title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: Nigeria is nearly equally divided between Islam and Christianity. The majority of Nigerian Muslims are Sunni and mostly live in the northern, central and south-western states of the country, while Christians dominate in some central states (especially Plateau and Benue states), and the south-east and south-south regions. Other religions practiced in Nigeria include African Traditional Religion, Hinduism, Baháʼí Faith, Judaism, The Grail Movement, and the Reformed Ògbóni Fraternity, one of the traditional socio-religious institutions of the Yorùbá people and their Òrìṣà religion known as Ẹ̀sìn Òrìṣà Ìbílẹ̀ in the Yorùbá language.


title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: According to a 2009 Pew survey, 50.4% of Nigeria's population were Muslims. A later Pew study in 2011 calculated that Christians now formed 50.8% of the population. Adherents of other religions 1% make up of the population.


title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: The shift of population balance between Muslims and Christians is a result of northern and southern Nigeria being in different stages of demographic transition. The Muslim-dominated north is in an earlier stage of the demographic transition with much higher fertility rates than the south, whose split Christian/Muslim population is further along in the transition, and whose fertility rates are declining. Decreasing fertility can be linked to more access to education, use of contraceptives, and differing beliefs regarding family planning.


title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: The 1999 introduction of Sharia Law in twelve northern Nigerian states led to massive violence and unrest and caused an ethnic and religious rift between Sharia and Non-Sharia states, a divide that has deepened with time.


title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: Nigerian criminal groups are heavily involved in drug trafficking, shipping heroin from Asian countries to Europe and America; and cocaine from South America to Europe and South Africa.


title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: The various Nigerian Confraternities or "campus cults" are active in both organized crime and in political violence as well as providing a network of corruption within Nigeria. As confraternities have extensive connections with political and military figures, they offer excellent alumni networking opportunities. The Supreme Vikings Confraternity, for example, boasts that twelve members of the Rivers State House of Assembly are cult members.


title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: On lower levels of society, there are the "area boys", these are organized gangs mostly active in Lagos who specialize in mugging and small-scale drug dealing. According to official statistics, gang violence in Lagos resulted in 273 civilians and 84 policemen killed in the period of August 2000 to May 2001.


title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: "The result of factors such as endemic local corruption, which facilitates illicit trafficking; the Biafra civil war, which contributed to a proliferation of firearms; the oil boom of the 1970s, which led to the embezzlement of public funds; and the economic crisis of the 1980s, which was accompanied by a rise in robberies. The expansion of the Nigerian diaspora and organized crime went hand in hand. Global migration boosted prostitution, drug trafficking and fraud, the three main activities of Nigerian syndicates. The smuggling of Nigerian sex workers became a whole industry that now extends from Switzerland to France and Italy (where black prostitutes are called "fireflies"), and has even reached the Prudish Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, from which 1,000 women are said to be deported every month by the authorities."


title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: The high crime rate among Nigerian migrants also leads to stereotyping Nigerians as criminals; thus, in Cameroon, Nigerian migrants are perceived collectively by the inhabitants of Cameroon as likely to be oil smugglers or dealers in stolen cars. In the Netherlands, the debate on Nigerian crime reached an intensity described as a "moral panic" by one scholar. In Switzerland, the crime rate of Nigerian young males was reported as 620% that of Swiss males in same age group (2009 data), the second highest crime rate of any nationality, just below that of Angolan nationals (at 630%).


title: Demographics of Nigeria

text: Nigeria is also pervaded by political corruption. It is ranked 136 out of 168 countries in Transparency International's 2015 Corruption Perceptions Index.


title: Irv Gotti

text: Irving Domingo Lorenzo Jr. (born June 26, 1970), professionally known as Irv Gotti, is an American DJ, music producer, record executive, and the CEO and co-founder of Murder Inc. Records. He is best known for producing multiple number-one records for Ashanti, Ja Rule, and Jennifer Lopez, as well as his collaborations with Jay-Z, DMX, and Kanye West. Gotti is also the creator of the BET series "Tales".


title: Irv Gotti

text: After helping Def Jam with the success of DMX and Jay-Z, Russell Simmons gave Irv Gotti his own label under Def Jam. While watching "Biography" on A&E during gangster week, a Murder, Inc. logo appeared on the screen and Irv Gotti decided to use the name for his label because Murder, Inc. put out hits for murder and Irv wanted to put out hit records.


title: Irv Gotti

text: Irv, Ja Rule and the label of Murder Inc. were all involved in a well-publicized feud with G-Unit Records, Aftermath Records and Shady Records over history between 50 Cent and Ja Rule. After this Murder Inc. would change their name to "The Inc." after a 2003 investigation, including a raid on the Manhattan offices of Murder, Inc., resulted in charges of money laundering being brought against Gotti and his brother Christopher in connection with alleged financial transactions associated with New York City drug kingpin Kenneth "Supreme" McGriff. On December 2, 2005, a jury acquitted the brothers of all charges. The label would change their name to appeal better to the public.


title: Irv Gotti

text: Under The Inc. banner, Irv would move the label to Universal Motown and sign Vanessa Carlton. Gotti co-produced Vanessa Carlton's third album, "Heroes and Thieves", which was released October 9, 2007, with Channel 7, Rick Rubin and Stephan Jenkins.


title: Irv Gotti

text: In an interview with Angie Martinez in early May 2009, Gotti stated that his label, Murder Inc., was leaving Universal Records.


title: Irv Gotti

text: In September 2013, Murder Inc. was relaunched as an umbrella label under Irv Gotti's new label, Visionary.


title: Kathakali

text: Kathakali () is a major form of classical Indian dance. It is a "story play" genre of art, but one distinguished by the elaborately colourful make-up and costumes of the traditional male actor-dancers. It is native to the Malayalam-speaking southwestern region of Kerala and is almost entirely practiced and appreciated by Malayali people.


title: Kathakali

text: Kathakali's roots are unclear. The fully developed style of Kathakali originated around the 17th century, but its roots are in the temple and folk arts (such as Krishnanattam and religious drama of the kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut) southwestern Indian peninsula), which are traceable to at least the 1st millennium CE. A Kathakali performance, like all classical dance arts of India, synthesizes music, vocal performers, choreography and hand and facial gestures together to express ideas. However, Kathakali differs in that it also incorporates movements from ancient Indian martial arts and athletic traditions of South India.)


title: Kathakali

text: The traditional themes of the Kathakali are folk stories, religious legends and spiritual ideas from the Hindu epics and the Puranas. The vocal performance has traditionally been performed in Sanskritised Malayalam. In modern compositions, Indian Kathakali troupes have included women artistes, and adapted Western stories and plays such as those by Shakespeare.


title: Kathakali

text: The term "Kathakali" is derived from "katha" () which means "story or a conversation, or a traditional tale", and "kaḷi" () which means "performance" or "play". The dance symbolises the eternal fight between good and evil.


title: Kathakali

text: Elements and aspects of Kathakali are taken from ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Natya Shastra. The kathakali is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE.


title: Kathakali

text: The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. The text, states Natalia Lidova, describes the theory of Tāṇḍava dance (Shiva), the theory of rasa, of bhāva, expression, gestures, acting techniques, basic steps, standing postures–all of which are part of Indian classical dances including Kathakali. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient Hindu text, are a form of expression of spiritual ideas, virtues and the essence of scriptures.


title: Kathakali

text: The roots of Kathakali are unclear. Jones and Ryan state it is more than 500 years old. Kathakali emerged as a distinct genre of performance art during the 16th and 17th centuries in Kerala. The roots of Kathakali, states Mahinder Singh, are more ancient and some 1500 years old.


title: Kathakali

text: According to Farley Richmond and other scholars, Kathakali shares many elements such as costumes with ancient Indian performance arts such as "Kutiyattam" (classical Sanskrit drama) and medieval era "Krishnanattam", even though a detailed examination shows differences. "Kutiyattam", adds Richmond, is "one of the oldest continuously performed theatre forms in India, and it may well be the oldest surviving art form of the ancient world". "Kutiyattam", traditionally, was performed in theatres specially designed and attached to Hindu temples, particularly dedicated to the Shiva and later to Krishna. The designs of these theatres usually matched the dimensions and architecture recommended as "ideal" in the ancient "Natya Shastra", and some of them could house 500 viewers.


title: Kathakali

text: "Krishnanattam" is the likely immediate precursor of Kathakali, states Zarrilli. "Krishnanattam" is dance-drama art form about the life and activities of Hindu god Krishna, that developed under the sponsorship of Sri Manavedan Raja, the ruler of Calicut (1585-1658 AD). The traditional legend states that Kottarakkara Thampuran (also known as Vira Kerala Varma) requested the services of a "Krishnanattam" troupe, but his request was denied. So Kottarakkara Thampuran created another art form based on "Krishnanattam", called it "Ramanattam" because the early plays were based on the Hindu epic "Ramayana", which over time diversified beyond "Ramayana" and became popular as 'Kathakali'.


title: Kathakali

text: Another related performance art is "Ashtapadiyattom", a dance drama based on the Gita Govinda of the twelfth-century poet Jayadeva, told the story of Krishna embodied as a humble cowherd, his consort Radha, and three cow girls. Kathakali also incorporates several elements from other traditional and ritualistic art forms like Mudiyettu, Theyyam and Padayani besides folk arts such as Porattu Nadakam that shares ideas with the Tamil "Therukoothu" tradition. The south Indian martial art of "Kalarippayattu" has also influenced Kathakali.


title: Kathakali

text: Despite the links, "Kathakali" is different from temple-driven arts such as "Krishnanattam", "Kutiyattam" and others because unlike the older arts where the dancer-actor also had to be the vocal artist, "Kathakali" separated these roles allowing the dancer-actor to excel in and focus on choreography while the vocal artists focused on delivering their lines. "Kathakali" also expanded the performance repertoire, style and standardized the costume making it easier for the audience to understand the various performances and new plays.


title: Kathakali

text: "Kathakali" is structured around plays called Attakatha (literally, "enacted story"), written in Sanskritized Malayalam. These plays are written in a particular format that helps identify the "action" and the "dialogue" parts of the performance. The "Sloka" part is the metrical verse, written in third person – often entirely in Sanskrit - describing the action part of the choreography. The "Pada" part contains the dialogue part. These "Attakatha" texts grant considerable flexibility to the actors to improvise. Historically, all these plays were derived from Hindu texts such as the "Ramayana", the "Mahabharata" and the "Bhagavata Purana".


