title: Frank Skinner

text: In 2000, he appeared as Buttons in the ITV Panto adaptation of Cinderella. In 2003, he was listed in "The Observer" as one of the 50 funniest acts in British comedy. In 2005, Skinner announced he was going to leave behind his television work in favour of returning to the stand-up comedy circuit. A second series of "Shane" had been made, but never shown.


title: Frank Skinner

text: In February 2006, he received an honorary degree from the University of Central England (now Birmingham City University). Skinner and David Baddiel covered the 2006 FIFA World Cup by podcast for "The Times". The podcasts received a nomination for the 2007 Sony Radio Academy Awards.


title: Frank Skinner

text: In 2007, he performed a new live stand-up tour, his first for 10 years, starting at a warm-up gig at the Swindon Arts Centre, continuing through to the Edinburgh Festival for 2 weeks at The Pleasance, the venue where he won the Perrier Award, and a 69 date national tour including three sold-out homecoming performances at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham in the autumn.


title: Frank Skinner

text: In November 2008 and in the light of senior broadcasting figures such as ITV boss Michael Grade and Terry Wogan calling for TV to reduce its use of vulgar language, Skinner decided to experiment with removing swear words altogether from his stand up live act although stated that it would be a shame if 'clever swearing' was lost. He also stood in for an ill Paul Merton as a team captain on 21 November edition of "Have I Got News for You".


title: Frank Skinner

text: From March 2009, Skinner started to present the Saturday Morning Breakfast Show on Absolute Radio with his co-hosts Emily Dean and Gareth Richards (who was succeeded by Alun Cochrane in June 2011). The show is produced by Avalon Television. After an initial 12-week stint proved very popular with the listeners, Skinner's contract was extended until summer 2010. The show is still running, with Emily Dean and a guest as co-hosts.


title: Frank Skinner

text: Skinner plays the banjo ukulele and in 2010, he contributed ukulele parts to a song by Fairport Convention called "Ukulele Central" which featured on their album "Festival Bell". A great admirer of George Formby, he hosted a BBC Four TV documentary, "Frank Skinner on George Formby", which aired on 27 October 2011.


title: Frank Skinner

text: In 2011, he wrote and performed a Radio 4 comedy series, "Don't Start", with Katherine Parkinson. Each episode was based on an argument between Skinner's character Neil and Neil's girlfriend Kim. Skinner said each episode was only 15 minutes as it was "too intense" to be any longer. "Don't Start" returned for a second series in 2012, and aired its third and final series in 2015-2016.


title: Frank Skinner

text: From 2012 to 2018, Skinner was the host of BBC show "Room 101". In August 2013, he was a team captain on the BBC comedy show "I Love My Country".


title: Frank Skinner

text: A longtime fan of "Doctor Who", Skinner appeared alongside Peter Capaldi's Doctor in the 2014 episode "Mummy on the Orient Express". He subsequently featured in the 2019 Big Finish Productions audio release "The Sinestran Kill", the first episode of .


title: Frank Skinner

text: In 2015, Skinner also appeared in the inaugural season of "Taskmaster" where he tied for second place with Romesh Ranganathan behind Josh Widdicombe, who won the series.


title: Frank Skinner

text: In 2020 he began a podcast, "Frank Skinner's Poetry Podcast", in which he analyses and discusses his favourite poems.


title: Frank Skinner

text: Skinner married in 1990, but the marriage was annulled shortly after. He and his longtime partner, Cath Mason, have a son, Buzz Cody (b. 2012). His brother-in-law is the writer Jack Thorne, who is married to Mason's sister.


title: Frank Skinner

text: Raised Roman Catholic, Skinner reconnected with the faith in his 20s, and remains a practising Roman Catholic. He is also a supporter of West Bromwich Albion, and regularly attends games.


title: Frank Skinner

text: He was a victim of the credit crunch in the late 2000s after investing in AIG, losing millions of pounds as a result. He eventually got most of the money back.


title: Frank Skinner

text: Skinner stopped drinking alcohol at age 29, having become concerned when he changed from having sherry for breakfast to Pernod. He started performing stand-up comedy shortly afterwards. He has said that he has never been able to replace the "white heat of joy" he got from alcohol and that his social life has never recovered from stopping drinking.


title: Frank Skinner

text: In 2019, Skinner told "The Times" that he had always voted for the Labour Party, but said he would probably vote for the Green Party at the next election.


title: Frank Skinner

text: In October 2001, Skinner's autobiography, "Frank Skinner by Frank Skinner", was published. In August 2009, he released a book centred on his return to stand-up after ten years - "Frank Skinner on the Road: Love, Stand-up Comedy and the Queen of the Night". In September 2011, "The Collected Wisdom of Frank Skinner; Dispatches from the Sofa" was published. It consists of his weekly columns for "The Times", written from 2009 to 2011. In September 2020, he released a book, "How to Enjoy Poetry". In it, he uses one poem ('Pad, Pad' by Stevie Smith) to explore the art of poetry. Skinner, who is a practising Christian, released a book of prayers, "A Comedian's Prayer Book", in 2021.


title: Umrah

text: The ʿUmrah () is an Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca (the holiest city for Muslims, located in the Hejazi region of Saudi Arabia) that can be undertaken at any time of the year, in contrast to the "Ḥajj" (; "pilgrimage"), which has specific dates according to the Islamic lunar calendar.


title: Umrah

text: In accordance to the "Shariah" (Law of Islam), for both pilgrimages, a Muslim must first assume "Ihram", a state of purification achieved by completing cleansing rituals, wearing the prescribed attire, and abstaining from certain actions. This must be attained when reaching a "Miqat", a principal boundary point in Mecca, like Dhu 'l-Hulaifah, Juhfah, Qarnu 'l-Manāzil, Yalamlam, Zāt-i-'Irq, Ibrahīm Mursīyah, or a place in Al-Hill. Different conditions exist for air travelers, who must observe Ihram once entering a specific perimeter in the city.


title: Umrah

text: Umrah requires Muslims to perform two key rituals, "Tawaf" and "Sa'i". Tawaf is a circling round the "Kaaba". For men, it is recommended to do the first three circuits in a hurried pace, followed by four rounds of a more leisurely pace. This is followed by Sa'i between Safa and Marwah in the Great Mosque of Mecca, a walk to commemorate Hagar's search for water for her son and God's mercy in answering prayers. Pilgrims conclude the pilgrimage with "Halq", a partial or complete shortening of the hair.


title: Umrah

text: Umrah is sometimes considered the "lesser pilgrimage", in that it is not compulsory, but is still highly recommended. It is generally able to be completed in a few hours, in comparison to Ḥajj, which may take a few days. It is also not meant to be interpreted as a substitute for Hajj. However, both are demonstrations of the solidarity of the Muslim people, and their submission to Allah (God).


title: Umrah

text: A certain type of the Umrah exists depending on whether or not the pilgrim wishes to perform Umrah in the Hajj period, thus combining their merit. When performed alongside the Hajj, Umrah is deemed one of "enjoyment" () and is part of a fuller Hajj of enjoyment (). More precisely, the rituals of the Umrah are performed first, and then the Hajj rituals are performed. Otherwise, when performed without continuing to perform Hajj, the Umrah is considered a "single" Umrah ().


title: Umrah

text: The pilgrim performs a series of ritual acts symbolic of the lives of Ibrahim (Abraham) and his second wife Hajar, and of solidarity with Muslims worldwide. Pilgrims enter the perimeter of Mecca in a state of Ihram and perform:


title: Umrah

text: These rituals complete the Umrah, and the pilgrim can choose to go out of ihram. Although not a part of the ritual, most pilgrims drink water from the Well of Zamzam. Various sects of Islam perform these rituals with slightly different methods. The peak times of pilgrimage are the days before, during and after the Hajj and during the last ten days of Ramadan.


title: Umrah

text: According to the Muslim traditional accounts, access to the Holy Site (and thus the right to practice the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages) have not always been granted to Muslims. It is reported in the Muslim traditional accounts that throughout Muhammad's era, the Muslims wanted to establish the right to perform Umrah and Hajj to Mecca since the latter had been prescribed by the Quran. During that time, Mecca was occupied by Arab Pagans who used to worship idols inside Mecca.


title: Umrah

text: In the early years of the Islamic Ummah, it is claimed that tensions arose in Mecca between its pagan inhabitants and the Muslims who wished to perform pilgrimages within. According to the traditional Muslim stories, in 628 CE (6 AH), inspired by a dream that Muhammad had while in Madinah, in which he was performing the ceremonies of Umrah, he and his followers approached Mecca from Medina. They were stopped at Hudaibiya, Quraysh (a local tribe to which Muhammad belonged) refused entry to the Muslims who wished to perform the pilgrimage. Muhammad is said to have explained that they only wished to perform a pilgrimage, and subsequently leave the city, however the Qurayshites disagreed.


