title: Wuthering Heights (song)

text: A flashmob event known as The Most Wuthering Heights Day Ever was officially created in 2016 and is held annually. Fans gather in locations around the world to recreate the "red dress" video. Upon seeing a video clip of the event, Bush said that she found it "very touching and sweet".


title: Wuthering Heights (song)

text: The song has been interpreted by comedians Steve Coogan and Noel Fielding, on two occasions, as part of the BBC fundraising telethon "Comic Relief". Coogan sang the song in the 1999 show as part of a medley of other Bush material in character as Alan Partridge. Fielding performed to the song in the 2011 series of Let's Dance for Comic Relief, placing in the final of the competition.


title: Japanese name

text: Parents also have the option of using hiragana or katakana when giving a name to their newborn child. Names written in hiragana or katakana are phonetic renderings, and so lack the visual meaning of names expressed in the logographic kanji.


title: Japanese name

text: According to estimates, there are over 300,000 different surnames in use today in Japan. The three most common family names in Japan are , , and . People in Japan began using surnames during the Muromachi period. Japanese peasants had surnames in the Edo period; however, they could not use them in public.


title: Japanese name

text: While family names follow relatively consistent rules, given names are much more diverse in pronunciation and characters. While many common names can easily be spelled or pronounced, many parents choose names with unusual characters or pronunciations, and such names cannot in general be spelled or pronounced unless both the spelling and pronunciation are given. Unusual pronunciations have especially become common, with this trend having increased significantly since the 1990s. For example, the popular masculine name is traditionally pronounced "Hiroto", but in recent years alternative pronunciations "Haruto", "Yamato", "Taiga", "Sora", "Taito", "Daito", and "Masato" have all entered use.


title: Japanese name

text: Male names often end in , but also (e.g. "Ichirō"); (e.g. "Kenta") or (e.g. "Teruo" or "Akio"), or contain (e.g. "Ken'ichi"), (also written with , along with several other possible characters; e.g. "Kazuhiro"), (e.g. "Jirō"), or (e.g. "Daichi").


title: Japanese name

text: Female names often end in (e.g. "Keiko") or (e.g. "Yumi"). Other popular endings for female names include or (e.g. "Reika") and (e.g. "Haruna").


title: Japanese name

text: The majority of Japanese people have one surname and one given name, except for the Japanese imperial family, whose members have no surname. The family name – , or – precedes the given name, called the or . The given name may be referred to as the "lower name" because, in vertically written Japanese, the given name appears under the family name. People with mixed Japanese and foreign parentage may have middle names.


title: Japanese name

text: Historically, , and had different meanings. was originally the patrilineal surname which was granted by the emperor as a title of male rank. There were relatively few , and most of the medieval noble clans trace their lineage either directly to these or to the courtiers of these . was another name used to designate patrilineal descent, but later merged with around the same time. was, simply, what a family chooses to call itself, as opposed to the granted by the emperor. While it was passed on patrilineally in male ancestors including in male ancestors called haku (uncles), one had a certain degree of freedom in changing one's . See also .


title: Japanese name

text: A single name-forming element, such as can be written by more than one kanji (, , or ). Conversely, a particular kanji can have multiple meanings and pronunciations. In some names, Japanese characters phonetically "spell" a name and have no intended meaning behind them. Many Japanese personal names use puns.


title: Japanese name

text: Very few names can be surnames and given names (for example , , , or . Therefore, to those familiar with Japanese names, which name is the surname and which is the given name is usually apparent, no matter which order the names are presented in. This thus makes it unlikely that the two names will be confused, for example, when writing in English while using the family name-given name naming order. However, due to the variety of pronunciations and differences in languages, some common surnames and given names may coincide when Romanized: e.g., (given name) and (surname).


title: Japanese name

text: Although usually written in kanji, Japanese names have distinct differences from Chinese names through the selection of characters in a name and the pronunciation of them. A Japanese person can distinguish a Japanese name from a Chinese name. Akie Tomozawa said that this was equivalent to how "Europeans can easily tell that the name 'Smith' is English and 'Schmidt' is German or 'Victor' is English or French and 'Vittorio' is Italian".


title: Japanese name

text: Japanese names are usually written in kanji (Chinese characters), although some names use hiragana or even katakana, or a mixture of kanji and kana. While most "traditional" names use (native Japanese) kanji readings, a large number of given names and surnames use (Chinese-based) kanji readings as well. Many others use readings which are only used in names (), such as the female name . The majority of surnames comprise one, two or three kanji characters. There are also a small number of four or five kanji surnames, such as , and , but these are extremely rare. The sound , indicating possession (like the Saxon genitive in English), and corresponding to the character , is often included in names but not written as a separate character, as in the common name , or historical figures such as Sen no Rikyū.


title: Japanese name

text: Most personal names use one, two, or three kanji. Four-syllable given names are common, especially in eldest sons.


title: Japanese name

text: As mentioned above, female given names often end in the syllable , written with the kanji meaning , or , written with the kanji meaning .


title: Japanese name

text: The usage of has changed significantly over the years: prior to the Meiji Restoration (1868), it was reserved for members of the imperial family. Following the restoration, it became popular and was overwhelmingly common in the Taishō and early Shōwa era. The suffix increased in popularity after the mid-20th century. Around the year 2006, due to the citizenry mimicking naming habits of popular entertainers, the suffix was declining in popularity. At the same time, names of western origin, written in kana, were becoming increasingly popular for naming of girls. By 2004 there was a trend of using hiragana instead of kanji in naming girls. Molly Hakes said that this may have to do with using hiragana out of cultural pride, since hiragana is Japan's indigenous writing form, or out of not assigning a meaning to a girl's name so that others do not have a particular expectation of her.


title: Japanese name

text: Names ending with dropped significantly in popularity in the mid-1980s, but are still given, though much less than in the past. Male names occasionally end with the syllable as in Mako, but very rarely using the kanji (most often, if a male name ends in , it ends in , using the kanji meaning "boy"). Common male name endings are and ; names ending with are often adjectives, e.g., Atsushi, which might mean, for example, "(to be) faithful." In the past (before World War II), names written with katakana were common for women, but this trend seems to have lost favour. Hiragana names for women are not unusual. Kana names for boys, particularly those written in hiragana, have historically been very rare. This may be in part because the hiragana script is seen as feminine; in medieval Japan, women generally were not taught kanji and wrote exclusively in hiragana.


title: Japanese name

text: In Japanese, words, and thus names, do not begin with the Syllabic consonant ; this is in common with other proper Japanese words, though colloquial words may begin with , as in (variant of . Some names end in : the male names Ken, Shin, and Jun are examples. The syllable should not be confused with the consonant , which names can begin with; for example, the female name or the male . (The consonant needs to be paired with a vowel to form a syllable).


title: Japanese name

text: One large category of family names can be categorized as names. The kanji , meaning "wisteria", has the (or, with , ). Many Japanese people have surnames that include this kanji as the second character. This is because the gave their samurai surnames () ending with the first character of their name, to denote their status in an era when commoners were not allowed surnames. Examples include Atō, Andō, Itō (although a different final kanji is also common), Udō, Etō, Endō, Gotō, Jitō, Katō, Kitō, Kudō, Kondō, Saitō, Satō, Shindō, Sudō, Naitō, Bitō, and Mutō. As already noted, some of the most common family names are in this list.


title: Japanese name

text: A name written in kanji may have more than one common pronunciation, only one of which is correct for a given individual. For example, the surname written in kanji as may be read either Tōkairin or Shōji. Conversely, any one name may have several possible written forms, and again, only one will be correct for a given individual. The character when used as a male given name may be used as the written form for "Hajime," "Hitoshi," "Ichi-/-ichi" "Kazu-/-kazu," and many others. The name Hajime may be written with any of the following: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , or . This many-to-many correspondence between names and the ways they are written is much more common with male given names than with surnames or female given names but can be observed in all these categories. The permutations of potential characters and sounds can become enormous, as some very overloaded sounds may be produced by over 500 distinct kanji and some kanji characters can stand for several dozen sounds. This can and does make the collation, pronunciation, and romanization of a Japanese name a very difficult problem. For this reason, business cards often include the pronunciation of the name as furigana, and forms and documents often include spaces to write the reading of the name in kana (usually katakana).


title: Japanese name

text: A few Japanese names, particularly family names, include archaic versions of characters. For example, the very common character , "island", may be written as or instead of the usual . Some names also feature very uncommon kanji, or even kanji which no longer exist in modern Japanese. Japanese people who have such names are likely to compromise by substituting similar or simplified characters. This may be difficult for input of kanji in computers, as many kanji databases on computers only include common and regularly used kanji, and many archaic or mostly unused characters are not included.


title: Japanese name

text: An example of such a name is Saitō: there are two common kanji for here. The two characters have different meanings: means "together" or "parallel", but means "to purify". These names can also exist written in archaic forms, as and respectively.


title: Japanese name

text: A problem occurs when an elderly person forgets how to write their name in old kanji that is no longer used.


title: Japanese name

text: Family names are sometimes written with periphrastic readings, called , in which the written characters relate indirectly to the name as spoken. For example, would normally be read as , but as a family name it is read , because April 1 is the traditional date to switch from winter to summer clothes. In the same way would normally be read as or , but is read Takanashi, because little birds () play () where there are no () hawks ().