title: Kathakali

text: A "Kathakali" repertoire is an operatic performance where an ancient story is playfully dramatized. Traditionally, a Kathakali performance is long, starting at dusk and continuing through dawn, with interludes and breaks for the performers and audience. Some plays continued over several nights, starting at dusk every day. Modern performances are shorter. The stage with seating typically in open grounds outside a temple, but in some places, special theatres called "Kuttampalam" built inside the temple compounds have been in use.


title: Kathakali

text: The stage is mostly bare, or with a few drama-related items. One item, called a Kalivilakku (kali meaning dance; "vilakku" meaning lamp), can be traced back to Kutiyattam. In both traditions, the performance happens in the front of a huge Kalivilakku with its thick wick sunk in coconut oil, burning with a yellow light. Traditionally, before the advent of electricity, this special large lamp provided light during the night. As the play progressed, the actor-dancers would gather around this lamp so that the audience could see what they are expressing.


title: Kathakali

text: The performance involves actor-dancers in the front, supported by musicians in the background stage on right (audience's left) and with vocalists in the front of the stage (historically so they could be heard by the audience before the age of microphone and speakers). Typically, all roles are played by male actor-dancers, though in modern performances, women have been welcomed into the Kathakali tradition.


title: Kathakali

text: Of all classical Indian dances, Kathakali has the most elaborate costuming consisting of head dresses, face masks and vividly painted faces. It typically takes several evening hours to prepare a Kathakali troupe to get ready for a play. Costumes have made Kathakali's popularity extend beyond adults, with children absorbed by the colors, makeup, lights and sounds of the performances.


title: Kathakali

text: The makeup follows an accepted code, that helps the audience easily identify the archetypal characters such as gods, goddesses, demons, demonesses, saints, animals and characters of a story. Seven basic makeup types are used in Kathakali, namely "Pachcha" (green), "Pazhuppu" (ripe), "Kathi", "Kari", "Thaadi", "Minukku" and "Teppu (red)". These vary with the styles and the predominant colours made from rice paste and vegetable colors that are applied on the face. Pachcha (green) with lips painted brilliant coral red portrays noble characters and sages such as Krishna, Vishnu, Rama, Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Nala and philosopher-kings.


title: Kathakali

text: "Thaadi" (red) is the code for someone with an evil streak such as Dushasana and Hiranyakashipu. Some characters have a green face (representing heroic or excellence as a warrior) with red dots or lines on their cheeks or red-coloured moustache or red-streaked beard (representing evil inner nature), while others have a full face and beard coloured red, the latter implying excessively evil characters. Kari (black) is the code for forest dwellers, hunters, and middle ground character. Demonesses and treacherous characters are also painted black but with streaks or patches of red.


title: Kathakali

text: Yellow is the code for monks, mendicants, and women. "Minukka" (radiant, shining) with a warm yellow, orange or saffron typifies noble, virtuous feminine characters such as Sita, Panchali and Mohini. Men who act the roles of women also add a false top knot to their left and decorate it in a style common to the region. Vella Thadi (white beard) represents a divine being, someone with virtuous inner state and consciousness such as Hanuman. "Teppu" is for special characters found in Hindu mythologies, such as Garuda, Jatayu and Hamsa who act as messengers or carriers, but do not fit the other categories. Face masks and headgear is added to accentuate the inner nature of the characters. The garments colours have a similar community accepted code of silent communication.


title: Kathakali

text: The character types, states Zarrilli, reflect the Guṇa theory of personalities in the ancient Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. There are three Guṇas, according to this philosophy, that have always been and continue to be present in all things and beings in the world. These three "Guṇas" are ' (goodness, constructive, harmonious, virtuous), ' (passion, aimless action, dynamic, egoistic), and "" (darkness, destructive, chaotic, viciousness). All of these three "gunas" (good, evil, active) are present in everyone and everything, it is the proportion that is different, according to the Hindu worldview. The interplay of these "gunas" defines the character of someone or something, and the costumes and face colouring in Kathakali often combines the various colour codes to give complexity and depth to the actor-dancers.


title: Kathakali

text: Like many classical Indian arts, Kathakali is choreography as much as it is acting. It is said to be one of the most difficult styles to execute on stage, with young artists preparing for their roles for several years before they get a chance to do it on stage. The actors speak a "sign language", where the word part of the character's dialogue is expressed through "hand signs (mudras)", while emotions and mood is expressed through "facial and eye" movements. In parallel, vocalists in the background sing rhythmically the play, matching the beats of the orchestra playing, thus unifying the ensemble into a resonant oneness.


title: Kathakali

text: Several ancient Sanskrit texts such as "Natya Shastra" and "Hastha Lakshanadeepika" discuss hand gestures or mudras. Kathakali follows the "Hastha Lakshanadeepika" most closely, unlike other classical dances of India.


title: Kathakali

text: There are 24 main mudras, and numerous more minor ones in Kathakali. There are nine facial expressions called "Navarasas", which each actor masters through facial muscle control during his education, in order to express the emotional state of the character in the play. The theory behind the "Navarasas" is provided by classical Sanskrit texts such as Natya Shastra, but sometimes with different names, and these are found in other classical Indian dances as well. The nine "Navarasas" express nine "Bhava" (emotions) in Kathakali as follows: "Sringara" expresses "Rati" (love, pleasure, delight), "Hasya" expresses "Hasa" (comic, laugh, mocking), "Karuna" expresses "Shoka" (pathetic, sad), "Raudra" expresses "Krodha" (anger, fury), "Vira" expresses "Utsaha" (vigor, enthusiasm, heroic), "Bhayanaka" expresses "Bhaya" (fear, concern, worry), "Bibhatsa" expresses "Jugupsa" (disgust, repulsive), "Adbhuta" expresses "Vismaya" (wondrous, marvel, curious) and "Shanta" expresses "Sama" (peace, tranquility).


title: Kathakali

text: A Kathakali performance typically starts with artists tuning their instruments and warming up with beats, signalling to the arriving audience that the artists are getting ready and the preparations are on. The repertoire includes a series of performances. First comes the "Thodayam" and "Purappadu" performances, which are preliminary 'pure' (abstract) dances that emphasize skill and pure motion. "Thodayam" is performed behind a curtain and without all the costumes, while "Purappadu" is performed without the curtain and in full costumes.


title: Kathakali

text: The expressive part of the performance, which constitutes the dance-drama, is split into four types: "Kalasham" (major and most common), "Iratti" (special, used with battles-related "Chempata" rhythm), "Thonkaram" (similar to "Iratti" but different music), and "Nalamiratti" (used for exits or link between the chapters of the play).


title: Kathakali

text: The entrance of characters onto the Kathakali stage can be varied. Many of these ways are not found in other major Indian classical dance traditions. Kathakali employs several methods: 1) direct without special effects or curtain; 2) through the audience, a method that engages the audience, led by torchbearers since Kathakali is typically a night performance; 3) tease and suspense called "nokku" or "thirasheela" or "tiranokku", where the character is slowly revealed by the use of a curtain. The "tease" method is typically used for characters with hidden, dangerous intentions.


title: Kathakali

text: The play is in the form of verses that are metered and lyrical, sung by vocalists whose voice has been trained to various melodies ("ragas"), music and synchronized with the dance-acting on the stage. The vocalists not only deliver the lines, but help set the context and express the inner state of the character by modulating their voice. For example, anger is expressed by the use of sharp high voice and pleading is expressed by the use of a sad tone.


title: Kathakali

text: Music is central to a Kathakali performance. It sets the mood and triggers emotions resonant with the nature of the scene. It also sets the rhythm to which the actor-dancers perform the choreography and scenes. Some major musical patterns, according to Clifford and Betty, that go with the moods and content of the scene are: Chempada (most common and default that applies to a range of moods, in battles and fights between good and evil, also to conclude a scene); "Chempa" music (depict tension, dispute, disagreement between lovers or competing ideas); "Panchari" (for odious, preparatory such as sharpening a sword); "Triputa" (thought-provoking, scenes involving sages and teachers); Adantha (scenes involving kings or divine beings); Muri Adantha musical style (for comic, light-hearted, or fast-moving scenes involving heroic or anger-driven activity).


title: Kathakali

text: Many musical instruments are used in Kathakali. Three major drums found are "Maddalam"(barrel-shaped), Chenda (cylindrical drum played with curved sticks) and "Idakka" (Idakka, hourglass-shaped drum with muted and melodious notes played when female characters perform).


title: Kathakali

text: Over five hundred Kathakali plays ("Aattakatha") exist, most of which were written before the 20th century. Of these, about four dozen are most actively performed. These plays are sophisticated literary works, states Zarrilli, and only five authors have written more than two plays. The late 17th century Unnayi Variyar, in his short life, produced four plays which are traditionally considered the most expressive of the Kathakali playwrights. Typically, his four plays are performed on four nights, and they relate to the mythical Hindu love story of Nala and Damayanti. The Nala-Damayanti story has roots in the texts of 1st millennium BCE and is found in the Mahabharata, but the Kathakali play version develops the characters, their inner states, the emotions and their circumstances far more than the older texts.


title: Kathakali

text: A tradition Kathakali play typically consists of two interconnected parts, the third-person "Shlokas" and first-person "Padams". The "Shlokas" are in Sanskrit and describe the action in the scene, while "Padams" are dialogues in Malayalam (Sanskritized) for the actors to interpret and play. A "Padam" consists of three parts: a "Pallavi" (refrain), "Anupallavi" (subrefrain) and "Charanam" (foot), all of which are set to one of the ancient "Ragas" (musical mode), based on the mood and context as outlined in ancient Sanskrit texts such as the "Natya Shastra". In historic practice of a play performance, each "Padam" was enacted twice by the actor while the vocalists sang the lines repeatedly as the actor-dancer played his role out.


title: Kathakali

text: The traditional plays were long, many written to be performed all night, some such as those based on the "Ramayana" and the "Mahabharata" written to be performed for many sequential nights. However, others such as the "Prahlada Charitham" have been composed so that they can be performed within four hours. Modern productions have extracted parts of these legendary plays, to be typically performed within 3 to 4 hours.