title: Umrah

text: Diplomatic negotiations were pursued once the Islamic prophet Muhammad refused to use force to enter Mecca, out of respect to the Holy Ka'aba. In March, 628 CE (Dhu'l-Qi'dah, 6 AH), the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was drawn up and signed, with terms stipulating a ten-year period free of hostilities, during which the Muslims would be allowed a three-day-long access per year to the holy site of the Ka'aba starting the following year. On the year it was signed, the followers of Mohammed were forced to return home without having performed Umrah.


title: Umrah

text: The next year (629 CE, or 7 AH), the Muslim tradition claims that Muhammad ordered and took part in the Conquest of Mecca in December 629. Following the agreed-upon terms of the Hudaibiya Treaty, Muhammad and some 2000 followers (men, women and children) proceeded to perform what became the first Umrah, which lasted three days. After the transfer of power, the people of Mecca who (according to the Muslim traditional narrative) had persecuted and driven away the early Muslims, and had fought against the Muslims due to their beliefs, were afraid of retribution. However, Muhammad forgave all of his former enemies.


title: Umrah

text: Ten people were forgiven, and not to be killed after the capture of Mecca: Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl, Abdullah ibn Saad ibn Abi Sarh, Habbar bin Aswad, Miqyas Subabah Laythi, Huwairath bin Nuqayd, Abdullah Hilal and four women who had been guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the peace.


title: Umrah

text: On 26 February 2020, Saudi Arabia suspended travel to the country for reasons related to the Umrah, due to concerns over the rapid spread of coronavirus. After the reporting of the first case of coronavirus in Saudi Arabia, on 4 March 2020, the Riyadh government banned Umrah pilgrimage to the holy cities of Medina and Mecca for Saudi citizens and residents living in the kingdom. On 10 August 2021, Umrah for pilgrims coming from around the world was resumed.


title: Alexander IV of Macedon

text: Alexander IV (Greek: ; 323/322– 309 BC), sometimes erroneously called Aegus in modern times, was the son of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) and Princess Roxana of Bactria.


title: Alexander IV of Macedon

text: Alexander IV was the son of Alexander the Great (a Macedonian Greek) and Alexander's wife Roxana (a Sogdian). He was the grandson of Philip II of Macedon. Because Roxana was pregnant when Alexander the Great died on 11 June 323 BC and the sex of the baby was unknown, there was dissension in the Macedonian army regarding the order of succession. While the infantry supported Alexander the Great's half-brother Philip III (who had some unknown cognitive disability present throughout his life), the chiliarch Perdiccas, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, persuaded them to wait in the hope that Roxana's child would be male. The factions compromised, deciding that Perdiccas would rule the Empire as regent while Philip would reign, but only as a figurehead with no real power. If the child was male, then he would be king. Alexander IV was born in late 323 BC or early 322.


title: Alexander IV of Macedon

text: After a severe regency, military failure in Egypt, and mutiny in the army, Perdiccas was assassinated by his senior officers in May or June 321 or 320 BC (problems with Diodorus's chronology have made the year uncertain), after which Antipater was named as the new regent at the Partition of Triparadisus. He brought with him Roxana and the two kings to Macedon and gave up the pretence of ruling Alexander's Empire, leaving former provinces in Egypt and Asia under the control of the satraps. When Antipater died in 319 BC he left Polyperchon, a Macedonian general who had served under Philip II and Alexander the Great, as his successor, passing over his own son, Cassander.


title: Alexander IV of Macedon

text: Cassander allied himself with Ptolemy Soter, Antigonus and Eurydice, the ambitious wife of king Philip Arrhidaeus, and declared war upon the Regency. Polyperchon was allied with Eumenes and Olympias.


title: Alexander IV of Macedon

text: Although Polyperchon was successful at first, taking control of the Greek cities, his fleet was destroyed by Antigonus in 318 BC. When, after the battle, Cassander assumed full control of Macedon, Polyperchon was forced to flee to Epirus, followed by Roxana and the young Alexander. A few months later, Olympias was able to persuade her relative Aeacides of Epirus to invade Macedon with Polyperchon. When Olympias took the field, Eurydice's army refused to fight against the mother of Alexander and defected to Olympias, after which Polyperchon and Aeacides retook Macedon. Philip and Eurydice were captured and executed on December 25, 317 BC, leaving Alexander IV king, and Olympias in effective control, as she was his regent.


title: Alexander IV of Macedon

text: Cassander returned in the following year (316 BC), conquering Macedon once again. Olympias was immediately executed, while the king and his mother were taken prisoner and held in the citadel of Amphipolis under the supervision of Glaucias. When the general peace between Cassander, Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus put an end to the Third Diadoch War in 311 BC, the peace treaty recognized Alexander IV's rights and explicitly stated that when he came of age he would succeed Cassander as ruler.


title: Alexander IV of Macedon

text: Following the treaty, defenders of the Argead dynasty began to declare that Alexander IV should now exercise full power and that a regent was no longer needed, since he had almost reached the significant age of 14, the age at which a Macedonian noble could become a court page. Cassander's response was definitive: to secure his rule, in 309 BC he commanded Glaucias to secretly assassinate the 14-year-old Alexander IV and his mother. The orders were carried out, and they were both poisoned. There is controversy about the exact year of Alexander IV's death because of conflicting sources but the consensus of Hammond and Walbank in "A History of Macedonia Vol. 3" is that Alexander was killed late in the summer of 309 BC, shortly after his alleged half-brother Heracles. However, Green thinks that Heracles was killed after Alexander IV's assassination.


title: Alexander IV of Macedon

text: One of the royal tombs discovered by the archaeologist Manolis Andronikos in the so-called "Great Tumulus" in Vergina in 1977/8 is believed to belong to Alexander IV.


title: Burn

text: A burn is an injury to skin, or other tissues, caused by heat, cold, electricity, chemicals, friction, or ultraviolet radiation (like sunburn). Most burns are due to heat from hot liquids (called scalding), solids, or fire. Burns occur mainly in the home or the workplace. In the home, risks are associated with domestic kitchens, including stoves, flames, and hot liquids. In the workplace, risks are associated with fire and chemical and electric burns. Alcoholism and smoking are other risk factors. Burns can also occur as a result of self-harm or violence between people (assault).


title: Burn

text: Burns that affect only the superficial skin layers are known as superficial or first-degree burns. They appear red without blisters and pain typically lasts around three days. When the injury extends into some of the underlying skin layer, it is a partial-thickness or second-degree burn. Blisters are frequently present and they are often very painful. Healing can require up to eight weeks and scarring may occur. In a full-thickness or third-degree burn, the injury extends to all layers of the skin. Often there is no pain and the burnt area is stiff. Healing typically does not occur on its own. A fourth-degree burn additionally involves injury to deeper tissues, such as muscle, tendons, or bone. The burn is often black and frequently leads to loss of the burned part.


title: Burn

text: Burns are generally preventable. Treatment depends on the severity of the burn. Superficial burns may be managed with little more than simple pain medication, while major burns may require prolonged treatment in specialized burn centers. Cooling with tap water may help pain and decrease damage; however, prolonged cooling may result in low body temperature. Partial-thickness burns may require cleaning with soap and water, followed by dressings. It is not clear how to manage blisters, but it is probably reasonable to leave them intact if small and drain them if large. Full-thickness burns usually require surgical treatments, such as skin grafting. Extensive burns often require large amounts of intravenous fluid, due to capillary fluid leakage and tissue swelling. The most common complications of burns involve infection. Tetanus toxoid should be given if not up to date.


title: Burn

text: In 2015, fire and heat resulted in 67 million injuries. This resulted in about 2.9 million hospitalizations and 176,000 deaths. Among women in much of the world, burns are most commonly related to the use of open cooking fires or unsafe cook stoves. Among men, they are more likely a result of unsafe workplace conditions. Most deaths due to burns occur in the developing world, particularly in Southeast Asia. While large burns can be fatal, treatments developed since 1960 have improved outcomes, especially in children and young adults. In the United States, approximately 96% of those admitted to a burn center survive their injuries. The long-term outcome is related to the size of burn and the age of the person affected.


title: Burn

text: The characteristics of a burn depend upon its depth. Superficial burns cause pain lasting two or three days, followed by peeling of the skin over the next few days. Individuals with more severe burns may indicate discomfort or complain of feeling pressure rather than pain. Full-thickness burns may be entirely insensitive to light touch or puncture. While superficial burns are typically red in color, severe burns may be pink, white or black. Burns around the mouth or singed hair inside the nose may indicate that burns to the airways have occurred, but these findings are not definitive. More worrisome signs include: shortness of breath, hoarseness, and stridor or wheezing. Itchiness is common during the healing process, occurring in up to 90% of adults and nearly all children. Numbness or tingling may persist for a prolonged period of time after an electrical injury. Burns may also produce emotional and psychological distress.


