title: Sirenia

text: Dugong (Dugong dugong), the closest living relative of Steller's sea cow, lives in the Indo-West Pacific Ocean in more than 40 different countries. They are coastal animals supported by wide protected sea grass meadows. Steller's sea cow was discovered in 1741 along the Bearing Islands and was specialized in cold sub arctic temperatures of the Bering Sea. Steller's sea cow was found to have ranges from Alaska, along the Amchitka and Aleutian Islands, and even Japan. Steller's sea cow was reported to have congregated in shallow, sandy areas along coastline and mouths to rivers in creeks to feed on kelp.


title: Sirenia

text: The evolution of sirenians is characterized by the appearance of several traits, which are found in all sirenians (monophyly). The nostrils are large and retracted, the upper-jaw bone contacts the frontal bone, the sagittal crest is missing, the mastoid fills the supratemporal fenestra (an opening on the top of the skull), a drop-like ectotympanic (a bony ring that holds the ear drum), and pachyosteosclerotic (dense and bulky) bones.


title: Sirenia

text: Sirenians first appeared in the fossil record in the Early Eocene and significantly diversified throughout the epoch. They inhabited rivers, estuaries, and nearshore marine waters. Sirenians, unlike other marine mammals such as cetaceans, lived in the New World. One of the earliest aquatic sirenians discovered is "Prorastomus" which dates back to 40 million years ago, and the first known sirenian, the quadruped "Pezosiren", lived 50 million years ago. An ancient sirenian fossil of a petrosal bone was found in Tunisia, dating back to approximately the same time as "Prorastomus". This is the oldest sirenian fossil to be found in Africa and supports molecular data suggesting that sirenians may have originated in Africa. Prorastomidae and Protosirenidae, the earliest sirenian families, consisted of pig-like amphibious creatures who died out at the end of the Eocene. When the Dugongidae appeared at this time, sirenians had evolved the characteristics of modern variety, including an aquatic streamlined body with flipper-like front legs with no hind limbs, and a powerful tail with horizontal caudal fins which uses an up-and-down motion to move them through the water.


title: Sirenia

text: The last of the sirenian families to appear, Trichechidae, apparently arose from early dugongids in the late Eocene or early Oligocene. It is a monophyletic taxon. In 1994, the family was expanded to include not only the subfamily Trichechinae ("Potamosiren", "Ribodon", and "Trichechus"), but also Miosireninae ("Anomotherium" and "Miosiren"). The African manatee and the West Indian manatee are more closely related to each other than to the Amazonian manatee.


title: Sirenia

text: Dugongidae comprises the subfamilies Dugonginae and Hydrodamalinae (which are both monophyletic) and the paraphyletic Halitheriinae. The tusks of modern-day dugongs may have originally been used for digging, but they are now used for social interaction. The genus "Dugong" probably originated in the Indo-Pacific area.


title: Sirenia

text: The tail fluke of a dugong is notched and similar to those of dolphins, whereas the tail fluke of manatees is paddle-shaped. The fluke is raised up and down in long strokes to move the animal forward, or twisted to turn. The forelimbs are paddle-like flippers which aid in turning and slowing. Unlike manatees, the dugong lacks nails on its flippers, which are only 15% of a dugong's body length. Manatees generally glide at speeds of , but can reach speeds of in short bursts. The body is fusiform to reduce drag in the water. Like cetaceans, the hind limbs are internal and vestigial. The snout is angled downwards to aid in bottom-feeding. Sirenians typically make two- to three-minute dives, but manatees can hold their breath for up to 15 minutes while resting and dugongs up to six minutes. They may stand on their tails to hold their heads above water.


title: Sirenia

text: Much like elephants, manatees are polyphyodonts, and continuously replace their teeth from the back of the jaw. Adults lack incisors, canines, and premolars, and instead have 8 to 10 cheek teeth in their mouth. Manatees have an infinite supply of teeth moving in from the back and shedding in the front, which are continuously formed by a dental capsule behind the tooth-row. These teeth are constantly worn down by the abrasive vascular plants they forage, particularly aquatic grasses. Unlike in manatees, the dugong's teeth do not continually grow back via horizontal tooth replacement. The dugong has two tusks which emerge in males during puberty, and sometime later in life for females after reaching the base of the premaxilla. The number of growth layer groups in a tusk indicates the age of a dugong.


title: Sirenia

text: Sirenians exhibit pachyostosis, a condition in which the ribs and other long bones are solid and contain little or no bone marrow. They have among the densest bones in the animal kingdom. These may act as ballast, countering the buoyancy of their blubber and helping them remain suspended slightly below the water's surface. Manatees do not possess blubber, per se, but rather have thick skin, and, consequently, are sensitive to temperature changes. Likewise, they often migrate to warmer waters whenever the water temperature dips below . The lungs of sirenians are unlobed; they, along with the diaphragm, extend the entire length of the vertebral column, which help them control their buoyancy and reduce tipping in the water.


title: Sirenia

text: Extant sirenians grow to between in length and can weigh up to . Steller's sea cow was the largest known sirenian to have lived, and could reach lengths of , and could weigh in at . A dugong's brain weighs a maximum of , about 0.1% of the animal's body weight. The body of sirenians is sparsely covered in short hair (vibrissae), except for on the muzzle, which may allow for tactile interpretation of their environment. Manatees are the only known organism with uniformly vascularized corneas. This may be the result of irritations from or protection against their hypotonic freshwater environment.


title: Sirenia

text: Sirenians are referred to as "sea cows" because their diet consists mainly of seagrass. Dugongs sift through the seafloor in search of seagrasses. it use their sense of smell to find the seagrass because their eyesight is poor. They ingest the whole plant, including the roots, although they will feed on just the leaves if this is not possible. Manatees, in particular the West Indian manatee, are known to consume over 60 different freshwater and saltwater plants, such as shoalweed, water lettuce, muskgrass, manatee grass, and turtle grass. Using their divided upper lip, an adult manatee will commonly eat up to 10–15% of their body weight, or , per day, which requires the manatee to graze for several hours per day. However, 10% of the diet of the African manatee is fish and mollusks. Manatees have been known to eat small amounts of fish from nets. As opposed to bulk feeding, dugongs target high-nitrogen grasses to maximize nutrient intake, and, although almost completely herbivorous, dugongs will occasionally eat invertebrates such as jellyfish, sea squirts, and shellfish. Some populations of dugongs, such as the one in Moreton Bay, Australia, are omnivorous, feeding on invertebrates such as polychaetes or marine algae when their supply of seagrasses is low. In other dugong populations in western and eastern Australia, there is evidence that dugongs actively seek out large invertebrates. Populations of Amazonian manatees become restricted to lakes during the July–August dry season when water levels begin to fall, and are thought to fast during this period. Their large fat reserves and low metabolic rates—only 36% of the usual placental mammal metabolic rate—allow them to survive for up to seven months with little or no food.


title: Sirenia

text: Perioral bristles are not only used to sense things, they can be used to grasp and manipulate food. The microvibrissae is how they manipulate the food and the macrovibrissae is how they detect food by its size. They can be used to break off leaves and even undesirable parts while the manatee is feeding. They also have muscular hydrostat which is a biological structure that relies on muscular pressure and muscle contractions to be able to manipulate and move food. An example of this is not only a manatee's snout but an elephant's trunk. The way they use their perioral bristles is by using their large upper bristles to do a grasping motion, then they perform a flare which tightens their muscular hydrostat while their large upper bristles get pushed out and the lower jaw drops and sweeps the vegetation in by closing. This is then repeated.


title: Sirenia

text: Despite being mostly solitary, sirenians congregate in groups while females are in estrus. These groups usually include one female with multiple males. Sirenians are K-selectors, so, despite the longevity, females give birth only a few times during their lives and invest considerable parental care in their young. Dugongs generally gather in groups of less than a dozen individuals for one to two days. Since they congregate in turbid waters, little is known about their reproductive behavior. The males are often seen with scars, and the tusks on dugongs grow in first for males, suggesting they are important in lekking. They have also been known to lunge at each other. The age when a female first gives birth is disputed, ranging anywhere from six to seventeen years. The time between births is unclear, with estimates ranging from 2 to 7 years. In Sarasota, Florida, 113 manatees were observed of known sex; of these, 53 were females, which produced at least 55 calves during a five-year period of observation.


title: Sirenia

text: Manatees can reach sexual maturity as early as two to five years of age. Manatee gestation length is around one year, and then they lactate for one to two years. West Indian manatees and African manatees can breed year-round, and a female will mate with multiple male partners. Amazonian manatees have a breeding season, usually mating when the river levels begin to rise, which varies from place to place.


title: Sirenia

text: Manatees may be taken into captivity after being found stranded to facilitate their recovery, and there are many instances of manatees being successfully rehabilitated and released into the wild. As all extant sirenian species are considered to be 'vulnerable', these rehabilitation programs present a useful means to support these species. However, their vulnerability also means that the taking of manatees from the wild for commercial purposes is a conservation issue.


title: Sirenia

text: Manatees, in comparison to other marine species, tend to do well in a captive environment, with incidences of manatees thriving in captivity. However, it can be difficult to replicate the conditions of their natural environment to the extent necessary to maintain a manatee at their healthiest, the typical diet fed to captive manatee populations may contain insufficient quantities of the nutrients they need.


title: Sirenia

text: Manatee captive fed diets vary greatly from the manatee's diet in the wild. In captivity manatees are fed 70-80% of leafy green vegetables, 10-20% of dried forage, and 5% vegetables and fruits. Dried forage are foods such as hay and timothy grass which are often the diets of different equine and cattle. The vegetables and fruits that are fed to manatees consist of romaine lettuce, carrots, apples, etc... Manatees in captivity have done well off of this varying diet, but the exact nutritional needs of a manatee's diet are unknown.


title: Sirenia

text: When compared to the natural diet of manatees in the wild, there is a significant difference. In their natural habitat approximately of the manatee's diet is marine or estuarine plants; in comparison to romaine lettuce, their nutritional value is quite different. When compared to the captive diet, aquatic plants have an increase in dry matter, soluble neutral detergent fiber, and a decrease in digestible nutrients. Although it may seem to be a better diet for manatees to have more easily digestible nutrients, their gastrointestinal tract is adapted to the wild diet through microbial processes of fermentation. Although, we are still unsure if the nutrients given in the captive diet is sufficient since there is positive digestive feedback with the captive diet.