title: Japanese name

text: Most Japanese people and agencies have adopted customs to deal with these issues. Address books, for instance, often contain furigana or ruby characters to clarify the pronunciation of the name. Japanese nationals are also required to give a romanized name for their passport. The recent use of katakana in Japanese media when referring to Japanese celebrities who have gained international fame has started a fad among young socialites who attempt to invoke a cosmopolitan flair using katakana names as a badge of honor. All of these complications are also found in Japanese place names.


title: Japanese name

text: Not all names are complicated. Some common names are summarized by the phrase : the three kanji (, and ), together in any pair, form a simple, reasonably common surname: Tanaka, Nakamura, Murata, Nakata (Nakada), Muranaka, Tamura.


title: Japanese name

text: Despite these difficulties, there are enough patterns and recurring names that most native Japanese will be able to read virtually all family names they encounter and the majority of personal names.


title: Japanese name

text: Kanji names in Japan are governed by the Japanese Ministry of Justice's rules on kanji use in names. , only the 843 "name kanji" () and 2,136 "commonly used characters" () are permitted for use in personal names. This is intended to ensure that names can be readily written and read by those literate in Japanese. Rules also govern names considered to be inappropriate; for example, in 1993 two parents who tried to name their child , which literally means "devil", were prohibited from doing so after a massive public outcry.


title: Japanese name

text: Though there are regulations on the naming of children, many archaic characters can still be found in adults' names, particularly those born prior to the Second World War. Because the legal restrictions on use of such kanji cause inconvenience for those with such names and promote a proliferation of identical names, many recent changes have been made to increase rather than to reduce the number of kanji allowed for use in names. The Sapporo High Court held that it was unlawful for the government to deny registration of a child's name because it contained a kanji character that was relatively common but not included in the official list of name characters compiled by the Ministry of Justice. Subsequently, the Japanese government promulgated plans to increase the number of kanji "permitted" in names.


title: Japanese name

text: The use of a space in given names (to separate first and middle names) is not allowed in official documents, because technically, a space is not an allowed character. However, spaces are sometimes used on business cards and in correspondence.


title: Japanese name

text: During the period when typical parents had several children, it was a common practice to name sons by numbers suffixed with . The first son would be known as "Ichirō", the second as "Jirō", and so on. Girls were often named with at the end of the given name; this should not be confused with the less common male suffix . Both practices have become less common, although many children still have names along these lines.


title: Japanese name

text: While some people may still believe this, Lafcadio Hearn (see below), in "Shadowings", makes it clear that at least in his time (1880 to 1905, the date of publication), the ending was not any part of the name, but an honorific suffix like . Particularly, even though the symbol was "child", it meant "Lady" and was used only by upper-class females. It would have been ridiculous to apply to middle-class or lower-class women. Pretty much the same names were used by all classes, but Hana-ko was upper class, while lesser women would be O-Hana-san, with honorific prefix as well as suffix.


title: Japanese name

text: The way in which a name is used in conversation depends on the circumstances and the speaker's relationships with the listener and the bearer of the name. Typically the family name is used, with given names largely restricted to informal situations and cases where the speaker is older than, superior to, or very familiar with the named individual. When addressing someone, or referring to a member of one's out-group, a title such as is typically added.


title: Japanese name

text: Japanese people often avoid referring to their seniors or superiors by name at all, using just a title: within a family this might be a kinship relation such as , in a school it could be , while a company president would be addressed as .


title: Japanese name

text: On the other hand, pronominals meaning "you" (, , ) are used rather little in Japanese. Using such words sometimes sounds disrespectful, and people will commonly address each other by name, title and honorific even in face-to-face conversations.


title: Japanese name

text: Calling someone's name (family name) without any title or honorific is called , and may be considered rude even in the most informal and friendly occasions. This faux pas, however, is readily excused for foreigners.


title: Japanese name

text: Corresponding to any given name there are one or more hypocoristics, affectionate nicknames. These are formed by adding the suffix to a stem. There are two types of stem. One consists of the full given name. Examples of this type are Tarō-chan from Tarō, Kimiko-chan from Kimiko, and Yasunari-chan from Yasunari. The other type of stem is a modified stem derived from the full given name. Examples of such names are: Ta-chan from Tarō, Kii-chan from Kimiko, and Yā-chan from Yasunari. Hypocoristics with modified stems are more intimate than those based on the full given name.


title: Japanese name

text: Hypocoristics with modified stems are derived by adding to a stem consisting of an integral number, usually one but occasionally two, of feet, where a foot consists of two moras. A is the unit of which a light syllable contains one and a heavy syllable two. For example, the stems that may be derived from Tarō are /taro/, consisting of two light syllables, and /taa/, consisting of a single syllable with a long vowel, resulting in Taro-chan and Tā-chan. The stems that may be derived from Hanako are /hana/, with two light syllables, /han/, with one syllable closed by a consonant, and /haa/, with one syllable with a long vowel, resulting in Hanachan, Hanchan, and Hāchan. The segmental content is usually a left substring of that of the given name. However, in some cases it is obtained by other means, including the use of another reading of the kanji used to write the name. For example, a girl named Megumi may be called Keichan or just Kei, because the character used to write , can also be read .


title: Japanese name

text: The common Japanese practice of forming abbreviations by concatenating the first two morae of two words is sometimes applied to names (usually those of celebrities). For example, , a famous Japanese actor and singer, becomes . This is sometimes applied even to non-Japanese celebrities: Brad Pitt, whose full name in Japanese is is commonly known as , and Jimi Hendrix is abbreviated as . Some Japanese celebrities have also taken names combining kanji and katakana, such as . Another slightly less common method is doubling one or two syllables of the person's name, such as the use of "MamiMami" for Mamiko Noto.


title: Japanese name

text: Many ethnic minorities living in Japan, mostly Korean and Chinese, adopt Japanese names. The roots of this custom go back to the colonial-era policy of , which forced Koreans to change their names to Japanese names. Nowadays, ethnic minorities, mostly Korean, who immigrated to Japan after WWII, take on Japanese names, sometimes called 'pass names', to ease communication and, more importantly, to avoid discrimination. A few of them (e.g., Han Chang-Woo, founder and chairman of Maruhan Corp., pronounced 'Kan Shōyū' in Japanese) still keep their native names. Sometimes, however, these ethnic Chinese and Koreans in Japan who choose to renounce Permanent Resident status to apply for Japanese citizenship have to change the characters in their names, because not all characters are legally recognized in Japan for naming purposes.


title: Japanese name

text: Japanese citizenship used to require adoption of a Japanese name. In recent decades, the government has allowed individuals to simply adopt katakana versions of their native names when applying for citizenship, as is already done when referring to non-East Asian foreigners: National Diet member , originally 'Martti Turunen', who is Finnish, is a famous example. Others transliterate their names into phonetically similar kanji compounds, such as activist , an American-Japanese known as 'David Aldwinckle' before taking Japanese citizenship. (Tsurunen has similarly adopted .) Still others have abandoned their native names entirely in favor of Yamato names, such as Lafcadio Hearn (who was half Anglo-Irish and half Greek), who used the name . At the time, to gain Japanese citizenship, it was necessary to be adopted by a Japanese family (in Hearn's case, it was his wife's family) and take their name.


title: Japanese name

text: Individuals born overseas with Western given names and Japanese surnames are usually given a katakana name in Western order when referred to in Japanese. Eric Shinseki, for instance, is referred to as . However, sometimes Japanese parents decide to use Japanese order when mentioning the child's name in Japanese. Also, Japanese parents tend to give their children a name in kanji, hiragana or katakana, particularly if it is a Japanese name. Even individuals born in Japan, with a Japanese name, might be referred to using katakana if they have established residency or a career overseas. Yoko Ono, for example, was born in Japan, with the name , and spent the first twenty years of her life there. However, having lived outside the country for more than fifty years, and basing her career in the United States, Ono is often referred to in the press as , preserving the Japanese order of her name (Ono Yōko), but rendering it in katakana. Another example is the inventor of Bitcoin, who has gone under the name Satoshi Nakamoto, and which is most likely a pseudonym, perhaps even of a non-Japanese person; Nakamoto is referred to in Japanese with katakana in Western order, , rather than .


title: Japanese name

text: Christians in Japan traditionally have Christian names in addition to their native Japanese names. These Christian names are written using katakana, and are adapted to Japanese phonology from their Portuguese or Latin forms rather than being borrowed from English. Peter, for example, is ), John is , Jacob is , Martin is , Dominic is , and so on. For most purposes in real life, Christian names are not used; for example, Taro Aso has a Christian name, , which is not nearly as well-known. 16th century Dom Justo Takayama, on the other hand, is far more well known by his Christian name than his birth name, Hikogorō Shigetomo.


title: Japanese name

text: The Japanese emperor and his families have no surname for historical reasons, only a given name such as , which is almost universally avoided in Japan: Japanese prefer to say "the Emperor" or "the Crown Prince", out of respect and as a measure of politeness.


title: Japanese name

text: When children are born into the Imperial family, they receive a standard given name, as well as a special title. For instance, the Emperor emeritus Akihito was born , his title being , and was referred to as "Prince Tsugu" during his childhood. This title is generally used until the individual becomes heir to the throne or inherits one of the historical princely family names (, , , etc.).


title: Japanese name

text: When a member of the Imperial family becomes a noble or a commoner, the emperor gives them a family name. In medieval era, a family name "Minamoto" was often used. In modern era, princely family names are used. For example, many members of the extended Imperial family became commoners after World War II, and adopted their princely family names, minus the honorific , as regular surnames. Conversely, at the time that a noble or a commoner become a member of the Imperial family, such as through marriage, their family name is lost. An example is Empress Michiko, whose name was Michiko Shōda before she married prince Akihito.