title: Burn

text: Burns are caused by a variety of external sources classified as thermal (heat-related), chemical, electrical, and radiation. In the United States, the most common causes of burns are: fire or flame (44%), scalds (33%), hot objects (9%), electricity (4%), and chemicals (3%). Most (69%) burn injuries occur at home or at work (9%), and most are accidental, with 2% due to assault by another, and 1–2% resulting from a suicide attempt. These sources can cause inhalation injury to the airway and/or lungs, occurring in about 6%.


title: Burn

text: Burn injuries occur more commonly among the poor. Smoking and alcoholism are other risk factors. Fire-related burns are generally more common in colder climates. Specific risk factors in the developing world include cooking with open fires or on the floor as well as developmental disabilities in children and chronic diseases in adults.


title: Burn

text: In the United States, fire and hot liquids are the most common causes of burns. Of house fires that result in death, smoking causes 25% and heating devices cause 22%. Almost half of injuries are due to efforts to fight a fire. Scalding is caused by hot liquids or gases and most commonly occurs from exposure to hot drinks, high temperature tap water in baths or showers, hot cooking oil, or steam. Scald injuries are most common in children under the age of five and, in the United States and Australia, this population makes up about two-thirds of all burns. Contact with hot objects is the cause of about 20–30% of burns in children. Generally, scalds are first- or second-degree burns, but third-degree burns may also result, especially with prolonged contact. Fireworks are a common cause of burns during holiday seasons in many countries. This is a particular risk for adolescent males. In the United States, for non-fatal burn injuries, white males, aged <6 comprise most cases.  Thermal burns from grabbing/touching and spilling/splashing were the most common type of burn and mechanism, while the bodily areas most impacted were hands and fingers followed by head/neck.


title: Burn

text: Chemical burns can be caused by over 25,000 substances, most of which are either a strong base (55%) or a strong acid (26%). Most chemical burn deaths are secondary to ingestion. Common agents include: sulfuric acid as found in toilet cleaners, sodium hypochlorite as found in bleach, and halogenated hydrocarbons as found in paint remover, among others. Hydrofluoric acid can cause particularly deep burns that may not become symptomatic until some time after exposure. Formic acid may cause the breakdown of significant numbers of red blood cells.


title: Burn

text: Electrical burns or injuries are classified as high voltage (greater than or equal to 1000 volts), low voltage (less than 1000 volts), or as flash burns secondary to an electric arc. The most common causes of electrical burns in children are electrical cords (60%) followed by electrical outlets (14%). Lightning may also result in electrical burns. Risk factors for being struck include involvement in outdoor activities such as mountain climbing, golf and field sports, and working outside. Mortality from a lightning strike is about 10%.


title: Burn

text: While electrical injuries primarily result in burns, they may also cause fractures or dislocations secondary to blunt force trauma or muscle contractions. In high voltage injuries, most damage may occur internally and thus the extent of the injury cannot be judged by examination of the skin alone. Contact with either low voltage or high voltage may produce cardiac arrhythmias or cardiac arrest.


title: Burn

text: Radiation burns may be caused by protracted exposure to ultraviolet light (such as from the sun, tanning booths or arc welding) or from ionizing radiation (such as from radiation therapy, X-rays or radioactive fallout). Sun exposure is the most common cause of radiation burns and the most common cause of superficial burns overall. There is significant variation in how easily people sunburn based on their skin type. Skin effects from ionizing radiation depend on the amount of exposure to the area, with hair loss seen after 3 Gy, redness seen after 10 Gy, wet skin peeling after 20 Gy, and necrosis after 30 Gy. Redness, if it occurs, may not appear until some time after exposure. Radiation burns are treated the same as other burns. Microwave burns occur via thermal heating caused by the microwaves. While exposures as short as two seconds may cause injury, overall this is an uncommon occurrence.


title: Burn

text: In those hospitalized from scalds or fire burns, 310% are from assault. Reasons include: child abuse, personal disputes, spousal abuse, elder abuse, and business disputes. An immersion injury or immersion scald may indicate child abuse. It is created when an extremity, or sometimes the buttocks are held under the surface of hot water. It typically produces a sharp upper border and is often symmetrical, known as "sock burns", "glove burns", or "zebra stripes" - where folds have prevented certain areas from burning. Deliberate cigarette burns most often found on the face, or the back of the hands and feet. Other high-risk signs of potential abuse include: circumferential burns, the absence of splash marks, a burn of uniform depth, and association with other signs of neglect or abuse.


title: Burn

text: Bride burning, a form of domestic violence, occurs in some cultures, such as India where women have been burned in revenge for what the husband or his family consider an inadequate dowry. In Pakistan, acid burns represent 13% of intentional burns, and are frequently related to domestic violence. Self-immolation (setting oneself on fire) is also used as a form of protest in various parts of the world.


title: Burn

text: At temperatures greater than , proteins begin losing their three-dimensional shape and start breaking down. This results in cell and tissue damage. Many of the direct health effects of a burn are caused by failure of the skin to perform its normal functions, which include: protection from bacteria, skin sensation, body temperature regulation, and prevention of evaporation of the body's water. Disruption of these functions can lead to infection, loss of skin sensation, hypothermia, and hypovolemic shock via dehydration (ie. water in the body evaporated away). Disruption of cell membranes causes cells to lose potassium to the spaces outside the cell and to take up water and sodium.


title: Burn

text: In large burns (over 30% of the total body surface area), there is a significant inflammatory response. This results in increased leakage of fluid from the capillaries, and subsequent tissue edema. This causes overall blood volume loss, with the remaining blood suffering significant plasma loss, making the blood more concentrated. Poor blood flow to organs like the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract may result in kidney failure and stomach ulcers.


title: Burn

text: Increased levels of catecholamines and cortisol can cause a hypermetabolic state that can last for years. This is associated with increased cardiac output, metabolism, a fast heart rate, and poor immune function.


title: Burn

text: Burns can be classified by depth, mechanism of injury, extent, and associated injuries. The most commonly used classification is based on the depth of injury. The depth of a burn is usually determined via examination, although a biopsy may also be used. It may be difficult to accurately determine the depth of a burn on a single examination and repeated examinations over a few days may be necessary. In those who have a headache or are dizzy and have a fire-related burn, carbon monoxide poisoning should be considered. Cyanide poisoning should also be considered.


title: Burn

text: The size of a burn is measured as a percentage of total body surface area (TBSA) affected by partial thickness or full thickness burns. First-degree burns that are only red in color and are not blistering are not included in this estimation. Most burns (70%) involve less than 10% of the TBSA.


title: Burn

text: There are a number of methods to determine the TBSA, including the Wallace rule of nines, Lund and Browder chart, and estimations based on a person's palm size. The rule of nines is easy to remember but only accurate in people over 16 years of age. More accurate estimates can be made using Lund and Browder charts, which take into account the different proportions of body parts in adults and children. The size of a person's handprint (including the palm and fingers) is approximately 1% of their TBSA.


title: Burn

text: To determine the need for referral to a specialized burn unit, the American Burn Association devised a classification system. Under this system, burns can be classified as major, moderate, and minor. This is assessed based on a number of factors, including total body surface area affected, the involvement of specific anatomical zones, the age of the person, and associated injuries. Minor burns can typically be managed at home, moderate burns are often managed in a hospital, and major burns are managed by a burn center. Severe burn injury represents one of the most devastating forms of trauma. Despite improvements in burn care, patients can be left to suffer for as many as three years post-injury.


title: Burn

text: Signs of smoke inhalation includes hoarse voice, dyspnea, facial burns, singed nasal hairs, sputum which contains carbonaceous materials, Stridor and wheezing may be present in later stages.


title: Burn

text: Historically, about half of all burns were deemed preventable. Burn prevention programs have significantly decreased rates of serious burns. Preventive measures include: limiting hot water temperatures, smoke alarms, sprinkler systems, proper construction of buildings, and fire-resistant clothing. Experts recommend setting water heaters below . Other measures to prevent scalds include using a thermometer to measure bath water temperatures, and splash guards on stoves. While the effect of the regulation of fireworks is unclear, there is tentative evidence of benefit with recommendations including the limitation of the sale of fireworks to children.


title: Burn

text: Resuscitation begins with the assessment and stabilization of the person's airway, breathing and circulation. If inhalation injury is suspected, early intubation may be required. This is followed by care of the burn wound itself. People with extensive burns may be wrapped in clean sheets until they arrive at a hospital. As burn wounds are prone to infection, a tetanus booster shot should be given if an individual has not been immunized within the last five years. In the United States, 95% of burns that present to the emergency department are treated and discharged; 5% require hospital admission. With major burns, early feeding is important. Protein intake should also be increased, and trace elements and vitamins are often required. Hyperbaric oxygenation may be useful in addition to traditional treatments.