title: Kathakali

text: Kathakali is still practiced in its Traditional ways and there are experimental plays based on European classics and Shakespeare's plays. Recent productions have adapted stories from other cultures and mythologies, such as those of Miguel de Cervantes, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and William Shakespeare.


title: Kathakali

text: Kathakali has lineages or distinctive schools of play interpretation and dance performance called "Sampradayam". These developed in part because of the Gurukul system of its transmission from one generation to the next. By the 19th-century, many such styles were in vogue in Malayalam speaking communities of South India, of which two major styles have crystallized and survived into the modern age.


title: Kathakali

text: The "Kidangoor" style is one of the two, that developed in Travancore, and it is strongly influenced by "Kutiyattam", while also drawing elements of "Ramanattam" and "Kalladikkotan". It is traditionally attributed to Nalanunni, under the patronage of Utram Tirunal Maharaja (1815-1861).


title: Kathakali

text: The "Kalluvazhi" style is second of the two, which developed in Palakkad (Olappamanna Mana) in central Kerala, and it is a synthesis of the older "Kaplingadan" and "Kalladikkotan" performance arts. It is traditionally attributed to Unniri Panikkar, in a Brahmin household (~1850), and became the dominant style established in Kerala Kalamandalam – a school of performance arts.


title: Kathakali

text: Kathakali has traditionally been an art that has continued from one generation to the next through a guru-disciples ("gurukkula") based training system. Artist families tended to pick promising talent from within their own extended families, sometimes from outside the family, and the new budding artist typically stayed with his guru as a student and treated like a member of the family. The guru provided both the theoretical and practical training to the student, and the disciple would accompany the guru to formal performances. In modern times, professional schools train students of Kathakali, with some such as those in Trivandrum Margi school emphasizing a single teacher for various courses, while others such as the Kerala Kalamandalam school wherein students learn subjects from different teachers. Kathakali schools are now found all over India, as well as in parts of Western Europe and the United States.


title: Kathakali

text: A typical Kathakali training centre auditions for students, examining health and physical fitness necessary for the aerobic and active stage performance, the body flexibility, sense of rhythm and an interview to gauge how sincere the student is in performance arts. A typical course work in Kathakali emphasizes physical conditioning and daily exercises, yoga and body massage to tone the muscles and sculpt the growing body, along with studies and dance practice. Per ancient Indian tradition, young students continue to start their year by giving symbolic gifts to the guru, such as a few coins with betel leaves, while the teacher gives the student a loincloth, a welcome and blessings.


title: Kathakali

text: Kathakali is still hugely male-dominated, but since the 1970s, women have made entry into the art form on a recognisable scale. The central Kerala temple town of Tripunithura has a ladies' troupe (Tripunithura Kathakali Kendram Ladies Troupe) who perform Kathakali. The troupe won a national award, i.e. Nari Shakti Puraskar, for their work.


title: Kathakali

text: The theory and foundations of "Kathakali" are same as other major classical Indian dances, traceable to Sanskrit texts such as the "Natya Shastra", but the expression style in each is very different and distinctive. "Kathakali" is different from a similar-sounding "Kathak", though both are Indian classical dance traditions of "story play" wherein the stories have been traditionally derived from the Hindu epics and the Puranas. Kathak is an ancient performance art that emerged in North India, with roots in traveling bards retelling mythical and spiritual stories through dance-acting. Kathak traditionally has included female actor-dancers, unlike Kathakali which has traditionally been performed by an all-male troupe. Kathak deploys much simpler costumes, makeup and no face masks. Both dance forms employ choreography, face and hand gestures traceable to the "Natya Shastra", but "Kathak" generally moves around a straight leg and torso movements, with no martial art leaps and jumps like Kathakali. Kathak uses the stage space more, and does not typically include separate vocalists. Both deploy a host of similar traditional Indian musical instruments.


title: Kathakali

text: Kathakali-style, costume rich, musical drama are found in other cultures. For example, the Japanese "Noh" (能) integrates masks, costumes and various props in a dance-based performance, requiring highly trained actors and musicians. Emotions are primarily conveyed by stylized gestures while the costumes communicate the nature of the characters in a "Noh" performance, as in Kathakali. In both, costumed men have traditionally performed all the roles including those of women in the play. The training regimen and initiation of the dance-actors in both cultures have many similarities.


title: Kathakali

text: Kabuki, another Japanese art form, has similarities to Kathakali. Jīngjù, a Chinese art of dance-acting ("zuo"), like Kathakali presents artists with elaborate masks, costumes and colorfully painted faces. Balinese dance also shares similarities.


title: Jessy Schram

text: Jessica Schram (born January 15, 1986) is an American actress, model and singer. Her most notable roles include Hannah Griffith in "Veronica Mars", Rachel Seybolt in "Life", Karen Nadler in "Falling Skies" and Cinderella/Ashley Boyd in "Once Upon a Time".


title: Jessy Schram

text: Jessica Schram was born in Skokie, Illinois to John and Kristie Schram. She was raised in Buffalo Grove, Illinois and graduated from Buffalo Grove High School in 2004. Schram modeled and appeared in television commercials as a child, and began performing in musical theatre at age 12. Schram moved to Los Angeles after graduation to pursue a career in acting.


title: Jessy Schram

text: Early in her career, she appeared in television commercials for Retin-A Micro and Kentucky Fried Chicken. Her first on-screen appearance was a role as Larissa in the episode "Number One Fan" of Nickelodeon's sitcom "Drake & Josh." In 2005, she played Susan Davis on Hallmark Channel's "Jane Doe" series of television movies. She also appeared in four episodes of the television series "Veronica Mars" as Hannah Griffith, who becomes Logan Echolls' girlfriend. She has appeared in several guest starring television roles, including "," "Without a Trace, House, Ghost Whisperer, Medium, The Mentalist" and "Boston Legal."


title: Jessy Schram

text: In 2008, she starred in the drama film "Keith" and appeared as Tracy in the comedy film "" (2006). She was featured on "Maxim" magazine's website in their "Today's Girl" feature. In 2009, she was featured in a music video for J. R. Richards' song "A Beautiful End". Schram appeared in Tony Scott's action thriller film "Unstoppable" (2010), playing Darcy, the estranged wife of Chris Pine's character.


title: Jessy Schram

text: In 2011, Schram joined the main cast for the first season of the TNT science-fiction series "Falling Skies". Her character was reduced to a recurring role in seasons two and three, then to guest appearances in season four. Between 2011 and 2016, Schram appeared in four episodes of the television series "Once Upon a Time", playing Cinderella/Ashley Boyd. She reprised the role in the 2013 premiere of "Once Upon A Time In Wonderland".


title: Jessy Schram

text: In 2012, she portrayed Christine Kendal on ABC's military drama series "Last Resort". In 2015, Schram portrayed Cash Gray in the fourth season of musical drama series "Nashville". She landed a role as Jennifer in crime thriller film "Shot Caller" (2017), which received generally positive reviews from critics. In December 2019, Schram was cast as Dr. Hannah Asher on the NBC's drama series "Chicago Med" Initially a recurring role in the series's fifth season that ended with the sixth season's premiere, she returned in season seven in a series regular capacity.


title: Trombone

text: The trombone (, Italian, French: "trombone") is a musical instrument in the brass family. As with all brass instruments, sound is produced when the player's vibrating lips cause the air column inside the instrument to vibrate. Nearly all trombones use a telescoping slide mechanism to alter the pitch instead of the valves used by other brass instruments. The valve trombone is an exception, using three valves similar to those on a trumpet, and the superbone has valves and a slide.


title: Trombone

text: The word "trombone" derives from Italian "tromba" (trumpet) and "-one" (a suffix meaning "large"), so the name means "large trumpet". The trombone has a predominantly cylindrical bore like the trumpet, in contrast to the more conical brass instruments like the cornet, the euphonium, and the French horn. The most frequently encountered trombones are the tenor trombone and bass trombone. These are treated as non-transposing instruments, reading at concert pitch in bass clef, with higher notes sometimes being notated in tenor clef. They are pitched in B♭, an octave below the B♭ trumpet and an octave above the B♭ bass tuba. The once common E♭ alto trombone became less common as improvements in technique extended the upper range of the tenor, but it is regaining popularity for its lighter sonority. In British brass-band music the tenor trombone is treated as a B♭ transposing instrument, written in treble clef, and the alto trombone is written at concert pitch, usually in alto clef.


title: Trombone

text: "Trombone" comes from the Italian word "tromba" (trumpet) plus the suffix "-one" (big), meaning "big trumpet".


title: Trombone

text: During the Renaissance, the equivalent English term was "sackbut". The word first appears in court records in 1495 as ""shakbusshe"" at about the time King Henry VII married a Portuguese princess who brought musicians with her. ""Shakbusshe"" is similar to ""sacabuche"", attested in Spain as early as 1478. The French equivalent ""saqueboute"" appears in 1466.


title: Trombone

text: The German ""Posaune"" long predates the invention of the slide and could refer to a natural trumpet as late as the early fifteenth century.


title: Trombone

text: Both towns and courts sponsored bands of shawms and trombone. The most famous and influential served the Duke of Burgundy. The trombone's principal role was the contratenor part in a dance band. The sackbut was used extensively across Europe, from its appearance in the 15th century to a decline in most places by the mid-late 17th century. It was used in outdoor events, in concert, and in liturgical settings. With trumpeters, trombonists in German city-states were employed as civil officials. As officials, these trombonists were often relegated to standing watch in the city towers but would also herald the arrival of important people to the city. This is similar to the role of a military bugler and was used as a sign of wealth and strength in 16th century German cities.


title: Trombone

text: However, these trombonists were often viewed separately from the more skilled trombonists who played in groups such as the alta capella wind ensembles and the first orchestral ensembles. These performed in religious settings, such as St Mark's Basilica in Venice in the early 17th century.


title: Trombone

text: Composers who wrote for trombone during this period include Claudio Monteverdi, Heinrich Schütz, Giovanni Gabrieli and his uncle Andrea Gabrieli. The trombone doubled voice parts in sacred works, but there are also solo pieces written for trombone in the early 17th century.