title: Japanese name

text: The current structure (family name + given name) did not materialize until the 1870s, when the Japanese government created the new family registration system.


title: Japanese name

text: In feudal Japan, names reflected a person's social status, as well as their affiliation with Buddhist, Shintō, feudatory-military, Confucian-scholarly, mercantile, peasant, slave and imperial orders.


title: Japanese name

text: Before feudal times, Japanese clan names figured prominently in history: names with fall into this category. The Japanese particle can be translated as 'of', and is similar in usage to the German aristocratic , although the association is in the opposite order in Japanese, and is not generally explicitly written in this style of name. Thus, was of the clan. , , and are additional examples. These family names were recorded in the . The Ryukyuan ruling class used names composed of Chinese characters, usually of one or two syllables and read in their own languages, like Korean and Chinese names.


title: Japanese name

text: Before the government formalized the naming system in 1868, Japanese personal names were fluid. Men changed their names for a variety of reasons: to signify that they had attained a higher social status, to demonstrate their allegiance to a house or clan, to show that they had succeeded to the headship of a family or company, to shed bad luck that was attached to an inauspicious name, or simply to avoid being mistaken for a neighbor with a similar name. Upper-class men often changed their names upon coming of age (), leaving behind their childhood name (which often ended with ) and taking on an adult name. When nobles and samurai received promotions in rank, they received new names, which might contain a syllable or character from their lord's name as a mark of favor.


title: Japanese name

text: Changes in women's personal names were recorded less often, so they may not have changed their names as frequently as men did, but women who went into service as maids or entertainers frequently changed their names for the duration of their service. During their employment, their temporary names were treated as their legal names. For example, a maid who was involved in legal dealings in Kyoto in 1819–1831 signed legal documents as Sayo during one period of employment and as Mitsu during a later period of employment, but she signed as Iwa, presumably her birth name, when she was between jobs.


title: Japanese name

text: A Japanese person could go by one of several names, depending on the occasion. For example, the 18th-century author, poet, and artist Iwase Samuru wrote under the name Santō Kyōden and worked as an illustrator under the name Kitao Masanobu. Artists and authors adopted a new name for each medium or form they worked in, whether or not they worked professionally. Some types of artistic names () were referred to by special terminology—for example, or for a haiku poet, and for a poet. Scholars also gave themselves scholarly names, often using the Chinese reading of the characters of their Japanese name. People who entered religious orders adopted religious names.


title: Japanese name

text: Death added to the number of a person's names. When a person died, their personal name was referred to as an and was no longer used. Instead, the person was referred to by their .


title: Japanese name

text: The personal names of Japanese emperors were also referred to as , even if the emperor was alive. Prior to Emperor Jomei, the of the emperors were very long and not used. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.


title: Japanese name

text: , which is given at (), is used by others and one himself uses his real name to refer to him. are commonly named after places or houses; e.g., Bashō, as in the haiku poet , is named after his house, .


title: Japanese name

text: In the late shogunate period, many anti-government activists used several false names to hide their activities from the shogunate. Examples are for , for and for . The famous writer is known to have had as many as 33 names.


title: Japanese name

text: Actors and actresses in Western and Japanese dramatic forms, comedians, sumo wrestlers, Western-style professional wrestlers, and practitioners of traditional crafts often use professional names. Many stage names of television and film actors and actresses are unremarkable, being just like ordinary Japanese personal names, but a few are tongue-in-cheek. For example, chose the name of the aforementioned founder of the Fujiwara family, while the name of sounds like "be careful with fire" (although written differently). Many stand-up comics like the duo Beat Takeshi and Beat Kiyoshi choose a Western name for the act and use their own (or stage) given names. Writers also tend to be clever about their names, for example Edogawa Ranpo which is designed to sound like "Edgar Allan Poe".


title: Japanese name

text: Sumo wrestlers take wrestling names called or . While a can be the wrestler's own surname, most upper-division have a different from their surname. A typical consists of two or three kanji, rarely just one or more than three. Often, part of the name comes from the wrestler's master, a place name (such as the name of a province, a river, or a sea), the name of a weapon, an item identified with Japanese tradition (like a or ), or a term indicating superiority. Often, indicates a wrestler whose father was also in sumo; in this case, the meaning is "junior".


title: Japanese name

text: Wrestlers can change their , as Takahanada did when he became and then . Another notable example is the wrestler Sentoryu, which means "fighting war dragon" but is also homophonous with St. Louis, his city of origin.


title: Japanese name

text: Geisha, and practitioners of traditional crafts and arts such as pottery, the tea ceremony, calligraphy, (tattooing) and (flower arranging) often take professional names, known as . In many cases, these come from the master under whom they studied. For geisha, these names often feature the first part of the name of their "older sister", and typically all the geisha registered to one share this aspect in their names (such as Ichiume, Ichigiku, Ichiteru, etc).


title: Japanese name

text: Kabuki actors take one of the traditional surnames such as , Bandō or Onoe. Some names are inherited on succession, such as that of the famous kabuki actor through a naming ceremony.


title: Japanese name

text: Women working in the red-light districts commonly took names as a form of anonymity. However, high-ranking courtesans could inherit a upon gaining promotion to a higher rank. These names, exclusively the property of the brothel owner, typically carried the prestige of the person who held it previously, and brothel owners commonly chose only those of similar countenance and reputation to inherit them. were written in kanji, and were typically more elaborate than the average woman's name of the time, holding meanings taken from poetry, literary history and nature. As they were property of the brothel owner, were rarely passed from one directly down to their apprentice, as holders were chosen for their suitability to the name's reputation.


title: Japanese name

text: In English, the names of living or recently deceased Japanese are generally given surname last and without macrons. Historical figures are given surname first and with macrons, if available.


title: Japanese name

text: , when using English and other Western languages, Japanese people usually give their names in an order reversed from the traditional Japanese naming order, with the family name after the given name, instead of the given name after the family name. Beginning in Meiji period Japan, in many English-language publications, the naming order of modern-day Japanese people was reversed into the family name last order. The adoption of a Western naming order by Japanese people when writing or speaking in European languages, and when attending Western style or international events such as balls, formed part of the wider Meiji period adoption of aspects of Western culture in efforts to present Japan as a country as developed and advanced as its global neighbours.


title: Japanese name

text: Japanese people often have nicknames that are shortened forms of their actual names, and sometimes use these names with foreigners for ease of understanding. For instance, a man named "Kazuyuki" may call himself "Kaz" in the presence of those for whom Japanese is not a first language. Some Japanese people living abroad also adopt nicknames that they use with friends who are not Japanese.


title: Japanese name

text: Most foreign publications reverse the names of modern Japanese people, and most Japanese people reverse their own names for materials or publications intended for foreign consumption; for example, a Japanese business executive or official usually has two business cards (), the first presenting their name in the Japanese order for Japanese people, and the second presenting their name in the Western order, intended for foreigners. In popular journalism publications, the Western order of naming is used. These practices stand in stark contrast to how English and generally Western names are treated in the Japanese language, where they are typically presented without reordering.


title: Japanese name

text: In Russian, Russian names may be written with family name first and given name second, as well as the other way round, and this applies to Japanese names presented in Russian as well.


title: Japanese name

text: In English, many historical figures are still referred to with the family name first. This is especially the case in scholarly works about Japan. Many scholarly works use the Japanese order with Japanese names in general, and a scholarly work is more likely to use Japanese order if the author specialises in subjects related to or about Japan. John Power wrote that "People who can speak and read Japanese have a strong resistance to switching Japanese names to the Western order." Books written by these authors often have notes stating that Japanese names are in the original order. Some books, however, do not have consistent naming order practices. Shizuka Saeki of "Look Japan" said, "This is not only a headache for writers and translators, it is also a source of confusion for readers." Lynne E. Riggs of the Society of Writers, Editors and Translators (SWET), a professional writing organization headquartered in Tokyo, wrote that "When you publish a book about Japan, you are publishing it for people who want to know about Japan. So they are interested in learning something new or something as it is supposed to be."


title: Japanese name

text: Edith Terry wrote that because Japanese people are "mastering" a "Western game", people have some pride and at the same time feel insecurity because the "game" is on "Western terms" rather than "Japanese terms." The standard presentation of Japanese names in English differs from the standard presentations of modern Chinese names and Korean names, which are usually not reversed to fit the Western order in English, except when the person is living or traveling abroad. Power wrote that the difference between the treatment of Japanese names and of Chinese and Korean names often results in confusion. Terry wrote, "it was one of the ironies of the late twentieth century that Japan remained stranded in the formal devices underlining its historical quest for equality with the West, while China set its own terms, in language as in big-power politics."


title: Japanese name

text: Saeki wrote in 2001 that most Japanese people writing in English use the Western naming order, but that some figures had begun to promote the use of Japanese order as Japan became a major economic power in the 20th century. The "Japan Style Sheet", a 1998 guide for producing English language works about Japan written by SWET, advocates the use of the Japanese naming order as often as possible, in order to promote a consistency in naming order. In 1987, one publisher of English language textbooks in Japan used the Japanese order of naming, while in 2001 six of the eight publishers of English language textbooks in Japan used the Japanese order. In December 2000, the council on the National Language of the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture recommended that English language productions begin using the Japanese naming order, as "it is in general desirable that personal names be presented and written in a way that preserves their unique forms, except for registries and other documents with specific standards." It recommended using capitalization (YAMADA Taro) or commas (Yamada, Taro) to clarify which part of the personal name is the family name and which part is the given name. In a January 2000 opinion poll from the Agency for Cultural Affairs on the preferred order of Japanese names in the English language, 34.9% had a preference for Japanese order, 30.6% had a preference for Western order, and 29.6% had no preference. In 1986, the Japan Foundation decided that it would use the Japanese naming order in all of its publications. A Japan Foundation publishing division spokesperson stated around 2001 that some SWET publications, including popular anglophone newspapers, continue to use the Western order. As of 2001, the agency's style sheet recommends using a different naming order style depending upon the context. For instance, it advocates using the Western order in publications for readers who are not familiar with Japan, such as international conference papers.