title: Burn

text: In those with poor tissue perfusion, boluses of isotonic crystalloid solution should be given. In children with more than 10–20% TBSA (Total Body Surface Area) burns, and adults with more than 15% TBSA burns, formal fluid resuscitation and monitoring should follow. This should be begun pre-hospital if possible in those with burns greater than 25% TBSA. The Parkland formula can help determine the volume of intravenous fluids required over the first 24 hours. The formula is based on the affected individual's TBSA and weight. Half of the fluid is administered over the first 8 hours, and the remainder over the following 16 hours. The time is calculated from when the burn occurred, and not from the time that fluid resuscitation began. Children require additional maintenance fluid that includes glucose. Additionally, those with inhalation injuries require more fluid. While inadequate fluid resuscitation may cause problems, over-resuscitation can also be detrimental. The formulas are only a guide, with infusions ideally tailored to a urinary output of >30 mL/h in adults or >1mL/kg in children and mean arterial pressure greater than 60 mmHg.


title: Burn

text: While lactated Ringer's solution is often used, there is no evidence that it is superior to normal saline. Crystalloid fluids appear just as good as colloid fluids, and as colloids are more expensive they are not recommended. Blood transfusions are rarely required. They are typically only recommended when the hemoglobin level falls below 60-80 g/L (6-8 g/dL) due to the associated risk of complications. Intravenous catheters may be placed through burned skin if needed or intraosseous infusions may be used.


title: Burn

text: Early cooling (within 30 minutes of the burn) reduces burn depth and pain, but care must be taken as over-cooling can result in hypothermia. It should be performed with cool water and not ice water as the latter can cause further injury. Chemical burns may require extensive irrigation. Cleaning with soap and water, removal of dead tissue, and application of dressings are important aspects of wound care. If intact blisters are present, it is not clear what should be done with them. Some tentative evidence supports leaving them intact. Second-degree burns should be re-evaluated after two days.


title: Burn

text: In the management of first and second-degree burns, little quality evidence exists to determine which dressing type to use. It is reasonable to manage first-degree burns without dressings. While topical antibiotics are often recommended, there is little evidence to support their use. Silver sulfadiazine (a type of antibiotic) is not recommended as it potentially prolongs healing time. There is insufficient evidence to support the use of dressings containing silver or negative-pressure wound therapy. Silver sulfadiazine does not appear to differ from silver containing foam dressings with respect to healing.


title: Burn

text: Burns can be very painful and a number of different options may be used for pain management. These include simple analgesics (such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen) and opioids such as morphine. Benzodiazepines may be used in addition to analgesics to help with anxiety. During the healing process, antihistamines, massage, or transcutaneous nerve stimulation may be used to aid with itching. Antihistamines, however, are only effective for this purpose in 20% of people. There is tentative evidence supporting the use of gabapentin and its use may be reasonable in those who do not improve with antihistamines. Intravenous lidocaine requires more study before it can be recommended for pain.


title: Burn

text: Intravenous antibiotics are recommended before surgery for those with extensive burns (>60% TBSA). , guidelines do not recommend their general use due to concerns regarding antibiotic resistance and the increased risk of fungal infections. Tentative evidence, however, shows that they may improve survival rates in those with large and severe burns. Erythropoietin has not been found effective to prevent or treat anemia in burn cases. In burns caused by hydrofluoric acid, calcium gluconate is a specific antidote and may be used intravenously and/or topically. Recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) in those with burns that involve more than 40% of their body appears to speed healing without affecting the risk of death. The use of steroids is of unclear evidence.


title: Burn

text: Wounds requiring surgical closure with skin grafts or flaps (typically anything more than a small full thickness burn) should be dealt with as early as possible. Circumferential burns of the limbs or chest may need urgent surgical release of the skin, known as an escharotomy. This is done to treat or prevent problems with distal circulation, or ventilation. It is uncertain if it is useful for neck or digit burns. Fasciotomies may be required for electrical burns.


title: Burn

text: Skin grafts can involve temporary skin substitutes, derived from animal (human donor or pig) skin or synthesized. They are used to cover the wound as a dressing, preventing infection and fluid loss, but will eventually need to be removed. Alternatively, human skin can be treated to be left on permanently without rejection.


title: Burn

text: There is no evidence that the use of copper sulphate to visualise phosphorus particles for removal can help with wound healing due to phosphorus burns. Meanwhile, absorption of copper sulphate into the blood circulation can be harmful.


title: Burn

text: Honey has been used since ancient times to aid wound healing and may be beneficial in first- and second-degree burns. There is moderate evidence that honey helps heal partial thickness burns. The evidence for aloe vera is of poor quality. While it might be beneficial in reducing pain, and a review from 2007 found tentative evidence of improved healing times, a subsequent review from 2012 did not find improved healing over silver sulfadiazine. There were only three randomized controlled trials for the use of plants for burns, two for aloe vera and one for oatmeal.


title: Burn

text: There is little evidence that vitamin E helps with keloids or scarring. Butter is not recommended. In low income countries, burns are treated up to one-third of the time with traditional medicine, which may include applications of eggs, mud, leaves or cow dung. Surgical management is limited in some cases due to insufficient financial resources and availability. There are a number of other methods that may be used in addition to medications to reduce procedural pain and anxiety including: virtual reality therapy, hypnosis, and behavioral approaches such as distraction techniques.


title: Burn

text: Burn patients require support and care – both physiological and psychological. Respiratory failure, sepsis, and multi-organ system failure are common in hospitalized burn patients. To prevent hypothermia and maintain normal body temperature, burn patients with over 20% of burn injuries should be kept in an environment with the temperature at or above 30 degree Celsius.


title: Burn

text: Metabolism in burn patients proceeds at a higher than normal speed due to the whole-body process and rapid fatty acid substrate cycles, which can be countered with an adequate supply of energy, nutrients, and antioxidants. Enteral feeding a day after resuscitation is required to reduce risk of infection, recovery time, non-infectious complications, hospital stay, long-term damage, and mortality. Controlling blood glucose levels can have an impact on liver function and survival.


title: Burn

text: Risk of thromboembolism is high and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) that does not resolve with maximal ventilator use is also a common complication. Scars are long-term after-effects of a burn injury. Psychological support is required to cope with the aftermath of a fire accident, while to prevent scars and long-term damage to the skin and other body structures consulting with burn specialists, preventing infections, consuming nutritious foods, early and aggressive rehabilitation, and using compressive clothing are recommended.


title: Burn

text: The prognosis is worse in those with larger burns, those who are older, and females. The presence of a smoke inhalation injury, other significant injuries such as long bone fractures, and serious co-morbidities (e.g. heart disease, diabetes, psychiatric illness, and suicidal intent) also influence prognosis. On average, of those admitted to the United States burn centers, 4% die, with the outcome for individuals dependent on the extent of the burn injury. For example, admittees with burn areas less than 10% TBSA had a mortality rate of less than 1%, while admittees with over 90% TBSA had a mortality rate of 85%. In Afghanistan, people with more than 60% TBSA burns rarely survive. The Baux score has historically been used to determine prognosis of major burns. However, with improved care, it is no longer very accurate. The score is determined by adding the size of the burn (% TBSA) to the age of the person and taking that to be more or less equal to the risk of death. Burns in 2013 resulted in 1.2 million years lived with disability and 12.3 million disability adjusted life years.


title: Burn

text: A number of complications may occur, with infections being the most common. In order of frequency, potential complications include: pneumonia, cellulitis, urinary tract infections and respiratory failure. Risk factors for infection include: burns of more than 30% TBSA, full-thickness burns, extremes of age (young or old), or burns involving the legs or perineum. Pneumonia occurs particularly commonly in those with inhalation injuries.


title: Burn

text: Anemia secondary to full thickness burns of greater than 10% TBSA is common. Electrical burns may lead to compartment syndrome or rhabdomyolysis due to muscle breakdown. Blood clotting in the veins of the legs is estimated to occur in 6 to 25% of people. The hypermetabolic state that may persist for years after a major burn can result in a decrease in bone density and a loss of muscle mass. Keloids may form subsequent to a burn, particularly in those who are young and dark skinned. Following a burn, children may have significant psychological trauma and experience post-traumatic stress disorder. Scarring may also result in a disturbance in body image. In the developing world, significant burns may result in social isolation, extreme poverty and child abandonment.


title: Burn

text: In 2015 fire and heat resulted in 67 million injuries. This resulted in about 2.9 million hospitalizations and 238,000 dying. This is down from 300,000 deaths in 1990. This makes it the fourth leading cause of injuries after motor vehicle collisions, falls, and violence. About 90% of burns occur in the developing world. This has been attributed partly to overcrowding and an unsafe cooking situation. Overall, nearly 60% of fatal burns occur in Southeast Asia with a rate of 11.6 per 100,000. The number of fatal burns has changed from 280,000 in 1990 to 176,000 in 2015.