title: Sirenia

text: The three extant manatee species (family Trichechidae) and the dugong (family Dugongidae) are rated as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of endangered species. All four are vulnerable to extinction from habitat loss and other negative impacts related to human population growth and coastal development. Steller's sea cow, extinct since 1768, was hunted to extinction by humans.


title: Sirenia

text: The meat, oil, bones, and skin of manatees are valuable items. In some countries, such as Nigeria and Cameroon, African manatees are sold to zoos, aquariums, and online as pets, sometimes being shipped internationally. Though illegal, lack of law enforcement in these areas induce poaching. Some residents of West African countries, such as Mali and Chad, believe that the oil of the African manatee can cure ailments such as ear infections, rheumatism, and skin conditions. Hunting is the largest source of mortality in Amazonian manatees, and there are no management plans except for in Colombia. Amazonian manatees, especially calves, are sometimes illegally sold as pets, but there are several institutions that care for and rescue these orphans, with the possibility of their releasing into the wild. The body parts of dugongs are used as medicinal remedies across the Indian Ocean.


title: Sirenia

text: Manatees have also faced threats in Cuba, an area that is not always known for its manatee population. Manatees in Cuba have faced poaching, entanglement and pollution. The area has some of the most extensive and best manatee habitat in the Caribbean, but the population has been unable to thrive there for numerous reasons. Existing information about manatees in Cuba is limited and scarce, this makes it difficult to spread awareness which therefore enhances the situation of illegal poaching and entanglement within fishing nets in a majority of the coastal communities. Poaching of the manatees has been a significant issue since the 1970s when it was initially reported that the hunting was taking its toll on the manatee population in Cuba. In 1975 it was recorded that the manatees' status in Cuba was rare and declining at an alarming rate due to pollution and hunting. In 1996 manatees were placed under protection through the Fishery Decree law 164. This law provided penalties against those that manipulated, harm, or injured manatees. However, it was seen that the hunting of manatees in Cuba in the 1990s may have been the result of economic hardships in this country and the manatees were an alternative source of protein. Although there have been efforts made to protect the population of manatees in Cuba, it has not proven to be helpful or as impactful as those working to protect the population had hoped. Many of these areas are seen as "paper parks" or parks or protected areas that only exist due to their name and nothing else, and they do not have a significant impact on conversation and protections.


title: Sirenia

text: Environmental hazards induced by humans also puts sirenians at risk. Sirenians, especially the West Indian manatee, face high mortality from watercraft collision, and about half of all West Indian manatee deaths are caused by watercraft collisions. An increased usage of hydroelectric power and subsequent damming of rivers increase waterway traffic, which can lead to vessel collisions, and manatees may become entangled in navigational locks. The urbanized coastline of areas such as the Caribbean, Florida, and Australia can result in the decline of seagrass populations. Seagrass meadows are also highly susceptible to pollution, and are currently among the top threatened ecosystems on earth. Reliable areas of warm water in Florida are generally the result of discharge from power plants, but newer plants with more efficient cooling systems may disrupt the pattern of warm water refuges, and an increased demand for artesian springs for water, the natural source of warm water, decreases the number of warm water refuges. Congregating in the warm waters of industrial areas of Florida can expose manatees to pollutants and toxins at a time of year when their immune systems are already compromised.


title: Sirenia

text: Sirenians can be caught as bycatch from fisheries, and they can be seen as pests with the interference of local fishermen and the destruction of their nets. African manatees have also been known to venture into rice paddies and destroy the crops during the rainy season, and these confrontations with locals may lead to intentional culling of the manatees.


title: Sirenia

text: Red tide, scientifically known as Karenia brevis is a harmful algae bloom that releases toxins into the water killing many marine species. In 1982, numerous sick manatees were accounted for and researchers believe this was due to the accumulation brevetoxins in filter-feeding organisms attached to seagrass blades, which are a popular diet for manatees. Manatees can also inhale these brevotoxins from the surface of the water as they come up for air, leading to respiratory symptoms and even drowning.


title: Sirenia

text: Manatees have been negatively impacted by plastics and other debris that makes its way into the ocean and other waterways that the manatees frequent. The plastic and debris can cause many issues for the manatee including entanglement, ingestion, amputation or even death. Manatees in all areas are affected by litter in the waterways. When a manatee ingests plastic, it is often not known until after death and a necropsy is completed. It is then that debris is found in the manatee's GI tract. The CMA (Clearwater Marine Aquarium) Manatee Reintroduction Program in the Central and South American coast has rescued and released 40 Antillean Manatees. Of the 40 manatees that were rescued, rehabilitated, and released, four manatees were found to have plastic in their GI tract. Treatment was completed and the manatees were released. Later, three of the four released manatees were found dead, two were a direct result of plastic ingestion and the third had plastic pieces in its GI tract. In the deceased manatee's GI tract condoms, plastic bags, Raschel knit fabric (a type of polyester), unknown plastic debris and ice cream and sanitary product wrappers were found.


title: Sirenia

text: A study at the University of Miami in Florida stated that between the years 1978 and 1986, 439 manatee carcasses were recovered and necropsied. Of these 439 carcasses, 63 (14.4%) had ingested debris. Of the 63 carcasses found, 4 deaths were directly related to ingestion of plastic or other debris. Some of the debris that was found in the animals GI tract included monofilament fishing line (most common item found), plastic bags, string/twine/rope, fishhooks, wire, paper, cellophane, synthetic sponges, rubber bands and stockings.


title: Sirenia

text: Manatee die-offs from exposure to red tide toxins were recorded by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission in southwest Florida in 2002, 2003, 2005, 2007, and most recently in 2013. As of June 20, 2018 the current red tide bloom spreads from Pasco county to Collier County off the West coast of Florida. As of January 2018 there have been a total of 472 manatee deaths caused by this red tide along with water crafts, cold stress, and other factors.


title: Sirenia

text: Infectious diseases may also play an important role in morbidity and mortality in manatees. Although only Florida manatees have been found to be infected with viruses, parasites and bacteria have been observed in at least three of the four sirenian species. The three viruses that have been detected in Florida manatees include trichechid herpesvirus 1 (TrHV-1) and manatee papillomavirus 1 (TmPV 1 & 2) and 2 (TmPV 3 & 4). Mycobacteriosis has reportedly led to mortality in captive Florida manatees and illness in Amazonian manatees while bacteria such as "Vibrio", "Pasteurella," "Pseudomonas", "Streptococcus", and "Clostridium" have been cultured from dead dugongs in Australia. Salmonellosis has been associated with mortality in dugongs since at least 1981. Although not well studied, the Senegal manatee is known to host the nematode "Heterocheilus tunicatus" just as its sister species, the West Indian manatee, does. There is still a great deal to learn about the threat that infectious diseases pose on both wild and captive populations of manatees as evidenced by the lack of scientific literature on the subject. The relationship between the presence of certain potential pathogens, including those listed above, and their effect on disease in individuals is still largely unknown, although many wild manatees are found to be positive for papillomavirus with no known negative health effects. Immunosuppressed individuals that test positive for papillomavirus can sometimes develop cutaneous lesions, however cutaneous papillomatosis is not always correlated with a papillomavirus infection, and further study is warranted.


title: Sirenia

text: In Florida, agricultural runoff can negatively affect the manatee habitat, and during the rainy season, over 50 counties practice fertilizer bans to try and limit the pollutants that end up in the water. Weather disasters and other natural occurrences are also sources of mortality. The West Indian manatee and Dugong face risks from hurricanes and cyclones, which are predicted to increase in the future. These storms can spread pollutants and may also damage seagrass populations. Climate change is a growing concern for manatees, as changes in temperature can affect sea levels, pH, precipitation, salinity, and the circulation patterns of coastal ecosystems. Climate change is also predicted to make winter months even colder, leading to increased instances of cold stress in manatees. Warming ocean temperatures can cause harmful algal blooms, which can choke out the light needed for growth of benthic vegetation. Reduced seagrass beds means that more manatees end up congregating in smaller areas to feed, increasing competition for resources and the spread of pathogens. Exposure to brevetoxin from "Karenia brevis" during a red tide event are also sources of mortality; they may be able to be exposed to brevetoxin after a red tide has subsided, as it could settle on seagrasses. The act of eating vegetation also stirs up sediment, resulting in the ingestion of contaminants trapped in the mud. African manatees can become stranded during the dry season when rivers and lakes become too small or dry up completely.


title: Sirenia

text: All sirenians are protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (MMPA), the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA), and the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). In addition to this, the four species are further protected by various specialty organizations. The Dugong is listed in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention on Migratory Species, and the Coral Triangle Initiative. In Florida, manatees are protected by the Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act of 1978, which implements actions such as the limitation or prohibition of watercraft speeds where manatees exist. Marine mammal rehabilitation programs have been underway and regulated in the United States for more than 40 years. In 1973 injured and distressed manatees were rescued or aided within Florida. Eventually, the program was formalized into the Manatee Rescue, Rehabilitation, and Release Program managed by the USFWS. In 2012 the program became the Manatee Rescue & Rehabilitation Partnership (MRP) with permitting and oversight by the USFWS. From 1973 through 2014, this program rescued 1,619 manatees and 526 Florida manatees have been released.


title: Chilblains

text: Chilblains, also known as pernio, is a medical condition in which damage occurs to capillary beds in the skin, most often in the hands or feet, when blood perfuses into the nearby tissue resulting in redness, itching, inflammation, and possibly blisters. It occurs most frequently when predisposed individuals, predominantly women, are exposed to cold and humidity. Ulcerated chilblains are referred to as kibes. Temperature-related chilblains can be prevented by keeping the feet and hands warm in cold weather and avoiding exposing these areas to extreme temperature changes. Once the diagnosis of chilblains is made, first-line treatment includes avoiding cold, damp environments and wearing gloves and warm socks.


