shape can be seen from smaller rocky planets like Mars to gas giants like Jupiter.


title: Astronomical object

text: Any natural Sun-orbiting body that has reached hydrostatic equilibrium is classified by the IAU as a small Solar System body (SSSB). These come in many non-spherical shapes which are lumpy masses accreted haphazardly by in-falling dust and rock; not enough mass falls in to generate the heat needed to complete the rounding. Some SSSBs are just collections of relatively small rocks that are weakly held next to each other by gravity but are not actually fused into a single big bedrock. Some larger SSSBs are nearly round but have not reached hydrostatic equilibrium. The small Solar System body 4 Vesta is large enough to have undergone at least partial planetary differentiation.


title: Astronomical object

text: Stars like the Sun are also spheroidal due to gravity's effects on their plasma, which is a free-flowing fluid. Ongoing stellar fusion is a much greater source of heat for stars compared to the initial heat released during formation.


title: Prison School

text: A 12-episode anime television series adaptation, directed by Tsutomu Mizushima, aired from July to September 2015. A live-action drama television series aired from October to December 2015.


title: Prison School

text: As of March 2018, the manga had over 13 million copies in circulation. In 2013, "Prison School" won the 37th Kodansha Manga Award in the general category.


title: Prison School

text: Hachimitsu Academy, one of the strictest girls' academies in Tokyo, has decided to admit boys into their system. Kiyoshi Fujino is one of these new boys, but he discovers to his shock that he and his four friends—Takehito "Gakuto" Morokuzu, Shingo Wakamoto, Jouji "Joe" Nezu, and Reiji "Andre" Andou—are the only male students among 1,000 girls. The draconian laws that are still in place make the school even worse, which punishes even the most minor infractions with a stay in the school's prison. The five boys all commit voyeurism in the school's bathing area with the lecherous philosophy of "all for one, one for all". Their capture and "arrest" by the Underground Student Council causes the five boys to receive an ultimatum: either stay a month in the school's Prison Block or be expelled. The boys are incarcerated in the Prison Block together and Kiyoshi is overwhelmed by the discovery that all the other boys are masochists that revel in the punishments handed to them by their attractive but vicious supervisors.


title: Prison School

text: "Prison School", written and illustrated by Akira Hiramoto, was serialized in Kodansha's "seinen" manga magazine "Weekly Young Magazine" from February 7, 2011 to December 25, 2017. Kodansha collected its chapters in twenty-eight "tankōbon" volumes, released from June 6, 2011 to April 6, 2018.


title: Prison School

text: In North America, the manga was licensed for English release by Yen Press. They published the series in fourteen omnibus volumes, containing two original "tankōbon" volumes each, from July 21, 2015 to October 29, 2019.


title: Prison School

text: An anime television series adaptation was announced in August 2014. The series was produced by Genco, Egg Firm, Warner Bros. Japan, Kodansha, Showgate, Klockworx, Movic, and J.C. Staff. It was directed by Tsutomu Mizushima, with Michiko Yokote handling series composition and writing the scripts, Junichirō Taniguchi designing the characters and props and Kōtarō Nakagawa composing the music. The anime aired on Tokyo MX, KBS, Sun TV, TV Aichi and BS11 from July to September 2015. The voice actors of the five male main characters performed the opening and ending theme songs under the group name Kangoku Danshi. An original animation DVD was bundled with the limited edition 20th volume of the manga that was released on March 4, 2016. The OAD adapted the manga's "Mad Wax" arc. Following Sony's acquisition of Crunchyroll, the series was moved to Crunchyroll.


title: Prison School

text: A live-action television drama adaptation was announced in August 2015, directed by Noboru Iguchi at production studio Robot. The series premiered on October 26, 2015, and aired on MBS and TBS. The opening theme song is performed by HaKU.


