title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: Alex Graves signed on to direct the pilot. Brannon Braga and René Echevarria served as showrunners. Australia was chosen after Spielberg vetoed Hawaii because he wanted a different filming location from his 1993 film "Jurassic Park." The two-hour pilot was filmed over 26 days in late November to December 2010. It was shot in south-east Queensland, Australia, with locations in Brisbane, the Gold Coast, and the Gold Coast Hinterland, namely Bonogin. The shoot was plagued by torrential rain and additional material had to be shot in 2011, with a total estimated cost of US$14 million to be amortized over the season. More than 250 sets were constructed. An episode took from eight to nine days to shoot, like most television dramas, but six weeks in post-production, twice the television average at the time. The average episode budget was about $4M, not including Australian tax breaks, compared to an average of $3M for broadcast network dramas. Fox Entertainment president Kevin Reilly stated: "This thing is going to be huge. It's going to take an enormous production commitment."


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: In an unusual decision, Fox skipped ordering just a pilot, and instead immediately ordered thirteen episodes. This was partly due to financial reasons, as the large Australian sets are expensive to dismantle and rebuild. Despite this decision, the producers denied the production was over-budget, with Peter Rice explaining instead the show is "a very expensive ... very ambitious television show." Kevin Reilly continued: "We're not in completely uncharted territory here. The start-up cost for the series is definitely on the high end. But it's not some bank-breaking series." With only 10% of Cretaceous-era dinosaurs recorded in the fossil record, the producers decided to supplement the series with plausible fictional species; palaeontologist Jack Horner was invited to create realistic creatures for the period and different from those of the "Jurassic Park" film franchise.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: In June 2010, the first cast member was announced – Jason O'Mara as Jim Shannon. In late August, Allison Miller joined the cast; playing the role of Skye Tate. In September 2010, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that Stephen Lang, who played a similar character in the 2009 film "Avatar," signed-on to play a leading role of Commander Taylor.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: An executive producer, David Fury, left the series as a result of creative differences. In September, Shelley Conn landed the female lead role. In October, Brian Tyler was chosen as the composer, Mido Hamada was cast as a security head, while Landon Liboiron, Naomi Scott, and Alana Mansour were cast as the three children. In November, Christine Adams was cast as Mira. In May 2011, Rod Hallett joined the cast.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: The cast and crew returned to Queensland, Australia on May 20, 2011 to continue production on the first season. Filming commenced on May 25, 2011. With a long production process on the series, it was announced in July 2011 that the first season would consist of thirteen episodes to finish airing in December 2011.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: Shortly after the airing of the season one finale in December 2011, Fox Broadcasting stated that no decision would be made until 2012 regarding the continuation of the series. Fox announced the cancellation of "Terra Nova" on March 6, 2012. 20th Century Fox Television stated that it would try to sell the show to other networks. Following the decision 20th Century Fox entered negotiations with Netflix to possibly create a second season. However nothing ultimately came of this.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment set up a "video mashup" website where purchasers of the DVD can create a motion comic continuing the series. As of December 2013, the site was no longer active and redirects to Fox Movies.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: "Terra Nova" was expected to premiere in the U.S. in December 2011 with a two-hour preview, but due to the time involved for visual effects, its pilot was moved to winter (late December) 2011 to air with the rest of season one. In February 2012, Fox announced the series would air on Monday nights, and released a full trailer. "Terra Nova" premiered at the 2011 San Diego Comic-Con International on July 23, 2011. The Fox premiere drew 9.22 million viewers and 3.1 in the 18–49 demo in live plus same day results, rising to 4.1 in Live+3, the best result by a new drama. "Terra Nova"'s high DVR gains were attributed to competition from "Monday Night Football" which, being a sports event, is less conducive to delayed viewing. In its second week on Fox, the show retained 100% of its demo rating (3.1), the best retention by a new series. Fox aired the entire first season consecutively on Monday nights, until its two-hour finale on December 19, 2011.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: In Canada, Global simulcast every first-season episode; the Canadian premiere drew 1.4 million viewers, the largest audience for a drama in Global’s history. In 2015, reruns began airing on Teletoon.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: In Australia, where the series was filmed, Network Ten began airing the series within days of its U.S. release. In the UK and Ireland, digital channel Sky 1 broadcast the show from October 3, 2011.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: Early reviews indicated much promise in the series. In June 2011, "Terra Nova" was one of eight honorees in the Most Exciting New Series category at the Critics' Choice Television Awards, voted by journalists who had seen the pilots. The "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette" compared it to "Outcasts". The "Los Angeles Times" wrote: "Easily the most exciting show of the fall season, Fox's "Terra Nova" has such obvious, instant and demographically diverse appeal." The "New York Post" called it "Good family fun", while "USA Today" wrote, "What matters are the dinosaurs, who – particularly in the first hour – are as convincing and startling as TV has ever offered, roaming a gorgeous, CGI-enhanced terrain." "The Wall Street Journal" wrote: ""Terra Nova" leaves ye olde cheap-set series in the dust with production values that make each episode look cinematic." "The Washington Post" wrote, "Literally the biggest thing on TV this fall, "Terra Nova" has it all: time travel, misguided utopianism, 'Swiss Family Robinson'–style cohesion and lots of hungry dinosaurs. It's all pretty dazzling."


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: Mid-season reviews were highly critical. Mark A. Perigard of the "Boston Herald" said that the series was "Stargate Universe" by Dr. Seuss. Sam Wollaston of "The Guardian" stated that there was only one interesting character and that "A lot of the fault lies with what they have to say to each other. The script is as corny and cheesy as a family-sized portion of cheesy corn nachos." "New York" magazine reviewer Chadwick Matlin vowed never to watch the show again, saying "Sure, the premise had promise, but even masochists like us can only take so much." But by the finale in December things had turned around again where critics were mostly pleased and enthusiastic. "Entertainment Weekly" called the season finale "exciting".


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: On Metacritic the series has a weighted average score of 64% based on reviews from 28 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the series has an approval rating of 62% based on reviews from 55 critics. The site's consensus is: "The excessive exposition can be a lot to keep up with, but "Terra Nova" boasts appealing visuals and the potential to be a truly compelling series."


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: The first season averaged 7.52 million American viewers and a 2.5 rating in the 18–49 demographic. The show was ranked the #2 new drama among adults 18–49, the #1 new show among men 18–49, 18–34, and 25–54 and was one of the top 20 regular programs among teens, as of January 1, 2012.


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: In 2011, the series was honored, along with seven others, with the Critics' Choice Television Award for Most Exciting New Series. Also, it won "Best Visual Effects in a Television Series" by the Visual Effects Society in 2011 and was also nominated for "Outstanding Created Environment in a Broadcast Program or Commercial."


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: The series was released on a 4-disc DVD set on September 11, 2012. The set contains deleted scenes; bloopers; the Making of the Pilot, an extended episode with commentary, and "Cretaceous Life: The Dinosaurs of Terra Nova".


title: Terra Nova (TV series)

text: The series's original music was composed by Brian Tyler. La-La Land Records released a soundtrack album on October 9, 2012.


title: Shameless (season 11)

text: The eleventh and final season of "Shameless", an American comedy-drama television series based on the British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, premiered on Showtime on December 6, 2020. Showtime announced the series' final season renewal on January 13, 2020.


title: Shameless (season 11)

text: After a decade of chaos, the South Side's favorite clan is going with a boom as big questions about their futures emerge when Lip decides to sell the house as Gentrification starts to affect Chicago due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Ian and Mickey adjust to life as a newly married couple. Carl is now part of the corrupt world of Chicago PD. Debbie tries her best to keep the house from selling which causes tension with Lip. Tami and Lip make big decisions as money is tight during the pandemic. Veronica and Kevin decide to start anew in Kentucky. Liam fears he will be left behind. Frank's wild lifestyle finally catches up to him.


title: Shameless (season 11)

text: Although their final journey will be dangerous, forthcoming changes will force each of them to act or depart. Devolving may come more naturally than evolving in a family where excess never wears off, but the Gallaghers are convinced that they will never grow apart, no matter how old they get.


title: Shameless (season 11)

text: In January 2020, the series was renewed for its eleventh and final season to consist of 12 episodes and was scheduled to premiere in summer 2020. Filming and the premiere date were pushed back due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and filming instead began in September 2020.


title: Shameless (season 11)

text: On December 14, 2020, Showtime announced a six-episode limited series retrospective that would air during season 11 called "Shameless Hall of Shame"; it contains new and original "Shameless" scenes juxtaposed with a retrospective look at each character's journey during the prior 10 seasons:


title: Shameless (season 11)

text: The eleventh season of "Shameless" has received average reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a 70% approval rating with an average score of 5.10 out of 10 based on 10 reviews.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: Peter and the Wolf () Op. 67, a "symphonic fairy tale for children", is a musical composition written by Sergei Prokofiev in 1936. The narrator tells a children's story, while the orchestra illustrates it by using different instruments to play a "theme" that represents each character in the story. It is Prokofiev's most frequently performed work and one of the most frequently performed works in the entire classical repertoire.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: In 1936, Prokofiev was commissioned by Natalya Sats, the director of the Central Children's Theatre in Moscow, to write a musical symphony for children. Sats and Prokofiev had become acquainted after he visited her theatre with his sons several times. The intent was to introduce children to the individual instruments of the orchestra. The first draft of the libretto was about a Young Pioneer (the Soviet version of a Boy Scout) called Peter who rights a wrong by challenging an adult. However, Prokofiev was dissatisfied with the rhyming text produced by (real name Antonia Pavlovna Sokolovskaya, 1896–1951), a then-popular children's author. Prokofiev wrote a new version where Peter captures a wolf. As well as promoting desired Pioneer virtues such as vigilance, bravery, and resourcefulness the plot illustrates Soviet themes such as the stubbornness of the un-Bolshevik older generation (the grandfather) and the triumph of Man (Peter) taming Nature (the wolf).