title: Chilblains

text: Chilblains can be idiopathic (spontaneous and unrelated to another disease), but similar symptoms may also be a manifestation of another serious medical condition that must be investigated. Related medical conditions include Raynaud syndrome, erythromelalgia, frostbite, and trench foot, as well as connective tissue diseases such as lupus or vasculitis. In infants affected by Aicardi–Goutières syndrome (a rare inherited condition which affects the nervous system) chilblain-like symptoms occur together with severe neurologic disturbances and unexplained fevers.


title: Chilblains

text: The medieval "Bald's Leechbook" recommended treating chilblains with a mixture of eggs, wine, and fennel root. A modern-day home remedy is to put garlic on the chilblains. While neither of these remedies has been supported by scientific research, vasodialating, rubifacient and warming herbal remedies, both topical and internal are prescribed and efficacious.


title: Chilblains

text: Chilblain-like symptoms have also been linked to COVID-19. COVID toes, as they are commonly known, have mostly been reported in older children and adolescents, who often have not had other symptoms of COVID-19. The symptoms are usually mild and disappear without treatment. Their cause is debated: it is uncertain whether COVID toes are a delayed consequence of the viral infection itself or are, at least partially, connected to environmental factors during the COVID-19 pandemic. They may share some of the microscopic features of chilblains caused by lupus. It has been suggested that in the absence of exposure to cold and damp, COVID-19 should be considered as a possible cause of chilblains.


title: Chilblains

text: In a study at the dermatology department of Saint-Louis Hospital in Paris, researchers found that most of their study participants carried high levels of autoantibodies, proteins generated by the immune system that inadvertently attack the body's own tissues. Compared with healthy individuals, the participants showed high activity of proteins called type 1 interferons, which switch on pathogen-fighting genes in immune cells.


title: Sambal

text: Sambal is an Indonesian chilli sauce or paste, typically made from a mixture of a variety of chilli peppers with secondary ingredients, such as shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, shallot, scallion, palm sugar, and lime juice. "Sambal" is an Indonesian loan-word of Javanese origin (). It originated from the culinary traditions of Indonesia, and is also an integral part of the cuisines of Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Brunei and Singapore. It has also spread through overseas Indonesian populations to the Netherlands and Suriname.


title: Sambal

text: Various recipes of "sambals" usually are served as hot and spicy condiments for dishes, such as "lalab" (raw vegetables), "ikan bakar" (grilled fish), "ikan goreng" (fried fish), "ayam goreng" (fried chicken), "ayam penyet" (smashed chicken), "iga penyet" (ribs) and various "soto" soup. There are 212 variants of sambal in Indonesia, with most of them originating from Java.


title: Sambal

text: Sambal is often described as a hot and spicy Indonesian relish. However, its main ingredient, chili pepper of the genus "Capsicum", is not native to Southeast Asia, but from the Americas. Common variants used in sambal recipes include Cayenne pepper and bird's eye chili pepper (both varieties of "Capsicum annuum"). These variants are native to the Western Hemisphere and were introduced to the Indonesian archipelago in the 16th century by Portuguese and Spanish sailors during the Columbian exchange.


title: Sambal

text: Researchers note that the people of the Maritime Southeast Asia were already familiar with a type of hot and spicy relish prior to the 16th century. A hot spice called had become a valuable commodity in the Javanese market as early as the ancient Mataram Kingdom era, circa the 10th century. The 14th century Majapahit Javanese Nagarakretagama manuscript mentions island which is identified as Lombok island, which is also the area that produced a spice called red . In today's modern Javanese, the term refers to 'chilli pepper', yet the term probably originally referred to a native hot spice prior to the introduction of capsicum. The Indonesian languages' terms for 'chilli pepper' are "cabai" or "cabe", yet the word "cabya" is mentioned in several ancient inscriptions and texts found in Java from the 10th century CE. "Cabya" is actually a reference to the Javanese long pepper or Balinese long pepper ("Piper retrofractum"). Historians suggest that prior to the introduction of Capsicum from the Americas in the 16th century, it was cabya that was widely used and cultivated as a hot spice in Java. Cabya is still used in Java, but the overwhelming popularity of the capsicum plants eventually pushed out cabya consumption until it was only used in traditional herbal medication and in making jamu (Javanese traditional herbal drink). Nowadays, the plant is considered rare. Another historian suggests that it was ginger that was used as a hot spice agent in the ancient form of sambal. Ginger, cabya, and andaliman are among the earliest hot spices used in early sambal-like hot relish, followed by the introduction of pepper circa 12th century from India, and finally the introduction of chili pepper from the Americas in the 16th century.


title: Sambal

text: The Javanese manuscript Serat Centhini (1819–1912) records sixteen sambal variants in Java. The recipe book Mustika Rasa (1967), written and composed by Hartini Sukarno, presented 63 recipes of sambals. In 2017, Murdijati Gardjito, a food researcher from Gadjah Mada University, identified hundreds of variants of sambals in Indonesia; 212 of them have a clear origin, while 43 have an unclear origin. Java has the most of variants with 43 percent of sambal variants,


title: Sambal

text: Sumatra has 20 percent, Bali and West Nusa Tenggara has 8 percent, and the rest are distributed between Maluku, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi.


title: Sambal

text: Like many culinary introductions and adaptations in the archipelago, over the years this hot and spicy relish branched off into an assorted array of sambal varieties, localised according to regional taste and the availability of the ingredients. Today sambal is a staple of Southeast Asian households, essential in cuisines of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore.


title: Sambal

text: Traditional sambals are freshly made using traditional tools, such as a stone pestle and mortar. Sambal can be served raw or cooked. There are two main categories of sambals in Indonesia, they are "sambal masak" (cooked) and "sambal mentah" (raw). Cooked sambal has undergone a cooking process that resulted in a distinct flavour and aroma, while raw sambal is mixed with additional ingredients and usually consumed immediately. "Sambal masak" or cooked sambals are more prevalent in western Indonesia, while "sambal mentah" or raw sambals are more common in eastern Indonesia.


title: Sambal

text: The chilli pepper, garlic, shallot, and tomato are often freshly ground using a mortar, while the "terasi" or "belacan" (shrimp paste) is fried or burned first to kill its pungent smell as well as to release its aroma. "Sambal" might be prepared in bulk, as it can be easily stored in a well-sealed glass jar in the refrigerator for a week to be served with meals as a condiment. However, some households and restaurants insist on making freshly prepared sambal just a few moments prior to consuming to ensure its freshness and flavour; this is known as "sambal dadak" (lit. 'impromptu sambal' or 'freshly made sambal'). Nevertheless, in most "warung" and restaurants, most sambal is prepared daily in bulk and offered as a hot and spicy condiment.


title: Sambal

text: Today some brands of prepared, pre-packed, instant or ready-to-use sambal are available in warung, traditional markets, supermarkets, and convenience stores. Most are bottled sambal, with a few brands available in plastic or aluminium sachet packaging. Compared to traditional sambals, bottled instant sambals often have a finer texture, more homogenous content, and thicker consistency, like tomato ketchup, due to the machine-driven manufacturing process. Traditionally made sambals ground in a pestle and mortar usually have a coarse texture and consistency.


title: Sambal

text: Several brands produce bottled sambals, among others are Huy Fong Foods' "sambal oelek", Heinz ABC "sambal terasi" and several variants of sambal Indofood.


title: Sambal

text: In the Indonesian archipelago, there are as many as 212 to 300 varieties of sambal. The intensity ranges from mild to very hot. Some varieties include:


title: Sambal

text: Sambols in Sri Lanka differ from those originating in Malaysia and Indonesia, in that they are generally made from uncooked ingredients, such as fresh chillies, shallots, coconut, garlic, which are then ground with a mortar and pestle and mixed with a citric acid, such as lime or lemon juice. They resemble a Mexican salsa or Laotian jaew.


title: Sambal

text: "Sambal" can also be used as an ingredient to a dish, which uses a large amount of chili peppers. In Padang cuisine, any dishes started with "balado-" (lit: with chili pepper) indicate the "sambal"-mixed dish. Dishes bearing the word "sambal" include:


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Polyvagal theory ("poly-" "many" + "vagal" "wandering") is a collection of unproven, evolutionary, neuroscientific, and psychological constructs pertaining to the role of the vagus nerve in emotion regulation, social connection and fear response, introduced in 1994 by Stephen Porges.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: It is popular among some clinical practitioners and patients, but is not endorsed by current social neuroscience.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Polyvagal theory takes its name from the vagus, a cranial nerve that forms the primary component of the parasympathetic nervous system. The traditional view of the autonomic nervous system presents a two-part system: the sympathetic nervous system, which is more activating (“fight or flight”), and the parasympathetic nervous system, which supports health, growth, and restoration (“rest and digest”). Polyvagal theory identifies a third type of nervous system response – the ‘social engagement system,’ a hybrid state of activation and calming that plays a role in our ability to socially engage (or not).