title: Prison School

text: "Prison School" was one of two winners of the Best General Manga award alongside "Gurazeni" at the 37th Kodansha Manga Award in 2013. The broadcast dub version of the anime was criticized for altering the original meaning of a line while referencing the Gamergate controversy, written by Tyson Rinehart.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The University of California, Irvine (UCI or UC Irvine) is a public land-grant research university in Irvine, California. One of the ten campuses of the University of California system, UCI offers 87 undergraduate degrees and 129 graduate and professional degrees, and roughly 30,000 undergraduates and 6,000 graduate students are enrolled at UCI as of Fall 2019. The university is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity", and had $436.6 million in research and development expenditures in 2018. UCI became a member of the Association of American Universities in 1996. The university was rated as one of the "Public Ivies” in 1985 and 2001 surveys comparing publicly funded universities the authors claimed provide an education comparable to the Ivy League.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The university also administers the UC Irvine Medical Center, a large teaching hospital in Orange, and its affiliated health sciences system; the University of California, Irvine, Arboretum; and a portion of the University of California Natural Reserve System. UC Irvine set up the first Earth System Science Department in the United States.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UC Irvine was one of three new UC campuses established in the 1960s to accommodate growing enrollments across the UC system. A site in Orange County was identified in 1959, and in the following year the Irvine Company sold the University of California of land for one dollar to establish the new campus. President Lyndon B. Johnson dedicated the campus in 1964, a fact commemorated with the delivery of a commencement speech by President Barack Obama fifty years later.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: As of January 2022, there have been 8 Nobel Prize laureates, 7 Pulitzer Prize winners, 6 MacArthur "Genius Grant" recipients, 37 Guggenheim Fellows, and 1 Turing Award winner affiliated with the university as alumni, faculty or researchers.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The UC Irvine Anteaters currently compete in the NCAA Division I as members of the Big West Conference. During the early years of the school's existence, the teams played at the NCAA Division II level. The Anteaters have won 28 national championships in nine different team sports, 64 Anteaters have won individual national championships, and 53 Anteaters have competed in the Olympics, winning a total of 33 Olympic medals.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The University of California, Irvine (with San Diego and Santa Cruz) was one of three new University of California campuses established in the 1960s under the California Master Plan for Higher Education. During the 1950s, the University of California saw the need for the new campuses to handle the expected increase in enrollment from the post-war baby boom. One of the new campuses was to be in the Los Angeles area; the location selected was Irvine Ranch, an area of agricultural land bisecting Orange County from north to south. This site was chosen to accommodate the county's growing population, complement the growth of nearby UCLA and UC Riverside, and allow for the construction of a master planned community in the surrounding area.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: On June 20, 1964, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson dedicated UC Irvine before a crowd of 15,000 people, and on October 4, 1965 the campus began operations with 1,589 students, 241 staff members, 119 faculty, and 43 teaching assistants. However, many of UCI's buildings were still under construction and landscaping was still in progress, with the campus only at 75% completion. By June 25, 1966, UCI held its first Commencement with fourteen students, which conferred ten Bachelor of Arts degrees, three Master of Arts degrees, and one Doctor of Philosophy degree.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Unlike most other University of California campuses, UCI was not named for the city it was built in; at the time of the university's founding (1965), the current city of Irvine (incorporated in 1971) did not exist. The name "Irvine" is a reference to James Irvine, a landowner who administered the Irvine Ranch. In 1960, The Irvine Company sold of the Irvine Ranch to the University of California for one dollar, since company policy prohibited the donation of property to a public entity. On campus, UC Irvine's first Chancellor, Daniel G. Aldrich selected a wide variety of Mediterranean-climate flora and fauna, feeling that it served an "aesthetic, environmental, and educational [purpose]." To plan the remainder of the ranch, the University hired William Pereira and Associates. Pereira intended for the UC Irvine campus to complement the neighboring community, and it became clear that the original grant would not suffice. In 1964, the University purchased an additional in 1964 for housing and commercial developments.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Much of the land that was not purchased by UCI (which is now occupied by the cities of Irvine, Tustin, and Newport Beach) remains held by The Irvine Company, but the completion of the University rapidly drove the development of Orange County. The City of Irvine became incorporated and established in 1971 and 1975, respectively. UCI remains the second-largest employer in Orange County, with an annual economic impact of $5 billion.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Aldrich developed the campus' first academic plan around a College of Arts, Letters, and Science, a Graduate School of Administration, and a School of Engineering. The College of Arts, Letters, and Science was composed of twenty majors in five "Divisions": Biological Sciences, Fine Arts, Humanities, Physical Sciences, and Social Sciences (which transformed into the present-day "Schools"). In 1967, the California College of Medicine (originally a school of osteopathy founded in 1896 and the oldest continuously operating medical college in the Southwest) became part of UC Irvine. In 1976, plans to establish an on-campus hospital were set aside, with the university instead purchasing the Orange County Medical Center (renamed the UC Irvine Medical Center) around 12 miles from UC Irvine, in the City of Orange.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: In early July 2018, UC Irvine removed benefactor Francisco J. Ayala's name from its biology school and central science library after an internal investigation by the university's Office of Equal Opportunity and Diversity substantiated a number of sexual harassment claims. Chancellor Gillman also authorized the removal of the Ayala name from graduate fellowships, scholar programs, and endowed chairs. Ayala resigned July 1, 2018 and was ordered to abstain from future university activities, following the university's consultative procedures that include a faculty review committee. The results from the investigation were compiled in a 97-page report, which included testimony from victims of Ayala.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The layout of the core campus resembles a rough circle with its center being Aldrich Park (initially known as Central Park), lined up by the Ring Mall and buildings surrounding the road. To further emphasize the layout, academic units are positioned relative to the center, wherein undergraduate schools are closer to the center than the graduate schools.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Aldrich Park is planted with over 11,120 trees (there are over 24,000 trees on the entire campus), including 33 species of eucalyptus. Two ceremonial trees were planted in 1990, one for Arbor Day and the second for former chancellor Daniel Aldrich who had died that year. On the first anniversary of the September 11th tragedies, the chancellor planted a bay laurel tree in remembrance of the heroes and victims of the events of September 11, 2001. The tree itself was a gift from the UCI Staff Assembly. Aldrich Park is the site for "Wayzgoose", a medieval student festival held each year in conjunction with the "Celebrate UCI" open house. It also hosts many extracurricular activities.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Ring Mall is the main pedestrian road used by students and faculty to travel around the core campus. The road measures up to a perfect mile and completely encircles Aldrich Park. Most schools and libraries are lined up by this road with each of these schools having their own central plaza which also connects to the Aldrich Park.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Other areas of the university outside of the core campus such as the School of Arts are connected by four pedestrian bridges. Beyond the core campus and the bridges, the layout of the campus is more suburban.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Irvine, California consistently ranks as the safest city in America. UCI is close to the beaches, mountains, and attractions of Southern California. Disneyland is approximately 20 minutes away by car. While the university is located in Irvine, the campus is directly bounded by the city of Newport Beach and the community of Newport Coast. The western side of the campus borders the San Diego Creek and the San Joaquin Freshwater Marsh Reserve, through which Campus Drive connects UCI to the 405 freeway. The northern and eastern sides of UCI are adjacent to Irvine proper; the eastern side of the campus is delineated by Bonita Canyon Road, which turns into Culver Drive at its northern terminus. California State Route 73 marks UCI's southern boundary and separates the campus from Newport Beach.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The "North Campus" houses the Facilities Management Department, the Faculty Research Facility, Central Receiving, Fleet Services, the Air Pollution Health Effects Laboratory, and numerous other functions. It is located next to the UCI Arboretum; both the North Campus and the arboretum are located about from the main campus.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: William Pereira's original street layout for the region surrounding the University had a wingnut-shaped loop road as the main thoroughfare, which twice crossed the campus. However, the Irvine Company's development plans expanded before it could be completed, and portions of California, Carlson, Harvard and Turtle Rock roads today constitute segments of what would have been the Loop Road.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Despite the suburban environment, a variety of wildlife inhabits the university's central park, open fields, and wetlands. The university is home to cougar, hawks, golden eagles, great blue herons, squirrels, opossums, peregrine falcons, rabbits, raccoons, owls, skunks, weasels, bats, and coyotes. The UCI Arboretum hosts a collection of plants from California and Mediterranean climates around the world. The rabbits in particular can be seen across campus in high numbers, especially during hours of low student traffic.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The first buildings were designed by a team of architects led by William Pereira and including A. Quincy Jones and William Blurock. The initial landscaping, including Aldrich Park, was designed by an association of three firms, including that of the noted urban-landscaping innovator Robert Herrick Carter. Aldrich Park was designed under the direction of landscape architect Gene Uematsu, and was modeled after Frederick Law Olmsted's designs for New York City's Central Park. The campus opened in 1965 with the inner circle and park only half-completed. There were only nine buildings and a dirt road connecting the main campus to the housing units. Only three of the six "spokes" that radiate from the central park were built, with only two buildings each. Pereira was retained by the university to maintain a continuity of style among the buildings constructed in the inner ring around the park, the last of which was completed in 1972. These buildings were designed in a style which combined sweeping curves and expressionistic shapes with elements of classic California architecture such as red tiled roofs and clay-tiled walkways, and distinctive white railings evoking the deck of an ocean liner. These buildings featured an innovative structural design that freed the interiors from support columns to allow future alterations of their floor plans.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Construction on the campus all but ceased after the Administration building, Aldrich Hall, was completed in 1974, and then resumed in the late 1980s, beginning a massive building boom that still continues today. This second building boom continued the futuristic trend, but emphasized a much more colorful, postmodern approach that somewhat contradicted the earthy, organic designs of the early buildings. Architects such as Frank Gehry, Robert Venturi, Eric Owen Moss, James Stirling and Arthur Erickson were brought in to bring the campus more up to date. The recession in the early 1990s along with internal politics led to a change in direction, due to the reduced capital budget, and changing attitudes towards architectural innovation at the university. This, in turn, led to a "contextualist" approach beginning in the late 1990s combining stylistic elements of the first two phases in an attempt to provide an architectural "middle ground" between the two vastly different styles. Gehry's building was recently removed from campus to make way for a new building, with a design that has been called a "big beige box with bands of bricks". In 2009 the Humanities Gateway building, designed by Curtis W. Fentress, was opened. Its curvilinear design marked a return to the sculptural treatment of concrete begun by Pereira.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: As of 2005, the campus has more than 200 buildings and encompasses most of the university's . The campus is in the midst of a $1.1 billion construction campaign.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: In addition to holding a noted Critical Theory archive and Southeast Asian archive, the Libraries also contain extensive collections in Dance and Performing Arts, Regional History, and more. Additionally, Langson Library hosts an extensive East Asian collection with materials in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Nearly all departments and schools on campus complement the resources of the UC Irvine Libraries by maintaining their own reading rooms and scholarly meeting rooms. They contain small reference collections and are the choice for more intimate lectures, graduate seminars, and study sessions. There is also the large Gateway Study Center located across from Langson Library, one of the university's original buildings and under the custody of UC Irvine Libraries. Having served formerly as a cafeteria and student center, it is now a dual-use computer lab and study area which is open nearly 24 hours.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The UCI Student Center offers a large number of study areas, auditoriums, and two food courts, and therefore is one of the most popular places to study on campus. UC Irvine also has a number of computer labs that serve as study centers. The School of Humanities maintains the Humanities Instructional Resource Center, a drop-in computer lab specializing in language and digital media. Additionally, UCI maintains five other drop-in labs, four instructional computer labs, and a number of reservation-only SmartClassrooms, some of which are open 24 hours. Other popular study areas include Aldrich Park, the Cross-Cultural Center, the Locus (a study room and computer lab used by the Campuswide Honors Program), and plazas located in every school.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: A network of tunnels runs between many of the major buildings on campus and the Central Plant, with the major trunk passage located beneath Ring Mall. Smaller tunnels branch off from this main passage to reach individual buildings, carrying electrical and air-conditioning utilities from the Central Plant. These tunnels have been the subject of much campus lore, the most popular story being that the tunnels were constructed to facilitate the safe evacuation of faculty in the event of a student riot. The main tunnel actually contains an above-ground section, in the form of the interior of an unusually thick pedestrian bridge near the Engineering Tower, in an area where the Ring Mall crosses between two hills. The tunnels are only accessible to maintenance staff, although there are also publicly accessible tunnels which intersect the utility tunnels, such as the one that goes between the main Information & Computer Science building and the Engineering Tower.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Like other University of California campuses, UC Irvine operates under a system of shared governance, or a partnership between the Chancellor and his administration and the faculty through the Academic Senate. The Chancellor is the chief campus officer and has authority over the campus budget. The Academic Senate has authority to determine the conditions for admission and supervise courses and curricula. The Chancellor is nominated by and is responsible to the Regents of the University of California and the UC President. UCI's Chancellors are listed below:


title: University of California, Irvine

text: After the Chancellor, the second most senior official is the Executive Vice Chancellor and Provost, the university's chief academic and operating officer. Every school on campus reports to the Executive Vice Chancellor and Provost through a Dean, and all other academic and administrative units report to his office through a Vice Chancellor or chief administrator. A partial list of these units includes Campus Recreation, Intercollegiate Athletics, Planning and Budget, Student Affairs, UC Irvine Libraries, UC Irvine Medical Center, and University Advancement.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UC Irvine's academic units are referred to as Schools. As of the 2021-2022 school year, there are fourteen Schools, one Program in Public Health, and various interdisciplinary programs. The College of Health Sciences was established in 2004, but no longer exists as a separate academic unit. On November 16, 2006, the University of California Regents approved the establishment of the School of Law. The School of Education was established by the UC Regents in 2012. In 2016, the university announced that it had received a $40 million donation from Bill Gross' philanthropic foundation to turn its nursing science program into the Sue and Bill Gross School of Nursing. The UC Regents formally approved the establishment of the school in January 2017. In July 2020, the UC Regents approved the establishment of the School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. Supplementary education programs offer accelerated or community education in the form of Summer Session and UC Irvine Extension.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The School of Medicine constitute the professional schools of health science. UC Irvine Medical Center is ranked among the nation's top 50 hospitals by "U.S. News & World Report" for the 12th consecutive year. The School has 19 clinical and 6 basic science departments with 560 full-time and 1,300 volunteer faculty members involved in teaching, patient care and medical and basic science research.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UCI's many research organizations are either chaired by or composed of UCI faculty, frequently draw upon undergraduates and graduates for research assistance, and produce innovations, patents, and scholarly works. Some are housed in a school or department office; others are housed in their own facilities. These are a few of the research organizations at UCI:


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Among universities under 50 years of age "Times Higher Education" ranked UCI 4th in the world and 1st in the US for 2012, 5th in the world and 1st in the US for 2013, 7th in the world and 1st in the US in 2014, and 7th in the world and 1st in the US in 2015. 2015 was the final year UCI was eligible for this ranking.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: For 2021, "U.S. News & World Report" ranked UC Irvine tied for 35th among national universities in the U.S., tied for 8th among public universities, 2nd in "Top Performers on Social Mobility", tied for 42nd in "Most Innovative Schools", tied for 61st in "Best Undergraduate Teaching", and 175th in "Best Value Schools".


title: University of California, Irvine

text: In 2017 "Kiplinger" ranked UCI 26th out of the top 100 best-value public colleges and universities in the nation, and 5th in California.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: In 2018, "Sierra Magazine" ranked UCI 1st in its "Coolest Schools" in America list for campus sustainability and climate change efforts.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: In addition, many of UCI's graduate programs are ranked in the top 50 of the 2020 "U.S. News & World Report" rankings: literary criticism and theory (1), criminology (3), organic chemistry (10), English (17), chemistry (20), sociology (23), computer science (30), physics (28), psychology (36), law (21), education (24), biological sciences (33), earth sciences (41), history (34), engineering (35), business part-time MBA (32), political science (45), mathematics (39), medicine-research (46), and economics (47).