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: Prokofiev produced a version for the piano in under a week, finishing it on April 15. The orchestration was finished on April 24. The work was first performed at a children's concert in the main hall of the Moscow Conservatory with the Moscow Philharmonic on 2 May 1936. However, Sats was ill and the substitute narrator was inexperienced, and the performance failed to attract much attention. Later that month a much more successful performance with Sats narrating was given at the Moscow Pioneers Palace. The American premiere took place in March 1938, with Prokofiev himself conducting the Boston Symphony Orchestra at Symphony Hall, Boston with Richard Hale narrating. By that time Sats was serving a sentence in the gulag, where she was sent after her lover Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky was shot in June 1937.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: Peter, a Young Soviet Pioneer, lives at his grandfather's home in a forest clearing. One day, Peter goes out into the clearing, leaving the garden gate open, and a duck that lives in the yard takes the opportunity to go swimming in a pond nearby. The duck and a bird argue on whether a proper bird should be able to swim or fly. A local cat stalks them quietly, and the bird—warned by Peter—flies to safety in a tall tree while the duck swims to safety in the middle of the pond.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: Before long, Peter's grandfather scolds him for being outside and playing in the meadow alone because a wolf might come out of the forest and attack him. When Peter shows defiance, believing he has nothing to fear from wolves, his grandfather takes him back into the house and locks the gate. Soon afterwards, a ferocious grey wolf does indeed come out of the forest. The cat quickly climbs into the tree with the bird, but the duck, who has jumped out of the pond, is chased, overtaken, and swallowed by the beast.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: Seeing all of this from inside, Peter fetches a rope and climbs over the garden wall into the tree. He asks the bird to fly around the beast's head to distract him, while he lowers a noose and catches the wolf by his tail. The beast struggles to get free, but Peter ties the rope to the tree and the noose only gets tighter.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: Some hunters, who have been tracking the wolf, come out of the forest with their guns readied, but Peter gets them to instead help him take it to a zoo in a victory parade (the piece was first performed for an audience of Young Pioneers during May Day celebrations) that includes himself, the bird, the hunters leading the wolf, the cat, and lastly his grumbling Grandfather, still disappointed that Peter ignored his warnings, but proud that his grandson caught the beast.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: At the end, the narrator states those listening carefully could hear the duck still quacking inside the wolf's belly, due to being swallowed whole.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: Prokofiev produced detailed performance notes in both English and Russian for "Peter and the Wolf". According to the English version:


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: According to an article by Jeremy Nicholas for the classical music magazine "Gramophone" in 2015, the best overall recording of "Peter and the Wolf" is by the New Philharmonia Orchestra, narrated by Richard Baker and conducted by Raymond Leppard in 1971. "Gramophone"s best DVD version is the 2006 film by Suzie Templeton; its music is performed, without narrator, by the Philharmonia Orchestra conducted by Mark Stephenson.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: Prokofiev, while touring the West in 1938, visited Los Angeles and met Walt Disney. Prokofiev performed the piano version of "Peter and the Wolf" for ""le papa de" Mickey Mouse" (French for "Mickey Mouse's dad"), as Prokofiev described him in a letter to his sons. Disney was impressed, and considered adding an animated version of "Peter and the Wolf" to "Fantasia", which was to be released in 1940. Due to World War II, these plans fell through, and it was not until 1946 that Disney released his adaptation of "Peter and the Wolf" narrated by Sterling Holloway. It is not known if Prokofiev, by that point behind the Iron Curtain, was aware of this. It was released theatrically as a segment of "Make Mine Music", then reissued the next year, accompanying a reissue of "Fantasia" (as a short subject before the film), then separately on home video in the 1990s.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: In 1957, for one of his television programs, Disney recalled how Prokofiev himself visited the Disney studio, eventually inspiring the making of this animated version. Disney used pianist Ingolf Dahl, who resembled Prokofiev, to re-create how the composer sat at a piano and played the themes from the score.


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: In 2006, Suzie Templeton and Hugh Welchman directed and produced respectively, a stop-motion animated adaptation, "Peter & the Wolf". It is unusual in its lack of any dialogue or narration, the story being told only in images and sound and interrupted by sustained periods of silence. The soundtrack is performed by the Philharmonia Orchestra, and the film received its premiere with a live accompaniment in the Royal Albert Hall. The film won the Annecy Cristal and the Audience Award at the 2007 Annecy International Animated Film Festival, and won the 2007 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. This version makes some changes to the original Prokofiev story; for example:


title: Peter and the Wolf

text: In 2012, the US Supreme Court's decision in "Golan v. Holder" restored copyright protection in the United States to numerous foreign works that had entered the public domain. "Peter and the Wolf" was frequently cited by the parties and amici, as well as by the Court's opinion and by the press, as an example of a well-known work that would be removed from the public domain by the decision. The restored copyright is for 95 after publication, so to the end of 2031.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Marcia Karen Wallace (November 1, 1942 – October 25, 2013) was an American actress and comedian, primarily known for her roles in television situation comedies. She is best known for her roles as receptionist Carol Kester on the 1970s sitcom "The Bob Newhart Show", Mrs. Carruthers on "Full House", and as the voice of elementary school teacher Edna Krabappel on the animated series "The Simpsons", for which she won an Emmy in 1992. The character was retired after her death but sporadically appears through archive recording.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Wallace was known for her tall frame, red hair, and distinctive laugh. She had a career spanning five decades on TV, film, and stage. She was a frequent guest on "The Merv Griffin Show", which led to her receiving a personal request to appear on "The Bob Newhart Show" in a role created especially for her. Diagnosed with breast cancer in 1985, she became a cancer activist, and remained so throughout her life.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Wallace was born in Creston, Iowa, on November 1, 1942, the eldest of three children of Arthur "Poke" Wallace and wife Joann. Her father owned and operated Wallace Sundries, a general merchandise store, where Marcia, her sister Sharon, and brother Jim would often help. While Wallace was in high school, a teacher encouraged her to consider a career in acting after she did well in a school play. Following graduation from Creston High School, Wallace attended Parsons College in Fairfield, Iowa, which had offered her a full scholarship. She was a member of the Delta Nu chapter of Delta Zeta sorority. At Parsons, she majored in English and Theater, performing in "Brigadoon" and "The Music Man".


title: Marcia Wallace

text: On the day she graduated from college, Wallace moved from Iowa to New York with $148 in her pocket. To make ends meet, she typed scripts, performed in summer stock, did commercials, and worked as a substitute English teacher in the Bronx. After performing for a year in a Greenwich Village nightclub, Wallace and four fellow entertainer friends formed an improvisational group called The Fourth Wall. In 1968, Wallace appeared for a year off-Broadway with the group. Afterwards, she made several other appearances in improvisational shows, and, after losing from her previous weight of 230, appeared in a nude production of "Dark of the Moon" at the avant-garde Mercer Arts Center.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Wallace was a semiregular on "The Merv Griffin Show", appearing over 75 times. When the show moved to Los Angeles, Wallace moved with it at Griffin's request. One of these appearances in March 1972 led to a phone call from TV producer Grant Tinker, who offered her a supporting role on "The Bob Newhart Show" on the recommendation of CBS founder Bill Paley. The role of Carol Kester (later Carol Kester Bondurant), the sarcastic receptionist to Dr. Robert Hartley, Bob Newhart's character, was written specifically for her. Newhart and Wallace reprised their roles from "The Bob Newhart Show" in "Anything but Cured", an episode of "Murphy Brown".


title: Marcia Wallace

text: When "The Bob Newhart Show" ended its six-season run in 1978, Wallace began three decades of television appearances on game shows, including "Match Game", "Hollywood Squares", "Password Plus and Super Password", "Celebrity Whew!", "Crosswits", "Hot Potato", "Body Language", "The $25,000 Pyramid", "Double Talk", "Win, Lose or Draw", "Tattletales", "To Tell the Truth", and "Acting Crazy". She was also on special celebrity episodes of the Ray Combs version of "Family Feud" and the Jim Perry version of "Card Sharks". In April 2008, she appeared on the interactive show "GSN Live".


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Other television roles include: as Darrin's secretary in "Laugh, Clown, Laugh", a "Bewitched" episode in 1971; two appearances on "The Brady Bunch": once as Marcia's teacher in "Getting Davy Jones" and once as the woman who sells Jan a mod wig in "Will the Real Jan Brady Please Stand Up?"; as school principal Mrs. Lyman in two episodes of "ALF"; as Mrs. Carruthers in a few episodes of "Full House". Wallace also had guest appearances on "Charles in Charge", "Murder, She Wrote", "Magnum, P.I.", "Columbo", and "A Different World". On one of the last episodes of "Taxi", she portrayed herself, chosen as the ideal date of Rev. Jim Ignatowski. Later, Wallace played the maid on the satirical series "That's My Bush!", and, in 2009, appeared on the daytime soap opera "The Young and the Restless", playing Annie Wilkes, an inefficient assistant kidnapper.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: After "The Simpsons" started in 1989, Wallace joined the voice acting cast as the voice of Edna Krabappel, whom she played until her death in 2013. In 1992, she received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance for the episode "Bart the Lover".


title: Marcia Wallace

text: On film, Wallace appeared in such features as "My Mom's a Werewolf", "Teen Witch", and "". In the 2008 film "Tru Loved", she played a high school drama teacher who sponsors a gay–straight alliance.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Wallace's work onstage included "An Almost Perfect Person" in Los Angeles, which she also produced; a tour of the female version of Neil Simon's "The Odd Couple"; and productions of "Same Time, Next Year", "Twigs", "It Had to Be You", "Supporting Cast", "Prisoner of Second Avenue", and "Plaza Suite". Wallace made her musical stage debut in the 1983, Sacramento Music Circus production of "". She returned the following season in "Promises, Promises". Other stage productions include "Born Yesterday", "You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown", "Steel Magnolias", and "Last of the Red Hot Lovers", in which she played all three female roles at various times. She performed in "The Vagina Monologues" in Los Angeles, New York, Chicago, and San Diego. In 2013, she voiced the librarian in "Monsters University", and in 2014 (posthumously) she portrayed herself in the movie "Muffin Top: A Love Story".