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Polyvagal theory views the parasympathetic nervous system as being split into two distinct branches: a "ventral vagal system" which supports social engagement, and a "dorsal vagal system" which supports immobilisation behaviours, both “rest and digest” and defensive immobilisation or “shutdown”. Polyvagal theory was introduced by behavioral neuroscientist, Stephen W. Porges, in his presidential address to the Society of Psychophysiological Research in Atlanta, Georgia on October 8, 1994.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: The talk was later published in Psychophysiology, 32 (1995) with the title "Orienting in a defensive world: Mammalian modifications of our evolutionary heritage. A Polyvagal theory" (Porges, 1995).


title: Polyvagal theory

text: When it comes to immobilization, the decisive factor for Porges is whether immobile in safety or frozen because of the feedback of danger.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Porges describes the three neural circuits as regulators for reactive behavior. His findings about the ANS were taken into account e.g. in the modern therapy of childhood trauma and are used by trauma therapists such as Peter A. Levine and Marianne Bentzen. The "autonomy" of the vegetative self-regulation refers to the fact that biologically fixed, automatically running internal processes are adapted and regulated via the VNS, which can therefore not be consciously influenced directly by humans, but at most indirectly. This forms in the course of childhood and according to the suggestions of the parents or the caregivers. If the caregivers have a grown-up, developed system, then the child can also develop its resilience. However, if the caregiver is traumatized or has other impairments, the child cannot develop a stress-resistant adult nervous system.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: The polyvagal theory is not simply a "theory of relaxation techniques" like autogenic training and others. According to the polyvagal theory, it is possible to strengthen a nervous system that has not yet grown up or has been dysregulated by trauma. You can use "pendulum exercises" for this: The principle is to intentionally bring yourself out of relaxation into light stress and then back into a safe state. By oscillating between these activation states, the nervous system will be trained and will find its way back to relaxation more quickly.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: The vagus nerve is a primary component of the autonomic nervous system. The polyvagal theory focuses on the structure and function of the two efferent branches of the vagus cranial nerve, both of which originate from the medulla. More specifically, each branch is claimed to be associated with a different adaptive behavioral strategy; the ventral branches are more restful in nature and the dorsal ones are more active in nature. The vagal system is claimed to be inhibitory of primal instincts by being part of the parasympathetic nervous system, and in opposition, the sympathetic-adrenal system is involved in mobilization behaviors. According to polyvagal theory, these opposing systems are phylogenetically ordered and activated for responses.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: The vagus, or tenth cranial nerve transmits parasympathetic signals to and from the heart, lungs, and digestive tract, a fact established before the middle of the 20th century. "Polyvagal theory" was introduced in 1994 by Stephen Porges, director of the Brain-Body Center at the University of Illinois at Chicago. As has been established since the early days of neuroanatomy, the autonomic nervous system encompasses nerve fibers transmitting information from the body toward the brain, called afferent influences. According to polyvagal theory, this effect has been observed and demonstrated by adaptive reactivity dependent on the neural circuits' phylogenetical development. Polyvagal theory claims that human facial expressions are associated with, or reflect, physical reactions, such as cardiac and digestive changes.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: The branches of the vagal nerve are claimed to serve different evolutionary stress responses in mammals: the more primitive branch is said to elicit immobilization behaviors (e.g., feigning death), whereas the more evolved branch is said to be linked to social communication and self-soothing behaviors. These functions are claimed to follow a phylogenetic hierarchy, where the most primitive systems are activated only when the more evolved functions fail. These neural pathways regulate autonomic states and the expression of emotional and social behaviour. Thus, according to this theory, physiological state dictates the range of behaviour and psychological experience.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Polyvagal theory makes broad claims on the nature of stress, emotion, and social behaviour, for the study of which peripheral indices of arousal such as heart rate, cortisol level and skin conductance have traditionally been used. Polyvagal theory champions the measurement of vagal tone in humans as a novel index of stress vulnerability and reactivity in populations with affective disorders.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: The dorsal branch of the vagus nerve originates in the dorsal motor nucleus and is postulated by polyvagal theory to be the phylogenetically older branch. This branch is unmyelinated and exists in most vertebrates. Polyvagal theory calls this the "vegetative vagus" because it sees it as being associated with primal survival strategies of primitive vertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. Under certain conditions, these animals "freeze" when threatened, conserving their metabolic resources. This draws on the simplifying claims of the triune brain theory which are no longer considered accurate due to the many exceptions to this rule (See Triune brain – Status of the model for more).


title: Polyvagal theory

text: The DVC provides primary control of subdiaphragmatic visceral organs, such as the digestive tract. Under normal conditions, the DVC maintains regulation of these digestive processes. However, prolonged disinhibition can be lethal for mammals, as it results in apnea and bradycardia.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: With increased neural complexity as seen in mammals (due to phylogenetic development) there is said to have evolved a more sophisticated system to enrich behavioral and affective responses to an increasingly complex environment. The ventral branch of the vagus originates in the nucleus ambiguus and is myelinated to provide more speed in responding. Polyvagal theory calls this the "smart vagus" because it associates it with the regulation of sympathetic "fight or flight" behaviors by way of social affiliative behaviors. These behaviors are said to include social communication and self-soothing and calming. In other words, this branch of the vagus is said to inhibit or disinhibit defensive limbic circuits, depending on the situation. Note: Attributing defensive behaviours purely to the limbic system is an oversimplification, as these are triggered by perceived threats, thus requiring an interplay of brain areas performing sensory integration, memory, and semantic knowledge with the limbic system to be elicited. Similarly, the regulation of emotions requires a complex interplay of higher cognitive areas with limbic ones.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: The vagus nerve mediates the control of supradiaphragmatic visceral organs, such as the esophagus, bronchi, pharynx, and larynx. It also exerts an important influence on the heart. When vagal tone to the heart’s pacemaker is high, a baseline or resting heart rate is produced. In other words, the vagus acts as a restraint, or brake, limiting heart rate. However, when vagal tone is removed, there is little inhibition to the pacemaker, and according to polyvagal theory, rapid mobilization ("fight/flight") can be activated in times of stress, but without having to engage the sympathetic-adrenal system, as activation comes at a severe biological cost. Note: While the vagus nerve's role in downregulating the heart rate is well-established, the notion that a Fight-or-flight response can be triggered without engaging the sympathetic nervous system is not substantiated by any evidence.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: In order to maintain homeostasis, the central nervous system responds constantly, via neural feedback, to environmental cues. Stressful events disrupt the rhythmic structure of autonomic states, and subsequently, behaviors. Since the vagus plays such an integral role in the peripheral nervous system via regulation of heart rate, Porges suggests that the amplitude of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) is a good index of parasympathetic nervous system activity via the cardiac vagus. That is, RSA is proposed as a measurable, noninvasive way to see how the vagus modulates heart rate activity in response to stress. If true, this method could be useful to measure individual differences in stress reactivity.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: RSA is the widely used measure of the amplitude of heart rate rhythm associated with the rate of spontaneous breathing. Research has shown that amplitude of RSA is an accurate indicator of the efferent influence of the vagus on the heart. Since inhibitory effects of the VVC branch of the vagus allow for a wide range of adaptive, prosocial behaviors, it has been theorized that individuals with greater vagal tone are able to exhibit a greater range of such behaviors. On the other hand, decreased vagal tone is associated with illnesses and medical complications that compromise the CNS. These complications may reduce one's capacity to respond to stress appropriately.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Healthy human fetuses have high variability in heart rate, which is mediated by the vagus. On the other hand, heart rate decelerations, which are also mediated by the vagus, are a sign of fetal distress. More specifically, prolonged withdrawal of vagal influence on the heart creates a physiological vulnerability to the influence of the Dorsal Vagal Control, which in turn produces bradycardia (very low heart rate). However, the onset of this deceleration is commonly preceded by transitory tachycardia, which is reflective of the immediate effects of Ventral Vagal Control withdrawal.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: According to Bessel van der Kolk, professor of psychiatry at the Boston University School of Medicine:


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Others disagree with this assessment and would consider the theory an unnecessary and unsubstantiated conflict imposed on the public dialogue.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Polyvagal theory has not, to date, been shown to explain any phenomena or experimental data above and beyond what is explained more precisely by attachment theory, research on emotional self-regulation, psychological stress models, the Neurovisceral Integration Model and neuroimaging studies from the field of social neuroscience.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Its appeal may lie in the fact that it provides a very simple (if inaccurate) neural/evolutionary backstory to already well-established psychiatric knowledge.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Critics of the polyvagal theory point out that its premises are not supported by empirical, scientific research. Paul Grossman of University Hospital Basel argues that there is no evidence that the dorsal motor nucleus (DMN) is an evolutionarily more primitive center of the brainstem parasympathetic system than the nucleus ambiguus (NA), and that no evidence supports the claim that sudden decrease in heart rate elicited by extreme emotional circumstances (like trauma-related dissociation) is due to DMN efferent activity to the heart. In fact, there seems to be no evidence that such decrease happens in trauma-related dissociation in the first place.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Grossman also points out that even the results of Porges' own study on two species of lizard was flawed due to inappropriate measurement of heart rate variability.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: While Grossman's criticism does not address the clinical speculations of the polyvagal theory directly, it contradicts its premises. In particular, it undermines the suggestion that there is a phylogenetic hierarchy, where one vagal system is more primitive than the other, and therefore is activated only when the more evolved one fails (as in dissociation, or acute trauma). It has been known for roughly a century that "a differentiation of the visceral efferent column of the vagus nerve into a dorsal motor nucleus and a ventrolateral nucleus (nucleus ambiguus) is first seen in reptiles (Ariens Kappers, '12; Ariens Kappers et al., '36; Addens, '33)". This contradicts the polyvagal claim of the nucleus ambiguus being unique to mammals. More recent findings in lungfish of myelinated vagus nerve fibres leading from the nucleus ambiguus to the heart point in the same direction. Furthermore, Monteiro et al. (2018) state that "the mechanisms [Porges] identifies as solely mammalian are undeniably present in the lungfish that sits at the evolutionary base of the air-breathing vertebrates."


title: Polyvagal theory

text: In polyvagal theory the term vagal tone is equated with respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), which is suggested to be linked to dimensions of psychopathology. A number of research studies have evaluated RSA responses across a range of dimensions of psychopathology, but a comprehensive meta-analysis has shown that no clinically meaningful relation can be found between psychopathology and RSA reactivity.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Grossman & Taylor (2005) reviewed findings indicating that RSA is not a reliable marker of vagal tone, being subject to both respiratory variables and sympathetic (beta-adrenergic) influences in addition to vagal influences. Taylor et al. (2022) review the evidence for the presence of cardio-respiratory interactions similar to RSA and their potential purpose with regard to blood oxygenation in many vertebrate species (both air- and water-breathing), concluding that RSA may be a relic of older cardio-respiratory systems. They also criticize the polyvagal theory's grouping of various cranial nerves into a "vagal system" as invalid based on anatomical facts.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: By overemphasizing the role of the vagus nerve in deciding between freezing and other fear responses, the theory disregards decades of neuroscientific findings on the origins of the freeze response, fear responses in general, and social behavior. While the vagus nerve undoubtedly plays a role in "transmitting and integrating" emotion-related signals between the brain and the rest of the body (a fact established long before the emergence of polyvagal speculations, see Vagusstoff), there is no evidence to suggest that it has any "control" over such behaviors. Neuhuber and Berthoud (2022) also point out PVT's misrepresentation of the roles of the different vagal nuclei in mediating the freeze response.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: From a methodological perspective, many claims do not meet the criteria of a scientific theory because they are formulated in a manner too vague for empirical testing. For example, the precise functioning of the two proposed distinct "vagal systems" or of the "social engagement system" is not explained, nor is that of the "face-heart connection" supposedly embodied in the ventral branch of the vagus nerve.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: Furthermore, the claims do not explain any findings beyond what is more precisely explained by Thayer's Neurovisceral Integration Model.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: While other brain areas known to be involved in fear responses (e. g. the amygdala and periaqueductal gray) are mentioned by Porges, he does not integrate them into the description of his own hypothesized systems. The proposed anatomical difference between the vagus nerve origins of mammals vs. other vertebrates, even if it were borne out by more recent studies, would be an insufficient basis for explaining complex social and emotional behaviour differences.