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UC Irvine is categorized by "U.S. News & World Report" as "most selective" for college admissions in the United States. It was the third-most selective University of California campus for the freshman class entering in the fall of 2019, as measured by the ratio of admitted students to applicants (behind UC Berkeley and UCLA). UC Irvine received 95,566 applications for admission to the fall 2019 incoming freshman class and 25,394 were admitted, making UC Irvine's acceptance rate 26.6% for fall 2019. The middle 50% range for SAT scores of fall 2019 enrolled freshmen were 650-790 for math and 600-720 for evidence based reading and writing. The incoming 2018 freshmen were predominantly from Los Angeles County, followed by Orange County, the Bay Area counties, San Bernardino County, Riverside County, and San Diego County.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The most popular major for freshmen is a major in the School of Biological Sciences (22%), followed by Undecided/Undeclared (20.6%), Social Sciences (17.4%), Engineering (11.7%), Humanities (8.8%), Physical Sciences (6.1%), Arts (5%), Social Ecology (5%), Information and Computer Sciences (3%), and Health Sciences (0.2%). The average freshman's incoming high school GPA was 3.95. The average SAT scores were 602 (Critical Reasoning), 640 (Mathematics), and 612 (Writing), while the ACT composite score was 26. SAT verbal scores for the middle 50% were 550 and 660, while SAT math scores ranged between 580 and 700.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The choice to offer admission is based on the University of California's comprehensive review program, which considers a candidate's personal situation, community involvement, extracurricular activities, and academic potential in addition to the traditional high school academic record, personal statement, and entrance examination scores. While residency is not a factor in admission, it is a factor in tuition expenses, with out-of-state residents fees much greater than California residents. Since the approval of Proposition 209 in November 1996, California state law has prohibited all public universities (including UC Irvine) from practicing affirmative action as part of their admissions processes.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The University of California Irvine hosts the UCI Machine Learning Repository, a data resource which is very popular among machine learning researchers and data mining practitioners. It was created in 1987 and contains almost 500 datasets from several domains including biology, medicine, physics, engineering, social sciences, games, and others. The datasets contained in the UC Irvine Machine Learning Repository have been used by thousands of students and researchers in the computer science community and facilitated the publication of approximately 26 thousand scientific articles.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The first fraternities and sororities at UCI began in 1973 with three sororities (Delta Gamma, Pi Beta Phi, and Gamma Phi Beta) and three fraternities (Beta Theta Pi, Sigma Chi, and Phi Delta Theta). Major events and programs in the Greek Community include Songfest, All Greek Conference, Greek Week, BANG (Being a New Greek), and risk management programs (topics vary).


title: University of California, Irvine

text: With over 650 student clubs and organizations on campus, students can readily find friends who share their interests, whether academic, multicultural, political, religious, service, social, or athletic. Campus activities throughout the year include cultural nights, arts performances, and live music at Anteater Plaz. Special events such as Summerlands, Wayzgoose, Shocktoberfest, Soulstice, and Earth Day are held yearly. ASUCI, the university's undergraduate student government, traditionally organizes a world record attempt by the university at the beginning of each academic year. UCI has won Guinness World Records for the largest game of capture the flag six times, with the most recent one in September 2015. In addition, the university has broken the record for the largest game of dodgeball three years straight. They have also won records for largest water pistol fight and largest pillow fight.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: On November 30, 2007, the Office of Civil Rights of the United States Department of Education issued a report finding insufficient evidence in support of allegations that Jewish students at UCI were harassed and subjected to a hostile environment based on their religious beliefs. The agency ultimately found that none of the incidents leading to the allegations qualified as "sufficiently severe, pervasive or persistent as to interfere with or limit the ability of an individual to participate in from the services, activities or privileges" provided by UCI, and that university officials had acted appropriately in response to each incident. In December 2007, UCI Administration was cleared of anti-semitism complaints by the US Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights. Following a speech by Chancellor Drake at the national Hillel meeting in Washington, D.C. in March 2008, Anteaters for Israel, along with three other Jewish organizations, issued a press release defending Drake and claiming that anti-Semitic activity was "exaggerated".