title: Japanese name

text: The "Chicago Manual of Style" recommends indexing Japanese names according to the way the original text treats the name. If the text uses the Western order, the Japanese name is reinverted and indexed by the family name with a comma. If the text uses Japanese order, the name is listed by the family name with no inversion and no comma.


title: Japanese name

text: On 21 May 2019, Japanese Foreign Minister Tarō Kōno expressed his hope that foreign media would refer to then-Prime Minister Shinzō Abe in the Japanese custom: family name first (as "Abe Shinzō"). He added that he was currently planning to issue an official request to the international media in that respect. Some others in the government support moving to retaining the original order of names, in line with Chinese and Korean practice, in time for the several major global events the country will be host to during 2020, while others seem not to.


title: Japanese name

text: On September 6, 2019, officials from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) announced that the ministry was to start using the traditional order for Japanese names in English in official documents. In 2020, "The Economist" announced plans to begin writing Japanese names in Japanese order based on a Japanese government decree that had been issued. NHK World-Japan began using Japanese names surname-first (with some exceptions) as early as March 29, 2020, but the new policy regarding name order was only announced early the next day. In Olympic events, starting with the 2020 Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo, Japanese athletes have had their names rendered surname first.


title: Japanese name

text: In Chinese-speaking communities, Japanese names are pronounced according to the Chinese pronunciations of the characters. For example, in Standard Mandarin, becomes Shāntián Tàiláng, while becomes Jiūshān Yóujìfū. As a result, a Japanese person without adequate knowledge of Chinese would not understand their name when it is spoken in Chinese languages. Simply porting the kanji into Chinese and reading them as if they were Chinese is also different from the usual Chinese practice of approximating foreign names with similar-sounding Chinese characters.


title: Japanese name

text: Sometimes, a Japanese name includes . These kanji resemble Chinese characters but originate in Japan and do not have widely known Chinese pronunciations. For example, the word , read as in Chinese) is rarely used in modern Chinese reading. When words like this are encountered, usually the rule of "" ("read the side if any, read the middle part if there is no side") applies. Therefore, "" is read as which is derived from .


title: Japanese name

text: Heng Ji wrote that because Japanese names have "flexible" lengths, it may be difficult for someone to identify a Japanese name when reading a Chinese text. When consulting English texts a Chinese reader may have difficulty identifying a Japanese name; an example was when Chinese media mistook Obama's pet turkey "Abe" taken from Abe Lincoln (monosyllabic) for Shinzo Abe (disyllabic).


title: Japanese name

text: One place where Japanese names may be transliterated into Chinese languages phonetically is in Japanese video games, anime and manga series. In May 2016, Nintendo sparked anger among fans in Hong Kong by announcing that its new "Pokémon" games, "Sun" and "Moon", would use translations based upon Mandarin across all parts of China and Taiwan. As the variety of Chinese spoken in Hong Kong, Cantonese, has many phonological differences from Mandarin, this results in names of well-known characters such as Pikachu being rendered and pronounced much different from the original Japanese.


title: Folk Nation

text: The Folks Nation is an alliance of street gangs originating in Chicago, established in 1978. The alliance has since spread throughout the United States, particularly the Midwest region of the United States. They are rivals of the People Nation.


title: Folk Nation

text: The Folks Nation was formed on November 11, 1978, within the confines of the Stateville Correctional Center. Larry Hoover, the chairman of the Gangster Disciple Nation, created the idea for the alliance and persuaded many leaders of large black, white, and Latino gangs from Chicago to join. Soon after its formation, the People Nation was formed to counter the Folks alliance.


title: Folk Nation

text: Folks Nation symbols include the Star of David, horns, a die with 6 dots facing forward, the digit 6, a devil's tail, a pitchfork, a heart with horns, a heart with wings, the digit 3, three dots, a symbol called Third World or Saturn (digit 3 within a circle with a horizontal curved line through it), the digit 2 (used by the Insane Deuce Nation), the digit 4 (used by Insane Two-Two Nation and the Almighty Harrison Gent Nation), the digit 7 (used by the Almighty Imperial Gangster Nation), the digit 8 (used by the Insane Ashland Viking Nation), the number 13 (used by the Milwaukee King Nation), the Playboy bunny (used by all Gangster Familia nations excluding the Gangster Disciple Nation), a cane (used by the Almighty Stoned Freak Nation, Almighty Vice Lord Nation, Almighty Harrison Gent Nation and the Latin Jiver Nation), a top hat (used by the Almighty Harrison Gent Nation and the Latin Jiver Nation), a crown with seven rounded steps (used by Almighty Imperial Gangster Nation, sometimes the Gangster Disciple Nation), a six point crown (represents entire Folks Nation though modern use is typically by the Insane Gangster Satan Disciple Nation), various cross variants, and the number 360, "360°" or phrase "360 degrees", usually used to refer to their international presence (360 degrees around the globe) though it has other meanings within Folks literature.


title: Folk Nation

text: Folks gangs also disrespect People Nation gangs by inverting or "cracking" (adding crack marks to or removing half of a gang symbol) their symbols.


title: Folk Nation

text: A 1995 report from the Florida Department of Corrections' Security Threat Intelligence Unit listed Folk Nation's major sets as follows:


title: Ashley Roberts

text: Ashley Allyn Roberts (born September 14, 1981) is an American singer, dancer, and media personality. She is a member of the pop/R&B girl group and dance ensemble The Pussycat Dolls.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: Roberts released her debut solo studio album, "Butterfly Effect", in 2014. She has appeared in various British television shows, including "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" (2012), "Dancing on Ice" (2013–2014), "Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway" (2013–2016), "The Jump" (2015), "Strictly Come Dancing" (2018), and "Blankety Blank" (2022).


title: Ashley Roberts

text: Roberts is currently a presenter on Global's Heart 00s. She is also a showbiz reporter for Heart FM's Breakfast show with Jamie Theakston and Amanda Holden.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: Roberts was born in Phoenix, Arizona, and attended Shadow Mountain High School. She began dancing at the age of three and singing at eight. Roberts' father was a drummer for the Mamas & the Papas, later becoming an auto dealer and her mother was a Pilates instructor. They both inspired her to be a part of the entertainment industry.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: Roberts' hair was brunette during her teenage years, as shown in Aaron Carter's "Oh Aaron" and "Not Too Young, Not Too Old" music videos.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: During high school summer breaks, Roberts traveled to California to study modern dance. After high school, at 19 years old, she moved permanently to Los Angeles. Roberts has appeared in television commercials and music videos such as Counting Crows "Accidentally in Love", Josh Groban's "You Raise Me Up", Jane's Addiction's "True Nature", Aaron Carter's "Oh Aaron" and "Not Too Young, Not Too Old" and Pink's "Trouble". Roberts cites Goldie Hawn, Kate Moss, Sienna Miller and Gwen Stefani as her main role models and inspirations.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: Within six months of her move, Roberts auditioned for the Pussycat Dolls. At that time the Pussycat Dolls were an underground modern burlesque troupe. Following their growing popularity, music producers Jimmy Iovine and Ron Fair became involved with the group helping them to transform into a franchise. The former dance troupe evolved into a Pop music recording group. The only troupe members who remained after the re-casting process were Robin Antin (taking on the creative, executive and managerial roles), Carmit Bachar, Cyia Batten, Kasey Campbell, Kimberly Wyatt, Jessica Sutta and Ashley Roberts. After a few more auditions, singers Nicole Scherzinger, Melody Thornton and Kaya Jones were added to the line-up. In 2004, they recorded "We Went as Far as We Felt Like Going" for the "Shark Tale" soundtrack and recorded the single, "Sway" which is featured on the soundtrack of "Shall We Dance?". Jones left the group in 2005, Batten and Campbell had left earlier.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: The Pussycat Dolls were launched into mainstream recognition following the release of "PCD", which contained the number-one singles "Don't Cha", "Buttons" and "Stickwitu". Roberts sang co-lead with Bachar and Sutta in the "Stickwitu" single B-side, "Santa Baby". Bachar's departure from the group preceded the release of their second and final studio album, "Doll Domination", which contains hit singles, "When I Grow Up", "I Hate This Part" and "Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)". Roberts recorded a solo song called "Played" for the "Doll Domination"s deluxe edition.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: On January 29, 2010, Jessica Sutta revealed to "E! Online" that she had been ousted from the group, following a broken rib she sustained whilst on tour with the group, and thus confirmed her exit. On February 26, Kimberly Wyatt confirmed she was also leaving the group. The next day, Ashley Roberts announced her departure from the group via her website. In a letter to her fans, she made the following announcement:


title: Ashley Roberts

text: Wyatt would later go on to confirm that all of the members had left the group, including Melody Thornton.Despite these changes, on May 24, a rumored third line-up would join Scherzinger. However, in late 2010, Scherzinger officially left the group to pursue a solo career. As a result, the original recording group line-up had officially disbanded. The group has sold 54 million records worldwide, making them one of the best-selling girl groups of all time.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: Roberts made her film debut as Brooke in the dance film "Make It Happen" with actress Mary Elizabeth Winstead and Riley Smith. Production lasted from August 8 to September 17, 2007, and the film was directed by Darren Grant and distributed by The Weinstein Company. It premièred on August 8, 2008, in the UK to generally negative reviews.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: After leaving the Dolls, Roberts traveled around the world, followed guru Amma and took several dance/acting classes. In 2010, Roberts released her first solo song, a cover of "A Summer Place" and was released on iTunes on September 28. Roberts also made an appearance in ex-bandmate Wyatt's music video for the single, ""Stars in Your Eyes"". On June 14, 2012, she made a cameo appearance in Bobby Newberry's music video for his debut single "Dirrty Up", with ex-bandmate Melody Thornton. On October 10, 2012, Roberts released a preview of a cover version of Bobby Newberry's "All In A Day", produced by the Invaders. The full version was released at the end of October. On November 5, 2012, Roberts announced that her first official solo single would be "Yesterday" and would be released that week.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: On November 7, 2012, it was confirmed that Roberts would compete in the twelfth series of the British reality show "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!", airing on ITV finishing as runner-up to Charlie Brooks. Despite not winning, she proved to be a popular public figure during her time on the show and it launched her solo career in the United Kingdom.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: On May 25, 2014, Roberts' single "Clockwork" was released. On September 1, 2014, Roberts' debut album, "Butterfly Effect", recorded at Metropolis in Chiswick, London was released. It was preceded by new single "Woman Up".


title: Ashley Roberts

text: In late 2018, Roberts appeared on "Strictly Come Dancing" in the United Kingdom and finished as a finalist.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: In June 2019, Roberts became the showbiz correspondent of the "Heart Breakfast", a British radio show hosted by Jamie Theakston and Amanda Holden. That following month, she made her West End debut, portraying Dawn, in the musical, "Waitress". On November 29, 2019, after months of speculation for a possible Pussycat Dolls reunion, Roberts along with Bachar, Scherzinger, Sutta, and Wyatt confirmed their reunion on Heart radio station, where they also announced a tour originally scheduled for 2020. A live performance on the finale of "" followed, which included a medley of previous singles and their new song, "React". British media regulator Ofcom received over 400 complaints from viewers who criticized the band's perceived provocative nature of their performance.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: "React" was released in February 2020 to moderate success. The Pussycat Dolls reunion tour was officially cancelled in January 2022.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: On her official blog, Roberts announced that she would work on a variety of projects. She worked on her acting, and was a host on "Maxim Does Spring Break on E!". Roberts also shot a pilot for MTV with Aubrey O'Day, Marques Houston, and Amanda Ghost.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: She appeared on "90210" in the episode "Into the Wild" which aired on November 5, 2010, where she played a stripper.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: On November 7, 2012, it was confirmed that Roberts would compete in the twelfth series of the British reality show "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!". She finished as the runner-up behind Charlie Brooks.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: In December 2012, it was confirmed that Roberts would be one of the judges on the British celebrity skating show "Dancing on Ice", from its eighth series. She returned as a judge for its ninth series in 2014.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: She hosted the "Ant vs Dec" segment on the revived version of "Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway" from 2013 to 2016. She also hosted "1st Look" on NBC from 2016 until 2018.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: In 2014, she hosted WWE Legends' House, a show which featured several wrestling legends living together and Roberts would provide them daily challenges. It is streamed exclusively on the WWE Network.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: In December 2014, Roberts was announced as a contestant for the second series of "The Jump". She was eliminated in the second week.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: On August 17, 2018, it was announced that Roberts would be a contestant on the sixteenth series of "Strictly Come Dancing". Her professional partner was Pasha Kovalev. They finished as joint runners-up to winners Stacey Dooley and Kevin Clifton on December 15, 2018.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: In March 2013, Roberts was announced as Garnier's new self-tan spokesmodel and the face of Ambre Solaire No Streak Bronzer campaign.


title: Ashley Roberts

text: In 2016, Roberts designed a women's shoe collection for spring/summer 2017 called ALLYN, after her middle name.


title: Dylan Moran

text: Dylan William Moran ( ; born 3 November 1971) is an Irish comedian, writer, actor, artist and poet. He is best known for his observational comedy, the comedy series "Black Books" (which he co-wrote and starred in), and his work with Simon Pegg in films such as "Shaun of the Dead" and "Run Fatboy Run". He was also one of two lead characters in the Irish black comedy film "A Film with Me in It".


title: Dylan Moran

text: He is a regular performer at national and international comedy festivals such as the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, Just for Laughs Montreal Comedy Festival, the Melbourne International Comedy Festival, and the Kilkenny Comedy Festival. In 2007, he was voted the 17th greatest stand-up comedian by Channel 4; in the updated 2010 list, he was ranked as the 14th greatest.


title: Dylan Moran

text: Dylan William Moran was born on 3 November 1971 in Navan, County Meath. He attended St Patrick's Classical School, where he experimented early on with stand-up alongside fellow comedians Tommy Tiernan and Hector Ó hEochagáin; he left with his Leaving Certificate at age 16. He has said that he then spent four years unemployed "drinking and writing bad poetry". He worked as a florist at some point, but hated it and quit after a week. He has said that he was very passionate about rugby and enjoyed watching many games when he was growing up, but has since lost interest and has no interest in any other sport either. He nonetheless makes an effort to keep somewhat abreast of popular sports, explaining: "otherwise nobody would talk to me, as its very hard to find anyone else who's not rabid about sports."


title: Dylan Moran

text: Moran came to comedy at age 20 after watching Ardal O'Hanlon and other comedians perform at Dublin's Comedy Cellar, a fifty-seater comedy club with no microphone, in the basement of The International Bar on South Wicklow Street. He began his stand up there in 1992 and got a good reception. In 1993, he won the So You Think You're Funny award at the Edinburgh Festival. He went on to become the second youngest person to win the Perrier Comedy Award in 1996 at the Edinburgh Festival at age 24. "Gurgling For Money" was Moran's first major one-man stand-up UK tour in 1997. He went on to perform at many other festivals including the Hay Festival, Montreal comedy festival, Vancouver Comedy Festival and the Edinburgh Festival. Between 1995 and 1997 Moran wrote a weekly column for "The Irish Times".


title: Dylan Moran

text: Moran won his first major television role in 1998 playing Ian Lyons in the BBC 2 sitcom "How Do You Want Me?", with Charlotte Coleman. He went on to appear in a small role in the 1999 movie "Notting Hill" as Rufus the thief. In 2000, "Black Books" was launched on Channel 4. The sitcom, about a depressed, bitter, alcoholic, chain-smoking and misanthropic book shop owner, Bernard Black, was based on a dream Moran had in the mid-eighties during a weekend away in Limerick. It was brought into existence with the aid of co-writer and fellow Irishman Graham Linehan, and producers Mark Buckley and Albert Kenny of Kenley Studios. The second series was televised in 2002, and the third, which aired in 2004, was greeted with great enthusiasm by critics and fans alike. In the same year Moran appeared in his first major film role playing David in the horror comedy, "Shaun of the Dead".


title: Dylan Moran

text: Moran toured his new shows "Monster I" and "Monster II" in 2004, including performances in New York and Milan, as well as a tour across Britain and Ireland, culminating in a week-long run at London's Palace Theatre, before two shows at Dublin's Vicar Street, and finally an appearance at the Hay Festival. The tour was described by "The Times" as a "masterclass of comic charisma: swinging from topic to topic in a manner seemingly spontaneous but actually tightly organised".


title: Dylan Moran

text: A live DVD of the "Monster II" tour, filmed on 28 May at Dublin's Vicar Street, was released that year, as Moran's first live stand-up DVD. After a successful run in New York City in 2004 as part of the British/Irish Comedy Invasion (including performances by top British and Irish comedians such as Eddie Izzard, fellow "Black Books" star Bill Bailey and Irish comedian Tommy Tiernan) Moran returned to New York for a month-long run at the Village Theatre. He then performed a two-week London West End run at the Wyndham's Theatre, 1–13 November 2004.


title: Dylan Moran

text: His third major tour, "Like, Totally", opened at the Buxton Opera House on 3 May 2005, and as with his previous tours the stand-up routine was accompanied by projected cartoons drawn by Moran. A DVD of the tour was released in December 2005. Moran appeared as the character of Gordon in the comedy film "Run Fatboy Run", released in September 2007 which cast Moran as the best friend to Dennis ("Shaun of the Dead" co-star Simon Pegg), having played an adversary to Pegg's character in "Shaun of the Dead".


title: Dylan Moran

text: In June 2008, Moran appeared with Ardal O'Hanlon and Tommy Tiernan at Liverpool's Echo Arena in 'The Three Fellas', a one-off comedy event, part of the city's 'European Capital of Culture 2008' celebrations. Between October and December 2008, Moran embarked on a new UK tour entitled "What It Is", starting at the Grand Opera House in York, and ending at Oxford's New Theatre. Other notable venues include Colston Hall at Bristol, Nottingham's Royal Concert Hall, the Waterfront Hall Auditorium in Belfast and the Corran Halls in Oban. The tour was extended into 2009 and has now been released on DVD.


title: Dylan Moran

text: A compilation DVD of highlights from Moran's three previous stand-up shows was made available in November 2010 called "Dylan Moran: Aim Low".


title: Dylan Moran

text: "Yeah, Yeah", a stand-up tour of Scandinavia, the Baltic states, United States, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the UK began in April 2011.