title: Trombone

text: When the sackbut returned to common use in England in the 18th century, Italian music was so influential that the instrument became known as the "trombone", although in some countries the same name has been applied throughout its history, viz. Italian and German . The 17th-century trombone was built in slightly smaller dimensions than modern trombones and had a bell that was more conical and less flared.


title: Trombone

text: During the later Baroque period, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel used trombones on a few occasions. Bach called for a "tromba di tirarsi" to double the cantus firmus in some of his liturgical cantatas, which may be a form of the closely related slide trumpet. Bach also employed a choir of four trombones to double the chorus in three of his cantatas (BWV 2, BWV 21 and BWV 38), and also a quartet of three trombones and one cornett in the cantata BWV 25. Handel used it in the "Death March" from "Saul", "Samson", and "Israel in Egypt". All were examples of an oratorio style popular during the early 18th century. Score notations are rare because only a few professional "Stadtpfeiffer" or alta cappella musicians were available. Handel, for instance, had to import trombones to England from a Royal court in Hanover, Germany, to perform one of his larger compositions. Therefore, trombone parts were rather seldom given "solo" roles that were not interchangeable with other instruments.


title: Trombone

text: Christoph Willibald Gluck was the first major composer to use the trombone in an opera overture, "Alceste "(1767), but he also used it in operas such as "Orfeo ed Euridice", "Iphigénie en Tauride "(1779) and "Echo et Narcisse".


title: Trombone

text: The construction of the trombone changed relatively little between the Baroque and Classical period. The most obvious change was in the bell, slightly more flared.


title: Trombone

text: The first use of the trombone as an independent instrument in a symphony was in the Symphony in E♭ (1807) by Swedish composer Joachim Nicolas Eggert. But the composer usually credited with the trombone's introduction into the symphony orchestra was Ludwig van Beethoven in Symphony No. 5 in C minor (1808). Beethoven also used trombones in his Symphony No. 6 in F major ("Pastoral") and Symphony No. 9 ("Choral").


title: Trombone

text: Trombones were often included in compositions, operas, and symphonies by composers such as Felix Mendelssohn, Hector Berlioz, Franz Berwald, Charles Gounod, Franz Liszt, Gioacchino Rossini, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Giuseppe Verdi, and Richard Wagner among others.


title: Trombone

text: Although the trombone trio had been paired with one or two cornets during the Renaissance and early Baroque periods, the disappearance of the cornet as a partner and replacement by oboe and clarinet left unchanged the trombone's purpose: to support the alto, tenor, and bass voices of the chorus (usually in ecclesiastical settings) where harmonic moving lines were more difficult to pick out than the melodic soprano line. But the introduction of trombones into the orchestra allied them more closely with trumpets, and soon an additional tenor trombone replaced alto. The Germans and Austrians kept alto trombone somewhat longer than the French, who preferred a section of three tenor trombones until after the Second World War. In other countries, the trio of two tenor trombones and one bass became standard by about the mid 19th century.


title: Trombone

text: Trombonists were employed less by court orchestras and cathedrals and so were expected to provide their own instrument. Military musicians were provided with instruments, and instruments like the long F or E♭ bass trombone remained in military use until around the First World War. But orchestral musicians adopted the tenor trombone, the most versatile trombone that could play in the ranges of any of the three trombone parts that typically appeared in orchestral scores.


title: Trombone

text: Valve trombones in the mid-19th century did little to alter the make-up of the orchestral trombone section; although it was ousted from orchestras in Germany and France, the valve trombone remained popular almost to the exclusion of the slide instrument in countries such as Italy and Bohemia. Composers such as Giuseppe Verdi, Giacomo Puccini, Bedřich Smetana, and Antonín Dvořák scored for a valve trombone section.


title: Trombone

text: With the ophicleide or later, the tuba subjoined to the trombone trio during the 19th century, parts scored for the bass trombone rarely descended as low as parts scored before the addition of either of these new low brass instruments. Only in the early 20th century did it regain a degree of independence. Experiments with the trombone section included Richard Wagner's addition of a contrabass trombone in "Der Ring des Nibelungen" and Gustav Mahler's and Richard Strauss' augmentation by adding a second bass trombone to the usual trio of two tenor trombones and one bass trombone. The majority of orchestral works are still scored for the usual mid- to late-19th-century low brass section of two tenor trombones, one bass trombone, and one tuba.


title: Trombone

text: Trombones have been a part of the large wind band since its inception as an ensemble during the French Revolution of 1791. During the 19th century wind band traditions were established, including circus bands, military bands, brass bands (primarily in the UK), and town bands (primarily in the US). Some of these, especially military bands in Europe, used rear-facing trombones where the bell section pointed behind the player's left shoulder. These bands played a limited repertoire, with few original compositions, that consisted mainly of orchestral transcriptions, arrangements of popular and patriotic tunes, and feature pieces for soloists (usually cornetists, singers, and violinists). A notable work for wind band is Berlioz's 1840 Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale, which uses a trombone solo for the entire second movement.


title: Trombone

text: Toward the end of the 19th century, trombone virtuosi began appearing as soloists in American wind bands. The most notable was Arthur Pryor, who played with the John Philip Sousa band and formed his own.


title: Trombone

text: In the Romantic era, Leipzig became a center of trombone pedagogy. The trombone began to be taught at the Musikhochschule founded by Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy. The Paris Conservatory and its yearly exhibition also contributed to trombone education. At the Leipzig academy, Mendelssohn's bass trombonist, Karl Traugott Queisser, was the first in a long line of distinguished professors of the trombone. Several composers wrote works for Quiesser, including Ferdinand David (Mendelssohn's concertmaster) who wrote in 1837 the "Concertino for Trombone and Orchestra", Ernst Sachse, and Friedrich August Belcke, whose solo works remain popular in Germany. Queisser helped re-establish the reputation of the trombone in Germany. He championed and popularized Christian Friedrich Sattler's tenor-bass trombone during the 1840s, leading to its widespread use in orchestras throughout Germany and Austria.


title: Trombone

text: Sattler had a great influence on trombone design. He introduced a significant widening of the bore (the most important since the Renaissance), the innovations of "Schlangenverzierungen" (snake decorations), the bell garland, and the wide bell flare—features still found on German-made trombones that were widely copied during the 19th century.


title: Trombone

text: The trombone was further improved in the 19th century with the addition of "stockings" at the end of the inner slide to reduce friction, the development of the water key to expel condensation from the horn, and the occasional addition of a valve that, intentionally, only was to be set on or off but later was to become the regular F-valve. Additionally, the valve trombone came around the 1850s shortly after the invention of valves, and was in common use in Italy and Austria in the second half of the century.


title: Trombone

text: In the 20th century the trombone maintained its important place in the orchestra in works by Béla Bartók, Alban Berg, Leonard Bernstein, Benjamin Britten, Aaron Copland, Edward Elgar, George Gershwin, Gustav Holst, Leos Janacek, Gustav Mahler, Olivier Messiaen, Darius Milhaud, Carl Nielsen, Sergei Prokofiev, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Maurice Ravel, Ottorino Respighi, Arnold Schoenberg, Dmitri Shostakovich, Jean Sibelius, Richard Strauss, Igor Stravinsky, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Heitor Villa-Lobos, and William Walton.


title: Trombone

text: With the rise of recorded music and music schools, orchestral trombone sections around the world began to have a more consistent idea of a standard trombone sound. British orchestras abandoned the use of small bore tenors and G basses in favor of an American/German approach of large bore tenors and B♭ basses in the 1940s. French orchestras did the same in the 1960s.


title: Trombone

text: During the first half of the century, touring and community concert bands lost their popularity in the United States and were greatly reduced in number. However, with the development of music education in the public school system, high school, and university concert bands and marching bands and became ubiquitous in the US. A typical concert band trombone section consists of two tenor trombones and one bass trombone, but using multiple players per part is common practice, especially in public-school settings.


title: Trombone

text: In the 1900s the trombone assisted the bass or tuba player's job of outlining chords for the other instruments by playing a bass line for the higher-pitched instruments to improvise over. It was not until the swing era of the mid-1920s that the trombone began to be used as a solo instrument. Examples of early trombone soloists are Jack Teagarden and J.J. Johnson.


title: Trombone

text: Changes in construction have occurred during the 20th century, such as the use of different materials; increases in mouthpiece, bore, and bell dimensions; and in types of mutes and valves. Despite the universal switch to a larger horn, many European trombone makers prefer a slightly smaller bore than their American counterparts.


title: Trombone

text: One of the most significant changes is the popularity of the F-attachment trigger. Through the mid-20th century, orchestral trombonists used instruments that lacked a trigger because there was no need for one. But as 20th century composers such as Mahler became popular, tenor trombone parts began to extend down into lower ranges that required a trigger. Although some trombonists prefer "straight" trombone models without triggers, most have added them for convenience and versatility.


title: Trombone

text: The trombone can be found in symphony orchestras, concert bands, big bands, marching bands, military bands, brass bands, and brass choirs. In chamber music, it is used in brass quintets, quartets, or trios, or trombone trios, quartets, or choirs. The size of a trombone choir can vary from five or six to twenty or more members. Trombones are also common in swing, jazz, merengue, salsa, R&B, ska, and New Orleans brass bands.


title: Trombone

text: The trombone is a predominantly cylindrical tube with two "U"-shaped bends and a flared bell at the end. The tubing is approximately cylindrical but actually contains a complex series of tapers which affect the intonation of the instrument. As with other brass instruments, sound is produced by blowing air through pursed lips producing a vibration that creates a standing wave in the instrument.


title: Trombone

text: The detachable cup-shaped mouthpiece is similar to that of the baritone horn and closely related to that of the trumpet. It has a venturi: a small constriction of the air column that adds resistance, greatly affecting the tone of the instrument. The slide section consists of a leadpipe, inner and outer slide tubes, and bracing, or "stays". The soldered stays on modern instruments replaced the loose stays found on sackbuts (medieval precursors to trombones).


title: Trombone

text: The most distinctive feature of the trombone is the slide that lengthens the tubing and lowers the pitch (cf. valve trombone). During the Renaissance, sleeves (called "stockings") were developed to decrease friction that would impede the slide's motion. These were soldered onto the ends of the inner slide tubes to slightly increase their diameter. The ends of inner slides on modern instruments are manufactured with a slightly larger diameter to achieve the same end. This part of the slide must be lubricated frequently. The slide section is connected to the bell section by the neckpipe and a U-bend called the bell or back bow. The joint connecting the slide and bell sections has a threaded collar to secure the connection. Prior to the early 20th century this connection was made with friction joints alone.