title: University of California, Irvine

text: In 2010, eleven students from the Muslim Student Union staged a protest against a speech by Israeli Ambassador Michael Oren by disrupting it several times. The students and the student's union involved were first disciplined by UCI and then had criminal charges brought against them. They were convicted of misdemeanor charges and sentenced to three years probation, community service, and fines. This led to a debate on whether the students' protest was free speech and whether filing criminal charges against them was fair after UCI had already disciplined them. Critics argued that the students were victims of selective prosecution and that they were targeted because they were Muslims and supported the Palestinians.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UC Irvine has a number of residential options for students interested in living on campus. Part of UCI's long-range development plan involves expanding on-campus housing to accommodate 50% of all UCI students.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The on-campus housing communities for undergraduates are: Mesa Court, Middle Earth, Arroyo Vista, Campus Village, Vista del Campo, Vista del Campo Norte, Camino del Sol, Puerta del Sol, and Plaza Verde. Graduate students also have access to the on-campus housing communities: Palo Verde and Verano Place.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UCI's two freshman dormitory communities are Mesa Court and Middle Earth. Mesa Court was the first housing community at UCI, and features a volleyball court, two basketball courts, a community center, a recreational center, and the Mesa Academic Center (MAC). Middle Earth comprises 24 residence halls, two dining facilities (Brandywine and Pippin Commons), a student center, and several resource centers. Each building in Middle Earth is named after a character or a place from J.R.R. Tolkien's "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". Middle Earth was built in three phases. The first phase was built in 1974 and includes seven halls: Hobbiton, Isengard, Lorien, Mirkwood, Misty Mountain, Rivendell, and the Shire, along with a separate Head Resident's manufactured home called "Bag End". The second phase was built in 1989 with thirteen more halls: Balin, Harrowdale, Whispering Wood, Woodhall, Calmindon, Grey Havens, Aldor, Rohan, Gondolin, Snowbourn, Elrond, Shadowfax, and Quenya. The third phase was built in 2000 with four halls: Crickhollow, Evenstar, Oakenshield, and Valimar. Each hall houses about fifty to eighty students, although Quenya was built with sixty single suite rooms which mainly house graduate students. In 2019, two Middle Earth towers were built, which are called Telperion and Laurelin. These towers house around 470 undergraduate students.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: There are 42 houses located in Arroyo Vista, of which nine are sorority houses and four are fraternity houses. The sorority houses located in Arroyo Vista are Alpha Phi, Delta Delta Delta, Delta Gamma, Gamma Phi Beta, Pi Beta Phi, Alpha Chi Omega, and Kappa Alpha Theta. The fraternity houses located in Arroyo Vista are Sigma Phi Epsilon, Sigma Chi, Phi Gamma Delta, and Kappa Sigma. Arroyo Vista also features many themed houses based on academic or social interests. In the fall of 2012, Arroyo Vista started the "First Year Experience" and now houses first year students within six of its houses. Students living in Arroyo Vista live in complexes that may be called houses, but have dorm-like qualities.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Apartment-style on-campus housing at UCI can be found at Vista del Campo, Vista del Campo Norte, Camino del Sol, and Puerta del Sol. VDC has single rooms available for undergraduates, while VDC Norte has both single rooms and double rooms available. Camino del Sol features single rooms, a community center, a fitness center, and a pool. In the fall of 2012, Camino del Sol opened housing to incoming first-year students as an option instead of dorm living. Each housing community is served by ASUCI shuttles that regularly travel to the main campus. It has three stories and was designed with capacity for 1,198 beds, in 331 units ranging in size from 1,118-1,499 sq. ft.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UCI off-campus housing options vary, based on a student's preferred living arrangements and budget. However, a common denominator for off-campus apartment housing in Irvine is the fact that most accommodations are maintained by The Irvine Company (also true in nearby Newport Beach and Tustin to a lesser extent).


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UC Irvine's sports teams are known as the Anteaters and the student body is known as Antourage. They currently participate in the NCAA's Division I, as members of the Big West Conference and the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation. In the early years of the school's existence, the teams participated at the NCAA Division II level with great success as explained in the UC Irvine Anteaters page. UC Irvine fields nationally competitive teams in baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, track and field, volleyball and water polo. The university has won 28 national championships in nine different sports, and fielded 64 individual national champions, 53 Olympians and over 500 All-Americans.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The university's most recent NCAA Division I national championship was won by the men's volleyball team in 2013. UC Irvine men's volleyball won four national championships in 2007, 2009, 2012 and 2013.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UC Irvine won three NCAA Division I men's water polo titles, with championships in 1970, 1982 and 1989.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UC Irvine Anteaters baseball won back-to-back national championships at the NCAA College Division College World Series and the NCAA Division II College World Series in 1973 and 1974. Anteater baseball moved to the NCAA Division I level. The 2007 baseball team finished 3rd at the College World Series, and in 2009 the baseball team earned a No. 1 national ranking in NCAA Division I polls from Baseball America and Collegiate Baseball for the first time, as well as a national seed and the right to host an NCAA Regional. The 2014 baseball team returned to the College World Series and finished 5th.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UCI Anteater's golf team won the NCAA Division II national team championship in 1975 with team member Jerry Wisz winning the individual title. At the NCAA national championships in 1973, 1974 and 1976, those teams finished second twice and fourth the other year. These teams included seven All-Americans.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: In 2015, for the first time, the UC Irvine Anteaters men's basketball team appeared in the Division I tournament. It was narrowly defeated in a first-round tournament game by Louisville. The Anteaters made their second NCAA appearance in 2019, beating fourth-seed Kansas State University for their first March Madness win ever.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: The anteater was chosen in 1965 when students were allowed to submit mascot candidates, which would be voted on in a campus election. Three undergraduates named Pat Glasgow, Bob Ernst, and Schuyler Hadley Basset III were credited with choosing the anteater and designing a cartoon representation, having been disappointed with other candidates such as a roadrunner, unicorn, seahawk and golden bison.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: While often attributed to the Johnny Hart comic strip "B.C.", the original anteater design was based on the "Playboy" bunny. In November 1965, the UCI students officially voted on the anteater. In a special follow-up election, students opted for a mascot based on the "B.C." anteater over the "Playboy" version.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: A hand signal called "Rip'em 'Eaters" was created by Blake Sasaki and Dennis Wisco in 2001. When attacked, an anteater sits in a tripodal position with its hind feet and tail and tears and "rips" at its predator. The hand signal is done by touching the tips of the two middle fingers with the thumb, and sliding the thumb back, making the pinky and index finger the ears and the fingers in the middle the snout of the anteater.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: In August 2007, a small stuffed anteater accompanied astronaut Tracy Caldwell on Space Shuttle "Endeavour" mission STS-118.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Following the 2015 men's basketball team's inaugural appearance in the NCAA Division I tournament, "Mashable" named Peter the Anteater the winner of its "Mascot Madness" tournament. The mascot also appeared on an episode of "Conan".


title: University of California, Irvine

text: UC Irvine has more than 200,000 living alumni. These include astronauts (Tracy Caldwell Dyson), athletes (Steve Scott, Scott Brooks, Greg Louganis and 53 Olympians), Broadway, film, and television actors (Bob Gunton, James LeGros, Jon Lovitz, Brian Thompson, Teal Wicks, Windell Middlebrooks), technological innovators (Roy Fielding, Paul Mockapetris, and Patrick J. Hanratty), educators (Erin Gruwell), musicians (Kevin Kwan Loucks), and scientists (Mika Tosca).