title: Burn

text: In the developed world, adult males have twice the mortality as females from burns. This is most probably due to their higher risk occupations and greater risk-taking activities. In many countries in the developing world, however, females have twice the risk of males. This is often related to accidents in the kitchen or domestic violence. In children, deaths from burns occur at more than ten times the rate in the developing than the developed world. Overall, in children it is one of the top fifteen leading causes of death. From the 1980s to 2004, many countries have seen both a decrease in the rates of fatal burns and in burns generally.


title: Burn

text: An estimated 500,000 burn injuries receive medical treatment yearly in the United States. They resulted in about 3,300 deaths in 2008. Most burns (70%) and deaths from burns occur in males. The highest incidence of fire burns occurs in those 1835 years old, while the highest incidence of scalds occurs in children less than five years old and adults over 65. Electrical burns result in about 1,000 deaths per year. Lightning results in the death of about 60 people a year. In Europe, intentional burns occur most commonly in middle aged men.


title: Burn

text: In India, about 700,000 to 800,000 people per year sustain significant burns, though very few are looked after in specialist burn units. The highest rates occur in women 16–35 years of age. Part of this high rate is related to unsafe kitchens and loose-fitting clothing typical to India. It is estimated that one-third of all burns in India are due to clothing catching fire from open flames. Intentional burns are also a common cause and occur at high rates in young women, secondary to domestic violence and self-harm.


title: Burn

text: Cave paintings from more than 3,500 years ago document burns and their management. The earliest Egyptian records on treating burns describes dressings prepared with milk from mothers of baby boys, and the 1500 BCE Edwin Smith Papyrus describes treatments using honey and the salve of resin. Many other treatments have been used over the ages, including the use of tea leaves by the Chinese documented to 600 BCE, pig fat and vinegar by Hippocrates documented to 400 BCE, and wine and myrrh by Celsus documented to 100 CE. French barber-surgeon Ambroise Paré was the first to describe different degrees of burns in the 1500s. Guillaume Dupuytren expanded these degrees into six different severities in 1832.


title: Burn

text: The first hospital to treat burns opened in 1843 in London, England, and the development of modern burn care began in the late 1800s and early 1900s. During World War I, Henry D. Dakin and Alexis Carrel developed standards for the cleaning and disinfecting of burns and wounds using sodium hypochlorite solutions, which significantly reduced mortality. In the 1940s, the importance of early excision and skin grafting was acknowledged, and around the same time, fluid resuscitation and formulas to guide it were developed. In the 1970s, researchers demonstrated the significance of the hypermetabolic state that follows large burns.


title: Unconscious mind

text: The unconscious mind (or the unconscious) consists of the processes in the mind which occur automatically and are not available to introspection and include thought processes, memories, interests, and motivations.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Even though these processes exist well under the surface of conscious awareness, they are theorized to exert an effect on behavior. The term was coined by the German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Empirical evidence suggests that unconscious phenomena include repressed feelings, automatic skills, subliminal perceptions, and automatic reactions, and possibly also complexes, hidden phobias, and desires.


title: Unconscious mind

text: The concept was popularized by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. In psychoanalytic theory, unconscious processes are understood to be directly represented in dreams, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Thus the unconscious mind can be seen as the source of dreams and automatic thoughts (those that appear without any apparent cause), the repository of forgotten memories (that may still be accessible to consciousness at some later time), and the locus of implicit knowledge (the things that we have learned so well that we do them without thinking).


title: Unconscious mind

text: It has been argued that consciousness is influenced by other parts of the mind. These include unconsciousness as a personal habit, being unaware and intuition. Phenomena related to semi-consciousness include awakening, implicit memory, subliminal messages, trances, hypnagogia and hypnosis. While sleep, sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium and comas may signal the presence of unconscious processes, these processes are seen as symptoms rather than the unconscious mind itself.


title: Unconscious mind

text: The term "unconscious" () was coined by the 18th-century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling (in his "System of Transcendental Idealism", ch. 6, § 3) and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge (in his "Biographia Literaria"). Some rare earlier instances of the term "unconsciousness" ("") can be found in the work of the 18th-century German physician and philosopher Ernst Platner.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Influences on thinking that originate from outside of an individual's consciousness were reflected in the ancient ideas of temptation, divine inspiration, and the predominant role of the gods in affecting motives and actions. The idea of internalised unconscious processes in the mind was also instigated in antiquity and has been explored across a wide variety of cultures. Unconscious aspects of mentality were referred to between 2,500 and 600 BC in the Hindu texts known as the Vedas, found today in Ayurvedic medicine.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Paracelsus is credited as the first to make mention of an unconscious aspect of cognition in his work "Von den Krankheiten" (translates as "About illnesses", 1567), and his clinical methodology created a cogent system that is regarded by some as the beginning of modern scientific psychology. William Shakespeare explored the role of the unconscious in many of his plays, without naming it as such. In addition, Western philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann, Carl Gustav Carus, Søren Aabye Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche used the word unconscious.


title: Unconscious mind

text: In 1880 at the Sorbonne, Edmond Colsenet defended a philosophy thesis on the unconscious. Elie Rabier and Alfred Fouillee performed syntheses of the unconscious "at a time when Freud was not interested in the concept".


title: Unconscious mind

text: Psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer points out that the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. In 1890, when psychoanalysis was still unheard of, William James, in his monumental treatise on psychology ("The Principles of Psychology"), examined the way Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet and others had used the term 'unconscious' and 'subconscious.'" Historian of psychology Mark Altschule observes that "It is difficult—or perhaps impossible—to find a nineteenth-century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance."


title: Unconscious mind

text: Eduard von Hartmann published a book dedicated to the topic, "Philosophy of the Unconscious," in 1869.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Furthermore, 19th century German psychologists, Gustav Fechner and Wilhelm Wundt, had begun to use the term in their experimental psychology, in the context of manifold, jumbled sense data that the mind organizes at an "unconscious" level before revealing it as a cogent totality in conscious form."


title: Unconscious mind

text: Sigmund Freud and his followers developed an account of the unconscious mind. It plays an important role in psychoanalysis.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Freud divided the mind into the conscious mind (or the ego) and the unconscious mind. The latter was then further divided into the id (or instincts and drive) and the superego (or conscience). In this theory, the unconscious refers to the mental processes of which individuals make themselves unaware. Freud proposed a vertical and hierarchical architecture of human consciousness: the conscious mind, the preconscious, and the unconscious mind—each lying beneath the other. He believed that significant psychic events take place "below the surface" in the unconscious mind, like hidden messages from the unconscious. He interpreted such events as having both symbolic and actual significance.


title: Unconscious mind

text: In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, but rather what is actively repressed from conscious thought or what a person is averse to knowing consciously. Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression. However, the contents did not necessarily have to be solely negative. In the psychoanalytic view, the unconscious is a force that can only be recognized by its effects—it expresses itself in the symptom. In a sense, this view places the conscious self as an adversary to its unconscious, warring to keep the unconscious hidden. Unconscious thoughts are not directly accessible to ordinary introspection, but are supposed to be capable of being "tapped" and "interpreted" by special methods and techniques such as meditation, free association (a method largely introduced by Freud), dream analysis, and verbal slips (commonly known as a Freudian slip), examined and conducted during psychoanalysis. Seeing as these unconscious thoughts are normally cryptic, psychoanalysts are considered experts in interpreting their messages.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Freud based his concept of the unconscious on a variety of observations. For example, he considered "slips of the tongue" to be related to the unconscious in that they often appeared to show a person's true feelings on a subject. For example, "I decided to take a summer "curse" ". This example shows a slip of the word "course" where the speaker accidentally used the word "curse" which would ostensibly show that they have negative feelings about having to do this. Freud noticed that also his patients' dreams expressed important feelings they were unaware of. After these observations, he concluded that psychological disturbances are largely caused by personal conflicts existing at the unconscious level. His psychoanalytic theory acts to explain personality, motivation and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Freud later used his notion of the unconscious in order to explain certain kinds of neurotic behavior. The theory of the unconscious was substantially transformed by later psychiatrists, among them Carl Jung and Jacques Lacan.


title: Unconscious mind

text: In his 1932/1933 conferences, Freud "proposes to abandon the concept of the unconscious, which he declares ambiguous".


title: Unconscious mind

text: Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, developed the concept further. He agreed with Freud that the unconscious is a determinant of personality, but he proposed that the unconscious be divided into two layers: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. The personal unconscious is a reservoir of material that was once conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed, much like Freud's notion. The collective unconscious, however, is the deepest level of the psyche, containing the accumulation of inherited psychic structures and archetypal experiences. Archetypes are not memories but energy centers or psychological functions that are apparent in the culture's use of symbols. The collective unconscious is therefore said to be inherited and contain material of an entire species rather than of an individual. Every person shares the collective unconscious with the entire human species, as Jung puts it: "[the] whole spiritual heritage of mankind's evolution, born anew in the brain structure of every individual".