title: Polyvagal theory

text: In addition, polyvagal theory introduces the term "neuroception" for "a neural process that enables humans and other mammals to engage in social behaviors by distinguishing safe from dangerous contexts". It thus attempts to encompass several categories of psychological phenomena, each one of which constitutes a broad field of research in its own right: fear, threat perception, social behaviour, and emotion regulation. The neural substrates for many of the included phenomena are known at least tentatively, and comprise a large number of brain structures including, but not limited to, the vagus nerve. Polyvagal theory does not explain the mechanism of any of these phenomena with any precision, resulting in an oversimplification rather than an expansion or refinement of existing knowledge.


title: Springtail

text: Springtails (Collembola) form the largest of the three lineages of modern hexapods that are no longer considered insects (the other two are the Protura and Diplura). Although the three orders are sometimes grouped together in a class called Entognatha because they have internal mouthparts, they do not appear to be any more closely related to one another than they are to all insects, which have external mouthparts.


title: Springtail

text: Collembolans are omnivorous, free-living organisms that prefer moist conditions. They do not directly engage in the decomposition of organic matter, but contribute to it indirectly through the fragmentation of organic matter and the control of soil microbial communities. The word "Collembola" is from the ancient Greek "glue" and "peg"; this name was given due to the existence of the collophore, which was previously thought to stick to surfaces to stabilize the creature.


title: Springtail

text: Some DNA sequence studies suggest that Collembola represent a separate evolutionary line from the other Hexapoda, but others disagree; this seems to be caused by widely divergent patterns of molecular evolution among the arthropods. The adjustments of traditional taxonomic rank for springtails reflects the occasional incompatibility of traditional groupings with modern cladistics: when they were included with the insects, they were ranked as an order; as part of the Entognatha, they are ranked as a subclass. If they are considered a basal lineage of Hexapoda, they are elevated to full class status.


title: Springtail

text: Members of the Collembola are normally less than long, have six or fewer abdominal segments, and possess a tubular appendage (the collophore or ventral tube) with reversible, sticky vesicles, projecting ventrally from the first abdominal segment. It is believed to be associated with fluid uptake and balance, excretion, and orientation of the organism itself. Most species have an abdominal, tail-like appendage known as a furcula. It is located on the fourth abdominal segment of collembolans and is folded beneath the body, held under tension by a small structure called the retinaculum (or tenaculum). When released, it snaps against the substrate, flinging the springtail into the air and allowing for rapid evasion and travel. All of this takes place in as little as 18 milliseconds.


title: Springtail

text: Springtails also possess the ability to reduce their body size by as much as 30% through subsequent ecdyses (molting) if temperatures rise high enough. The shrinkage is genetically controlled. Since warmer conditions increase metabolic rates and energy requirements in organisms, the reduction in body size is advantageous to their survival.


title: Springtail

text: The Poduromorpha and Entomobryomorpha have an elongated body, while the Symphypleona and Neelipleona have a globular body. Collembola lack a tracheal respiration system, which forces them to respire through a porous cuticle, except for the two families Sminthuridae and Actaletidae, which exhibit a single pair of spiracles between the head and the thorax, leading to a rudimentary, although fully functional, tracheal system. The anatomical variance present between different species partially depends on soil morphology and composition. Surface-dwellers are generally larger, have darker pigments, have longer antennae and functioning furcula. Sub-surface-dwellers are usually unpigmented, have elongated bodies, and reduced furcula. They can be categorized into four main forms according to soil composition and depth: atmobiotic, epedaphic, hemiedaphic, and euedaphic. Atmobiotic species inhabit macrophytes and litter surfaces. They are generally 8-10 millimeters in length, pigmented, have long limbs, and a full set of ocelli (photoreceptors). Epedaphic species inhabit upper litter layers and fallen logs. They are slightly smaller and have less pronounced pigments, as well as less developed limbs and ocelli than the atmobiotic species. Hemiedaphic species inhabit the lower litter layers of decomposing organic material. They are 1-2 millimeters in length, have dispersed pigmentation, shortened limbs, and a reduced number of ocelli. Euedaphic species inhabit upper mineral layers known as the humus horizon. They are smaller than hemiedaphic species; have soft, elongated bodies; lack pigmentation and ocelli; and have reduced or absent furca.


title: Springtail

text: Poduromorphs inhabit the epedaphic, hemiedaphic, and euedaphic layers and are characterized by their elongated bodies and conspicuous segmentation – three thoracic segments, six abdominal segments, and a prothorax.


title: Springtail

text: The digestive tract of collembolan species consists of three main components: the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The midgut is surrounded by a network of muscles and lined with a monolayer of columnar or cuboidal cells. Its function is to mix and transport food from the lumen into the hindgut through contraction. Many species of syntrophic bacteria, archaea, and fungi are present in the lumen. These different digestive regions have varying pH to support specific enzymatic activities and microbial populations. The anterior portion of the midgut and hindgut is slightly acidic (with a pH of approximately 6.0) while the posterior midgut portion is slightly alkaline (with a pH of approximately 8.0). Between the midgut and hindgut is an alimentary canal called the pyloric region, which is a muscular sphincter.


title: Springtail

text: Traditionally, the springtails were divided into the orders Arthropleona, Symphypleona, and occasionally also Neelipleona. The Arthropleona were divided into two superfamilies, the Entomobryoidea and the Poduroidea. However, recent phylogenetic studies show Arthropleona is paraphyletic. Thus, the Arthropleona are abolished in modern classifications, and their superfamilies are raised in rank accordingly, being now orders Entomobryomorpha and the Poduromorpha. Technically, the Arthropleona are thus a partial junior synonym of the Collembola.


title: Springtail

text: The term "Neopleona" is essentially synonymous with Symphypleona + Neelipleona. The Neelipleona was originally seen as a particularly advanced lineage of Symphypleona, based on the shared global body shape, but the global body of the Neelipleona is realized in a completely different way than in Symphypleona. Subsequently, the Neelipleona were considered as being derived from the Entomobryomorpha. Analysis of 18S and 28S rRNA sequence data, though, suggests that they form the most ancient lineage of springtails, which would explain their peculiar apomorphies. This phylogenetic relationship was also confirmed using a phylogeny based on mtDNA and whole-genome data.


title: Springtail

text: Springtails are attested to since the Early Devonian. The fossil from , "Rhyniella praecursor", is the oldest terrestrial arthropod, and was found in the famous Rhynie chert of Scotland. Given its morphology resembles extant species quite closely, the radiation of the Hexapoda can be situated in the Silurian, or more. Additional research concerning the coprolites (fossilized feces) of ancient collembolans allowed researchers to track their lineages back some 412 million years.


title: Springtail

text: Fossil Collembola are rare. Instead, most are found in amber. Even these are rare and many amber deposits carry few or no collembola. The best deposits are from the early Eocene of Canada and Europe, Miocene of Central America, and the mid-Cretaceous of Burma and Canada. They display some unexplained characteristics: first, all but one of the fossils from the Cretaceous belong to extinct genera, whereas none of the specimens from the Eocene or the Miocene are of extinct genera; second, the species from Burma are more similar to the modern fauna of Canada than are the Canadian Cretaceous specimens.


title: Springtail

text: Specific feeding strategies and mechanisms are employed to match specific niches. Herbivorous and detritivorous species fragment biological material present in soil and leaf litter, supporting decomposition and increasing the availability of nutrients for various species of microbes and fungi. Carnivorous species maintain populations of small invertebrates such as nematodes, rotifers, and other collembolan species. Springtails commonly consume fungal hyphae and spores, but also have been found to consume plant material and pollen, animal remains, colloidal materials, minerals and bacteria.


title: Springtail

text: Springtails are consumed by mesostigmatan mites in various families, including Ascidae, Laelapidae, Parasitidae, Rhodacaridae and Veigaiidae.


title: Springtail

text: Cave-dwelling springtails are a food source for spiders and harvestmen in the same environment, such as the endangered harvestman "Texella reyesi".


title: Springtail

text: Springtails are cryptozoa frequently found in leaf litter and other decaying material, where they are primarily detritivores and microbivores, and one of the main biological agents responsible for the control and the dissemination of soil microorganisms. In a mature deciduous woodland in temperate climate, leaf litter and vegetation typically support 30 to 40 species of springtails, and in the tropics the number may be over 100.


title: Springtail

text: In sheer numbers, they are reputed to be one of the most abundant of all macroscopic animals, with estimates of 100,000 individuals per square meter of ground, essentially everywhere on Earth where soil and related habitats (moss cushions, fallen wood, grass tufts, ant and termite nests) occur. Only nematodes, crustaceans, and mites are likely to have global populations of similar magnitude, and each of those groups except mites is more inclusive: though taxonomic rank cannot be used for absolute comparisons, it is notable that nematodes are a phylum and crustaceans a subphylum. Most springtails are small and difficult to see by casual observation, but one springtail, the so-called snow flea ("Hypogastrura nivicola"), is readily observed on warm winter days when it is active and its dark color contrasts sharply with a background of snow.