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Eight people affiliated with UCI have been honored with the Nobel Prize. In 1995, professor Frank Sherwood Rowland won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Frederick Reines won the Nobel Prize in Physics. Rowland helped to discover the harmful effects of CFCs on the ozone layer, while Reines received the Nobel Prize for his work in discovering the neutrino. In 2004, Irwin Rose, a professor at the School of Medicine, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with two professors from the Technion for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation. In 2021, alumnus David MacMillan was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of asymmetric organocatalysis.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Seven Pulitzer Prize winners have been associated with UCI, including three faculty members and four alumni. These include Michael Chabon, who won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2001 for The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay, and Richard Ford, who won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1996 for Independence Day. Claude Yarbrough (aka Jonathan Pendragon), class of '76, is one of the most influential magicians of the 20th and 21st centuries. Thomas Keneally was a visiting professor at UCI in 1985 (when he taught the graduate fiction workshop) and again from 1991 to 1995 (when he was a visiting professor in the writing program). Keneally is most famous for his book "Schindler's Ark" (1982) (later republished as "Schindler's List"), which won the Booker Prize and is the basis of the film "Schindler's List" that was directed by Steven Spielberg.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Jacques Derrida, a philosopher most commonly associated with postmodern and post-structuralist philosophy, taught at the University of California, Irvine from 1986 to shortly before his death in 2004; his colleague, Jean-François Lyotard, also taught at UCI from 1987 until 1994. Ralph J. Cicerone, an earth system science professor and former chancellor of UCI, served as president of the National Academy of Sciences from 2005 to 2016.


title: University of California, Irvine

text: Three UCI faculty members have been named National Medal of Science recipients. In January 2009, UCI Professor Reg Penner won the Faraday Medal for his research with nanowires.


title: Max Carver

text: Max Carver (born Robert Maxwell Martensen Jr; August 1, 1988) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Preston Scavo in the ABC television series "Desperate Housewives", as Aiden on the MTV teen-horror drama "Teen Wolf", and in the first season of the HBO series "The Leftovers"; his twin brother Charlie Carver portrayed the twin of his characters in all three shows.


title: Max Carver

text: Max Carver was born in San Francisco, California, on August 1, 1988. His identical twin brother Charles was born seven minutes earlier on July 31. Before he began acting professionally, he was known as Max Martensen. His father was physician, historian, and author Robert Martensen, and his mother, Anne Carver, is a philanthropist and community activist. In 1992, Anne and her new husband Denis Sutro moved the family to Calistoga in Napa Valley. Max attended high school at St. Paul’s School in Concord, New Hampshire, from which he graduated in 2007. In 2012, he graduated from the University of Southern California with a bachelor's degree in English.


title: Max Carver

text: His acting debut was with his brother in the ABC television series, "Desperate Housewives"; they played Preston and Porter Scavo, sons to Lynette Scavo and Tom Scavo. He and his brother appeared in season 3 of MTV's "Teen Wolf" as a pair of twin werewolves – Max played Aiden, and Charlie played Ethan. They next appeared in the first season of HBO series "The Leftovers".


title: Max Carver

text: Carver has also acted separately from his brother. He has guest starred on shows such as "The Office", "Good Luck Charlie", "Victorious", and "Best Friends Forever". He had a cameo role in the 2014 comedy "Mantervention", playing Lifeguard Joe. He made his principal film debut in 2014 in "Ask Me Anything", co-starring with Britt Robertson, Justin Long, and Martin Sheen.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The Apollo Lunar Module (LM ), originally designated the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM), was the lunar lander spacecraft that was flown between lunar orbit and the Moon's surface during the United States' Apollo program. It was the first crewed spacecraft to operate exclusively in the airless vacuum of space, and remains the only crewed vehicle to land anywhere beyond Earth.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Structurally and aerodynamically incapable of flight through Earth's atmosphere, the two-stage lunar module was ferried to lunar orbit attached to the Apollo command and service module (CSM), about twice its mass. Its crew of two flew the complete lunar module from lunar orbit to the Moon's surface. During takeoff, the spent descent stage was used as a launch pad for the ascent stage which then flew back to the command module, after which it was also discarded.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Overseen by Grumman, the LM's development was plagued with problems that delayed its first uncrewed flight by about ten months and its first crewed flight by about three months. Still, the LM became the most reliable component of the Apollo–Saturn space vehicle. The total cost of the LM for development and the units produced was $21.3 billion in 2016 dollars, adjusting from a nominal total of $2.2 billion using the NASA New Start Inflation Indices.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Ten lunar modules were launched into space. Of these, six were landed by humans on the Moon from 1969 to 1972. The first two flown were tests in low Earth orbit: Apollo 5, without a crew; and Apollo 9 with a crew. A third test flight in low lunar orbit was Apollo 10, a dress rehearsal for the first landing, conducted on Apollo 11. The Apollo 13 lunar module functioned as a lifeboat to provide life support and propulsion to keep the crew alive for the trip home, when their CSM was disabled by an oxygen tank explosion en route to the Moon.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The six landed descent stages remain at their landing sites; their corresponding ascent stages crashed into the Moon following use. One ascent stage (Apollo 10's "Snoopy") was discarded in a heliocentric orbit after its descent stage was discarded in lunar orbit. The other three LMs were burned up in the Earth's atmosphere: the four stages of Apollo 5 and Apollo 9 each re-entered separately, while Apollo 13's "Aquarius" re-entered as a unit.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: At launch, the lunar module sat directly beneath the command and service module (CSM) with legs folded, inside the Spacecraft-to-LM adapter (SLA) attached to the S-IVB third stage of the Saturn V rocket. There it remained through Earth parking orbit and the trans-lunar injection (TLI) rocket burn to send the craft toward the Moon.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Soon after TLI, the SLA opened; the CSM performed a maneuver whereby it separated, turned around, came back to dock with the lunar module, and extracted it from the S-IVB. During the flight to the Moon, the docking hatches were opened and the lunar module pilot entered the LM to power up temporarily and test all systems except propulsion. The lunar module pilot performed the role of an engineering officer, monitoring the systems of both spacecraft.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: After achieving a lunar parking orbit, the commander and LM pilot entered and powered up the LM, replaced the hatches and docking equipment, unfolded and locked its landing legs, and separated from the CSM, flying independently. The commander operated the flight controls and engine throttle, while the lunar module pilot operated other spacecraft systems and kept the commander informed about systems status and navigational information. After the command module pilot visually inspected the landing gear, the LM was withdrawn to a safe distance, then rotated until the descent engine was pointed forward into the direction of travel. A 30-second descent orbit insertion burn was performed to reduce speed and drop the LM's perilune to within about of the surface, about uprange of the landing site.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: As the craft approached perilune, the descent engine was started again to begin powered descent. During this time, the crew flew on their backs, depending on the computer to slow the craft's forward and vertical velocity to near zero. Control was exercised with a combination of engine throttling and attitude thrusters, guided by the computer with the aid of landing radar. During braking, the LM descended to about , then, in the final approach phase, down to about . During final approach, the vehicle pitched over to a near-vertical position, allowing the crew to look forward and down to see the lunar surface for the first time.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Astronauts flew Apollo spacecraft manually only during the lunar approach. The final landing phase began about uprange of the targeted landing site. At this point, manual control was enabled for the commander, who had enough propellant to hover for up to two minutes to survey where the computer was taking the craft and make any necessary corrections. If necessary, landing could have been aborted at almost any time by jettisoning the descent stage and firing the ascent engine to climb back into orbit for an emergency return to the CSM. Finally, one or more of three probes extending from footpads on the legs of the lander touched the surface, activating the contact indicator light which signaled the commander to shut off the descent engine, allowing the LM to settle onto the surface. On touchdown, the probes would be bent as much as 180 degrees, or even break off. The original design used the probes on all four legs, but starting with the first landing (LM-5 on Apollo 11), the one at the ladder was removed out of concern that the bent probe after landing might puncture an astronaut's suit as he descended or stepped off the ladder.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The original extravehicular activity plan, up through at least 1966, was for only one astronaut to leave the LM while the other remained inside "to maintain communications". Communications were eventually deemed to be reliable enough to allow both crew members to walk on the surface, leaving the spacecraft to be only remotely attended by Mission Control.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Beginning with Apollo 14, extra LM propellant was made available for the powered descent and landing, by using the CSM engine to achieve the perilune. After the spacecraft undocked, the CSM raised and circularized its orbit for the remainder of the mission.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: When ready to leave the Moon, the LM's ascent engine fired, leaving the descent stage on the Moon's surface. After a few course correction burns, the LM rendezvoused with the CSM and docked to transfer the crew and rock samples. Having completed its job, the ascent stage was separated. The Apollo 10 ascent stage engine was fired until its fuel was used up, sending it past the Moon into a heliocentric orbit. The Apollo 11 ascent stage was left in lunar orbit to eventually crash; all subsequent ascent stages (except for Apollo 13) were intentionally steered into the Moon to obtain readings from seismometers placed on the surface.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The Lunar Module (originally designated the Lunar Excursion Module, known by the acronym LEM) was designed after NASA chose to reach the Moon via Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR) instead of the direct ascent or Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR) methods. Both direct ascent and EOR would have involved landing a much heavier, complete Apollo spacecraft on the Moon. Once the decision had been made to proceed using LOR, it became necessary to produce a separate craft capable of reaching the lunar surface and ascending back to lunar orbit.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: In July 1962, eleven firms were invited to submit proposals for the LEM. Nine companies responded in September, answering 20 questions posed by the NASA RFP in a 60-page limited technical proposal. Grumman was awarded the contract officially on November 7, 1962. Grumman had begun lunar orbit rendezvous studies in the late 1950s and again in 1961. The contract cost was expected to be around $350 million. There were initially four major subcontractors: Bell Aerosystems (ascent engine), Hamilton Standard (environmental control systems), Marquardt (reaction control system) and Rocketdyne (descent engine).