title: Trombone

text: Trombones have a short tuning slide in the U-shaped bend between the neckpipe and the bell, a feature designed by the French maker François Riedlocker in the early 19th century. It was incorporated into French and British designs, and later to German and American models, although German trombones were built without tuning slides well into the 20th century. Many types of trombone also include one or more rotary valves connected to additional tubing which lengthens the instrument. This extends the low range of the instrument and creates the option of using alternate slide positions for many notes.


title: Trombone

text: Like the trumpet, the trombone is considered a cylindrical bore instrument since it has extensive sections of tubing that are of unchanging diameter (the slide section must be cylindrical in order to function). Tenor trombones typically have a bore of (small bore) to (large or "orchestral" bore) after the leadpipe and through the slide. The bore expands through the bow to the bell, which is typically between . A number of common variations on trombone construction are noted below.


title: Trombone

text: Trombone bells (and sometimes slides) may be constructed of different brass mixtures. The most common material is yellow brass (70% copper, 30% zinc), but other materials include rose brass (85% copper, 15% zinc) and red brass (90% copper, 10% zinc). Some manufacturers offer interchangeable bells. Tenor trombone bells are usually between in diameter, the most common being sizes from . The smallest sizes are found in small jazz trombones and older narrow-bore instruments, while the larger sizes are common in orchestral models. Bass trombone bells can be as large as or more, though usually either in diameter. The bell may be constructed out of two separate brass sheets or out of one single piece of metal and hammered on a mandrel until the part is shaped correctly. The edge of the bell may be finished with or without a piece of bell wire to secure it, which also affects the tone quality; most bells are built with bell wire. Occasionally, trombone bells are made from solid sterling silver.


title: Trombone

text: Modern trombones often have a valve attachment, an extra loop of tubing attached to the bell section and engaged by a valve operated by the left hand by means of a lever or trigger. The valve attachment aids in increasing the lower range of the instrument, while also allowing alternate slide positions for difficult music passages. A valve can also make trills easier.


title: Trombone

text: The valve attachment was originally developed by German instrument maker Christian Friedrich Sattler in the late 1830s for the (), a B♭ tenor trombone built with the wider bore and larger bell of a bass trombone that Sattler had earlier invented in 1821. Sattler's valve attachment added about of tubing to lower the fundamental pitch from B♭ to F, controlled by a rotary valve, and is essentially unchanged in modern instruments.


title: Trombone

text: Valve attachments are most commonly found on tenor and bass trombones, but they can appear on sizes from soprano to contrabass.


title: Trombone

text: The most common type of valve seen for valve attachments is the rotary valve. Many improvements of the rotary valve, as well as entirely new and radically different valve designs, have been invented since the mid 20th century to give the trombone a more open, free sound than the tight bends in conventional rotary valve designs would allow. Many of these new valve designs have been widely adopted by players, especially in symphony orchestras. The Thayer axial flow valve is often available on professional models from most trombone manufacturers, and the Hagmann valve particularly from European manufacturers. In terms of volume however, the standard rotary valve remains the most common valve type, as it is used for attachments on most band instruments, as well as student- and intermediate-model trombones.


title: Trombone

text: F attachment tubing usually has a larger bore through the attachment than through the rest of the instrument. A typical slide bore for an orchestral tenor trombone is while the bore in the attachment is . The attachment tubing also incorporates a tuning slide to tune the valve separately from the rest of the instrument, usually long enough to lower the pitch by a semitone when fully extended (from F to E on tenor and bass trombones, to reach the missing low B).


title: Trombone

text: Originally, valve attachment tubing was always coiled tightly to keep within the bell section ("closed wrap " or "traditional wrap"). In the early 1980s, American instrument manufacturers began producing instruments with "open wrap", around the same time that the Thayer valve began to emerge among orchestral players. Open wrap F attachment tubing is shaped in a single loop free of tight bends, resulting in a freer response and more "open" sound through the valve.


title: Trombone

text: In marching bands and other situations where the trombone may be more prone to damage, the confined traditional wrap is more common, since open wrap tubing protrudes behind the bell section.


title: Trombone

text: Some trombones are tuned using a mechanism in the slide section instead of a tuning slide in the bell section. Having the tuning slide in the bell section (the more typical setup) requires two sections of cylindrical tubing in an otherwise conical part of the instrument, which affects the tone quality. Placing the tuning mechanism in the cylindrical slide section allows the bell section to remain conical.


title: Trombone

text: Common and popular bore sizes for trombone slides are for tenor trombones, and for bass trombones. The slide may also be built with a "dual-bore" configuration, in which the bore of the second leg of the slide is slightly larger than the bore of the first leg, producing a stepwise conical effect. The most common dual-bore combinations are , , , , for tenor trombones, and for bass trombones.


title: Trombone

text: The mouthpiece is a separate part of the trombone and can be interchanged between similarly sized trombones from different manufacturers. Available mouthpieces for trombone (as with all brass instruments) vary in material composition, length, diameter, rim shape, cup depth, throat entrance, venturi aperture, venturi profile, outside design and other factors. Variations in mouthpiece construction affect the individual player's ability to make a lip seal and produce a reliable tone, the timbre of that tone, its volume, the instrument's intonation tendencies, the player's subjective level of comfort, and the instrument's playability in a given pitch range.


title: Trombone

text: Mouthpiece selection is a highly personal decision. Thus, a symphonic trombonist might prefer a mouthpiece with a deeper cup and sharper inner rim shape in order to produce a rich symphonic tone quality, while a jazz trombonist might choose a shallower cup for brighter tone and easier production of higher notes. Further, for certain compositions, these choices between two such performers could easily be reversed. Some mouthpiece makers now offer mouthpieces that feature removable rims, cups, and shanks allowing players to further customize and adjust their mouthpieces to their preference.


title: Trombone

text: Instruments made mostly from plastic, including the pBone and the Tromba plastic trombone, emerged in the 2010s as a cheaper and more robust alternative to brass. Plastic instruments could come in almost any colour but the sound plastic instruments produce is different from that of brass. While originally seen as a gimmick, these plastic models have found increasing popularity of the last decade and are now viewed as practice tools that make for more convenient travel as well as a cheaper option for beginning players not wishing to invest so much money in a trombone right away. Manufacturers now produce large-bore models with triggers as well as smaller alto models.


title: Trombone

text: German trombones have been built in a wide variety of bore and bell sizes. The traditional German "Konzertposaune" can differ substantially from American designs in many aspects. The mouthpiece is typically rather small and is placed into a slide section with a very long leadpipe of at least . The whole instrument is typically made of gold brass. They are constructed using very thin metal (especially in the bell section), and many have a metal ring called a "kranz" ("crown") on the rim of the bell. Their sound is very even across dynamic levels but it can be difficult to play at louder volumes. While their bore sizes were considered large in the 19th century, German trombones have altered very little over the last 150 years and are now typically somewhat smaller than their American counterparts. Bell sizes remain very large in all sizes of German trombone and a bass trombone bell may exceed in diameter.


title: Trombone

text: Valve attachments in tenor and bass trombones were first seen in the mid 19th century, originally on the tenor B trombone. Before 1850, bass trombone parts were mostly played on a slightly longer F-bass trombone (a fourth lower). The first valve was simply a fourth-valve, or in German "Quart-ventil", built onto a B tenor trombone, to allow playing in low F. This valve was first built without a return spring, and was only intended to set the instrument in B or F for extended passages. Since the mid-20th century, modern instruments use a trigger to engage the valve while playing.


title: Trombone

text: As with other traditional German and Austrian brass instruments, rotary valves are used to the exclusion of almost all other types of valve, even in valve trombones. Other features often found on German trombones include long water keys as well as "Schlangenverzierungen" (snake decorations) on the slide and bell U-bows.


title: Trombone

text: Since around 1925, when jazz music became popular, Germany has been selling "American trombones" as well. Most trombones made and/or played in Germany today, especially by amateurs, are built in the American fashion, as those are much more widely available, and thus far cheaper. However, some higher-end manufacturers such as Thein make modern iterations of the classic German "Konzertposaune", as well as American-style trombones with German features like the "kranz" and snake decorations.


title: Trombone

text: French trombones were built in the very smallest bore sizes up to the end of the Second World War and whilst other sizes were made there, the French usually preferred the tenor trombone to any other size. French music, therefore, usually employed a section of three tenor trombones up to the mid–20th century. Tenor trombones produced in France during the 19th and early 20th centuries featured bore sizes of around , small bells of not more than in diameter, as well as a funnel-shaped mouthpiece slightly larger than that of the cornet or horn. French tenor trombones were built in both C and B♭, altos in D♭, sopranos in F, piccolos in B♭, basses in G and E♭, and contrabasses in B♭.


title: Trombone

text: The most frequently encountered types of trombone today are the tenor and bass, though as with many other instrument families such as the clarinet, the trombone has been built in sizes from piccolo to contrabass. Although trombones are usually constructed with a slide to change the pitch, valve trombones instead use the set of three valves common on other brass instruments.


title: Trombone

text: The contrabass trombone is the lowest trombone, first appearing in BB♭ an octave below the tenor with a double slide. This design was commissioned by Wagner in the 1870s for his "Der Ring des Nibelungen" opera cycle. Since the late 20th century however, it has largely been supplanted by a less cumbersome single-slide bass-contrabass instrument pitched in 12' F. With two valve attachments to provide the same full range as its predecessor, this design is effectively a modern bass trombone built down a perfect fourth. Although the contrabass has only appeared occasionally in orchestral repertoire and is not a permanent member of the modern orchestra, it has enjoyed a revival in the 21st century, particularly in film and video game soundtracks.


title: Trombone

text: Although early instruments were pitched in G, F or E♭ below the tenor trombone, the modern bass trombone is pitched in the same B as the tenor but with a wider bore, a larger bell, and a larger mouthpiece. These features facilitate playing in the lower register of the instrument. Modern bass trombones have valves that allow a fully chromatic range down to the pedal register (B). In Britain, the bass trombone in G was used in orchestras from the mid 19th century and survived into the 1950s, particularly in British brass bands.