title: Springtail

text: In addition, a few species routinely climb trees and form a dominant component of canopy faunas, where they may be collected by beating or insecticide fogging. These tend to be the larger (>2 mm) species, mainly in the genera "Entomobrya" and "Orchesella", though the densities on a per square meter basis are typically 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than soil populations of the same species. In temperate regions, a few species (e.g. "Anurophorus" spp., "Entomobrya albocincta", "Xenylla xavieri", "Hypogastrura arborea") are almost exclusively arboreal. In tropical regions a single square meter of canopy habitat can support many species of Collembola.


title: Springtail

text: The main ecological factor driving the local distribution of species is the vertical stratification of the environment: in woodland a continuous change in species assemblages can be observed from tree canopies to ground vegetation then to plant litter down to deeper soil horizons. This is a complex factor embracing both nutritional and physiological requirements, together with behavioural trends, dispersal limitation and probable species interactions. Some species have been shown to exhibit negative or positive gravitropism, which adds a behavioural dimension to this still poorly understood vertical segregation. Experiments with peat samples turned upside down showed two types of responses to disturbance of this vertical gradient, called "stayers" and "movers".


title: Springtail

text: As a group, springtails are highly sensitive to desiccation, because of their tegumentary respiration, although some species with thin, permeable cuticles have been shown to resist severe drought by regulating the osmotic pressure of their body fluid. The gregarious behaviour of Collembola, mostly driven by the attractive power of pheromones excreted by adults, gives more chance to every juvenile or adult individual to find suitable, better protected places, where desiccation could be avoided and reproduction and survival rates (thereby fitness) could be kept at an optimum. Sensitivity to drought varies from species to species and increases during ecdysis. Given that springtails moult repeatedly during their entire life (an ancestral character in Hexapoda) they spend much time in concealed micro-sites where they can find protection against desiccation and predation during ecdysis, an advantage reinforced by synchronized moulting. The high humidity environment of many caves also favours springtails and there are numerous cave adapted species, including one, "Plutomurus ortobalaganensis" living down the Krubera Cave.


title: Springtail

text: The horizontal distribution of springtail species is affected by environmental factors which act at the landscape scale, such as soil acidity, moisture and light. Requirements for pH can be reconstructed experimentally. Altitudinal changes in species distribution can be at least partly explained by increased acidity at higher elevation. Moisture requirements, among other ecological and behavioural factors, explain why some species cannot live aboveground, or retreat in the soil during dry seasons, but also why some epigeal springtails are always found in the vicinity of ponds and lakes, such as the hygrophilous "Isotomurus palustris". Adaptive features, such as the presence of a fan-like wettable mucro, allow some species to move at the surface of water ("Sminthurides aquaticus", "Sminthurides malmgreni"). "Podura aquatica", a unique representative of the family Poduridae (and one of the first springtails to have been described by Carl Linnaeus), spends its entire life at the surface of water, its wettable eggs dropping in water until the non-wettable first instar hatches then surfaces.


title: Springtail

text: In a variegated landscape, made of a patchwork of closed (woodland) and open (meadows, cereal crops) environments, most soil-dwelling species are not specialized and can be found everywhere, but most epigeal and litter-dwelling species are attracted to a particular environment, either forested or not. As a consequence of dispersal limitation, landuse change, when too rapid, may cause the local disappearance of slow-moving, specialist species, a phenomenon the measure of which has been called colonisation credit.


title: Springtail

text: Springtails are well known as pests of some agricultural crops. "Sminthurus viridis", the lucerne flea, has been shown to cause severe damage to agricultural crops, and is considered as a pest in Australia. Onychiuridae are also known to feed on tubers and to damage them to some extent. However, by their capacity to carry spores of mycorrhizal fungi and mycorrhiza helper bacteria on their tegument, soil springtails play a positive role in the establishment of plant-fungal symbioses and thus are beneficial to agriculture. They also contribute to controlling plant fungal diseases through their active consumption of mycelia and spores of damping-off and pathogenic fungi. It has been suggested that they could be reared to be used for the control of pathogenic fungi in greenhouses and other indoor cultures.


title: Springtail

text: Various sources and publications have suggested that some springtails may parasitize humans, but this is entirely inconsistent with their biology, and no such phenomenon has ever been scientifically confirmed, though it has been documented that the scales or hairs from collembolans can cause irritation when rubbed onto the skin. They may sometimes be abundant indoors in damp places such as bathrooms and basements, and incidentally found on one's person. More often, claims of persistent human skin infection by springtails may indicate a neurological problem, such as delusional parasitosis, a psychological rather than entomological problem. Researchers themselves may be subject to psychological phenomena. For example, a publication in 2004 claiming that springtails had been found in skin samples was later determined to be a case of pareidolia; that is, no springtail specimens were actually recovered, but the researchers had digitally enhanced photos of sample debris to create images resembling small arthropod heads, which then were claimed to be springtail remnants. However, Steve Hopkin reports one instance of an entomologist aspirating an "Isotoma" species and in the process accidentally inhaling some of their eggs, which hatched in his nasal cavity and made him quite ill until they were flushed out.


title: Springtail

text: In 1952, China accused the United States military of spreading bacteria-laden insects and other objects during the Korean War by dropping them from P-51 fighters above rebel villages over North Korea. In all, the U.S. was accused of dropping ants, beetles, crickets, fleas, flies, grasshoppers, lice, springtails, and stoneflies as part of a biological warfare effort. The alleged associated diseases included anthrax, cholera, dysentery, fowl septicemia, paratyphoid, plague, scrub typhus, small pox, and typhoid. China created an international scientific commission for investigating possible bacterial warfare, eventually ruling that the United States probably did engage in limited biological warfare in Korea. The US government denied all the allegations, and instead proposed that the United Nations send a formal inquiry committee to China and Korea, but China and Korea refused to cooperate. U.S. and Canadian entomologists further claimed that the accusations were ridiculous and argued that anomalous appearances of insects could be explained through natural phenomena. Springtail species cited in allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War were "Isotoma (Desoria) negishina" (a local species) and the "white rat springtail" "Folsomia candida".


title: Springtail

text: Springtails are currently used in laboratory tests for the early detection of soil pollution. Acute and chronic toxicity tests have been performed by researchers, mostly using the parthenogenetic isotomid "Folsomia candida". These tests have been standardized. Details on a ringtest, on the biology and ecotoxicology of "Folsomia candida" and comparison with the sexual nearby species "Folsomia fimetaria" (sometimes preferred to "Folsomia candida") are given in a document written by Paul Henning Krogh. Care should be taken that different strains of the same species may be conducive to different results. Avoidance tests have been also performed. They have been standardized, too. Avoidance tests are complementary to toxicity tests, but they also offer several advantages: they are more rapid (thus cheaper), more sensitive and they are environmentally more reliable, because in the real world Collembola move actively far from pollution spots. It may be hypothesized that the soil could become locally depauperated in animals (and thus improper to normal use) while below thresholds of toxicity. Contrary to earthworms, and like many insects and molluscs, Collembola are very sensitive to herbicides and thus are threatened in no-tillage agriculture, which makes a more intense use of herbicides than conventional agriculture.


title: Springtail

text: The springtail "Folsomia candida" is also becoming a genomic model organism for soil toxicology. With microarray technology the expression of thousands of genes can be measured in parallel. The gene expression profiles of "Folsomia candida" exposed to environmental toxicants allow fast and sensitive detection of pollution, and additionally clarifies molecular mechanisms causing toxicology.


title: Springtail

text: Collembola have been found to be useful as bio-indicators of soil quality. Laboratory studies have been conducted that validated that the jumping ability of springtails can be used to evaluate the soil quality of Cu- and Ni-polluted sites.


title: Springtail

text: In polar regions that are expected to experience among the most rapid impact from climate warming, springtails have shown contrasting responses to warming in experimental warming studies. There are negative, positive and neutral responses reported. Neutral responses to experimental warming have also been reported in studies of non-polar regions. The importance of soil moisture has been demonstrated in experiments using infrared heating in an alpine meadow, which had a negative effect on mesofauna biomass and diversity in drier parts and a positive effect in moist sub-areas. Furthermore, a study with 20 years of experimental warming in three contrasting plant communities found that small scale heterogeneity may buffer springtails to potential climate warming.


title: Springtail

text: Sexual reproduction occurs through the clustered or scattered deposition of spermatophores by male adults. Stimulation of spermatophore deposition by female pheromones has been demonstrated in "Sinella curviseta". Mating behavior can be observed in Symphypleona. Among Symphypleona, males of some Sminthuridae use a clasping organ located on their antenna. Many collembolan species, mostly those living in deeper soil horizons, are parthenogenetic, which favors reproduction to the detriment of genetic diversity and thereby to population tolerance of environmental hazards. Parthenogenesis (also called thelytoky) is under the control of symbiotic bacteria of the genus "Wolbachia", which live, reproduce and are carried in female reproductive organs and eggs of Collembola. Feminizing "Wolbachia" species are widespread in arthropods and nematodes, where they co-evolved with most of their lineages.


title: Nigerian naira

text: The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) is the sole issuer of legal tender money throughout the Federal Republic of Nigeria. It controls the volume of money supplied in the economy in order to ensure monetary and price stability. The Currency Operations Department of the CBN is in charge of currency management, through the designs, procurement, distribution and supply, processing, reissue and disposal or disintegration of bank notes and coins.


title: Nigerian naira

text: The naira was introduced on 1 January 1973, replacing the Nigerian pound at a rate of £1 = ₦2 naira. The coins of the new currency were the first coins issued by an independent Nigeria, as all circulating coins of the Nigerian pound were all struck by the colonial government of the Federation of Nigeria in 1959, with the name of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse. This also made Nigeria the last country in the world to abandon the £sd currency system in favour of a decimal currency system. There was a government plan to redenominate the naira at 100:1 in 2008, but the plan was suspended. The currency sign is .


title: Nigerian naira

text: The name "Naira" was coined from the word "Nigeria" by Obafemi Awolowo. However, Naira as a currency was launched by Shehu Shagari as minister of finance in 1973.


title: Nigerian naira

text: The Central Bank of Nigeria claimed that they attempted to control the annual inflation rate below 10%. In 2011, the CBN increased key interest rate six times, rising from 6.25% to 12%. On 31 January 2012, the CBN decided to maintain the key interest rate at 12%, in order to reduce the impact of inflation due to reduction in fuel subsidies.