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Wallace married hotelier Dennis Hawley on May 18, 1986, in a Buddhist ceremony. The couple adopted an infant son, Michael Wallace "Mikey" Hawley. Dennis died from pancreatic cancer in June 1992.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Before her marriage, Wallace was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1985, after which she became an activist and lecturer on the subject. On January 27, 2007, Wallace won the "Gilda Radner Courage Award" from Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center for helping educate Americans about the importance of early cancer detection and inspiring others through her 20 years as a breast cancer survivor.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Wallace was a member of Delta Zeta sorority and was named the Delta Zeta 2010 Woman of the Year at the 2010 Biennial National Convention in Tucson, Arizona. Her autobiography, titled "Don't Look Back, We're Not Going That Way", which was published in 2004, recounts the early detection of her breast cancer, the loss of her husband Dennis, her nervous breakdown, her single motherhood, and other experiences such as a history of bulimia. She credited the title of the book to her father, who used the phrase often during her childhood.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Wallace died from pneumonia and sepsis on October 25, 2013, one week before her 71st birthday. Breast cancer was also listed as a significant condition on her death certificate. Wallace was cremated following a private funeral service.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: Staff on "The Simpsons" had reportedly been aware of her ill health. Showrunner Al Jean said, "I was tremendously saddened to learn this morning of the passing of the brilliant and gracious Marcia Wallace." Yeardley Smith, who voices Lisa Simpson, tweeted, "Heaven is now a much funnier place b/c of you, Marcia." Former co-star Bob Newhart commented on his Facebook fan page, "Marcia's death came as quite a shock, she left us too early. She was a talented actress and dear friend[.]" Al Jean said that producers planned to retire her "irreplaceable" character Edna Krabappel. The "Simpsons" episode "Four Regrettings and a Funeral" was shown on November 3, 2013, and dedicated to her. Wallace had recorded lines for several upcoming episodes, and her final episode, "The Man Who Grew Too Much," aired on March 9, 2014.


title: Marcia Wallace

text: In February 2021, it was announced that archival recordings of Marcia Wallace's voice that she provided as Edna Krabappel would be making a final appearance on "The Simpsons". The character is mentioned in a chalkboard gag and shown in flashback scenes in the show's 696th episode, entitled "Diary Queen." In an interview with "Variety" regarding the announcement, Al Jean remarked: "we never got the chance to give sort of a proper goodbye to her in the show, and this is a small attempt to do that."


title: Marcia Wallace

text: In 2015, Lego released mini-figures based on "The Simpsons" characters; a mini-figure of her character was later included in tribute.


title: Page 3

text: Page 3, or Page Three, was a British newspaper convention of publishing a large image of a topless female glamour model (known as a Page 3 girl) on the third page of mainstream red-top tabloids. "The Sun" introduced the feature, publishing its first topless Page 3 image on 17 November 1970. "The Sun"s sales doubled over the following year, and Page 3 is partly credited with making "The Sun" the UK's bestselling newspaper by 1978. In response, competing tabloids including the "Daily Mirror", the "Sunday People", and the "Daily Star" also began featuring topless models on their own third pages. Notable Page 3 models included Linda Lusardi, Samantha Fox, and Katie Price.


title: Page 3

text: Attitudes toward Page 3 varied widely. Although some readers regarded the feature as harmless entertainment, cultural conservatives often viewed it as softcore pornography inappropriate for publication in generally circulated national newspapers, while many feminists saw it as demeaning women and perpetuating sexism. Some politicians, notably Clare Short and Caroline Lucas, campaigned to have topless photographs removed from newspapers, while others, including Nick Clegg and Ed Vaizey, voiced concern that banning images would compromise the freedom of the press. Legislation was never enacted against Page 3. However, in 2012, activists launched the No More Page 3 campaign, which pressured newspaper editors and owners to end the feature voluntarily. The campaign won support from 140 MPs as well as a number of universities, trade unions, and charities.


title: Page 3

text: In August 2013, "The Sun"s Republic of Ireland edition replaced topless Page 3 girls with clothed glamour models. Its UK editions followed suit in January 2015, discontinuing Page 3 after more than 44 years. The "Daily Star" became the last print daily to drop topless photographs, moving to a clothed glamour format in April 2019. This ended the Page 3 convention in Britain's mainstream tabloid press. As of 2022, the only British tabloid still publishing topless models is the niche "Sunday Sport".


title: Page 3

text: After Rupert Murdoch relaunched the loss-making "Sun" newspaper in tabloid format on 17 November 1969, editor Larry Lamb began to publish photographs of clothed glamour models on its third page to compete with "The Sun"s principal rival, the "Daily Mirror", which was then printing photos of women in lingerie or bikinis. "The Sun"s first tabloid edition showed that month's Penthouse Pet, Ulla Lindstrom, wearing a suggestively unbuttoned shirt. Page 3 photographs over the following year were often provocative, but did not feature nudity.


title: Page 3

text: On 17 November 1970, the tabloid celebrated its first anniversary with a photograph of Singapore-born model Stephanie Khan in her "birthday suit" (i.e. in the nude). Sitting in a field, backlit by the sun, with one of her breasts fully visible from the side, Khan was photographed by Beverley Goodway, who became "The Sun"s principal Page 3 photographer until he retired in 2003.


title: Page 3

text: Page 3 was not a daily feature at the beginning of the 1970s, and "The Sun" only gradually began to feature Page 3 models in more overtly topless poses. Lamb thought Page 3 should feature "nice girls" and made a conscious effort to avoid the sleazy image of top-shelf pornography titles, asking the "Sun"'s female reporters to review Page 3 images before publication to ensure that women would not regard them as "dirty". Regardless, the feature, and the paper's other sexual content, quickly led to some public libraries banning "The Sun". A then Conservative-controlled council in Sowerby Bridge, Yorkshire took the first such decision, but reversed it after a series of local stunts organised by the newspaper and a change in the council's political orientation in 1971.


title: Page 3

text: Page 3 is partly credited with boosting "The Sun"s circulation. In the year following Page 3's introduction, daily sales doubled to over 2.5 million, and "The Sun" became the UK's bestselling newspaper by 1978. Other tabloids, including the "Daily Mirror", the "Sunday People", and the "Daily Star", began publishing topless models on their own third pages, although the "Daily Mirror" and the "Sunday People" discontinued the practice in the 1980s, calling the photographs demeaning to women.


title: Page 3

text: In the 1980s, Page 3 launched the careers of many well-known British glamour models, including Samantha Fox, Maria Whittaker, Debee Ashby, Donna Ewin, Kirsten Imrie, Kathy Lloyd, Gail McKenna, and Suzanne Mizzi. Fox, who appeared on Page 3 between 1983 and 1986, became one of the most-photographed British women of the 1980s, behind only Princess Diana and Margaret Thatcher. In 1986, David Sullivan launched a new tabloid, the "Sunday Sport", which took the Page 3 concept to extremes, publishing numerous images of topless models in each edition and even featuring a "nipple count" to highlight how many exposed breasts each edition featured.


title: Page 3

text: "The Sun" made stylistic changes to Page 3 in the mid-1990s, printing all Page 3 photographs in colour rather than mostly in black and white. Captions to Page 3 photographs, which previously contained sexually suggestive double entendre, were replaced by a listing of models' first names, ages, and hometowns. After polling its readers, "The Sun" in 1997 ceased featuring models who had undergone breast augmentation. In June 1999, "The Sun" launched the "Page3.com" website, which featured the tabloid's daily Page 3 girl in three different poses, including the photograph published in the printed edition. In the latter years of Page 3, "The Sun" added a "News in Briefs" item that gave the model's thoughts on current affairs.


title: Page 3

text: Beginning in 2002, "The Sun" ran an annual contest called Page 3 Idol. Amateur models could submit photographs that were voted on by readers, with the winner receiving a cash prize and a Page 3 modeling contract. Page 3 Idol winners included Nicola T, Keeley Hazell, and Lucy Collett.


title: Page 3

text: Alison Webster became "The Sun"s principal Page 3 photographer from 2005 until the feature was phased out. In 2020, Channel 4 produced an hour-long documentary, "Page Three: The Naked Truth", to mark 50 years since the introduction of Page 3.


title: Page 3

text: Page 3 was controversial and divisive throughout its history. Its defenders often represented the feature as an inoffensive aspect of British culture, as when Conservative Party MP Richard Drax in 2013 called it a "national institution" that provided "light and harmless entertainment". Its critics often considered it demeaning to women, or as softcore pornography inappropriate for national newspapers readily available to children. Some politicians, such as Labour Party MPs Clare Short, Harriet Harman, and Stella Creasy, Liberal Democrat MP Lynne Featherstone, and Green Party MP Caroline Lucas, took stances against Page 3 and made efforts to have it removed from newspapers. "The Sun" vigorously defended the feature, often responding to criticism with "ad hominem" attacks. When Short in 1986 tried to introduce a House of Commons bill banning topless models from British newspapers, "The Sun" ran a "Stop Crazy Clare" campaign, distributing free car stickers, calling Short a "killjoy", printing unflattering images of her, and polling readers on whether they would prefer to see Short's face or the back of a bus.