title: Trombone

text: The tenor trombone has a fundamental note of B and is usually treated as a non-transposing instrument (see below). Tenor trombones with C as their fundamental note were almost equally popular in the mid-19th century in Britain and France. As the trombone in its simplest form has neither crooks, valves nor keys to lower the pitch by a specific interval, trombonists use seven chromatic "slide positions". Each position progressively increases the length of the air column, thus lowering the pitch.


title: Trombone

text: Extending the slide from one position to the next lowers the pitch by one semitone. Thus, each note in the harmonic series can be lowered by an interval of up to a tritone. The lowest note of the standard instrument is therefore an E – a tritone below B. Most experienced trombonists can play lower "falset" notes and much lower pedal notes (first partials or fundamentals, which have a peculiar metallic rumbling sound). Slide positions are subject to adjustment, compensating for imperfections in the tuning of different harmonics. The fifth partial is rather flat on most trombones and usually requires a minute shortening of the slide position to compensate; other small adjustments are also normally required throughout the range. Trombonists make frequent use of alternate positions to minimize slide movement in rapid passages; for instance, B may be played in first or fifth position. Alternate positions are also needed to allow a player to produce a glissando to or from a higher note on the same partial.


title: Trombone

text: While the lowest note of the tenor trombone's range (excluding fundamentals or pedal notes) is E, the trombone's upper range is theoretically open-ended. The practical top of the range is sometimes considered to be F, or more conservatively D. The range of the C tenor trombone is F to G.


title: Trombone

text: The alto trombone is smaller than the tenor trombone and almost always pitched in E♭ a fourth higher than the tenor, although examples pitched in F are occasionally found. Modern instruments are sometimes fitted with a valve to lower the pitch, either by a semitone to D (known as a "trill" valve), or by a fourth into B♭. The alto trombone was commonly used in the 16th to the 18th centuries in church music to strengthen the alto voice, particularly in the Mass. Early 19th century composers such as Beethoven, Brahms, and Schumann began writing for alto trombone in their symphonies, but the subsequent use and popularity of tenor trombones in the orchestra largely eclipsed their use until a modern revival that began in the late 20th century.


title: Trombone

text: The soprano trombone is usually pitched in B an octave above the tenor, and has seldom been used since its first known appearance in 1677 outside of trombone choirs in Moravian Church music. Built with mouthpiece, bore and bell dimensions similar to the B trumpet, it tends to be played by trumpet players. During the 20th century some soprano trombones—dubbed "slide cornets"—were made as novelties or for use by jazz players including Louis Armstrong and Dizzy Gillespie. A small number of contemporary proponents of the instrument include jazz artists Wycliffe Gordon and Christian Scott, and classical trumpeter Torbjörn Hultmark, who advocates for its use as an instrument for young children to learn music.


title: Trombone

text: The sopranino and piccolo trombones appeared in the 1950s as novelty instruments, and are even smaller and higher than the soprano. They are pitched in high E and B respectively, one octave above the alto and soprano trombones. Owing to being essentially a slide variant of the piccolo trumpet, they are played primarily by trumpet players.


title: Trombone

text: In the 19th century as soon as brass instrument valves were invented, trombones with valves instead of slides were adopted widely in orchestras, and remain popular in some parts of Europe and in military bands.


title: Trombone

text: The cimbasso covers the same range as a tuba or a contrabass trombone. The term first appeared in early 19th century Italian opera scores, and originally referred to an upright serpent or an ophicleide. The modern cimbasso first appeared in the 1880s and has three to six piston or rotary valves and a predominantly cylindrical bore. They are most often pitched in 12' F, although models are available in E♭ and occasionally 16' C and 18' B♭. The cimbasso is most commonly used in performances of late Romantic Italian operas by Verdi and Puccini, but has also experienced a 21st century increase in use in film, television and video game soundtracks.


title: Trombone

text: A hybrid, "duplex" or "double" trombone is a design of trombone that has both a slide and a set of three valves for altering the pitch. It has been reinvented several times since first appearing in the 19th century by Besson, and later Conn. Jazz trombonist and machinist Brad Gowans invented his "valide trombone" in the 1940s with a short four-position slide. In the 1970s Maynard Ferguson and Holton produced the "Superbone", very similar to the earlier Conn. In 2013 Schagerl in collaboration with James Morrison announced a larger bore variant with rotary valves.


title: Trombone

text: The "flugabone" (or sometimes "flugelbone"), portmanteau of "flugelhorn" and "trombone", also known as the "marching trombone", is a marching brass instrument, essentially a valve trombone wrapped into a compact flugelhorn shape. It retains the cylindrical bore of the trombone, rather than the conical bore of either the flugelhorn or bugle, and thus is similar in playing characteristics to a valve trombone. A similar marching trombone is the "trombonium" first produced by King Musical Instruments, wrapped and held vertically like a euphonium.


title: Trombone

text: The term "sackbut" refers to the early forms of the trombone commonly used during the Renaissance and Baroque eras, with a characteristically smaller, more cylindrically-proportioned bore, and a less-flared bell.


title: Trombone

text: A distinctive form of tenor trombone was popularized in France in the early 19th century. Called the buccin, it featured a tenor trombone slide and a bell that ended in a zoomorphic (serpent or dragon) head. It sounds like a cross between a trombone and a French horn, with a very wide dynamic range but a limited and variable range of pitch. Hector Berlioz wrote for the buccin in his "Messe solennelle" of 1824.


title: Trombone

text: A portmanteau of "trombone" and "bassoon", the "tromboon" was created by musical parodist Peter Schickele by replacing a trombone's mouthpiece with the reed and bocal of a bassoon. It appears in several humorous works of Schickele's fictional composer, P. D. Q. Bach.


title: Trombone

text: The modern system has seven chromatic slide positions on a tenor trombone in B. It was first described by Andre Braun circa 1795.


title: Trombone

text: In 1811 Joseph Fröhlich wrote on the differences between the modern system and an old system where four diatonic slide positions were used and the trombone was usually keyed to A. To compare between the two styles the chart below may be helpful (take note for example, in the old system contemporary 1st-position was considered "drawn past" then current 1st). In the modern system, each successive position outward (approximately ) will produce a note which is one semitone lower when played in the same partial. Tightening and loosening the lips will allow the player to "bend" the note up or down by a semitone without changing position, so a slightly out-of-position slide may be compensated for by ear.


title: Trombone

text: As with all brass instruments, progressive tightening of the lips and increased air pressure allow the player to move to different partial in the harmonic series. In the first position (also called closed position) on a B♭ trombone, the notes in the harmonic series begin with B♭ (one octave higher than the pedal B♭), F (a perfect fifth higher than the previous partial), B♭ (a perfect fourth higher), D (a major third higher), and F (a minor third higher).


title: Trombone

text: F marks the sixth partial, or the fifth overtone. Notes on the next partial, for example A♭ (a minor third higher) in first position, tend to be out of tune in regards to the twelve-tone equal temperament scale. A♭ in particular, which is at the seventh partial (sixth overtone) is nearly always 31 cents, or about one third of a semitone, flat of the minor seventh. On the slide trombone, such deviations from intonation are corrected for by slightly adjusting the slide or by using an alternate position. Although much of Western music has adopted the even-tempered scale, it has been the practice in Germany and Austria to play these notes in position, where they will have just intonation (see harmonic seventh as well for A♭).


title: Trombone

text: The next higher partials—B♭ (a major second higher), C (a major second higher), D (a major second higher)—do not require much adjustment for even-tempered intonation, but E♭ (a minor second higher) is almost exactly a quarter tone higher than it would be in twelve-tone equal temperament. E♭ and F (a major second higher) at the next partial are very high notes; a very skilled player with a highly developed facial musculature and diaphragm can go even higher to G, A♭, B♭ and beyond.


title: Trombone

text: The higher in the harmonic series any two successive notes are, the closer they tend to be (as evidenced by the progressively smaller intervals noted above). A byproduct of this is the relatively few motions needed to move between notes in the higher ranges of the trombone. In the lower range, significant movement of the slide is required between positions, which becomes more exaggerated on lower pitched trombones, but for higher notes the player need only use the first four positions of the slide since the partials are closer together, allowing higher notes in alternate positions. As an example, F (at the bottom of the treble clef) may be played in first, fourth or sixth position on a B♭ trombone. The note E (or the lowest E on a standard 88-key piano keyboard) is the lowest attainable note on a B♭ tenor trombone, requiring a full of tubing. On trombones without an F attachment, there is a gap between B♭ (the fundamental in first position) and E (the first harmonic in seventh position). Skilled players can produce "falset" notes between these, but the sound is relatively weak and not usually used in performance. The addition of an F attachment allows for intermediate notes to be played with more clarity.


title: Trombone

text: The pedal tone on B♭ is frequently seen in commercial scoring but much less often in symphonic music while notes below that are called for only rarely as they "become increasingly difficult to produce and insecure in quality" with A♭ or G being the bottom limit for most tenor trombonists. Some contemporary orchestral writing, movie or video game scoring, trombone ensemble and solo works will call for notes as low as a pedal C, B, or even double pedal B♭ on the bass trombone.


title: Trombone

text: The trombone is one of the few wind instruments that can produce a true glissando, by moving the slide without interrupting the airflow or sound production. Every pitch in a glissando must have the same harmonic number, and a tritone is the largest interval that can be performed as a glissando.


title: Trombone

text: 'Harmonic', 'inverted', 'broken' or 'false' glissandos are those that cross one or more harmonic series, requiring a simulated or faked glissando effect.


title: Trombone

text: Trills, though generally simple with valves, are difficult on the slide trombone. Trills tend to be easiest and most effective higher in the harmonic series because the distance between notes is much smaller and slide movement is minimal. For example, a trill on B/C is virtually impossible as the slide must move two positions (either 1st-to-3rd or 5th-to-3rd), however at an octave higher (B/C) the notes can both be achieved in 1st position as a lip trill. Thus, the most convincing trills tend to be above the first octave and a half of the tenor's range. Trills are most commonly found in early Baroque and Classical music for the trombone as a means of ornamentation, however, some more modern pieces will call for trills as well.