title: Unconscious mind

text: In addition to the structure of the unconscious, Jung differed from Freud in that he did not believe that sexuality was at the base of all unconscious thoughts.


title: Unconscious mind

text: In terms of the unconscious, the purpose of dreams, as stated by Freud, is to fulfill repressed wishes through the process of dreaming, since they cannot be fulfilled in real life. For example, if someone were to rob a store and to feel guilty about it, they might dream about a scenario in which their actions were justified and renders them blameless. Freud asserted that the wish-fulfilling aspect of the dream may be disguised due to the difficulty in distinguishing between manifest content and latent content. The manifest content consists of the plot of a dream at the surface level. The latent content refers to the hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot. The latent content of the dream is what supports the idea of wish fulfillment. It represents the intimate information in the dreamer's current issues and childhood conflict.


title: Unconscious mind

text: In response to Freud's theory on dreams, other psychologists have come up with theories to counter his argument. Theorist Rosalind Cartwright proposed that dreams provide people with the opportunity to act out and work through everyday problems and emotional issues in a non-real setting with no consequences. According to her cognitive problem solving view, a large amount of continuity exists between our waking thought and the thoughts that exist in dreams. Proponents of this view believe that dreams allow participation in creative thinking and alternate ways to handle situations when dealing with personal issues because dreams are not restrained by logic or realism.


title: Unconscious mind

text: In addition to this, Allan Hobson and colleagues came up with the activation-synthesis hypothesis which proposes that dreams are simply the side effects of the neural activity in the brain that produces beta brain waves during REM sleep that are associated with wakefulness. According to this hypothesis, neurons fire periodically during sleep in the lower brain levels and thus send random signals to the cortex. The cortex then synthesizes a dream in reaction to these signals in order to try to make sense of why the brain is sending them. However, the hypothesis does not state that dreams are meaningless, it just downplays the role that emotional factors play in determining dreams.


title: Unconscious mind

text: While, historically, the psychoanalytic research tradition was the first to focus on the phenomenon of unconscious mental activity, there is an extensive body of conclusive research and knowledge in contemporary cognitive psychology devoted to the mental activity that is not mediated by conscious awareness.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Most of that (cognitive) research on unconscious processes has been done in the mainstream, academic tradition of the information processing paradigm. As opposed to the psychoanalytic tradition, driven by the relatively speculative (in the sense of being hard to empirically verify) theoretical concepts such as the Oedipus complex or Electra complex, the cognitive tradition of research on unconscious processes is based on relatively few theoretical assumptions and is very empirically oriented (i.e., it is mostly data driven). Cognitive research has revealed that automatically, and clearly outside of conscious awareness, individuals register and acquire more information than what they can consciously remember and report. It is unclear how much, if any, of these processes can be experienced: The overflow hypothesis suggests that we experience much more than what we can subsequently report. The sparse phenomenology hypothesis forms an opposing view.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Much research has focused on the differences between conscious and unconscious perception. There is evidence that whether something is consciously perceived depends both on the incoming stimulus (bottom up strength) and on top-down mechanisms like Attention. Recent research indicates that some unconsciously perceived information can become consciously accessible if there is cumulative evidence. Similarly, content that would normally be conscious can become unconscious through inattention (e.g. in the Attentional blink) or through distracting stimuli like Visual masking.


title: Unconscious mind

text: For example, an extensive line of research conducted by Hasher and Zacks has demonstrated that individuals register information about the frequency of events automatically (i.e., outside of conscious awareness and without engaging conscious information processing resources). Moreover, perceivers do this unintentionally, truly "automatically", regardless of the instructions they receive, and regardless of the information processing goals they have. The ability to unconsciously and relatively accurately tally the frequency of events appears to have little or no relation to the individual's age, education, intelligence, or personality, thus it may represent one of the fundamental building blocks of human orientation in the environment and possibly the acquisition of procedural knowledge and experience, in general.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Franz Brentano rejected the concept of the unconscious in his 1874 book "Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint", although his rejection followed largely from his definitions of consciousness and unconsciousness.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Jean-Paul Sartre offers a critique of Freud's theory of the unconscious in "Being and Nothingness", based on the claim that consciousness is essentially self-conscious. Sartre also argues that Freud's theory of repression is internally flawed. Philosopher Thomas Baldwin argues that Sartre's argument is based on a misunderstanding of Freud.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Erich Fromm contends that "The term 'the unconscious' is actually a mystification (even though one might use it for reasons of convenience, as I am guilty of doing in these pages). There is no such thing as "the" unconscious; there are only experiences of which we are aware, and others of which we are not aware, that is, "of which we are unconscious". If I hate a man because I am afraid of him, and if I am aware of my hate but not of my fear, we may say that my hate is conscious and that my fear is unconscious; still my fear does not lie in that mysterious place: 'the' unconscious."


title: Unconscious mind

text: John Searle has offered a critique of the Freudian unconscious. He argues that the Freudian cases of shallow, consciously held mental states would be best characterized as 'repressed consciousness,' while the idea of more deeply unconscious mental states is more problematic. He contends that the very notion of a collection of "thoughts" that exist in a privileged region of the mind such that they are "in principle never accessible" to conscious awareness, is incoherent. This is not to imply that there are not "nonconscious" processes that form the basis of much of conscious life. Rather, Searle simply claims that to posit the existence of something that is like a "thought" in every way except for the fact that no one can ever be aware of it (can never, indeed, "think" it) is an incoherent concept. To speak of "something" as a "thought" either implies that it is being thought by a thinker or that it could be thought by a thinker. Processes that are not causally related to the phenomenon called thinking are more appropriately called the nonconscious processes of the brain.


title: Unconscious mind

text: Other critics of the Freudian unconscious include David Stannard, Richard Webster, Ethan Watters, Richard Ofshe, and Eric Thomas Weber.


title: Unconscious mind

text: David Holmes examined sixty years of research about the Freudian concept of "repression" and concluded that there is no positive evidence for this concept. Given the lack of evidence for many Freudian hypotheses, some scientific researchers proposed the existence of unconscious mechanisms that are very different from the Freudian ones. They speak of a "cognitive unconscious" (John Kihlstrom), an "adaptive unconscious" (Timothy Wilson), or a "dumb unconscious" (Loftus and Klinger), which executes automatic processes but lacks the complex mechanisms of repression and symbolic return of the repressed, and the "deep unconscious system" of Robert Langs.


title: Unconscious mind

text: In modern cognitive psychology, many researchers have sought to strip the notion of the unconscious from its Freudian heritage, and alternative terms such as "implicit" or "automatic" have been used. These traditions emphasize the degree to which cognitive processing happens outside the scope of cognitive awareness, and show that things we are unaware of can nonetheless influence other cognitive processes as well as behavior. Active research traditions related to the unconscious include implicit memory (see priming, implicit attitudes), and nonconscious acquisition of knowledge (see Lewicki, see also the section on contemporary cognitive psychology above).


title: Varaha

text: Varaha (, , "boar") is an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu, in the form of a boar. Varaha is generally listed as third in the Dashavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu.


title: Varaha

text: Varaha is most commonly associated with the legend of lifting the Earth (personified as the goddess Bhudevi) out of the cosmic ocean. When the asura Hiranyaksha stole the earth and hid her in the primordial waters, Vishnu appeared as Varaha to rescue her. Varaha slew the asura, and retrieved the Earth from the ocean, lifting it on his tusks, and restored Bhudevi to her place in the universe.


title: Varaha

text: Varaha may be depicted as completely a boar or in an anthropomorphic form, with a boar's head and the human body. His consort, Bhudevi, the personified Earth, is often depicted as a young woman, lifted by Varaha.


title: Varaha

text: The deity Varaha derives its name from the Sanskrit word "varāha" (Devanagari: वराह, ) meaning "boar" or "wild boar".


title: Varaha

text: The word "varāha" is from Proto-Indo-Iranian term "*warāȷ́ʰá", meaning boar. It is thus related to Avestan "varāza", Kurdish "beraz", Middle Persian "warāz", and New Persian "gorāz" (گراز), all meaning "wild boar".


title: Varaha

text: The Sanskrit grammarian and etymologist Yaska (circa 300 BCE) states that the word "varaha" originates from the root √hr. The Monier-Williams dictionary states that the root √hr means "'to offer/present', 'to outdo, eclipse, surpass', 'to enrapture, charm, [and] fascinate', and 'to take away or remove evil or sin'" and also "to take away, carry off, seize, deprive of, steal, [or] rob".