title: Dylan Moran

text: In 2012, Moran performed shows in Russia (following two sold-out performances in neighbouring Estonia). The show's promoters indicated that they believed it to be the first time an Irish stand-up had performed live in a Russian venue; his routine mocked Russia's new law banning "homosexual propaganda" and jailed oil tycoon Mikhail Khodorkovsky.


title: Dylan Moran

text: Moran has written a pilot for ABC about "news media and conflict, war zones and cable news". ABC has, however, decided not to go ahead with the show but may possibly sell it to another network.


title: Dylan Moran

text: In July 2015, Moran took his latest stand-up show, "Off the Hook", to South Africa for the first time, performing three sold-out shows at the country's National Arts Festival.


title: Dylan Moran

text: In June 2019, while on Ray D'Arcy's RTÉ radio programme, Moran reported he was developing a "small format" (five episodes) show for the BBC.


title: Dylan Moran

text: At the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, he won the 'So You Think You're Funny? Award' in 1993, and the Perrier Award in 1996, but later dismissed the latter as "a load of media rubbish," stating Bill Bailey deserved it more.


title: Dylan Moran

text: A popular poll commissioned by Channel 4 ranked him the 14th-greatest comedy stand-up. Moran was declared "the greatest comedian, living or dead" by the French newspaper "Le Monde" in July 2007. He has also twice won the BAFTA TV Award for Best Situation Comedy, both for "Black Books".


title: Dylan Moran

text: Moran married his wife Elaine in 1997. They lived in Edinburgh with their two children. In 2022, Moran and Elaine divorced.


title: Anger

text: Anger, also known as wrath or rage, is an intense emotional state involving a strong uncomfortable and non-cooperative response to a perceived provocation, hurt or threat.


title: Anger

text: A person experiencing anger will often experience physical effects, such as increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, and increased levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline. Some view anger as an emotion which triggers part of the fight or flight response. Anger becomes the predominant feeling behaviorally, cognitively, and physiologically when a person makes the conscious choice to take action to immediately stop the threatening behavior of another outside force. The English word originally comes from the term "anger" from the Old Norse language.


title: Anger

text: Anger can have many physical and mental consequences. The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language, physiological responses, and at times public acts of aggression. Facial expressions can range from inward angling of the eyebrows to a full frown. While most of those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them", psychologists point out that an angry person can very well be mistaken because anger causes a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability.


title: Anger

text: Modern psychologists view anger as a normal, natural, and mature emotion experienced by virtually all humans at times, and as something that has functional value for survival. Uncontrolled anger can negatively affect personal or social well-being and negatively impact those around them. While many philosophers and writers have warned against the spontaneous and uncontrolled fits of anger, there has been disagreement over the intrinsic value of anger. The issue of dealing with anger has been written about since the times of the earliest philosophers, but modern psychologists, in contrast to earlier writers, have also pointed out the possible harmful effects of suppressing anger.


title: Anger

text: Anger can potentially mobilize psychological resources and boost determination toward correction of wrong behaviors, promotion of social justice, communication of negative sentiment, and redress of grievances. It can also facilitate patience. In contrast, anger can be destructive when it does not find its appropriate outlet in expression. Anger, in its strong form, impairs one's ability to process information and to exert cognitive control over one's behavior. An angry person may lose their objectivity, empathy, prudence or thoughtfulness and may cause harm to themselves or others. There is a sharp distinction between anger and aggression (verbal or physical, direct or indirect) even though they mutually influence each other. While anger can activate aggression or increase its probability or intensity, it is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for aggression.


title: Anger

text: Extension of the stimuli of the fighting reactions: At the beginning of life, the human infant struggles indiscriminately against any restraining force, whether it be another human being or a blanket which confines their movements. There is no inherited susceptibility to social stimuli as distinct from other stimulation, in anger. At a later date the child learns that certain actions, such as striking, scolding, and screaming, are effective toward persons, but not toward things. In adults, though the infantile response is still sometimes seen, the fighting reaction becomes fairly well limited to stimuli whose hurting or restraining influence can be thrown off by physical violence.<ref name="https://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Allport/1924/1924_03.html">Fundamental Activities—Inherited and Learned</ref>


title: Anger

text: Raymond Novaco of University of California Irvine, who since 1975 has published a plethora of literature on the subject, stratified anger into three modalities: cognitive (appraisals), somatic-affective (tension and agitations), and behavioral (withdrawal and antagonism).


title: Anger

text: The words annoyance and rage are often imagined to be at opposite ends of an emotional continuum: mild irritation and annoyance at the low end and fury or murderous rage at the high end. Rage problems are conceptualized as "the inability to process emotions or life's experiences" either because the capacity to regulate emotion (Schore, 1994) has never been sufficiently developed or because it has been temporarily lost due to more recent trauma. Rage is understood as raw, undifferentiated emotions, that spill out when another life event that cannot be processed, no matter how trivial, puts more stress on the organism than it can bear.


title: Anger

text: Anger, when viewed as a protective response or instinct to a perceived threat, is considered as positive. The negative expression of this state is known as aggression. Acting on this misplaced state is rage due to possible potential errors in perception and judgment.


title: Anger

text: William DeFoore, an anger management writer, described anger as a pressure cooker, stating that "we can only suppress or apply pressure against our happy for so long before it erupts".


title: Anger

text: One simple dichotomy of anger expression is "passive anger" versus "aggressive anger" versus "assertive anger". These three types of anger have some characteristic symptoms:


title: Anger

text: Anger expression can take on many more styles than passive or aggressive. Ephrem Fernandez has identified six dimensions of anger expression. They relate to the direction of anger, its locus, reaction, modality, impulsivity, and objective. Coordinates on each of these dimensions can be connected to generate a profile of a person's anger expression style. Among the many profiles that are theoretically possible in this system, are the familiar profile of the person with explosive anger, profile of the person with repressive anger, profile of the passive aggressive person, and the profile of constructive anger expression.


title: Anger

text: Much research has explored whether the emotion of anger is experienced and expressed differently depending on the culture. Matsumoto (2007) conducted a study in which White-American and Asian participants needed to express the emotions from a program called JACFEE (Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion) in order to determine whether Caucasian observers noticed any differences in expression of participants of a different nationality. He found that participants were unable to assign a nationality to people demonstrating expression of anger, i.e. they could not distinguish ethnic-specific expressions of anger. Hatfield, Rapson, and Le (2009) conducted a study that measured ethnic differences in emotional expression using participants from the Philippines, Hawaii, China, and Europe. They concluded that there was a difference between how someone expresses an emotion, especially the emotion of anger in people with different ethnicities, based on frequency, with Europeans showing the lowest frequency of expression of negative emotions.


title: Anger

text: Other research investigates anger within different ethnic groups who live in the same country. Researchers explored whether Black Americans experience and express greater anger than Whites (Mabry & Kiecolt, 2005). They found that, after controlling for sex and age, Black participants did not feel or express more anger than Whites. Deffenbacher and Swaim (1999) compared the expression of anger in Mexican American people and White non-Hispanic American people. They concluded that White non-Hispanic Americans expressed more verbal aggression than Mexican Americans, although when it came to physical aggression expressions there was no significant difference between both cultures when it came to anger.


title: Anger

text: Some animals make loud sounds, attempt to look physically larger, bare their teeth, and stare. The behaviors associated with anger are designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior. Rarely does a physical altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one of the participants. Displays of anger can be used as a manipulation strategy for social influence.


title: Anger

text: People feel really angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has been offended, when they are certain about the nature and cause of the angering event, when they are convinced someone else is responsible, and when they feel they can still influence the situation or cope with it. For instance, if a person's car is damaged, they will feel angry if someone else did it (e.g. another driver rear-ended it), but will feel sadness instead if it was caused by situational forces (e.g. a hailstorm) or guilt and shame if they were personally responsible (e.g. they crashed into a wall out of momentary carelessness). Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham defines anger in terms of our expectations and assumptions about the world. Graham states anger almost always results when we are caught up "...expecting the world to be different than it is".


title: Anger

text: Usually, those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them" and in most cases the described provocations occur immediately before the anger experience. Such explanations confirm the illusion that anger has a discrete external cause. The angry person usually finds the cause of their anger in an intentional, personal, and controllable aspect of another person's behavior. This explanation is based on the intuitions of the angry person who experiences a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability as a result of their emotion. Anger can be of multicausal origin, some of which may be remote events, but people rarely find more than "one" cause for their anger. According to Novaco, "Anger experiences are embedded or nested within an environmental-temporal context. Disturbances that may not have involved anger at the outset leave residues that are not readily recognized but that operate as a lingering backdrop for focal provocations (of anger)." According to Encyclopædia Britannica, an internal infection can cause pain which in turn can activate anger. According to cognitive consistency theory, anger is caused by an inconsistency between a desired, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation, and triggers responses, such as aggressive behavior, with the expected consequence of reducing the inconsistency.


title: Anger

text: Anger causes a reduction in cognitive ability and the accurate processing of external stimuli. Dangers seem smaller, actions seem less risky, ventures seem more likely to succeed, and unfortunate events seem less likely. Angry people are more likely to make risky decisions, and make less realistic risk assessments. In one study, test subjects primed to feel angry felt less likely to have heart disease, and more likely to receive a pay raise, compared to fearful people. This tendency can manifest in retrospective thinking as well: in a 2005 study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of terrorism in the year following 9/11 in retrospect were low, compared to what the fearful and neutral subjects thought.