title: Trombone

text: Unlike most other brass instruments in an orchestral setting, the trombone is not usually considered a transposing instrument. Prior to the invention of valve systems, most brass instruments were limited to playing one overtone series at a time; altering the pitch of the instrument required manually replacing a section of tubing (called a "crook") or picking up an instrument of different length. Their parts were transposed according to which crook or length-of-instrument they used at any given time, so that a particular note on the staff always corresponded to a particular partial on the instrument. Trombones, on the other hand, have used slides since their inception. As such, they have always been fully chromatic, so no such tradition took hold, and trombone parts have always been notated at concert pitch (with one exception, discussed below). Also, it was quite common for trombones to double choir parts; reading in concert pitch meant there was no need for dedicated trombone parts. Note that while the fundamental sounding pitch (slide fully retracted) has remained quite consistent, the conceptual pitch of trombones has changed since their origin ("e.g." Baroque A tenor = modern B-flat tenor).


title: Trombone

text: Trombone parts are typically notated in bass clef, though sometimes also written in tenor clef or alto clef. The use of alto clef is usually confined to orchestral first trombone parts, with the second trombone part written in tenor clef and the third (bass) part in bass clef. As the alto trombone declined in popularity during the 19th century, this practice was gradually abandoned and first trombone parts came to be notated in the tenor or bass clef. Some Russian and Eastern European composers wrote first and second tenor trombone parts on one alto clef staff (the German Robert Schumann was the first to do this). Examples of this practice are evident in scores by Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich. Trombone parts in band music are nearly exclusively notated in bass clef. The rare exceptions are in contemporary works intended for high-level wind bands.


title: Trombone

text: An accomplished performer today is expected to be proficient in reading parts notated in bass clef, tenor clef, alto clef, and (more rarely) treble clef in C, with the British brass-band performer expected to handle treble clef in B♭ as well.


title: Trombone

text: A variety of mutes can be used with the trombone to alter its timbre. Many are held in place with the use of cork grips, including the straight, cup, harmon and pixie mutes. Some fit over the bell, like the bucket mute. In addition to this, mutes can be held in front of the bell and moved to cover more or less area for a wah-wah effect. Mutes used in this way include the "hat" (a metal mute shaped like a bowler hat) and plunger (which looks like, and often is, the rubber suction cup from a sink or toilet plunger). The "wah-wah" sound of a trombone with a harmon mute is featured as the voices of adults in the "Peanuts" cartoons.


title: Trombone

text: Several makers have begun to market compact B♭/C trombones that are especially well suited for young children learning to play the trombone who cannot reach the outer slide positions of full-length instruments. The fundamental note of the unenhanced length is C, but the short valved attachment that puts the instrument in B♭ is "open" when the trigger is "not" depressed. While such instruments have no seventh slide position, C and B natural may be comfortably accessed on the first and second positions by using the trigger. A similar design ("Preacher model") was marketed by C.G. Conn in the 1920s, also under the Wurlitzer label. Currently, B♭/C trombones are available from many manufacturers, including German makers Günter Frost, Thein and Helmut Voigt, as well as the Yamaha Corporation.


title: Trombone

text: Trombones in slide and valve configuration have been made by a vast array of musical instrument manufacturers. For the brass bands of the late 19th and early 20th century, prominent American manufacturers included Graves and Sons, E. G. Wright and Company, Boston Musical Instrument Company, E. A. Couturier, H. N. White Company/King Musical Instruments, J. W. York, and C.G. Conn. In the 21st century, leading mainstream manufacturers of trombones include Bach, Conn, Courtois, Edwards, Getzen, Jupiter, King, Rath, Schilke, S.E. Shires, Thein, Willson and Yamaha.


title: Bodhi Elfman

text: Bodhi Pine Elfman (born Bodhi Pine Saboff) is an American actor and the child of filmmaker Richard Elfman and Rhonda Joy Saboff. He is best known for playing the roles of Avram Hader in the Fox television series "Touch" and for his recurring role in the CBS television series "Criminal Minds" as Peter "Mr. Scratch" Lewis.


title: Bodhi Elfman

text: Elfman has had film roles in "Mercury Rising", "Collateral", "Godzilla" and "Armageddon", and smaller parts in "The Mod Squad", "Keeping the Faith", and "Gone in 60 Seconds".


title: Bodhi Elfman

text: Elfman starred in the UPN television series "Freedom", alongside Holt McCallany, Scarlett Chorvat and Darius McCrary, and in "Pirates of Silicon Valley" alongside Noah Wyle and Anthony Michael Hall. He appeared in the short-lived ABC television series "Hiller and Diller", guest-starred in an episode of "Sliders", and was part of the recurring cast of "Touch". Elfman also guest-starred in his wife's television show "Dharma & Greg", playing a performance artist who asks Dharma to be a part of his living display gallery.


title: Bodhi Elfman

text: In 2012, Elfman and his wife, Jenna, started their podcast, "Kicking and Screaming by Jenna and Bodhi Elfman".


title: Bodhi Elfman

text: Bodhi Pine Elfman was born in Los Angeles, California, and raised in the city's Hollywood district. He is the son of actor/director Richard Elfman and Rhonda Joy Saboff, grandson of author Blossom Elfman, and nephew of composer Danny Elfman. In February 1991, he met Jennifer Mary Butala (Jenna Elfman) during an audition for a Sprite commercial. Four years later, they were married on February 18, 1995. Bodhi is of Jewish descent, and Jenna was raised Catholic. When they met he was a practicing Scientologist. Jenna became a Scientologist after her husband introduced her to its teachings. As of 2018, both were still active Scientologists.


title: Bodhi Elfman

text: In 2000, Bodhi and Jenna Elfman bought the home owned by Madonna, a 1920s house on a gated two-acre lot in the Hollywood Hills section of Los Angeles. Having paid US$4 million, they later sold the property in April 2004 for US$4.7 million to actress Katey Sagal, of "Married... with Children " fame.


title: Bodhi Elfman

text: Their first child, son Story, was born in 2007, and their second child, son Easton, was born in 2010.


title: 2016 NHL Entry Draft

text: The 2016 NHL Entry Draft was the 54th NHL Entry Draft. The draft was held on June 24–25, 2016 at the First Niagara Center in Buffalo, New York. The first three selections were Auston Matthews going to the Toronto Maple Leafs, Patrik Laine going to the Winnipeg Jets, and Pierre-Luc Dubois going to the Columbus Blue Jackets.


title: 2016 NHL Entry Draft

text: Ice hockey players born between January 1, 1996, and September 15, 1998, were eligible for selection in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft. Additionally, un-drafted, non-North American players born in 1995 were eligible for the draft; and those players who were drafted in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft, but not signed by an NHL team and who were born after June 30, 1996, were also eligible to re-enter the draft.


title: 2016 NHL Entry Draft

text: Since the 2012–13 NHL season all fourteen teams not qualifying for the Stanley Cup playoffs have a "weighted" chance at winning the first overall selection. Beginning with the 2014–15 NHL season the NHL changed the weighting system that was used in previous years. Under the new system the odds of winning the draft lottery for the four lowest finishing teams in the league decreased, while the odds for the other non-playoff teams increased. Starting with this draft the first three picks overall will be awarded by lottery. The odds of winning the second and third draws increased on a proportional basis depending on which team won the previous draw. The Toronto Maple Leafs, Winnipeg Jets and Columbus Blue Jackets won the draft lotteries that took place on April 30, 2016, giving them the first, second and third picks overall. Toronto retained the top pick, while Winnipeg and Columbus moved up from the sixth and fourth spots, respectively. In the process, the Edmonton Oilers and Vancouver Canucks were each knocked down two places from second and third to fourth and fifth overall, respectively, while the Calgary Flames dropped from fifth to sixth overall.


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: Allison Scagliotti (; born September 21, 1990) is an American actress, musician and director, best known for her roles in "Drake & Josh", "Warehouse 13", and "Stitchers".


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: Scagliotti's great-grandparents immigrated to the United States from Italy through Ellis Island. She moved with her family to Mandeville, Louisiana at a young age. At age five, she joined her Louisiana school's, Tchefuncte Middle School, talent and drama program.


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: When Scagliotti was 11, she was working with an acting coach who encouraged her to try auditioning for pilot season in Los Angeles. She booked a pilot for a sitcom with Chevy Chase which was filmed in New York. Scagliotti moved to Los Angeles for her acting career.


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: Scagliotti studied film at New York University, though she never finished her degree. She later obtained a bachelor's degree in Interdisciplinary Music Studies through Berklee College of Music's online program. She is the first cousin of Kevin Pfeffer, the lead singer of Five Minutes to Freedom, and Alex Scagliotti, National Wakeboard Champion.


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: Scagliotti has had numerous small television roles during her career including "One Tree Hill", "," and the Nickelodeon series "Zoey 101".


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: Scagliotti landed her first recurring role as Mindy Crenshaw on "Drake & Josh", Josh's rival and later girlfriend. She appeared in seven episodes from 2004 to 2007. She reprised her role in the spin-off movie, "Merry Christmas, Drake & Josh". Her first lead role was as Maddie in the 2005 short film "Redemption Maddie".


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: She appeared as Jayna, the female Wonder Twin, in the episode "Idol" in the ninth season of "Smallville" in 2009. She helped co-host SyFy's "Ghost Hunters Live" on Halloween 2010.


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: Scagliotti is best known for her portrayal of the character Claudia Donovan in the Syfy series "Warehouse 13". Her character was introduced early in the premiere season in 2009 and she appeared in most of the remaining episodes through 2014 (though credited as a guest star until season two). Her character crossed over to "Eureka" when she guest-starred in the season four episode "Crossing Over".


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: In December 2012, Scagliotti appeared in the lead role of Michelle, a struggling actress, in Darren Caulley's play "Unhealthy" that premiered December 4 at HERE Arts Center in New York City. She appeared in the three seasons of Freeform's "Stitchers" as Camille, a main character, from 2015 to 2017. Scagliotti also appeared in the series "The Vampire Diaries" as Georgie in a recurring role during the show's eighth and final season in 2016.


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: In 2014, Scagliotti joined the advisory board of Sci-Fest LA, the first annual Los Angeles Science Fiction One-Act Play Festival, held in May 2014.


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: From 2015 to 2018, Scagliotti was in a band known as Nice Enough People along with "Drake and Josh" co-star Jerry Trainor. In 2016, she appeared as a guitar player in the music video "Some Are Girls" for Maxie Dean.