title: Page 3

text: As a co-founder of Women in Journalism, Rebekah Brooks was reported to be personally offended by Page 3, and was widely expected to terminate it when she became "The Sun"s first female editor in January 2003. However, upon assuming her editorship, Brooks became a staunch defender of the feature, calling its models "intelligent, vibrant young women who appear in "The Sun" out of choice and because they enjoy the job". When Short stated in a 2004 interview that she wanted to "take the pornography out of our press", saying "I'd love to ban [Page 3 because it] degrades women and our country", Brooks launched a "Hands Off Page 3" campaign that included printing an image of Short's face superimposed on a topless woman's body, calling her "fat and jealous", and parking a double-decker bus with a delegation of Page 3 models outside her home. "The Sun" also called Harman a "feminist fanatic" and Featherstone a "battleaxe" because of their stances against Page 3. Brooks later said that she regretted "The Sun"s "cruel and harsh" attacks on Short, listing them among the mistakes she had made as editor.


title: Page 3

text: In February 2012, the Leveson Inquiry heard arguments for and against Page 3. Women's advocacy groups argued that Page 3 exemplified a culture of tabloid sexism, while "Sun" editor Dominic Mohan defended the feature as an "innocuous British institution" that had become "part of British society". In his report, Lord Justice Leveson stated that complaints of sexism over topless pictures fell outside his remit of investigating media ethics, but merited consideration by any new press regulator. Noting Mohan's "spirited defence" of Page 3, Leveson stated that "many will feel that Page 3 of "The Sun" raises a taste and decency issue and none other". Short questioned Leveson's finding, stating: "Surely the depiction of half the population in a way that is now illegal on workplace walls and before the watershed in broadcasting, is an issue of media ethics?"


title: Page 3

text: Lucy-Anne Holmes, a writer and actress from Brighton, began campaigning against Page 3 when she noticed during the 2012 Summer Olympics that the largest photograph of a woman in the nation's best-selling newspaper was not of an Olympic athlete but of "a young woman in her knickers". Arguing that Page 3 perpetuated sexism, portrayed women as sex objects, negatively affected girls' and women's body image, and contributed to a culture of sexual violence, she launched the No More Page 3 campaign in August of that year. The campaign gained support at the Liberal Democrat party conference the following month, when former MP Evan Harris proposed a party motion to "[tackle] the projection of women as sex objects to children and adolescents by restricting sexualised images in newspapers and general-circulation magazines to the same rules that apply to pre-watershed broadcast media". Featherstone supported the motion, claiming that Page 3 contributed to domestic violence against women, although the party's then-leader and deputy prime minister Nick Clegg distanced himself from it over concerns about press freedom, stating: "If you don't like it, don't buy it ... you don't want to have a moral policeman or woman in Whitehall telling people what they can and cannot see". The No More Page 3 campaign collected over 240,000 signatures on an online petition and gained support from over 140 MPs, as well as a number of trade unions, universities, charities, and women's advocacy groups. It sponsored two women's soccer teams, Nottingham Forest Women F.C. and Cheltenham Town L.F.C., who played with the "No More Page 3" logo on their shirts.


title: Page 3

text: In June 2013, Lucas defied parliamentary dress code by wearing a "No More Page Three" T-shirt during a House of Commons debate on media sexism, during which she stated "If Page 3 still hasn't been removed from "The Sun" by the end of this year, I think we should be asking the government to step in and legislate". Culture minister Ed Vaizey responded that the government did not plan to regulate the content of the press, and that adults had the right to choose what they read. Later that month, newly appointed "Sun" editor David Dinsmore confirmed he would continue printing photographs of topless models, calling it "a good way of selling newspapers". Pointing to a survey showing that two-thirds of "Sun" readers wished to keep Page 3, Dinsmore argued that most people who wished to ban the feature had never and would never read the "Sun".


title: Page 3

text: In February 2013, Rupert Murdoch suggested on Twitter that "The Sun" could transition to a "halfway house," featuring glamour photographs without showing nudity. In August 2013, Paul Clarkson, editor of "The Sun"s Republic of Ireland edition, replaced topless Page 3 girls with clothed glamour models, citing cultural differences between the UK and Ireland. Thanking Clarkson "for taking the lead in the dismantling of a sexist institution", the No More Page 3 campaign called the decision "a huge step in the right direction" and called on Dinsmore to follow suit with the newspaper's UK editions.


title: Page 3

text: For several days after 16 January 2015, "The Sun"s third page featured images of women wearing lingerie and bikinis. On 20 January, "The Times", another Murdoch title, reported that the tabloid was "quietly dropping one of the most controversial traditions of British journalism". The end of the feature received significant media attention. On 22 January, "The Sun" appeared to change course, publishing an image of a winking model with her breasts fully exposed and the caption: "Further to recent reports in all other media outlets, we would like to clarify that this is Page 3 and this is a picture of Nicole, 22, from Bournemouth. We would like to apologise on behalf of the print and broadcast journalists who have spent the last two days talking and writing about us". This turned out to be an isolated return, with clothed glamour replacing topless images on the paper's third page thereafter.


title: Page 3

text: Longtime campaigners celebrated the decision, with Short calling it "an important public victory for dignity", while Nicky Morgan, then Minister for Women and Equalities, called it "a small but significant step towards improving the media portrayal of women and girls". Although Lucas welcomed the decision to discontinue topless images, she criticized the transition to clothed glamour, saying: "So long as "The Sun" reserves its right to print the odd topless shot, and reserves its infamous page for girls clad in bikinis, the conversation isn't over". Others defended the feature and the women who posed for it, with model Nicola McLean telling ITV's "Good Morning Britain" that: "[Page 3 models] are all very strong-minded women that have made our own choice and feel very happy with what we are doing. We certainly don't feel like we have been victimised". In a televised debate with Harman and Germaine Greer, model Chloe Goodman asked: "Why should feminist women tell other women how to live their lives?" Harman responded: "In a hundred years' time, if you look back at the newspapers of this country, and you see women standing in their knickers with their breasts showing, what would you think about women's role in society?" Goodman replied: "All over the world there are [depictions of] bodies in the nude, so I don't understand why it's just Page 3 that's being targeted".