title: Anger

text: In inter-group relationships, anger makes people think in more negative and prejudiced terms about outsiders. Anger makes people less trusting, and slower to attribute good qualities to outsiders.


title: Anger

text: When a group is in conflict with a rival group, it will feel more anger if it is the politically stronger group and less anger when it is the weaker.


title: Anger

text: Unlike other negative emotions like sadness and fear, angry people are more likely to demonstrate correspondence bias – the tendency to blame a person's behavior more on his nature than on his circumstances. They tend to rely more on stereotypes, and pay less attention to details and more attention to the superficial. In this regard, anger is unlike other "negative" emotions such as sadness and fear, which promote analytical thinking.


title: Anger

text: An angry person tends to anticipate other events that might cause them anger. They will tend to rate anger-causing events (e.g. being sold a faulty car) as more likely than sad events (e.g. a good friend moving away).


title: Anger

text: A person who is angry tends to place more blame on another person for their misery. This can create a feedback, as this extra blame can make the angry person angrier still, so they in turn place yet more blame on the other person.


title: Anger

text: When people are in a certain emotional state, they tend to pay more attention to, or remember, things that are charged with the same emotion; so it is with anger. For instance, if a person is trying to persuade someone that a tax increase is necessary, if the person is currently feeling angry, they would do better to use an argument that elicits anger ("more criminals will escape justice") than, say, an argument that elicits sadness ("there will be fewer welfare benefits for disabled children"). Also, unlike other negative emotions, which focus attention on all negative events, anger only focuses attention on anger-causing events.


title: Anger

text: Anger can make a person more desiring of an object to which his anger is tied. In a 2010 Dutch study, test subjects were primed to feel anger or fear by being shown an image of an angry or fearful face, and then were shown an image of a random object. When subjects were made to feel angry, they expressed more desire to possess that object than subjects who had been primed to feel fear.


title: Anger

text: As with any emotion, the display of anger can be feigned or exaggerated. Studies by Hochschild and Sutton have shown that the show of anger is likely to be an effective manipulation strategy in order to change and design attitudes. Anger is a distinct strategy of social influence and its use (e.g. belligerent behaviors) as a goal achievement mechanism proves to be a successful strategy.


title: Anger

text: Larissa Tiedens, known for her studies of anger, claimed that expression of feelings would cause a powerful influence not only on the perception of the expresser but also on their power position in the society. She studied the correlation between anger expression and social influence perception. Previous researchers, such as Keating, 1985 have found that people with angry face expression were perceived as powerful and as in a high social position. Similarly, Tiedens et al. have revealed that people who compared scenarios involving an angry and a sad character, attributed a higher social status to the angry character. Tiedens examined in her study whether anger expression promotes status attribution. In other words, whether anger contributes to perceptions or legitimization of others' behaviors. Her findings clearly indicated that participants who were exposed to either an angry or a sad person were inclined to express support for the angry person rather than for a sad one. In addition, it was found that a reason for that decision originates from the fact that the person expressing anger was perceived as an ability owner, and was attributed a certain social status accordingly.


title: Anger

text: Showing anger during a negotiation may increase the ability of the anger expresser to succeed in negotiation. A study by Tiedens et al. indicated that the anger expressers were perceived as stubborn, dominant and powerful. In addition, it was found that people were inclined to easily give up to those who were perceived by them as powerful and stubborn, rather than soft and submissive. Based on these findings Sinaceur and Tiedens have found that people conceded more to the angry side rather than for the non-angry one.


title: Anger

text: A question raised by Van Kleef et al. based on these findings was whether expression of emotion influences others, since it is known that people use emotional information to conclude about others' limits and match their demands in negotiation accordingly. Van Kleef et al. wanted to explore whether people give up more easily to an angry opponent or to a happy opponent. Findings revealed that participants tended to be more flexible toward an angry opponent compared with a happy opponent. These results strengthen the argument that participants analyze the opponent's emotion to conclude about their limits and carry out their decisions accordingly.


title: Anger

text: According to Leland R. Beaumont, each instance of anger demands making a choice. A person can respond with hostile action, including overt violence, or they can respond with hostile inaction, such as withdrawing or stonewalling. Other options include initiating a dominance contest; harboring resentment; or working to better understand and constructively resolve the issue.


title: Anger

text: According to Raymond Novaco, there are a multitude of steps that were researched in attempting to deal with this emotion. In order to manage anger the problems involved in the anger should be discussed, Novaco suggests. The situations leading to anger should be explored by the person.


title: Anger

text: Conventional therapies for anger involve restructuring thoughts and beliefs to bring about a reduction in anger. These therapies often come within the schools of CBT (or cognitive behavioral therapy) like modern systems such as REBT (rational emotive behavior therapy). Research shows that people with excessive anger often harbor and act on dysfunctional attributions, assumptions and evaluations in specific situations. It has been shown that with therapy by a trained professional, individuals can bring their anger to more manageable levels. The therapy is followed by the so-called "stress inoculation" in which the clients are taught "relaxation skills to control their arousal and various cognitive controls to exercise on their attention, thoughts, images, and feelings. "Logic defeats anger, because anger, even when it's justified, can quickly become irrational." (American Psychological Association). In other words, although there may be a rational reason to get angry, the frustrated actions of the subject can become irrational. Taking deep breaths is regarded as the first step to calming down. Once the anger has subsided a little, the patient will accept that they are frustrated and move on. Lingering around the source of frustration may bring the rage back.


title: Anger

text: The skills-deficit model states that poor social skills is what renders a person incapable of expressing anger in an appropriate manner. Social skills training has been found to be an effective method for reducing exaggerated anger by offering alternative coping skills to the angry individual. Research has found that persons who are prepared for aversive events find them less threatening, and excitatory reactions are significantly reduced. In a 1981 study, that used modeling, behavior rehearsal, and videotaped feedback to increase anger control skills, showed increases in anger control among aggressive youth in the study. Research conducted with youthful offenders using a social skills training program (aggression replacement training), found significant reductions in anger, and increases in anger control. Research has also found that antisocial personalities are more likely to learn avoidance tasks when the consequences involved obtaining or losing tangible rewards. Learning among antisocial personalities also occurred better when they were involved with high intensity stimulation. Social learning theory states that positive stimulation was not compatible with hostile or aggressive reactions. Anger research has also studied the effects of reducing anger among adults with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), with a social skills program approach that used a low fear and high arousal group setting. This research found that low fear messages were less provocative to the ASPD population, and high positive arousal stimulated their ability to concentrate, and subsequently learn new skills for anger reduction.


title: Anger

text: A new integrative approach to anger treatment has been formulated by Fernandez (2010). Termed CBAT, for cognitive behavioral affective therapy, this treatment goes beyond conventional relaxation and reappraisal by adding cognitive and behavioral techniques and supplementing them with effective techniques to deal with the feeling of anger. The techniques are sequenced contingently in three phases of treatment: prevention, intervention, and postvention. In this way, people can be trained to deal with the onset of anger, its progression, and the residual features of anger.


title: Anger

text: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses suggest that certain psychiatric medications may be effective in controlling symptoms of anger, hostility, and irritability. These include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants like sertraline, certain anticonvulsant mood stabilizers, antipsychotics like aripiprazole, risperidone, and olanzapine, and benzodiazepines like midazolam, among others. Another meta-analysis of antidepressants and aggression found no change in aggression in adults and increased aggression in children. Psychostimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamines as well as the atypical antipsychotic risperidone are useful in reducing aggression and oppositionality in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with moderate to large effect sizes and greater effectiveness than other studied medications. Yet another meta-analysis found that methylphenidate slightly reduced irritability while amphetamines increased the risk of irritability several-fold in children with ADHD.


title: Anger

text: Modern psychologists point out that suppression of anger may have harmful effects. The suppressed anger may find another outlet, such as a physical symptom, or become more extreme. John W. Fiero cites Los Angeles riots of 1992 as an example of sudden, explosive release of suppressed anger. The anger was then displaced as violence against those who had nothing to do with the matter. There is also the case of Francine Hughes, who suffered 13 years of domestic abuse. Her suppressed anger drove her to kill her abuser husband. It is claimed that a majority of female victims of domestic violence who suppress their aggressive feelings are unable to recognize, experience, and process negative emotion and this has a destabilizing influence on their perception of agency in their relationships. Another example of widespread deflection of anger from its actual cause toward scapegoating, Fiero says, was the blaming of Jews for the economic ills of Germany by the Nazis.


title: Anger

text: Some psychologists criticized the catharsis theory of aggression, which suggests that releasing pent-up anger reduces aggression. On the other hand, there are experts who maintain that suppression does not eliminate anger since it merely forbids the expression of anger and this is also the case for repression, which merely hides anger from awareness. There are also studies that link suppressed anger and medical conditions such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, and cancer. Suppressed or repressed anger is found to cause irritable bowel syndrome, eating disorders, and depression among women. Suppression is also referred to as a form of "self-silencing", which is described as a cognitive activity wherein an individual monitors the self and eliminate thoughts and feelings that are perceived to be dangerous to relationships. Anger suppression is also associated with higher rates of suicide.


title: Anger

text: Anger expression might have negative outcomes for individuals and organizations as well, such as decrease of productivity. and increase of job stress, It could also have positive outcomes, such as increased work motivation, improved relationships and increased mutual understanding (for ex. Tiedens, 2000). A Dual Threshold Model of Anger in organizations by Geddes and Callister, (2007) provides an explanation on the valence of anger expression outcomes. The model suggests that organizational norms establish emotion thresholds that may be crossed when employees feel anger. The first "expression threshold" is crossed when an organizational member conveys felt anger to individuals at work who are associated with or able to address the anger-provoking situation. The second "impropriety threshold" is crossed if or when organizational members go too far while expressing anger such that observers and other company personnel find their actions socially and/or culturally inappropriate.