title: Varaha

text: As per Yaska, the boar is a beast that "tears up the roots, or he tears up all the good roots" is thus called "varaha". The word "varaha" is found in the "Rigveda", for example, in its verses such as 1.88.5, 8.77.10 and 10.28.4 where it means "wild boar".


title: Varaha

text: The word also means "rain cloud" and is symbolic in some Rigvedic hymns, such as Vedic demon Vritra being called a "varaha" in Rigvedic verses 1.61.7 and 10.99.6, and Soma's epithet being a "varaha" in 10.97.7. Later the rain-relationship led the connotation of the term evolve into "vara-aharta", which means "bringer of good things" (rain), which also mentioned by Yaska.


title: Varaha

text: Yaska mentions a third meaning of the word "varaha". The Vedic group of Angirases are called "varaha"s or collectively a "varahavah".


title: Varaha

text: The god Varaha is also called referred by the epithet "sukara" (Sanskrit सूकर, ), meaning 'wild boar', which also used in the "Rigveda" (e.g. 7.55.4) and "Atharva Veda" (e.g. 2.27.2). The word literally means "the animal that makes a peculiar nasal sound in respiration"; in the "Bhagavata Purana", Varaha is referred to Sukara, when he is born from the god Brahma's nostril.


title: Varaha

text: The origin of Varaha is found in the Vedas, the oldest Hindu scriptures. Varaha is originally described as a form of Prajapati (equated with Brahma), but evolved into the avatar of Vishnu in later Hindu scriptures. Two other avatars of Vishnu - Matsya (the fish) and Kurma (the tortoise) were also equated with Prajapati, before being described as forms of Vishnu in later traditions.


title: Varaha

text: Arthur Anthony Macdonell traces the origins of the Varaha legend to two verses (1.61.7 and 8.66.10) of the Rigveda, the oldest Veda. Vishnu, aided by the god Indra, steals hundred buffaloes from a boar (identified Vritra by Macdonell based on verse 1.121.11); Indra - shooting across a mountain slays the "emusha" ("fierce") beast. Arthur Berriedale Keith also agrees with Macdonell; interpreting the mountain as a cloud and the slaying as an alternate version of the annihilation of the "asura" Vritra by Indra. The 14th century Vedic commentator Sayana states the "Taittiriya Samhita" (6.2.4) elaborates the Rigveda version. However, the Rigveda does not hint at the classical legend of the rescue of the earth by the boar. In the scripture, the god Rudra is called the "boar of the sky". Even Vishnu is described to have slew a boar. The hunt of a boar using dogs is also referred to.


title: Varaha

text: The "Taittiriya Samhita" (6.2.4) mentions that the boar, "the plunderer of wealth", hides the riches of the asuras, beyond the seven hills. Indra destroys the beast by striking it a blade of sacred "kusha" grass, piercing the mounts. Vishnu, "the sacrifice" ("yajna"), brings the slain boar as a sacrificial offering to the gods, thereby the gods acquiring the treasure of the asuras. Vishnu is both the sacrifice as well as the "bringer of sacrifice"; the boar being the sacrifice. The tale is also recalled in "Charaka Brahmana" and "Kathaka Brahmana"; the latter calls the boar Emusha.


title: Varaha

text: According to J. L. Brockington, there are two distinct boar mythologies in Vedic literature. In one, he is depicted as a form of Prajapati, in other an asura named Emusha is a boar that fights Indra and Vishnu. The section 14.1.2 of the "Shatapatha Brahmana" harmonizes the two myths and Emusha is conflated into Prajapati.


title: Varaha

text: The earliest versions of the classical Varaha legend are found in the "Taittiriya Samhita" and the "Shatapatha Brahmana"; scholars differ on which one is the core version. The "Shatapatha Brahmana" narrates that the universe was primordial waters. The earth which was the size of a hand, was trapped in it. The god Prajapati (equated with Brahma) in the form of a boar ("varaha") plunges into the waters and brings the earth out. He also marries the earth thereafter. The "Shatapatha Brahmana" calls the boar as Emusha, which Keith relates to the boar's epithet "emusha" in the Rigveda. In the "Taittiriya Samhita" (7.1.5), Prajapati - who was roaming as the wind - acquires the form of a "cosmogonic" boar lifting the earth goddess from the primeval waters. As Vishwakarma (the creator of the world), he flattened her, thus she - the earth - was called Prithvi, "the extended one". They produce various deities.


title: Varaha

text: The "Taittiriya Aranyaka" (10.1.8) states the earth is lifted by a "black boar with hundred arms". The "Taittiriya Brahmana" (1.1.3.6) expands the "Taittiriya Samhita" narrative. The "Lord of creation" was pondering on how the universe should be. He saw a lotus leaf and took the form of a boar to explore under it. He found mud and outstretched it on the leaf, rising above the waters. It was called the earth - Bhumi, literally "that which became (spread)".


title: Varaha

text: The "Ayodhya Kanda" book of the epic "Ramayana" refers to Varaha retaining his connection to Prajapati-Brahma. In a cosmogonic myth, Brahma appears in the primal universe full of water and takes the form of a boar to lift the earth from the waters; creation begins with Brahma and his progeny. The "Yuddha Kanda" book of the epic praises Rama (the hero of the epic, who is identified with Vishnu) as "the single-tusked boar", which is interpreted as an allusion to Varaha and links Varaha with Vishnu. In the epic "Mahabharata", Narayana ("one who lies in the waters", an appellation of Brahma which was later transferred to Vishnu) is praised as the one who rescues the earth as a boar.


title: Varaha

text: The Puranas complete the full transition of Varaha from the form of Prajapati-Brahma to the avatar of Narayana-Vishnu. The "Brahmanda Purana", the "Vayu Purana", the "Vishnu Purana", the "Linga Purana", the "Markendeya Purana", the "Kurma Purana", the "Garuda Purana", the "Padma Purana" and the "Shiva Purana" have similar narratives of the cosmogonic myth, wherein Brahma, identified with Narayana-Vishnu, takes the Varaha form to raise the earth from the primeval waters.


title: Varaha

text: The "Brahmanda Purana", one of the oldest Puranas, narrates that in the present "kalpa" ("aeon") called "Varaha kalpa", Brahma wakes from his slumber. Brahma is called Narayana ("he who lies in the waters"). The "Vayu Purana" says that Brahma roams as the wind in the waters, which is interpreted as allusion to the Vedic "Taittiriya Brahmana" version. Similarly alluding to the Vedic version, the detailed "Brahmanda Purana" version says that Brahma is "invisible" and a shorter summary says that he becomes the wind. In the "Brahmanda Purana", realizing that the earth was in the waters, he decides to take the form of Varaha as the beast likes to sport in the water. Similar reasons for taking the boar form particularly are also given in the "Linga Purana", the "Matsya Purana" and the "Vayu Purana". The "Vishnu Purana" and the "Markendeya Purana" add that Brahma-Narayana decides to take the form of Varaha, similar to the forms of the fish (Matsya) and tortoise (Kurma), he took in previous "kalpa"s.


title: Varaha

text: The "Brahma Purana", the "Venkatacala Mahatmya" in the "Vaishnava Khanda" Book of the "Skanda Purana" and the "Vishnu Smriti" narrate the tale with slight variation, however Brahma is missing; it is Vishnu-Narayana who unambiguously becomes Varaha to lift the sunken earth from the waters. In late addition in the "Mahabharata", the single-tusked ("Eka-shringa") Varaha (identified with Narayana-Vishnu) lifts the earth, which sinks under the burden of overpopulation when Vishnu assumes the duties of Yama (the god of Death) and death seizes on earth. In the "Matsya Purana" and the "Harivamsa", at the beginning of a "kalpa", Vishnu creates various worlds from the cosmic golden egg. The earth, unable to bear the weight of the new mountains and losing her energy, sinks in the waters to the subterranean realm of Rasatala - the abode of the demons. In the first account in the "Bhagavata Purana" states that in early stages of creation, Brahma creates various beings, however finds the earth under the waters. Varaha (identified with Vishnu, the Lord of sacrifice) emerges as a tiny beast (a size of a thumb) from the nostrils of Brahma, but soon starts to grow. Varaha's size increases to that of an elephant and then to that of an enormous mountain.


title: Varaha

text: The scriptures emphasize Varaha's gigantic size. The "Brahmanda Purana", the "Vayu Purana", the "Matsya Purana", the "Harivamsa" and the "Linga Purana" describes Varaha as 10 "yojana"s (The range of a "yojana" is disputed and ranges between ) in width and a 1000 "yojana"s in height. He is large as a mountain and blazing like the sun. Dark like a rain cloud in complexion, his tusks are white, sharp and fearsome. His body is the size of the space between the earth and the sky. His thunderous roar is frightening. In one instance, his mane is so fiery and fearsome that Varuna, the god of the waters, requests Varaha to save him from it. Varaha complies and folds his mane.