title: Page 3

text: Although "The Sun" had abolished the feature in its print editions, it continued to publish topless images on its official Page3.com website until 29 March 2017. No new content appeared after that point. Page3.com was taken offline the following year and its URL redirected to "The Sun"s website. In April 2019, the "Daily Star" became the last mainstream print daily to discontinue topless images, when it also shifted to clothed glamour. This ended the tradition in the mainstream British press, with only the niche "Sunday Sport" continuing to publish topless images in tabloid format as of 2022. The No More Page 3 campaign site, "nomorepage3.org", was taken offline in early 2020.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: Amnesia: The Dark Descent is a survival horror adventure video game by Frictional Games, released in 2010 for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux operating systems, in 2016 for the PlayStation 4 platform and in 2018 for the Xbox One. The game features a protagonist named Daniel exploring a dark and foreboding castle called "Brennenburg", while trying to maintain his sanity by avoiding monsters and unsettling events. The game was critically well-received, earning two awards from the Independent Games Festival and numerous positive reviews.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: Originally released independently via online distribution, the game has since been published in retail by 1C Company in Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as THQ in North America. A collection of five short stories set in the world of "Amnesia", written by Mikael Hedberg and illustrated by the game's concept artists, was also made available. In addition, the game's soundtrack is available for purchase and a free content expansion "Justine" has been released, as well as many fan-made expansions and stories for its unique "Custom Story" game mode.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: An indirect sequel to "The Dark Descent", titled "", was released on 10 September 2013. The "Amnesia Collection" – which contains "The Dark Descent", its "Amnesia: Justine" expansion and "A Machine for Pigs" was released for PlayStation 4 on 22 November 2016, and for Xbox One on 28 September 2018. The same collection was released on the Nintendo Switch on 12 September 2019. A second sequel, developed by Frictional Games, "", was announced on 6 March 2020, and was released on 20 October 2020.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: "Amnesia: The Dark Descent" is a first-person adventure game with survival horror elements. The player takes control of Daniel, who must navigate Castle Brennenburg while avoiding various dangers and solving puzzles. The gameplay retains the physical object interaction used in the "Penumbra" series, allowing for physics-based puzzles and interactions such as opening doors and fixing machinery. Smaller items can be stored in an inventory menu, while larger objects can be raised by holding down a mouse button and pushing or pulling the mouse. Objects such as doors or levers can be manipulated by using the mouse in a fashion that imitates moving the said object. The game's difficulty level can be adjusted preceding its initiation, but cannot be readjusted once the game has begun.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: In addition to a health indicator, Daniel's sanity must be managed, centered around an "afraid of darkness" mechanic. According to designer Thomas Grip, "the idea was basically that the darkness itself should be an enemy." Sanity is reduced by staying in the dark for too long, witnessing unsettling events or looking directly at monsters. Low sanity causes visual and auditory hallucinations and an increased chance of attracting monsters, while its complete depletion results in a temporary drop in mobility, or death in higher difficulties. Light sources help restore sanity, and if none are available, Daniel may use tinderboxes to ignite candles and torches or deploy an oil-burning lantern. However, the number of tinderboxes and the amount of oil available are both limited, even more so in higher difficulties.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: If a monster sees Daniel, it will chase him until he evades its sight. Daniel has no means of fighting monsters, so he must either avoid being seen or run away. Daniel can withstand only a few attacks from a monster before he dies, which will cause the most recent save of the game to load. The player can restore Daniel's health by using laudanum found throughout the game. The player can hinder monsters by closing doors and building barricades from nearby objects. However, monsters can destroy doors and knock over objects. Hiding in dark areas where monsters will not notice Daniel is also effective, but will decrease Daniel's sanity. In higher difficulties, the monsters will move faster, deal more damage and search for Daniel for longer periods of time.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: On 19 August 1839, a young man awakens in the dark and empty halls of the Prussian Brennenburg Castle with no memory about himself or his past. All he can remember is that his name is Daniel, that he lives in Mayfair, and that something or someone is hunting him. Shortly after regaining consciousness, Daniel finds a note he wrote to himself, which informs him that he has deliberately erased his own memory and is being hunted by a "Shadow", an unearthly presence that manifests itself through fleshy, acidic growths spreading throughout the castle. The note instructs Daniel to descend into the Inner Sanctum of the castle in order to find and kill its baron, Alexander.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: As he makes his way through the castle, Daniel gradually learns both about its mysteries and about his own past, through notes and diaries he finds as well as through sudden flashbacks and visions. The origin of his situation is a mysterious orb that he recovered from the Tin Hinan Tomb, which unleashed the Shadow. Each of the experts he contacted and consulted in person about the orb was later found gruesomely dismembered. Realizing that the Shadow was slowly stalking him, Daniel desperately exhausted all archaeological leads into strange orbs until contacted by Alexander, who promised a means of repelling the threat of the Shadow via a "vitae" energy, which could only be harvested from living creatures via extreme pain and terror. However, Alexander's true purpose is to use Daniel's vitae-enriched orb to return to his native dimension, from which he was banished centuries prior. To achieve this end, Alexander and Daniel gathered vitae by torturing innocent people that Alexander claimed to be murderous criminals.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: To maximize the production of vitae, the victims were forced to consume a potion that induced amnesia, so that they could never grow accustomed to their torment. Unbeknownst to Daniel, application of vitae to the orb further enraged the Shadow in addition to briefly repelling it, sealing his eventual doom. Increasingly desperate to escape the Shadow, Daniel became sadistic in his attempts to harvest vitae, and accidentally killed an escaping prisoner, a young girl, in a fit of rage. Following the final ritual, Alexander sensed Daniel's guilt and declining faith in him and left him for dead as a result. Realizing how Alexander had manipulated him, Daniel swore revenge and swallowed an amnesia potion in order to overcome his paralyzing guilt.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: As Daniel nears the Inner Sanctum, he encounters Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, a man who had once studied the orbs with his student Johann Weyer and has since been kept alive and imprisoned by Alexander. He tells Daniel that Weyer has been able to harness the power of the orbs to travel between dimensions, and instructs him in finding the pieces of what used to be his own orb, which is needed to breach the Inner Sanctum. Agrippa also asks Daniel to take with him his head, which can be severed alive using a tonic invented by Weyer, and throw it into the inter-dimensional portal after Alexander opens it. Once Daniel enters the Inner Sanctum, there are three possible endings: he can let Alexander succeed, then be killed by the Shadow and descend into darkness, while Alexander tells him his sacrifice will be forever celebrated; he can prevent the portal from opening by knocking over its support columns, then leave the castle content with his redemption after the Shadow kills only Alexander; or he can throw Agrippa's head into the portal, which leaves the Shadow to kill both Alexander and Daniel, though Agrippa promises to save Daniel from descending into darkness, calling upon Weyer to help him.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: The player takes control of an unnamed woman, who awakens with amnesia in a dungeon cell. A phonograph in the cell contains a recording by a woman named Justine, who tells the unnamed woman that she is the subject of a psychological test. The woman must overcome three puzzles to escape the dungeon. In each, she has the option of simply abandoning the puzzle and walking away, but doing so will cause an innocent victim to die. She is also pursued by the Suitors, three monstrous characters who turn out to be Justine's former paramours, now twisted by physical and psychological torture. After surviving the puzzle sections, the woman discovers a phonograph dangling from the ceiling, which causes the walls of the chamber to close in and threaten to crush the woman. She passes out, but awakens unharmed and begins to congratulate herself. The woman is Justine, who staged the entire experiment to see if she still had any compassion for humanity within herself. The ending sequence's dialogue differs depending on the number of people Justine had rescued.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: Work began on the game while "" was still being developed, with the company working on both projects at the same time. The game was first known under two working titles: "Unknown" and "Lux Tenebras". It was not until 3 November 2009 that it was announced as its current title, "Amnesia", and 13 November with the release of the game's website and a game trailer. Initial designs of the game varied considerably from the final game, with the developers interested in reintroducing more combat elements similar to those utilized in their first commercial title "". The developers soon discovered that they encountered many of the same problems and difficulties that plagued the combat in that game however, and the design was further changed to be more similar to the style set out by "Overture"s sequel "".


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: On 5 February 2010, it was announced that the game had reached the alpha stage of development on all platforms. Two weeks later the developers released a new teaser trailer that showed actual gameplay footage, and the developers began accepting pre-orders for the game through their website. Also revealed was that the game was at that point being tested on all three intended platforms. It was also announced that the game would be released simultaneously for all of them in August 2010. This was later rescheduled, and the game was then expected to have an 8 September 2010 release. It was then later announced on 27 August 2010 that the game had officially gone Gold and would soon be ready for sale. On 3 September, the game's demo was released containing selected parts of the gameplay and story. It was then successfully released on 8 September 2010.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: If the game reached 2000 pre-orders by 31 May 2010, Frictional promised it would release extra content for the game. The goal was finally met in early May, after the pre-orders were offered at a discount made available until 31 May. This was done due to the success of "Penumbra: Overture" as a part of the first Humble Indie Bundle. The extra content was revealed to be commentary, and they explained in the comments section of the same page that its intended function was similar to that of Valve's commentary system that began in the "Half-Life 2" series. The authors cite "Soul Made Flesh" by Carl Zimmer and older horror movies such as "The Haunting" as being inspirations for the mood and style of the game. Other critics have drawn parallels between the game's story and the writings of H. P. Lovecraft.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: Thomas Grip, one of the game's main developers, would later write up a post-mortem of the game titled "The Terrifying Tale of Amnesia" for "The Escapist", where he outlined in detail the process of the game's development, mostly focusing on its ever-changing design and the financial problems that plagued the developers for most of the game's development.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: A PlayStation 4 version – "Amnesia Collection" – was released on 22 November 2016 via PlayStation Network; this title includes "The Dark Descent", its expansion "Amnesia: Justine," and the sequel "".


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: Just two days after its release on PS4, Frictional Games posted a tweet stating that the port managed to recoup all costs and "more".


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: The game's music was composed by Mikko Tarmia and released for download on 17 May 2011. Some unused music can be heard in the soundtrack, but not in-game.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: On 12 April 2011, Frictional Games released an extra free level for owners of the Steam version of "Amnesia". This additional campaign is set apart from Brennenburg Castle. "Justine" was released on Steam as a way to promote the then-upcoming release of "Portal 2", as getting 100% on the campaign (all of the collectables, all of the analysis and making correct choices) unlocks a message from the fictional company Aperture Science. The content was made available for all of the game's supported platforms and versions as part of the "Amnesia" v1.2 update on 17 May 2011.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: It is possible to create custom stories for "Amnesia" that can then be loaded in the game. Various tools for the HPL Engine 2 have been released that allow the creation of unique levels, models, particle effects and materials, using an interface similar to Valve's Hammer Editing Software. Game logic can be implemented using the AngelScript scripting language. A prominent example of a custom story is "", a fan-made sequel to Frictional's earlier "Penumbra" series.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: On 23 September 2020, Frictional Games announced that they would be releasing the source code for both "Amnesia: The Dark Descent" and "Amnesia: A Machine For Pigs". Both games are available as open-source video games under GNU GPL-3.0-or-later.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: "Amnesia: The Dark Descent" has received very positive reviews from critics, with consistent praise given for the ominous atmosphere and horror elements: "By strongly focusing on vision and hearing, the distance between player and game is radically diminished. This is technically reinforced by the game's minimal handling." John Walker of "Rock, Paper, Shotgun" even went as far as to say that "I think it is safe to say that "Amnesia" is the most successfully frightening game to have been made." X-Play added "Amnesia" to its top ten PC games saying "There are a lot of so-called "horror" games out there, this one is no joke. You'll be rocking back and forth and crying in no time".


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: Frictional Games did show some trepidation over the game's initial sales after the first week, but were encouraged by continued sales throughout the first month after the game's release, with Frictional recouping all the expenses from creating "Amnesia" by early October 2010. By the beginning of January 2011 the developer reported that nearly 200,000 units had been sold, declaring in response that "With these figures at hand, we must confess that it gives us new confidence for the PC." The game kept gaining sales and in July 2011 it had sold almost 350,000 units. At the 2011 Independent Games Festival "Amnesia" won awards for both "Excellence in Audio" and "Technical Excellence" along with the "Direct2Drive Vision Award" which included a $10,000 prize.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: A year after the original release of "Amnesia", the developers revealed that they had sold around 391,102 units and were continuing to sell about 6,000 units per month. They also released details about how much money each platform generated for them by analyzing the sales from their online store, with 70% of sales coming from Windows users and 15% coming from users of Linux and another 15% coming from users of Mac OS X. Frictional did however note that their store was the only place anyone could purchase the Linux version of the game, whereas the Mac OS X and Windows versions could be purchased from other sources, meaning that the total percentage of Linux sales is actually considerably smaller compared to other platforms taken collectively. Observing that their own Mac OS X sales did not go down from their own store even as services like Steam picked up the game for that platform, meaning that it did not steal customers from their store but instead opened up a new market, they decided this makes a good incentive for other stores to support Linux as well. As of September 2012, the game sits at an estimated 1.4 million sales.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: In 2011, Adventure Gamers named "Amnesia" the 34th-best adventure game ever released. In 2015, "Kotaku" originally ranked "Amnesia" as the 2nd best horror game of all time, beaten only by "P.T.", but moved it to 1st after "P.T." was removed by Konami. In 2017, "GamesRadar+" ranked "Amnesia" as the 3rd best horror game of all time, although in a revised list in 2018, moved the game down to 13th place. In 2018, "The A.V. Club" ranked "Amnesia" as the 7th greatest horror game of all time in a list of 35.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: An indirect sequel called "" was released on 10 September 2013, developed by The Chinese Room and published by Frictional Games. "A Machine for Pigs" is an indirect sequel to "The Dark Descent" which, while set in the same universe, takes place in an alternative history with different characters.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: The third game in the series, titled "" was announced on 6 March 2020. "Rebirth," the second "Amnesia" game to be developed by Frictional Games. A gameplay reveal trailer was uploaded on 2 October 2020 to a positive reception. The game was released on 20 October 2020 for PlayStation 4, Linux and Windows.