title: Anger

text: The higher probability of negative outcomes from workplace anger likely will occur in either of two situations. The first is when organizational members suppress rather than express their anger—that is, they fail to cross the "expression threshold". In this instance personnel who might be able to address or resolve the anger-provoking condition or event remain unaware of the problem, allowing it to continue, along with the affected individual's anger. The second is when organizational members cross both thresholds—"double cross"— displaying anger that is perceived as deviant. In such cases the angry person is seen as the problem—increasing chances of organizational sanctions against him or her while diverting attention away from the initial anger-provoking incident. In contrast, a higher probability of positive outcomes from workplace anger expression likely will occur when one's expressed anger stays in the space between the expression and impropriety thresholds. Here, one expresses anger in a way fellow organizational members find acceptable, prompting exchanges and discussions that may help resolve concerns to the satisfaction of all parties involved. This space between the thresholds varies among different organizations and also can be changed in organization itself: when the change is directed to support anger displays; the space between the thresholds will be expanded and when the change is directed to suppressing such displays; the space will be reduced.


title: Anger

text: Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in the brain. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs along certain neural pathways towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories occurs when its information is relayed from the thalamus to the neocortex. Based on some statistical analysis, some scholars have suggested that the tendency for anger may be genetic. Distinguishing between genetic and environmental factors requires further research and actual measurement of specific genes and environments.


title: Anger

text: In neuroimaging studies of anger, the most consistently activated region of the brain was the lateral orbitofrontal cortex. This region is associated with approach motivation and positive affective processes.


title: Anger

text: The external expression of anger can be found in physiological responses, facial expressions, body language, and at times in public acts of aggression. The rib cage tenses and breathing through the nose becomes faster, deeper, and irregular. Anger activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. The catecholamine activation is more strongly norepinephrine than epinephrine. Heart rate and blood pressure increase. Blood flows to the hands. Perspiration increases (particularly when the anger is intense). The face flushes. The nostrils flare. The jaw tenses. The brow muscles move inward and downward, fixing a hard stare on the target. The arms are raised and a squared-off stance is adopted. The body is mobilized for immediate action, often manifesting as a subjective sense of strength, self-assurance, and potency. This may encourage the impulse to strike out.


title: Anger

text: Every year, Gallup asks people in over 140 countries, "did you experience anger during a lot of the day yesterday?" In 2021, Gallup found that 23% of adults experienced a lot of anger, which is up from 18% in 2014. The countries that experienced the most anger were Lebanon, Turkey, Armenia, Iraq, and Afghanistan; the countries that experience the least anger were Finland, Mauritius, Estonia, Portugal, and the Netherlands.


title: Anger

text: Ancient Greek philosophers, describing and commenting on the uncontrolled anger, particularly toward slaves, in their society generally showed a hostile attitude towards anger. Galen and Seneca regarded anger as a kind of madness. They all rejected the spontaneous, uncontrolled fits of anger and agreed on both the possibility and value of controlling anger. There were disagreements regarding the value of anger. For Seneca, anger was "worthless even for war". Seneca believed that the disciplined Roman army was regularly able to beat the Germans, who were known for their fury. He argued that "...in sporting contests, it is a mistake to become angry".


title: Anger

text: Aristotle on the other hand, ascribed some value to anger that has arisen from perceived injustice because it is useful for preventing injustice. Furthermore, the opposite of anger is a kind of insensibility, Aristotle stated. The difference in people's temperaments was generally viewed as a result of the different mix of qualities or humors people contained. Seneca held that "red-haired and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors". Ancient philosophers rarely refer to women's anger at all, according to Simon Kemp and K.T. Strongman perhaps because their works were not intended for women. Some of them that discuss it, such as Seneca, considered women to be more prone to anger than men.


title: Anger

text: Seneca addresses the question of mastering anger in three parts: 1. how to avoid becoming angry in the first place 2. how to cease being angry and 3. how to deal with anger in others. Seneca suggests, to avoid becoming angry in the first place, that the many faults of anger should be repeatedly remembered. One should avoid being too busy or dealing with anger-provoking people. Unnecessary hunger or thirst should be avoided and soothing music be listened to. To cease being angry, Seneca suggests


title: Anger

text: Seneca further advises daily self-inquisition about one's bad habit. To deal with anger in others, Seneca suggests that the best reaction is to keep calm. A certain kind of deception, Seneca says, is necessary in dealing with angry people.


title: Anger

text: Galen repeats Seneca's points but adds a new one: finding a guide and teacher can help the person in controlling their passions. Galen also gives some hints for finding a good teacher. Both Seneca and Galen (and later philosophers) agree that the process of controlling anger should start in childhood on grounds of malleability. Seneca warns that this education should not blunt the spirit of the children nor should they be humiliated or treated severely. At the same time, they should not be pampered. Children, Seneca says, should learn not to beat their playmates and not to become angry with them. Seneca also advises that children's requests should not be granted when they are angry.


title: Anger

text: During the period of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages, philosophers elaborated on the existing conception of anger, many of whom did not make major contributions to the concept. For example, many medieval philosophers such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas agreed with ancient philosophers that animals cannot become angry. On the other hand, al-Ghazali (Algazel), who often disagreed with Aristotle and Ibn Sina on many issues, argued that animals do possess anger as one of the three "powers" in their heart, the other two being appetite and impulse. He also argued that animal will is "conditioned by anger and appetite" in contrast to human will which is "conditioned by the intellect". A common medieval belief was that those prone to anger had an excess of yellow bile or choler (hence the word "choleric"). This belief was related to Seneca's belief that "red-haired and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors".


title: Anger

text: Wrath was sinful because of the social problems it caused, sometimes even homicide. It served to ignore those who are present, contradicts those who are absent, produces insults, and responds harshly to insults that are received. Aristotle felt that anger or wrath was a natural outburst of self-defense in situations where people felt they had been wronged. Aquinas felt that if anger was justified, it was not a sin. For example, "He that is angry without cause, shall be in danger; but he that is angry with cause, shall not be in danger: for without anger, teaching will be useless, judgments unstable, crimes unchecked. Therefore to be angry is not always an evil."


title: Anger

text: The concept of wrath contributed to a definition of gender and power. Many medieval authors in 1200 agreed the differences between men and women were based on complexion, shape, and disposition. Complexion involved the balance of the four fundamental qualities of heat, coldness, moistness, and dryness. When various combinations of these qualities are made they define groups of certain people as well as individuals. Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen all agreed on that, in terms of biology and sexual differentiation, heat was the most important of the qualities because it determined shape and disposition. Disposition included a balance of the previous four qualities, the four elements and the four humors. For example, the element of fire shared the qualities of heat and dryness: fire dominated in yellow bile or choler, meaning a choleric person was more or hot and dry than others. Hot and dry individuals were active, dominant, and aggressive. The opposite was true with the element of water. Water, is cold and moist, related closely to phlegm: people with more phlegmatic personalities were passive and submissive. While these trait clusters varied from individual to individual most authors in the Middle Ages assumed certain clusters of traits characterized men more than women and vice versa.


title: Anger

text: Scholars posted that females were seen by authors in the Middle Ages to be more phlegmatic (cold and wet) than males, meaning females were more sedentary and passive than males. Women's passive nature appeared "natural" due to their lack of power when compared to men. Aristotle identified traits he believed women shared: female, feminine, passive, focused on matter, inactive, and inferior. Thus medieval women were supposed to act submissively toward men and relinquish control to their husbands. Hildegard of Bingen believed women were fully capable of anger. While most women were phlegmatic, individual women under certain circumstances could also be choleric.


title: Anger

text: Medieval scholars believed most men were choleric, or hot and dry. Thus they were dominant and aggressive. (Barton) Aristotle also identified characteristics of men: male, masculine, active, focused on form, potent, outstanding, and superior. Men were aware of the power they held. Given their choleric "nature", men exhibited hot temperatures and were quick to anger. Peter of Albano once said, "The male's spirit, is lively, given to violent impulse; [it is] slow getting angry and slower being calmed." Medieval ideas of gender assumed men were more rational than women. Masculinity involved a wide range of possible behaviors, and men were not angry all the time. Every man's humoral balance was different, some men were strong, others weak, also some more prone to wrath then others. There are those who view anger as a manly act. For instance, David Brakke maintained:


title: Anger

text: Maimonides considered being given to uncontrollable passions as a kind of illness. Like Galen, Maimonides suggested seeking out a philosopher for curing this illness just as one seeks out a physician for curing bodily illnesses. Roger Bacon elaborates Seneca's advices. Many medieval writers discuss at length the evils of anger and the virtues of temperance. In a discussion of confession, John Mirk, an English 14th-century Augustinian writer, tells priests how to advise the penitent by considering the spiritual and social consequences of anger:


title: Anger

text: In "The Canon of Medicine", Ibn Sina (Avicenna) modified the theory of temperaments and argued that anger heralded the transition of melancholia to mania, and explained that humidity inside the head can contribute to such mood disorders.


title: Anger

text: On the other hand, Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi classified anger (along with aggression) as a type of neurosis, while al-Ghazali argued that anger takes form in rage, indignation and revenge, and that "the powers of the soul become balanced if it keeps anger under control".