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The Primary Guidance, Navigation and Control System (PGNCS) was developed by the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory; the Apollo Guidance Computer was manufactured by Raytheon (a similar guidance system was used in the command module). A backup navigation tool, the Abort Guidance System (AGS), was developed by TRW.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The Apollo Lunar Module was chiefly designed by Grumman aerospace engineer Thomas J. Kelly. The first LEM design looked like a smaller version of the Apollo command and service module (a cone-shaped cabin atop a cylindrical propulsion section) with folding legs. The second design invoked the idea of a helicopter cockpit with large curved windows and seats, to improve the astronauts' visibility for hover and landing. This also included a second, forward docking port, allowing the LEM crew to take an active role in docking with the CSM.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: As the program continued, there were numerous redesigns to save weight, improve safety, and fix problems. First to go were the heavy cockpit windows and the seats; the astronauts would stand while flying the LEM, supported by a cable and pulley system, with smaller triangular windows giving them sufficient visibility of the landing site. Later, the redundant forward docking port was removed, which meant the Command Pilot gave up active control of the docking to the Command Module Pilot; he could still see the approaching CSM through a small overhead window. Egress while wearing bulky extra-vehicular activity spacesuits was eased by a simpler forward hatch ().


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The configuration was frozen in April 1963, when the ascent and descent engine designs were decided. In addition to Rocketdyne, a parallel program for the descent engine was ordered from Space Technology Laboratories (TRW) in July 1963, and by January 1965 the Rocketdyne contract was canceled.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Power was initially to be produced by fuel cells built by Pratt and Whitney similar to the CSM, but in March 1965 these were discarded in favor of an all-battery design.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The initial design had three landing legs, the lightest possible configuration. But as any particular leg would have to carry the weight of the vehicle if it landed at a significant angle, this was also the least stable configuration if one of the legs were damaged during landing. The next landing gear design iteration had five legs and was the most stable configuration for landing on an unknown terrain. That configuration, however, was too heavy and the designers compromised on four landing legs.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: In June 1966, the name was changed to Lunar Module (LM), eliminating the word "excursion". According to George Low, Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, this was because NASA was afraid that the word "excursion" might lend a frivolous note to Apollo. Despite the name change, the astronauts and other NASA and Grumman personnel continued to pronounce the abbreviation as () instead of the letters "L-M".