title: Nigerian naira

text: As of 20 June 2016, the naira was allowed to float, after being pegged at ₦197 to US$1 for several months. Trades speculated the natural range of the naira would be between ₦280 and ₦350 to the dollar.


title: Nigerian naira

text: In October 2021, the eNaira, the digital version of the state currency, is officially launched in Nigeria.


title: Nigerian naira

text: In 1973, coins were introduced in denominations of , 1, 5, 10 and 25 kobo, with the and 1 kobo in bronze and the higher denominations in cupro-nickel. The kobo coins were minted only that year. In 1991, smaller 1, 10 and 25 kobo coins were issued in copper-plated-steel, along with nickel-plated-steel 50 kobo and ₦1. On 28 February 2007, new coins were issued in denominations of 50 kobo, ₦1 and ₦2, with the ₦1 and ₦2 bimetallic. Some Nigerians expressed concerns over the usability of the ₦2 coin. The deadline for exchanging the old currency was set at 31 May 2007. The central bank stated that the to 25 kobo coins were withdrawn from circulation with effect from 28 February 2007.


title: Nigerian naira

text: On 1 January 1973, the Central Bank of Nigeria introduced notes for 50 kobo, ₦1, ₦5, ₦10 and ₦20: in April 1984, the colors of all naira banknotes were changed in an attempt to control money laundering. In 1991, ₦50 notes were issued, while the 50 kobo and ₦1 notes were replaced by coins in 1991. This was followed by ₦100 in 1999, ₦200 in 2000, ₦500 in 2001 and ₦1,000 on October 12, 2005.


title: Nigerian naira

text: On 28 February 2007, new versions of the ₦5 to ₦50 banknotes were introduced. Originally the ₦10, ₦20 and ₦50 were to be polymer banknotes, but the ₦5, ₦10 and ₦50 were delayed to late 2009 and only the ₦20 was released in polymer. The notes are slightly smaller (130 × 72 mm) and redesigned from the preceding issues. In mid-2009 when Sanusi Lamido Sanusi took over as CBN Governor, The Central Bank of Nigeria changed the ₦5, ₦10 and ₦50 to polymer notes.


title: Nigerian naira

text: On the ₦1,000 notes, there is a subtle shiny strip running down the back of the note to prevent counterfeiting. The strip is a shimmery gold color showing ₦1,000, and has a triangular shape in the middle of the front of the note which changes its color from green to blue when tilted. The main feature on the front is the engraved portraits of Alhaji Aliyu Mai-Bornu and Dr. Clement Isong, both of which are former governors of the Central Bank of Nigeria.


title: Nigerian naira

text: On the first prints of the ₦100 notes issued starting December 1, 1999, Zuma Rock was captioned as located in Federal Capital Territory, while actually it is situated in Niger State. Later prints removed the reference to FCT, ABUJA.


title: Nigerian naira

text: In 2012 the Central Bank of Nigeria was contemplating the introduction of new currency denominations of ₦5,000. The bank also made plans to convert ₦5, ₦10, ₦20 and ₦50 into coins which are all presently notes.


title: Nigerian naira

text: The Central Bank of Nigeria has announced that it will no longer issue banknotes on polymer citing higher costs and environmental issues.


title: Nigerian naira

text: On 12 November 2014, the Central Bank of Nigeria issued a ₦100 commemorative note to celebrate the centennial of Nigeria's existence. The notes are similar to its regular issue with the portrait of Chief Obafemi Awolowo on the front, but are redesigned to include a new color scheme, revised security features, and the text "One Nigeria, Great Promise" in microprinting. On the back is a quick response code (QRC) which when scanned leads users to a website about Nigeria's history.


title: Nigerian naira

text: In 2019, the naira attained a landmark when for the first time, it featured the signature of a woman. Priscilla Ekwere Eleje, the Director of Currency operations of the Central Bank of Nigeria at the time, had the honour.


title: Nigerian naira

text: The naira was scheduled for redenomination in August 2008, although this was cancelled by then-President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua, with 100 old naira to become 1 new naira. The Nigerian Central Bank stated that it would make the naira fully convertible against foreign currencies by 2009. Currently, the amount of foreign currency is regulated through weekly auctions, while the Central Bank sets the exchange rate. The naira appreciated against the dollar through 2007 due to high oil revenues. Also, the then-Bank Governor, Professor Chukwuma Soludo noted the weekly central bank auctions of foreign currency will gradually be phased out, and that the bank would "only intervene in the market as may be required to achieve defined policy objectives".


title: Nigerian naira

text: Due to inflation, Nigerian coins are all essentially worthless now. Each coin has an extremely low value.


title: Nigerian naira

text: In 2022, the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) under President Muhammadu Buhari led administration expressed the decision to redesign the naira as a statutory responsibility and a way to curb the increased circulation of counterfeit notes in the country. The CBN governor, Mr Godwin Emefiele expressed that the approval for the redesign was granted by the president of the country in fighting corruption, terrorism, kidnapping and other unlawful practices. He said the higher naira denominations have been the denomination mostly used by the perpetrators of the acts which includes N100, N200, N500 and N1,000 notes.


title: Nigerian naira

text: President Muhammadu Buhari officially unveiled the new notes at the state house after 19 years since the naira was redesigned.


title: Nigerian naira

text: The newly redesigned naira notes will be printed by The Nigerian Security Printing and Minting Company Limited which will make the country one out of the four Africa countries who print their currencies locally and not import from foreign countries.


title: Nigerian naira

text: CBN, Nigeria's apex bank, informed the citizens that the new notes will be issued from 15 December 2022 onward, and that old naira notes need to be returned to the banking system before 31 January 2023 when they will cease to be legal tender.


title: Nigerian naira

text: In 2022, Nigeria's central bank expressed the scarcity of the currency due to high volume of the naira kept outside the banking system and attributed to be hoarded by politicians.


title: Nigerian naira

text: The official exchange rate set by the Central Bank of Nigeria: naira to U.S. dollar is approximately ₦441.33 per 1 US dollar. This rate is almost two times different from the real exchange rate on the black market.