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: In 2019, Scagliotti released her first solo EP under the pseudonym "La Femme Pendu". Scagliotti's first album, Absolute Horror, was released on May 1, 2020, and the second, VAMPYR, on October 22, 2021.


title: Allison Scagliotti

text: Scagliotti appeared in a 2010 episode of "The Nerdist Podcast" hosted by Chris Hardwick. She also appeared as a guest star on Geek & Sundry's "TableTop" in 2013, hosted by Wil Wheaton, and as a guest on the show "Destination Truth" in 2017.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Phenolphthalein ( ) is a chemical compound with the formula CHO and is often written as "HIn", "HPh", "phph" or simply "Ph" in shorthand notation. Phenolphthalein is often used as an indicator in acid–base titrations. For this application, it turns colorless in acidic solutions and pink in basic solutions. It belongs to the class of dyes known as phthalein dyes.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Phenolphthalein is slightly soluble in water and usually is dissolved in alcohols for use in experiments. It is a weak acid, which can lose H ions in solution. The nonionized phenolphthalein molecule is colorless and the double deprotonated phenolphthalein ion is fuchsia. Further loss of proton in higher pH occurs slowly and leads to a colorless form. Phenolphthalein ion in concentrated sulfuric acid is orange red due to sulfonation.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Phenolphthalein's common use is as an indicator in acid-base titrations. It also serves as a component of universal indicator, together with methyl red, bromothymol blue, and thymol blue.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Phenolphthalein adopts different forms in aqueous solution depending on the pH of the solution. Inconsistency exists in the literature with regard to the hydrated forms of the compounds and the color in sulfuric acid. Wittke reported in 1983 that under strongly acidic conditions, it exists in protonated form (HIn), providing an orange coloration. However, a later paper suggested that this color is due to sulfonation to phenolsulfonphthalein.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Between strongly acidic and slightly basic conditions, the lactone form (HIn) is colorless. The doubly deprotonated (In) phenolate form (the anion form of phenol) gives the familiar pink color. In strongly basic solutions, phenolphthalein is converted to its In(OH) form, and its pink color undergoes a rather slow fading reaction and becomes completely colorless when pH is greater than 13.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: The pK values of phenolphthalein was found to be 9.05, 9.50 and 12 while that of phenolsulfonphthalein are 1.2 and 7.70.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Phenolphthalein's pH sensitivity is exploited in other applications: concrete has naturally high pH due to the calcium hydroxide formed when Portland cement reacts with water. As the concrete reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, pH decreases to 8.5-9. When a 1% phenolphthalein solution is applied to normal concrete, it turns bright pink. However, if it remains colorless, it shows that the concrete has undergone carbonation. In a similar application, some spackling used to repair holes in drywall contains phenolphthalein. When applied, the basic spackling material retains a pink color; when the spackling has cured by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide, the pink color fades.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: In a highly basic solution, phenolphthalein's slow change from pink to colorless as it is converted to its In(OH) form is used in chemistry classes for the study of reaction kinetics.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Phenolphthalein is used in toys, for example as a component of disappearing inks, or disappearing dye on the "Hollywood Hair" Barbie hair. In the ink, it is mixed with sodium hydroxide, which reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. This reaction leads to the pH falling below the color change threshold as hydrogen ions are released by the reaction:


title: Phenolphthalein

text: To develop the hair and "magic" graphical patterns, the ink is sprayed with a solution of hydroxide, which leads to the appearance of the hidden graphics by the same mechanism described above for color change in alkaline solution. The pattern will eventually disappear again because of the reaction with carbon dioxide. Thymolphthalein is used for the same purpose and in the same way, when a blue color is desired.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Phenolphthalein has been used for over a century as a laxative, but is now being removed from over-the-counter laxatives because of concerns over carcinogenicity. Laxative products formerly containing phenolphalein have often been reformulated to have alternate active ingredients: Feen-a-Mint switched to bisacodyl and Ex-Lax was switched to a senna extract.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Despite concerns regarding its carcinogenicity, the use of phenolphthalein as a laxative is unlikely to cause ovarian cancer. Phenolphthalein has been found to inhibit human cellular calcium influx via store-operated calcium entry (SOCE, see ). This is effected by its inhibiting thrombin and thapsigargin, two activators of SOCE that increase intracellular free calcium.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Phenolphthalein has been added to the European Chemicals Agency's candidate list for Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC).


title: Phenolphthalein

text: A reduced form of phenolphthalein, phenolphthalin, which is colorless, is used in a test to identify substances thought to contain blood, commonly known as the Kastle–Meyer test. A dry sample is collected with a swab or filter paper. A few drops of alcohol, then a few drops of phenolphthalin, and finally a few drops of hydrogen peroxide are dripped onto the sample. If the sample contains hemoglobin, it will turn pink immediately upon addition of the peroxide, because of the generation of phenolphthalein. A positive test indicates the sample contains hemoglobin and, therefore, is likely blood. A false positive can result from the presence of substances with catalytic activity similar to hemoglobin. This test is not destructive to the sample; it can be kept and used in further tests. This test has the same reaction with blood from any animal whose blood contains hemoglobin, including almost all vertebrates; further testing would be required to determine whether it originated from a human.


title: Phenolphthalein

text: Phenolphthalein can be synthesized by condensation of phthalic anhydride with two equivalents of phenol under acidic conditions. It was discovered in 1871 by Adolf von Baeyer.


title: Younan Nowzaradan

text: Younan Nowzaradan (; born October 11, 1944), also known as Dr. Now, is an Iranian-born American doctor, TV personality, and author. He specializes in vascular surgery and bariatric surgery. He is known for helping morbidly obese people lose weight on "My 600-lb Life" (2012–present).


title: Younan Nowzaradan

text: Nowzaradan was born and raised in Tehran, Iran, and is an Assyrian. In 1970, he graduated from the University of Tehran with a Doctor of Medicine degree. He then moved to the United States. He participated in the Medical Orientation Program at Saint Louis University in 1971 and completed a Rotating Surgical Internship at St. John Hospital (operated by St. John Providence Health System) in Detroit, Michigan. Nowzaradan is a fellow of the American College of Surgeons.


title: Younan Nowzaradan

text: Nowzaradan is currently affiliated with Houston Obesity Surgery in Houston, TX and practices at several local hospitals. He is the author of several scholarly publications on obesity and laparoscopy. According to the Web of Science, he has published five papers.


title: Younan Nowzaradan

text: He has been on "My 600-lb Life" since 2012. He has also appeared on installments of "Body Shock", including the episodes "Half Ton Dad", "Half Ton Teen", and "Half Ton Mum". He also published two books titled "Last Chance to Live" (2017) and "The Scale Does Not Lie, People Do" (2019). Dr. Now made several appearances at Texas theme parks such as Six Flags Astroworld to promote health awareness in the early 2000s, reaching out to youth, encouraging them to make good dietary choices.


title: Younan Nowzaradan

text: He was married to Delores McRedmond for 27 years; they divorced in 2002. The couple had three children together. His son, Jonathan Nowzaradan (b. 1978), works as a director and producer for "My 600-lb Life".


title: David Castañeda

text: David Castañeda (born October 24, 1989) is a Mexican-American actor. In 2019, Castañeda began portraying Diego Hargreeves in the Netflix series "The Umbrella Academy".


title: David Castañeda

text: Castañeda was born in Los Angeles and was raised in Sinaloa, Mexico. He returned to the United States when he was 14 and attended William Workman High School in California. Castañeda initially studied civil engineering in college with the intention of taking over the family business after he finished his studies. However, he became interested in film direction and switched to major in film production and international business in 2007 at California State University, Fullerton. Castañeda then moved into acting and started auditioning for roles. He studied part-time while pursuing an acting career, eventually graduating in 2015.


title: David Castañeda

text: Castañeda has been involved in acting since he was 17, but only started taking acting more seriously after he volunteered for a role when a director asked for actors to participate in his film during a seminar while at university. He played various minor roles in a number of productions, such as "End of Watch", and also acted as a main character in a short film "Maddoggin", which won the audience award at the NBC Universal Short Cut Film Festival. In 2013, he landed a role playing Jorge on ABC Family's TV series "Switched at Birth". In late 2016, he was cast in the role of Hector in the film "" released in 2018. He also has a major role in an independent film "El Chicano", a supporting role in Jean-Claude Van Damme's "We Die Young" as well as minor roles in films such as the Billy Crystal's film "Standing Up, Falling Down".


title: David Castañeda

text: In 2017, he was cast in his most prominent role yet playing Diego Hargreeves / Number 2 in "The Umbrella Academy", which was released on Netflix in February 2019.


title: Bon Jovi discography

text: American rock band Bon Jovi has released 15 studio albums, three live albums, five compilation albums, five EPs, 66 singles, 14 video albums, and 71 music videos. Bon Jovi has sold over 130 million records worldwide, making them one of the best-selling bands of all time. As of 2018, the band has sold 21.8 million albums in the US Nielsen SoundScan era. Billboard ranked "Bon Jovi" as the 45th Greatest Artist of all time, achieving 6 No. 1 albums on the Billboard 200 & 4 No. 1 hits on the Billboard Hot 100. According to Recording Industry Association of America, Bon Jovi has sold 34.5 million albums in the United States (including 1 diamond album, 5 multi-platinum albums, 11 platinum albums and 14 gold albums).


title: Bon Jovi discography

text: The group's first commercial release was the single "Runaway" from its eponymous debut (1984), which had a modest success in the US. Its sophomore album "7800° Fahrenheit" (1985) achieved bigger success than its predecessor being the band's first album to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping 500,000 copies in the US.


title: Bon Jovi discography

text: Bon Jovi achieved widespread global recognition with its third album "Slippery When Wet" (1986), which remains their best-selling album to date with over 28 million copies sold worldwide. It reached number one in Australia, Canada, and the US, where it spent eight weeks at the top of the "Billboard" 200 and was certified 12× Platinum by the RIAA. The album's first two singles "You Give Love a Bad Name" and "Livin' on a Prayer" reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. Bon Jovi's fourth album "New Jersey" (1988) achieved similar global success, producing five top-10 singles on the "Billboard" Hot 100, of which "Bad Medicine" and "I'll Be There for You" topped the chart.