title: Amnesia: The Dark Descent

text: On December 1st, 2022. The fourth game in the series, titled "" was announced, to be released sometime in March 2023. "The Bunker," is the third "Amnesia" game to be made by Frictional Games. The game features combat in a semi-open world, a first for the series.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: based on Karate and may include fighting principles from subak (as described in the Kwon Bup Chong Do), as well as northern Chinese martial arts. Before the Nine Kwans united and formed the martial art Taekwondo, Tang Soo Do was used by select Kwans to identify their Karate-derived martial arts style.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: In contemporary context, after Taekwondo was founded, many Korean martial arts entities continued to use Tang Soo Do as a means to preserve the elements of Korean martial arts that evolved from the original nine kwans' Karate roots and were lost in transition to Taekwondo. The techniques of what is commonly known as Tang Soo Do combine elements of Shōtōkan, Subak, Taekkyon, and Kung Fu.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: "Tang Soo Do" (당수도) is the Korean pronunciation of the Hanja 唐手道 (pronounced Táng shǒu dào in Chinese), and translates literally to "The Way of the Tang Hand."


title: Tang Soo Do

text: The same characters can be pronounced "karate-dō" in Japanese. In the early 1930s, approximately 55 years after Japan's annexation of Okinawa, Gichin Funakoshi in coordination with others changed the first character, 唐, which referred to the Chinese Tang Dynasty, to 空, signifying "empty"; both characters can be pronounced "kara" in Japanese, though 唐 is more commonly rendered as "Tou". Funakoshi ostensibly wanted to avoid confusion with Chinese Kenpō. Funakoshi claimed Okinawan Karate could "now be considered a Japanese martial art" and found the China reference "inappropriate" and "in a sense degrading". The Chinese pronunciation of 空手道 is kōng-shǒu-dào, and the Korean is (공수도).


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Outside of the Far East, the term "Tang Soo Do" has primarily become synonymous with the Korean martial art promoted by grandmaster Hwang Kee.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Beyond Won-kuk Lee, several other practitioners formed kwans in the area. By the 1960s, there were nine major kwans, which were based on an original five: 1) the Chung Do Kwan (Won-kuk Lee), 2) Moo Duk Kwan (Hwang Kee), 3) Song Moo Kwan (Ro Byung-jick), 4) Chang Moo Kwan (Yoon Byung-in), and 5) Jidokwan (Chun Sang-sup). Chun's original style, Yun Mu Kwan karate ("kongsudo" in Korean) became "Jidokwan" when his students found new teachers after his disappearance in the Korean War and the new name (meaning "Hall of Wisdom's Way") was adopted.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: The history of the Moo Duk Kwan (from which the majority of all modern Tang Soo Do stylists can trace their lineage) can be traced to a single founder: Hwang Kee, who learned Chinese martial arts while in Manchuria.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: During the late 1930s, Hwang Kee had mastered the native Korean martial arts of Subak and Taekkyon. It was during this time that the Japanese occupied Korea, and the resident general, in an attempt to control the population, banned the practice of native martial arts, setting the penalty at imprisonment. In 1936, Hwang Kee attracted the attention of the Japanese secret police, forcing him to pack his bags and set out on foot for Manchuria, where he experienced scenes of lawlessness and destruction whilst working as a railroad worker. As a result, Hwang Kee decided to enter China, where he would live the next 20 years. He entered China at night from the southern end of the Great Wall of China, which he scaled and descended into China on the other side.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: At this time in China, it was hard for any martial artist to find a master willing to take them on as a student. Despite this, Hwang Kee became acquainted with Master Yang, who taught Hwang Kee the northern style Yang kung-fu (Nei-ga-ryu), a stronger and more passive art than the southern style that can be used at close quarters. Following the conclusion of World War II, Hwang Kee returned to Korea.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Between 1944 and the Liberation of Korea in 1945, the original schools or "kwans" of Tang Soo Do were founded in Korea by practitioners who had studied karate and had some exposure to kung-fu. Together, these original five schools and their teachers became the foundation of Tang Soo Do:


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Shortly after the Korean War and in 1953, four more offshoot schools formed. These second-generation kwans and their principal founders were Choi Hong-hi and Nam Tae-hi's "Oh Do Kwan", Lee Kyo-yoon's "Han Moo Kwan", Park Chul-hee and Hong Jong-pyo's "Kang Duk Won", and Lee Young-woo's "Jung Do Kwan".


title: Tang Soo Do

text: In 1960, Jhoon Rhee was teaching what he called Korean Karate (or Tang Soo Do) in Texas, in the United States. After receiving the ROK Army Field Manual (which contained martial arts training curriculum under the new name of Taekwondo) from General Choi, Rhee began using the name "Taekwondo". There are still a multitude of contemporary Taekwondo schools in the United States that teach what is known as "Moo Duk Kwan Taekwondo". This nomenclature reflects this government-ordered kwan merger.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: In 1964, the Korean Tae Soo Do Association was formed which, in 1965, became the Korean Tae Kwon Do Association. Because of its political influence, the Tae Kwon Do group, led by its second president, General Choi Hong-hi, tried to unify it with the Korean Soo Bahk Do Association. Kwanjangnim's organization was the largest martial arts system in Korea at the time. Grandmaster Hwang Kee agreed to discuss unification but, when it became clear that he would not be in charge of the new organization, he ultimately refused. The result was a weakening of the Moo Duk Kwan as the Tae Kwon Do movement grew in strength, absorbing many Moo Duk Kwan members in the process.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: To restore national identity after the protracted occupation of Korea by Japanese forces, the Korean government ordered a single organization to be created. On September 16, 1961, most kwans agreed to unify under the name "Korea Tae Soo Do Association". The name was changed back to the "Korea Taekwondo Association" when General Choi became its president in August 1965.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Despite this unification effort, the kwans continued to teach their individual styles. Hwang Kee and a large constituent of the Moo Duk Kwan continued to develop a version of Tang Soo Do that eventually became what is now known as "Soo Bahk Do Moo Duk Kwan". This modified version of Tang Soo Do incorporates more fluid "soft" movements reminiscent of certain traditional Chinese martial arts. The World Tang Soo Do Association and the International Tang Soo Do Federation teach systems of Tang Soo Do that existed before the Taekwondo "merger" and before the development of modern Soo Bahk Do Moo Duk Kwan. These versions of Tang Soo Do are heavily influenced by Korean culture and also appear to be related to Okinawan Karate as initially taught in Japan by Gichin Funakoshi.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Due to political in-fighting and splintering, Tang Soo Do has had several members break off, although the Moo Duk Kwan as founded by Hwang Kee continues to represent Tang Soo Do (Soo Bahk Do) worldwide, and is headed by Hwang Kee's son, Hwang Hyun-chul. The Amateur Athletic Union Taekwondo recognizes Tang Soo Do ranks, permits Tang Soo Do hyeong in competition and hosts non-Olympic-style point-sparring to accommodate the various traditional Korean stylists.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Actor Chuck Norris popularized Tang Soo Do in the Western world, and from it evolved the martial art Chun Kuk Do.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Evolution of the style first began in 2018 when a student of Tang sou Dao a mix of sanshou/ sanda a variation of Chinese kickboxing and Kung Fu obtained a 7th degree black belt since being awarded this went on to adapt a more ruthless style of martial art where no holds barred become a prevalent way of determining a universal victor opposed to the traditional point style of ITF taekwondo where point based tournaments determined a winner. Taekwondo changed forever as the ruthless nature of this style allowed for limitless learning of striking and grappling techniques as well as the use of western boxing and body mechanics to defeat an opponent where implemented. Unlike Chuck Norris who popularised Tang Soo Do, this style is rarely seen seen in Taekwondo but can be seen as a more complete style of Bruce Lee's Jeet Kune as its principles stay true to that of early Bushido Karate and Samurai fighting.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Tang Soo Do uses the colored belt system that was instituted by Judo's founder Jigoro Kano and popularized in Karate-do by Gichin Funakoshi. However, minor deviations according to organization and/or individual school are commonplace. One differentiating characteristic of the Moo Duk Kwan style is that the black belt, or dan rank, is frequently represented by a midnight blue belt (some Chung Do Kwan schools also have adopted this custom) for students who attain dan rank. The reason for the midnight blue belt is the belief in Korean culture that black symbolizes perfection. As no one is perfect, the belt for the dan rank is a midnight blue color. It was also a belief of the founder of Moo Duk Kwan, Hwang Kee, that black is a color to which nothing can be added, thus blue signifies that a dan holder is still learning. The white belt means a birth or beginning of a person's will to acquire the skills of karate, the white belt symbolizes winter. The yellow belt signifies the beaming sunlight of spring. The orange belt signifies the strength of the rising sun. (The yellow belt and the orange belt both symbolizes spring) The green belt depicts the penetration of steams and roots of the plant to get the sunlight, the green belt symbolizes summer. The red belt this stage represents the seed which is now a flowering plant, representing the students improvement, participation and advancement, It symbolizes Summer.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Many schools and organizations still opt to use the black belt. The Moo Duk Kwan, and some Chung Do Kwan schools of Tang Soo Do incorporate a red-striped midnight blue (or black) belt to denote individuals who have reached the rank of Sa Beom (master 사범님/師範님), or 4th dan. The original non-dan, or geup, belt colors established by Hwang Kee were white belt, green belt, and red belt. In the 1970s, an orange belt was added after the white belt, along with either one or two stripes on the orange, green and red belts, encompassing ten geup (student) levels, and is currently the system in use in the Moo Duk Kwan. Many variations of this ranking system are still used and typically employ other colors (such as yellow, brown, purple, and blue). However, this is primarily a western influence.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: The black belts (or midnight blue belts) are called dans and each degree has its own specific name. The dan rank ranges from 1st through 9th degree. In the Moo Duk Kwan, dan level is known by its Korean numeration, such as cho dan (1st), ee dan (2nd) and sam dan (3rd), and onward. In many organizations, the titles of kyosa (instructor 교사/敎師) and sa bom (master 사범/師範) are separately awarded after successfully demonstrating ability, knowledge, understanding and character for that level in a dan simsa (심사/審査), or test. One may not test for kyosa (certified instructor) until 2nd dan, or sabom (master instructor) until 4th dan or above. Dan levels from 4th dan onward are known as kodanja (고단자/高段者), whether sabom or not. Also in the U.S., a simple timing structure was created for the dan ranking system. If in constant study, then it was easy to measure when testing for the next rank. The next dan number was equal to the minimum number of years that must be spent training to achieve that dan. For example, a first dan would have two years before they could be a candidate for second dan, and so on.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Forms (hyung) vary depending upon the founder or head of the different federations of Tang Soo Do. Tang Soo Do forms are a set of moves demonstrating a defensive or aggressive action for every movement taken mainly from Japanese shotokan karate kata. They are based on an offender attacking and one demonstrating the form reacting to their attack. They are generally memorized and demonstrated at a test for ranking up or a tournament.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Traditionally, nine forms are included in the curriculum of most Tang Soo Do schools, which are required study to earn the midnight blue belt. These hyung are:


title: Tang Soo Do

text: The Kee Cho series comprises basic patterns. these were created by Gichin Funakoshi, and named taikyoku in Shotokan karate.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Pyung Ahn forms: Pyung Ahn Cho Dan, Pyung Ahn E Dan, Pyung Ahn Sam Dan, Pyung Ahn Sa Dan, Pyung Ahn Oh Dan.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: The Pyung Ahn series was adopted from Okinawan and Japanese karate, where they are called Pinan/Heian and are the creation of Yasutsune Itosu, who also was one of Funakoshi´s teachers.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Bassai (also known as Pal Che). The Bassai form is also from karate, where it is called Passai/Bassai Dai/Hyung, and was created by Okinawan Bushi Sokon Matsumura.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Naihanchi Some schools of Tang Soo Do include Naihanchi forms, such as naihanchi ee dan and naihanchi sam dan. .


title: Tang Soo Do

text: According to Hwang Kee, he learned these forms from studying Japanese books on Okinawan karate. Most scholars agree that the primary text Hwang Kee relied upon was Gichin Funakoshi's "Rentan Goshin Toudi-Jutsu" published in Japan in 1925.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: However, almost all original 5 kwan instructors taught these same forms and had them in their curriculum as they were direct students of Japanese Karate masters, like Gichin Funakoshi or his contemporary peer Kanren Toyama, founder of shudokan karate; or they were friends and students of the other kwan leaders.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: One-step sparring (Il Su Sik Dae Ryun) techniques are best described as a choreographed pattern of defense moves against the single step of an attack. Usually performed in pairs, this begins with a bow for respect. One partner then attacks, often with a simple punch, and the other person will perform a series of premeditated techniques, often in a block-attack-takedown sequence.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: In some styles of Tang Soo Do there are techniques for defenses against grabs. In the World Tang Soo Do Association version of this, called Ho Sin Sul, there are 30 different grab defenses taught.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Though variation is extensive, Tang Soo Do free-sparring is similar to competitive matches in other traditional Okinawan, Japanese and Korean striking systems and may include elements of American freestyle point karate. Tang Soo Do sparring consists of point matches that are based on the three-point rule (the first contestant to score three points wins) or a two-minute rule (a tally of points over one two-minute round, but see also AAU Taekwondo point sparring handbook). Lead and rear-leg kicks and lead and rear-arm hand techniques all score equally (one point per technique). However, to encourage the use of jumping and spinning kicks, these techniques may be scored with a higher point value than standing techniques in some competitions. Open-hand techniques other than the ridgehand and leg sweeps are typically not allowed.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: As in traditional Japanese karate-do kumite, scoring techniques in Tang Soo Do competition should be decisive. That is, all kicking and hand techniques that score should be delivered with sufficient footing and power so that, if they were delivered without being controlled, they would stop the aggressive motion of the opponent. There are also similarities between American freestyle point sparring (see North American Sport Karate Association [NASKA] link below) and Tang Soo Do point sparring. Much of the footwork is the same, but the position of the body when executing blows is markedly different between the styles of competition.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Rapid-fire pump-kicking seen in American freestyle point sparring is sometimes used in Tang Soo Do competition. However, in order to score, the final kick in the pump-kick combination should be delivered from a solid base (with erect posture) and with sufficient power, or the technique is not considered decisive. Consequently, the pace of a Tang Soo Do match can be somewhat slower than would be seen at a typical NASKA-type tournament, but the techniques, theoretically, should be somewhat more recognizable as linear, powerful blows that are delivered from reliably stable stances and body positions.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Variation between Tang Soo Do competitions is extensive, but are typically standardized within the various associations. Because of the close historical relationship between Tang Soo Do and Taekwondo, many of the powerful rear leg and spinning kick techniques seen in both International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF) and World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) Taekwondo matches are commonplace in traditional Tang Soo Do competitions. The main difference is that they are not delivered with full contact to the head in Tang Soo Do.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Tang Soo Do sparring is a contact event. Though often billed as "light" or "no-contact," the typical level of contact is moderate, being controlled to both the body and head (in dan divisions). Most Tang Soo Do practitioners feel that contact in sparring is essential to understanding proper technique and necessary for developing mental preparedness and a level of relaxation critical to focused performance in stressful situations. Unnecessarily or disrespectfully harming an opponent in Tang Soo Do sparring is not tolerated.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: Health and longevity of practitioners are the major goals of Tang Soo Do practice. Consequently, serious injuries are counterproductive because they retard a level of physical training that is needed to foster emotional and intellectual growth. However, minor injuries, such as bumps, bruises and the occasional loss of wind may be invaluable experiences. Each match should begin and end with respect, compassion and a deep appreciation for the opponent. Though Tang Soo Do sparring is competitive, traditional competitions are more of an exercise, or way of developing the self, than they are a competitive and game-like forum. Introspection and personal growth are fostered through free sparring.


title: Tang Soo Do

text: In Tang Soo Do, as in Taekwondo, commands and terminology to students are often given in Korean. However, beginning in 1955, and again in 1973, with the formation of the WTF, Taekwondo became centrally governed and Taekwondo terminology was revised favoring Korean terminology. Tang Soo Do commands pre-date these revisions and many are based on Sino-Korean words.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: The history of the Jews in Germany goes back at least to the year 321, and continued through the Early Middle Ages (5th to 10th centuries CE) and High Middle Ages ("circa" 1000–1299 CE) when Jewish immigrants founded the Ashkenazi Jewish community. The community survived under Charlemagne, but suffered during the Crusades. Accusations of well poisoning during the Black Death (1346–53) led to mass slaughter of German Jews and they fled in large numbers to Poland. The Jewish communities of the cities of Mainz, Speyer and Worms became the center of Jewish life during medieval times. "This was a golden age as area bishops protected the Jews resulting in increased trade and prosperity."