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Comparing landing on the Moon to "a hovering operation", Gus Grissom said in 1963 that although most early astronauts were fighter pilots, "now we're wondering if the pilot making this first moon landing shouldn't be a highly experienced helicopter pilot". To allow astronauts to learn lunar landing techniques, NASA contracted Bell Aerosystems in 1964 to build the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV), which used a gimbal-mounted vertical jet engine to counter five-sixths of its weight to simulate the Moon's gravity, in addition to its own hydrogen peroxide thrusters to simulate the LM's descent engine and attitude control. Successful testing of two LLRV prototypes at the Dryden Flight Research Center led in 1966 to three production Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV) which along with the LLRV's were used to train the astronauts at the Houston Manned Spacecraft Center. This aircraft proved fairly dangerous to fly, as three of the five were destroyed in crashes. It was equipped with a rocket-powered ejection seat, so in each case the pilot survived, including the first man to walk on the Moon, Neil Armstrong.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: LM-1 was built to make the first uncrewed flight for propulsion systems testing, launched into low Earth orbit atop a Saturn IB. This was originally planned for April 1967, to be followed by the first crewed flight later that year. But the LM's development problems had been underestimated, and LM-1's flight was delayed until January 22, 1968, as Apollo 5. At that time, LM-2 was held in reserve in case the LM-1 flight failed, which did not happen.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: LM-3 now became the first crewed LM, again to be flown in low Earth orbit to test all the systems, and practice the separation, rendezvous, and docking planned for Apollo 8 in December 1968. But again, last-minute problems delayed its flight until Apollo 9 on March 3, 1969. A second, higher Earth orbit crewed practice flight had been planned to follow LM-3, but this was canceled to keep the program timeline on track.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Apollo 10 launched on May 18, 1969, using LM-4 for a "dress rehearsal" for the lunar landing, practicing all phases of the mission except powered descent initiation through takeoff. The LM descended to above the lunar surface, then jettisoned the descent stage and used its ascent engine to return to the CSM.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The first crewed lunar landing occurred on July 20, 1969, in the Apollo 11 LM-5 "Eagle". Four days later, the Apollo 11 crew in the command module "Columbia" splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, completing President John F. Kennedy's goal: "...before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth".


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: This was followed by landings by Apollo 12 (LM-6 "Intrepid") and Apollo 14 (LM-8 "Antares"). In April 1970, the Apollo 13 LM-7 "Aquarius" played an unexpected role in saving the lives of the three astronauts after an oxygen tank in the service module ruptured, disabling the CSM. "Aquarius" served as a "lifeboat" for the astronauts during their return to Earth. Its descent stage engine was used to replace the crippled CSM Service Propulsion System engine, and its batteries supplied power for the trip home and recharged the Command Module's batteries critical for reentry. The astronauts splashed down safely on April 17, 1970. The LM's systems, designed to support two astronauts for 45 hours (including twice depressurization and repressurization causing loss of oxygen supply), actually stretched to support three astronauts for 90 hours (without depressurization and repressurization and loss of oxygen supply).


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Hover times were maximized on the last four landing missions by using the Service Module engine to perform the initial descent orbit insertion burn 22 hours before the LM separated from the CSM, a practice begun on Apollo 14. This meant that the complete spacecraft, including the CSM, orbited the Moon with a perilune, enabling the LM to begin its powered descent from that altitude with a full load of descent stage propellant, leaving more reserve propellant for the final approach. The CSM would then raise its perilune back to the normal .


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The Extended Lunar Module (ELM) used on the final three "J-class missions" — Apollo 15, 16, and 17 — was upgraded to land larger payloads and stay longer on the lunar surface. The descent engine thrust was increased by the addition of a extension to the engine bell, and the descent propellant tanks were enlarged. A waste storage tank was added to the descent stage, with plumbing from the ascent stage. These upgrades allowed stays of up to 75 hours on the Moon.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The Lunar Roving Vehicle was folded up and carried in Quadrant 1 of the descent stage. It was deployed by the astronauts after landing, allowing them to explore large areas and return a greater variety of lunar samples.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Weights given here are an average for the original pre-ELM spec vehicles. For specific weights for each mission, see the individual mission articles.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The ascent stage contained the crew cabin with instrument panels and flight controls. It contained its own Ascent Propulsion System (APS) engine and two hypergolic propellant tanks for return to lunar orbit and rendezvous with the Apollo command and service module. It also contained a Reaction Control System (RCS) for attitude and translation control, which consisted of sixteen hypergolic thrusters similar to those used on the Service Module, mounted in four quads, with their own propellant supply. A forward extravehicular activity hatch provided access to and from the lunar surface, while an overhead hatch and docking port provided access to and from the Command Module.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Internal equipment included an environmental control (life support) system; a VHF communications system with two antennas for communication with the Command Module; a unified S-band system and steerable parabolic dish antenna for communication with Earth; an extravehicular activity antenna resembling a miniature parasol which relayed communications from antennas on the astronauts' Portable Life Support Systems through the LM; primary (PGNCS) and backup (AGS) guidance and navigation systems; an Alignment Optical Telescope for visually determining the spacecraft orientation; rendezvous radar with its own steerable dish antenna; and a system for active thermal control. Electrical storage batteries, cooling water, and breathing oxygen were stored in amounts sufficient for a lunar surface stay of 48 hours initially, extended to 75 hours for the later missions.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: During rest periods while parked on the Moon, the crew would sleep on hammocks slung crosswise in the cabin.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The return payload included the lunar rock and soil samples collected by the crew (as much as on Apollo 17), plus their exposed photographic film.


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: The descent stage's primary job was to support a powered landing and surface extravehicular activity. When the excursion was over, it served as the launch pad for the ascent stage. Its octagonal shape was supported by four folding landing gear legs, and contained a throttleable Descent Propulsion System (DPS) engine with four hypergolic propellant tanks. A continuous-wave Doppler radar antenna was mounted by the engine heat shield on the bottom surface, to send altitude and rate of descent data to the guidance system and pilot display during the landing. Almost all external surfaces, except for the top, platform, ladder, descent engine and heat shield, were covered in amber, dark (reddish) amber, black, silver, and yellow aluminized Kapton foil blankets for thermal insulation. The number 1 (front) landing leg had an attached platform (informally known as the "porch") in front of the ascent stage's extravehicular activity hatch and a ladder, which the astronauts used to ascend and descend between the cabin to the surface. The footpad of each landing leg incorporated a surface contact sensor probe, which signaled the commander to switch off the descent engine. (The probe was omitted from the number 1 leg of every landing mission, to avoid a suit-puncture hazard to the astronauts, as the probes tended to break off and protrude upwards from the surface.)


title: Apollo Lunar Module

text: Equipment for the lunar exploration was carried in the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA), a drawer mounted on a hinged panel dropping out of the lefthand forward compartment. Besides the astronaut's surface excavation tools and sample collection boxes, the MESA contained a television camera with a tripod; as the commander opened the MESA by pulling on a lanyard while descending the ladder, the camera was automatically activated to send the first pictures of the astronauts on the surface back to Earth. A United States flag for the astronauts to erect on the surface was carried in a container mounted on the ladder of each landing mission.