title: Nigerian naira

text: The real exchange rate of the naira to U.S. dollar is approximately ₦752.50 per 1 US dollar on black market.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense (), commonly known as Grêmio, is a Brazilian professional football club based in Porto Alegre, capital city of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. The club plays in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, the first division of the Brazilian football league system, and the Campeonato Gaúcho, Rio Grande do Sul's top state league. The club was founded in 1903 by European immigrants Englishman Andy Fairbank and German Paul Cochlin. The club's home ground is the Arena do Grêmio, to which it moved in 2013, having previously played at Estádio Olímpico Monumental since 1954.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: Grêmio also became Champions of the Intercontinental Cup, after beating Hamburger SV in 1983 (2–1). Also, Grêmio is the Brazilian club that has won the most Copa CONMEBOL Libertadores de América (3) titles alongside São Paulo, Santos, Palmeiras, and Flamengo.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: As of 2017, Grêmio was ranked number one in the CBF club rankings and is listed by "Forbes" as the third most valuable football club in the Americas with an estimated value of $295.5 million. Grêmio has won 41 Campeonato Gaúcho, 2 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, 1 Campeonato Brasileiro Série B, 1 Supercopa do Brasil, 1 Copa Sul and 5 Copa do Brasil. Internationally, Grêmio has won 1 Intercontinental Cup, 3 Copa Libertadores de América, 2 Recopa Sudamericana and 1 Sanwa Bank Cup. Grêmio usually plays in a tricolor (blue, black and white) striped shirt, black shorts and white socks, which originated the team's nickname.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: Grêmio has a fierce rivalry with Internacional, which is widely considered the most heated in Brazil and one of the most heated in the world. Matches between the two teams are known as Grenal.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: On 7 September 1903, Brazil's first football team, Rio Grande, played an exhibition match in Porto Alegre. An entrepreneur from Sorocaba, São Paulo, named Cândido Dias was besotted with the sport and went to watch the match. During the match, the ball deflated. As the only owner of a football in Porto Alegre, he lent his ball to the players and the match resumed. After the match, he talked to the local players about how to start a football club. On 15 September 1903, 32 people, including Cândido Dias, met at Salão Grau, a local restaurant and founded "Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense". Most of the founding members were part of the city's German community. Carlos Luiz Bohrer was elected as first president.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: The club's first match took place on 6 March 1904, against Fuss Ball Porto Alegre, the first of two matches played that day. Grêmio won the first match 1–0. Unfortunately, the name of the player who scored the club's first goal is lost to history. The trophy Grêmio won that day, the Wanderpreis, is still displayed at the club's museum. Within 5 months the club had inaugurated the Baixada, its first home.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: On 18 July 1909, Grêmio beat Internacional 10–0 on the latter's debut game. Grêmio's goalkeeper Kallfelz reportedly left the field to chat with fans during the match. Even now this victory is remembered with pride by Gremistas (Grêmio supporters). The match was the starting point for a rivalry that rages on to this day. Grêmio was one of the founding members of the Porto Alegre football league in 1910, and in 1911 won the league for the first time. On 25 August 1912, in a city league match, Grêmio beat Sport Clube Nacional of Porto Alegre 23–0. Sisson scored 14 goals in the match to record Grêmio's biggest ever win. In 1918, Grêmio became a founding member of the "Fundação Rio-Grandense de Desportes" (later known as Federação Gaúcha de Futebol), a federation that organized the first state championships in Rio Grande do Sul. The first championship was scheduled for 1918, but the Spanish flu epidemic forced the event to be postponed until 1919. In 1921, a year after the arrival of legendary goalkeeper "Eurico Lara", Grêmio won its first state championship.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: On 7 July 1911, Grêmio beat Uruguay's national team 2–1. In 1931, Grêmio became one of the first teams in Brazil to play matches at night after installing floodlights at Estádio Baixada. On 19 May 1935, Grêmio became the first team from Rio Grande do Sul to beat a team from the state of São Paulo (considered the strongest Brazilian league at the time) by defeating Santos 3–2. Grêmio was also the first club outside Rio de Janeiro state to play at the Maracanã Stadium, defeating Flamengo 3–1 in 1950.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: During this period, Grêmio started to earn a reputation abroad. In 1932 it played its first international match in Rivera (Uruguay). In 1949, the match against Uruguay's Nacional ended in a 3–1 win for Grêmio and the players received a hero's welcome on their return to Porto Alegre. In that same year, Grêmio played for the first time in Central America. Between 1953 and 1954, Grêmio travelled to Mexico, Ecuador and Colombia, a tour dubbed "the conquest of the Americas". On 25 February 1959, Grêmio defeated Boca Juniors 4–1 in Buenos Aires, becoming the first foreign team to beat Boca at La Bombonera.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: In 1961, Grêmio went on its first European tour playing 24 games in 11 countries: France, Romania, Belgium, Greece, Germany, Poland, Bulgaria, Luxembourg, Denmark, Estonia and Russia. The "Gremistas" (Grêmio fans) were growing in number. 1946 saw the first appearance of the club's motto ""com o Grêmio onde o Grêmio estiver"" ("with Grêmio wherever Grêmio may be"), which was later written into Grêmio's official anthem. An anthem penned by Lupicinio Rodrigues, a samba-cancao composer who became one of the most famous and revered Grêmio fans. The anthem celebrates the Gremistas reputation for attending all Grêmio matches, regardless of the difficulties and obstacles they might have to overcome to see their club. In the late 1950s, Grêmio joined the Taça Brasil, as the Brazilian league was known at the time. The team reached the Taça Brasil semi-finals in 1959, 1963 and 1967. In 1968, the team won its first international title in a friendly cup with teams from Brazil and Uruguay. In 1954, Grêmio inaugurated what was at the time the biggest private stadium in Brazil, the Olímpico Stadium. In 1971, the Taça Brasil championship was replaced by the Campeonato Brasileiro with the first goal ever scored in the Campeonato Brasileiro coming from Grêmio's Néstor Scotta, an Argentine, in a match against São Paulo at Estádio do Morumbi. Grêmio maintained a series of respectable results in Campeonato Brasileiro, usually achieving a top half finish.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: Grêmio's first dominant period in South American football began in the early 1980s. Propelled by the completion of their new stadium, the Olímpico Monumental.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: Grêmio won its first Campeonato Brasileiro on 3 May 1981, after defeating São Paulo at the Morumbi Stadium in São Paulo. The scores in the two-leg final were 2–1 at Olímpico and 1–0 for Grêmio at Morumbi. The winning goal was scored by striker Baltazar. Earlier, on 26 April 1981 Olímpico had its biggest attendance ever, when 98,421 fans watched Grêmio lose to Ponte Preta 0–1 in the Campeonato Brasileiro semi-final.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: 1983 was the most successful year in Grêmio's history. First, Grêmio won the South-American Copa Libertadores, after a consistent yet eventful campaign. One of the matches of the semi-final, the 3–3 draw against Estudiantes at Jorge Luis Hirschi Stadium, became legendary for its belligerence on and off the pitch and is dubbed the "Batalha de La Plata" ("Battle of La Plata"). In the finals, Grêmio beat the 1982 South America and World champions Peñarol from Uruguay, with a 1–1 draw in Montevideo and a 2–1 win in Porto Alegre. The winning goal was scored by César just before the end of the match. A year later, Grêmio was runner-up in the Copa Libertadores final, being defeated by Argentina's Independiente.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: Also in 1983, Grêmio won the Intercontinental Cup after defeating Hamburger SV of Germany 2–1. Renato Portaluppi scored both goals. With Uruguayan defender De León and goalkeeper Mazaropi also earning club legend status on the back of their performances in the Copa Libertadores and Intercontinental Cup. Porto Alegre, was deafened by the gremista's chant of: ""The Earth is Blue"". Soon after winning the Intercontinental Cup, Grêmio beat America of Mexico in Los Angeles, and won the Los Angeles Cup.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: In 1989, Grêmio won the first Copa do Brasil, a Brazilian knockout cup featuring football teams from all around the country. After humiliating Flamengo with a 6–1 win in the second leg of the semi-finals, Grêmio defeated Sport Recife in the final, with a 0–0 draw in Recife and a 2–1 win in Porto Alegre.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: In 1991, after a poor season, Grêmio was relegated for the first time to the Brazilian Second Division but gained immediate promotion back to the Campeonato Brasileiro's elite the following season (1993). After this return to form, 1994 saw Grêmio win its second Copa do Brasil, defeating Ceará in the two-leg final (0–0 and 1–0), the solitary goal scored by striker Nildo. This win kickstarted the club's Tokyo Project. On December 11, 1994, Grêmio had to play three matches in a single day during the 1994 Campeonato Gaúcho, with kick-off times of 2PM, 4PM, and 6PM, due to their extensive schedule. They won two and drew the third match, using a total of 34 different players.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: In May 1995, under head coach Luiz Felipe Scolari, Grêmio were runners-up in the Copa do Brasil, losing the final match to Corinthians 0–1 at Olímpico Monumental. In August, a few days after beating arch-rivals Internacional for the state title with a reserve squad, the club won the Copa Libertadores for the second time. Defeating Atlético Nacional of Colombia 3–1 in Porto Alegre and drawing 1–1 in Medellín. The tournament was marked by fierce matches against Palmeiras in the quarter-finals. Palmeiras had perhaps the best squad on the competition, with players such as Rivaldo, Cafu, Edmundo, César Sampaio, Antônio Carlos, Roberto Carlos and Mancuso. They were soundly beaten by Grêmio in the 1st leg in an epic 5–0 match with a hat-trick from Mário Jardel. Palmeiras beat Grêmio 5–1 in the return leg, with Jardel's lone strike proving enough to see Grêmio through to the Semi-finals.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: This qualified the club to the World Club tournament where Grêmio pushed a talented Ajax (Featuring Patrick Kluivert, Overmars, Van Der Sar and Kanu) into extra time and penalties despite being a player down. Early 1996 saw Grêmio win the Recopa Sudamericana, beating Argentina's Independiente 4–1.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: On 15 December 1996, Grêmio won its second Campeonato Brasileiro, defeating Portuguesa in the final. Portuguesa won the first match at home 2–0, and therefore Grêmio was forced to win the final match at Porto Alegre by the same score or more. Grêmio got to 2–0, with midfielder Ailton scoring the second goal a few minutes before the final whistle. Grêmio won the title due to their higher finish in the league.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: In 1997, Grêmio won their third Copa do Brasil title. In the finals against Romário's Flamengo, Grêmio won on away goals after a 0–0 draw in Porto Alegre and a 2–2 draw in Rio de Janeiro. Four years later, in 2001, Grêmio won their fourth Copa do Brasil, defeating Corinthians. The first leg of the final, in Porto Alegre, finished with the score of 2–2. The second game in São Paulo ended with a 3–1 Grêmio victory, in a match which is regarded as one of the finest in Grêmio's history.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: In 2004, after performing poorly for two consecutive seasons in the Série A, Grêmio finished bottom of the league and were relegated to Campeonato Brasileiro's Second Division. Grêmio's promotion battle was difficult, with only two clubs able to qualify for promotion to the First Division. On 26 November 2005, at Estádio dos Aflitos, Recife, Grêmio had four players sent off and two penalty given kicks against them in a tumultuous match that has become known as "The Battle of the Aflitos" ("A Batalha dos Aflitos", "Aflitos" being the name of Náutico's home field).


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: Bruno Carvalho bounced the first penalty bounced off the post in the first half when Grêmio still had 11 players on the field; the second was saved by goalkeeper Galatto when had been reduced to 7 men. Within 72seconds of Galatto saving the penalty 17-year-old Anderson had made a run down the left flank to slot the ball into the back of the net to score Grêmio's winning goal. A goal that sealed the Série B championship and promotion to the Série A.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: On 9 April 2006, at Estádio Beira-Rio, Grêmio won the state championship against Internacional, preventing them from winning a fifth title in a row. Playing away, Grêmio managed to obtain a 1–1 draw in the second leg of the final, enough to secure the title on away goals. Grêmio players said after the match that there were more than 50,000 Internacional fans in Beira Rio's Stadium and they could still hear the noise made by 6,000 Gremistas. In 2007, at Estádio Olímpico Monumental, Grêmio won the Campeonato Gaúcho once again this time against Juventude.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: Also in 2007, Grêmio reached the final of the 2007 Copa Libertadores. Throughout the campaign the team overcame away losses by putting in heroic home performances and earning the moniker of Imortal Tricolor. This also pumped up the fans who even after a heavy 3–0 away defeat to Boca Juniors formed huge lines to buy tickets for the final game in Porto Alegre. with some of the fans queuing for four days or more. Unfortunately fan fervor wasn't enough with Riquelme's magnificent performance handing Boca Juniors a 2–0 win and the Copa Libertadores title.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: In 2008, after the sudden firing of their head coach Vagner Mancini, the club hired Celso Roth. Within a month they had prematurely dropped out of both the domestic cup (Copa do Brasil) and their state championship (Campeonato Gaúcho). This led to the team going through a state of crisis and, soon after, major renovation. They were expected to finish in the bottom half of the Campeonato Brasileiro but managed to finish in second place. For many supporters, even that was considered a failure as in the first half of the championship, the team was in fine form and even considered the best in the country. At the halfway point of the season the team had a 10-point lead over second place that they would eventually surrender in the final games of the season.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: 2012 marked the last year of the club's former stadium, Olímpico Monumental. Fan expectations were high but were not matched by the team's performance. Grêmio did, however, qualify for the Libertadores the following year.


title: Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense

text: In 2014, the club once again qualified for the Copa Libertadores de América and signed Enderson Moreira as the new manager. However, after a successful campaign in the group stage, Grêmio failed in the competition and were eliminated by San Lorenzo in the Round of 16. A few days before, the club was defeated 6–2 on aggregate by their biggest rival, the Internacional, in the finals of the Campeonato Gaúcho. With nothing more than a regular campaign at the beginning of the Série A, club president Fábio Koff signed Luiz Felipe Scolari as the new coach of the team. The club also invested in Giuliano, the biggest hiring of the year.