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: The First Crusade began an era of persecution of Jews in Germany. Entire communities, like those of Trier, Worms, Mainz and Cologne, were slaughtered. The Hussite Wars became the signal for renewed persecution of Jews. The end of the 15th century was a period of religious hatred that ascribed to Jews all possible evils. With Napoleon's fall in 1815, growing nationalism resulted in increasing repression. From August to October 1819, pogroms that came to be known as the Hep-Hep riots took place throughout Germany. During this time, many German states stripped Jews of their civil rights. As a result, many German Jews began to emigrate.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: From the time of Moses Mendelssohn until the 20th century, the community gradually achieved emancipation, and then prospered.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: In January 1933, some 522,000 Jews lived in Germany. After the Nazis took power and implemented their antisemitic ideology and policies, the Jewish community was increasingly persecuted. About 60% (numbering around 304,000) emigrated during the first six years of the Nazi dictatorship. In 1933, persecution of the Jews became an official Nazi policy. In 1935 and 1936, the pace of antisemitic persecution increased. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them from participating in education, politics, higher education and industry. On 10 November 1938, the state police and Nazi paramilitary forces orchestrated the Night of Broken Glass ("Kristallnacht"), in which the storefronts of Jewish shops and offices were smashed and vandalized, and many synagogues were destroyed by fire. Only roughly 214,000 Jews were left in Germany proper (1937 borders) on the eve of World War II.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: Beginning in late 1941, the remaining community was subjected to systematic deportations to ghettos and ultimately, to death camps in Eastern Europe. In May 1943, Germany was declared "judenrein" (clean of Jews; also "judenfrei": free of Jews). By the end of the war, an estimated 160,000 to 180,000 German Jews had been killed by the Nazi regime and their collaborators. A total of about six million European Jews were murdered under the direction of the Nazis, in the genocide that later came to be known as the Holocaust.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: After the war, the Jewish community in Germany started to slowly grow again. Beginning around 1990, a spurt of growth was fueled by immigration from the former Soviet Union, so that at the turn of the 21st century, Germany had the only growing Jewish community in Europe, and the majority of German Jews were Russian-speaking. By 2018, the Jewish population of Germany had leveled off at 116,000, not including non-Jewish members of households; the total estimated enlarged population of Jews living in Germany, including non-Jewish household members, was close to 225,000.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: Currently in Germany, denial of the Holocaust or that six million Jews were murdered in the Holocaust (§ 130 StGB) is a criminal act; violations can be punished with up to five years of prison. In 2006, on the occasion of the World Cup held in Germany, the then-Interior Minister of Germany Wolfgang Schäuble, urged vigilance against far-right extremism, saying: "We will not tolerate any form of extremism, xenophobia, or antisemitism." In spite of Germany's measures against these groups and antisemites, a number of incidents have occurred in recent years.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: Jewish migration from Roman Italy is considered the most likely source of the first Jews on German territory. While the date of the first settlement of Jews in the regions which the Romans called Germania Superior, Germania Inferior, and Magna Germania is not known, the first authentic document relating to a large and well-organized Jewish community in these regions dates from 321 and refers to Cologne on the Rhine (Jewish immigrants began settling in Rome itself as early as 139 BC). It indicates that the legal status of the Jews there was the same as elsewhere in the Roman Empire. They enjoyed some civil liberties, but were restricted regarding the dissemination of their culture, the keeping of non-Jewish slaves, and the holding of office under the government.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: Jews were otherwise free to follow any occupation open to indigenous Germans and were engaged in agriculture, trade, industry, and gradually money-lending. These conditions at first continued in the subsequently established Germanic kingdoms under the Burgundians and Franks, for ecclesiasticism took root slowly. The Merovingian rulers who succeeded to the Burgundian empire were devoid of fanaticism and gave scant support to the efforts of the Church to restrict the civic and social status of the Jews.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: Charlemagne (800–814) readily made use of the Roman Catholic Church for the purpose of infusing coherence into the loosely joined parts of his extensive empire, but was not by any means a blind tool of the canonical law. He employed Jews for diplomatic purposes, sending, for instance, a Jew as interpreter and guide with his embassy to Harun al-Rashid. Yet, even then, a gradual change occurred in the lives of the Jews. The Church forbade Christians to be usurers, so the Jews secured the remunerative monopoly of money-lending. This decree caused a mixed reaction of people in general in the Carolingian Empire (including Germany) to the Jews: Jewish people were sought everywhere, as well as avoided. This ambivalence about Jews occurred because their capital was indispensable, while their business was viewed as disreputable. This curious combination of circumstances increased Jewish influence and Jews went about the country freely, settling also in the eastern portions (Old Saxony and Duchy of Thuringia). Aside from Cologne, the earliest communities were established in Mainz, Worms, Speyer, and Regensburg.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: The status of the German Jews remained unchanged under Charlemagne's successor, Louis the Pious. Jews were unrestricted in their commerce; however, they paid somewhat higher taxes into the state treasury than did the non-Jews. A special officer, the "Judenmeister", was appointed by the government to protect Jewish privileges. The later Carolingians, however, followed the demands of the Church more and more. The bishops continually argued at the synods for including and enforcing decrees of the canonical law, with the consequence that the majority Christian populace mistrusted the Jewish unbelievers. This feeling, among both princes and people, was further stimulated by the attacks on the civic equality of the Jews. Beginning with the 10th century, Holy Week became more and more a period of antisemitic activities, yet the Saxon emperors did not treat the Jews badly, exacting from them merely the taxes levied upon all other merchants. Although the Jews in Germany were as ignorant as their contemporaries in secular studies, they could read and understand the Hebrew prayers and the Bible in the original text. Halakhic studies began to flourish about 1000.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: At that time, Rav Gershom ben Judah was teaching at Metz and Mainz, gathering about him pupils from far and near. He is described in Jewish historiography as a model of wisdom, humility, and piety, and became known to succeeding generations as the "Light of the Exile". In highlighting his role in the religious development of Jews in the German lands, "The Jewish Encyclopedia" (1901–1906) draws a direct connection to the great spiritual fortitude later shown by the Jewish communities in the era of the Crusades:


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: He first stimulated the German Jews to study the treasures of their religious literature. This continuous study of the Torah and the Talmud produced such a devotion to Judaism that the Jews considered life without their religion not worth living; but they did not realize this clearly until the time of the Crusades, when they were often compelled to choose between life and faith.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: The Jewish communities of the cities of Speyer, Worms, and Mainz formed the league of cities which became the center of Jewish life during Medieval times. These are referred to as the ShUM cities, after the first letters of the Hebrew names: Shin for Speyer ("Shpira"), Waw for Worms ("Varmaisa") and Mem for Mainz ("Magentza"). The "Takkanot Shum" ( "Enactments of ShUM") were a set of decrees formulated and agreed upon over a period of decades by their Jewish community leaders. The official website for the city of Mainz states:


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: Historian John Man describes Mainz as "the capital of European ", noting that Gershom ben Judah "was the first to bring copies of the Talmud to Western Europe" and that his directives "helped Jews adapt to European practices." Gershom's school attracted Jews from all over Europe, including the famous biblical scholar Rashi; and "in the mid-14th century, it had the largest Jewish community in Europe: some 6,000." "In essence," states the City of Mainz web site, "this was a golden age as area bishops protected the Jews resulting in increased trade and prosperity."


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: The First Crusade began an era of persecution of Jews in Germany, especially in the Rhineland. The communities of Trier, Worms, Mainz, and Cologne, were attacked. The Jewish community of Speyer was saved by the bishop, but 800 were slain in Worms. About 12,000 Jews are said to have perished in the Rhenish cities alone between May and July 1096. Alleged crimes, like desecration of the host, ritual murder, poisoning of wells, and treason, brought hundreds to the stake and drove thousands into exile.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: Jews were alleged to have caused the inroads of the Mongols, though they suffered equally with the Christians. Jews suffered intense persecution during the Rintfleisch massacres of 1298. In 1336 Jews from Alsace were subjected to massacres by the outlaws of Arnold von Uissigheim.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: When the Black Death swept over Europe in 1348–49, some Christian communities accused Jews of poisoning wells. Compared to the south and west of the Holy Roman Empire, the persecutions appear to have brought less drastic effects in the eastern parts of the Holy Roman Empire. Nonetheless, in the Erfurt Massacre of 1349, the members of the entire Jewish community were murdered or expelled from the city, due to superstitions about the Black Death. Many persecutions were clearly favoured by a royal throne crisis and the Wittelsbach-Luxembourg dualism, therefore recent German research proposed the term “Thronkrisenverfolgungen” (throne crisis persecutions). Royal policy and public ambivalence towards Jews helped the persecuted Jews fleeing the German-speaking lands to form the foundations of what would become the largest Jewish community in Europe in what is now Poland/Ukraine/Romania/Belarus/Lithuania.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: The legal and civic status of the Jews underwent a transformation under the Holy Roman Empire. Jewish people found a certain degree of protection with the Holy Roman Emperor, who claimed the right of possession and protection of all the Jews of the empire. A justification for this claim was that the Holy Roman Emperor was the successor of the emperor Titus, who was said to have acquired the Jews as his private property. The German emperors apparently claimed this right of possession more for the sake of taxing the Jews than of protecting them.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: A variety of such taxes existed. Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, was a prolific creator of new taxes. In 1342, he instituted the "golden sacrificial penny" and decreed that every year all the Jews should pay the emperor one kreutzer out of every florins of their property in addition to the taxes they were already paying to both the state and municipal authorities. The emperors of the House of Luxembourg devised other means of taxation. They turned their prerogatives in regard to the Jews to further account by selling at a high price to the princes and free towns of the empire the valuable privilege of taxing and fining the Jews. Charles IV, via the Golden Bull of 1356, granted this privilege to the seven electors of the empire when the empire was reorganized in 1356.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: From this time onward, for reasons that also apparently concerned taxes, the Jews of Germany gradually passed in increasing numbers from the authority of the emperor to that of both the lesser sovereigns and the cities. For the sake of sorely needed revenue, the Jews were now invited, with the promise of full protection, to return to those districts and cities from which they had shortly before been expelled. However, as soon as Jewish people acquired some property, they were again plundered and driven away. These episodes thenceforth constituted a large portion of the medieval history of the German Jews. Emperor Wenceslaus was most expert in transferring to his own coffers gold from the pockets of rich Jews. He made compacts with many cities, estates, and princes whereby he annulled all outstanding debts to the Jews in return for a certain sum paid to him. Emperor Wenceslaus declared that anyone helping Jews with the collection of their debts, in spite of this annulment, would be dealt with as a robber and peacebreaker, and be forced to make restitution. This decree, which for years allegedly injured the public credit, is said to have impoverished thousands of Jewish families during the close of the 14th century.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: The 15th century did not bring any amelioration. What happened in the time of the Crusades happened again. The war upon the Hussites became the signal for renewed persecution of Jews. The Jews of Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia passed through all the terrors of death, forced baptism, or voluntary self-immolation for the sake of their faith. When the Hussites made peace with the Church, the Pope sent the Franciscan friar John of Capistrano to win the renegades back into the fold and inspire them with loathing for heresy and unbelief; 41 martyrs were burned in Wrocław alone, and all Jews were forever banished from Silesia. The Franciscan friar Bernardine of Feltre brought a similar fate upon the communities in southern and western Germany. As a consequence of the fictitious confessions extracted under torture from the Jews of Trent, the populace of many cities, especially of Regensburg, fell upon the Jews and massacred them.


title: History of the Jews in Germany

text: The end of the 15th century, which brought a new epoch for the Christian world, brought no relief to the Jews. Jews in Germany remained the victims of a religious hatred that ascribed to them all possible evils. When the established Church, threatened in its spiritual power in Germany and elsewhere, prepared for its conflict with the culture of the German Renaissance, one of its most convenient points of attack was rabbinic literature. At this time, as once before in France, Jewish converts spread false reports in regard to the Talmud, but an advocate of the book arose in the person of Johann Reuchlin, the German humanist, who was the first one in Germany to include the Hebrew language among the humanities. His opinion, though strongly opposed by the Dominicans and their followers, finally prevailed when the humanistic Pope Leo X permitted the Talmud to be printed in Italy.