title: Varaha

text: Early texts like the "Brahmanda Purana" and the "Vayu Purana" build up on the "Taittiriya Brahmana" Vedic cosmogonic concept of "Yajna-varaha" (Varaha as sacrifice). The "Brahmanda Purana" describes that acquiring the boar form composed of Vedic sacrifices, he plunges in waters, finding the earth in the subterranean realm. Varaha's various body parts are compared with various implements or participants of a "yajna" (sacrifice). This description of "Yajna-varaha" was adopted in various other Puranas (like the "Brahma Purana", the "Bhagavata Purana", the "Matsya Purana", the "Padma Purana", the "Venkatacala Mahatmya" of the "Skanda Purana", the "Vishnudharmottara Purana"), the "Harivamsa", Smriti texts (including the "Vishnu Smriti",), Tantras and Adi Shankara's commentary on the "Vishnu Sahasranama" explaining the epithet "Yajnanga" ("whose body is "yajna""). The "Vishnu Purana", the "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Padma Purana" embeds the sacrificial description within a paean to Varaha by the sages of Janaloka after he saves the earth. Roshen Dalal describes the symbolism of his iconography based on the "Vishnu Purana" as follows:


title: Varaha

text: His [four] feet represent the Vedas (scriptures). His tusks represent sacrificial stakes. His teeth are offerings. His mouth is the altar, the tongue is the sacrificial fire. The hair on his head denotes the sacrificial grass. The eyes represent the day and night. The head represents the seat of all. The mane represents the hymns of the Vedas. His nostrils are the oblation. His joints represent the various ceremonies. The ears are said to indicate rites (voluntary and obligatory).


title: Varaha

text: Some texts like the "Vishnu Purana", the "Matsya Purana", the "Harivamsa" and the "Padma Purana" contain a panegyric - dedicated to Varaha - and a plea of rescue by the earth. They clearly identify Varaha with Vishnu at this stage. Further in the "Brahmanda Purana" and other texts, Varaha rose from the waters carrying the earth on his tusks and restored her on the waters, where she floated like a boat. Varaha flattened the earth and divided it into seven great portions by creating mountains. Further, Brahma, identified with Vishnu, creates natural features like mountains, rivers, oceans, various worlds as well as various beings. The "Venkatacala Mahatmya" and the first account in the "Bhagavata Purana" mentions only the rescue of the earth by Varaha, omitting the creation activities attributed to him in other texts. The "Venkatacala Mahatmya" states that Varaha placed beneath the earth the world elephants, the serpent Shesha and the world turtle as support. At his behest, Brahma creates various beings. The "Bhagavata Purana" alludes to the slaying of a demon - identified with Hiranyaksha in other narratives in the Purana.


title: Varaha

text: The "Linga Purana" and the "Markendeya Purana" clearly identifies Varaha, as the rescuer of the earth, with Vishnu, barring the cosmogonic myth.


title: Varaha

text: While early references in the "Mahabharata" to the demon Hiranyaksha do not relate him to Varaha, Vishnu is said to be taken the boar form to slay a demon named Naraka. Another late insertion describes Vishnu lifting the earth as well as defeating all the danavas (demons). Late passages start the association of Hiranyaksha with Varaha. Vishnu is praised as Varaha, the vanquisher of Hiranyaksha in three instances.


title: Varaha

text: The "Agni Purana" mentions the obliteration of the demon Hiranyaksha as Varaha's main purpose. The "Linga Purana" and the "Kurma Purana" narrate that the "daitya" (demon; lit. "son of Diti") Hiranyaksa defeats the gods and entraps the earth in the subterranean realm. Taking the Varaha form, Vishnu slays the demon by piercing him by his tusks. Later, he uplifts the earth from the netherworld and restores her to her original position. The "Linga Purana" continues further: Later, Vishnu discards his boar body and returns to his heavenly abode; the earth cannot bear the weight of his tusk. Shiva relieves the earth by using the same as an ornament.


title: Varaha

text: The "Brahmanda Purana", the "Vayu Purana", the "Matsya Purana" and the "Padma Purana" mentions that Varaha's battle with the "asura"s (demons) is one of twelve in this "kalpa" between the gods and the demons. The "Brahmanda Purana" states that Hiranyaksha is pierced by Varaha's tusk, while "Vayu Purana" comments that Hiranyaksha is killed in this battle before Varaha rescued the earth. The "Harivamsa" narrates that the demons led by Hiranyaksha overpower and imprison the gods, Vishnu assumes the boar form and slays the demon-king with his Sudarshana chakra (discus) after a fierce war.


title: Varaha

text: The "Shrishti Khanda" book of the "Padma Purana" provides an elaborate description of the war between the gods and the demons led by Hiranyaksha. The demon army is routed by the gods, who in turn by overpowered by the demon-king. Vishnu combats with Hiranyaksha for a hundred divine years; finally the demon expands his size and seizing the earth escapes to the netherworld. Vishnu follows him, taking up the Varaha form and rescues the earth. After engaging in a fierce mace-battle, Varaha finally beheads the demon with his discus.


title: Varaha

text: In the "Shiva Purana", the annihilation of Hiranyaksha appears as a cursory tale in the story of subduing of his adopted son Andhaka by Shiva. The demon king Hiranyaksha confines the earth to Patala. Vishnu becomes Varaha (identified with Sacrifice) and slaughters the demon army by trashing them by his snout, piercing by tusks and kicking by his legs. Finally, Varaha decapitates the demon king with his discus and crowns Andhaka as his successor. He picks the earth on his tusks and places it in her original place.


title: Varaha

text: A detailed second account in the "Bhagavata Purana" narrates that Jaya and Vijaya, the doorkeepers of Vishnu's abode Vaikuntha, were cursed by the four Kumaras to be born as demons. In their first birth, they are born as the daityas Hiranyakashipu (who is slain by another Vishnu avatar Narasimha) and Hiranyaksha as the twin sons of Diti and the sage Kashyapa. Blessed by Brahma, the king of daityas Hiranyaksha became powerful and conquered the universe. He challenges the sea god Varuna to combat, who redirects him the more powerful Vishnu. The demon confronts Vishnu as Varaha, who is rescuing the earth at the time. The demon mocks Varaha as the beast and warns him not to touch earth. Ignoring the demon's threats, Varaha lifts the earth on his tusks. Varaha engages in a mace-duel with the demon. Varaha destroys the demon with the discus, the demon horde created by the demon's magic; finally slaying Hiranyaksha hitting him with his foreleg after the thousand-year battle.


title: Varaha

text: The "Garuda Purana", that refers to the "Bhagavata Purana", alludes to the curse in the Hiranyaksha tale. The cursed Vijaya is born as the demon Hiranyaksha, begins a boon from Brahma. He takes the earth to Patala. Vishnu, as Varaha, enters Patala via the ocean. He lifts the earth with the tusks and annihilates the demon; then places the four world elephants to support the earth and settles in Srimushnam. The "Uttarakhanda" book of the "Padma Purana" also narrates about the curse of the Kumaras. Jaya and Vijaya choose three births on the earth as foes of Vishnu, rather than seven existences as his devotees to lessen the period of the curse. Hiranyaksha carries the earth away to the underworld. Varaha pierces the demon fatally by his tusk and then places the earth over the hood of the serpent and becomes the world turtle to support it. The "Avantikshetra Mahatmya" section of the "Avantya Khanda" Book of the "Skanda Purana" also refers to the curse. The earth sinks in the waters tormented by the daityas; Varaha vanquishes Hiranyaksha.


title: Varaha

text: In a passing reference in the "Brahmanda Purana", the "Vayu Purana" and "Matsya Purana", Varaha is said to have slain Hiranyaksha on Mount Sumana (also called Ambikeya or Rishabha) on/ near the legendary island Jambudvipa. Besides to alluding to the raising of the earth from the waters by Varaha, the "Brahmavaivarta Purana" also mentions that Hiranyaksha was slain by Varaha. The "Garuda Purana" and the "Narada Purana" also refers to Varaha as the slayer of Hiranyaksha.


title: Varaha

text: The "Brahma Purana" narrates another tale where a "rakshasa" (demon) named Sindhusena defeated the gods and took the sacrifice to the netherworld Rasatala. Implored by the gods, Vishnu takes the form of Varaha and enters Rasatala. He slew the demons and recovered the sacrifice holding it in his mouth ("mukha"), thus sacrifice known as "makha". Near Brahmagiri hill in Trimbak, Varaha washed his blood-stained hands in the river Ganga (identified with the Godavari alias Gautami river); the water collected forms the sacred pond called "Varaha-tirtha" or "Varaha-kunda".


title: Varaha

text: In an instance in the "Mahabharata" after raising the earth, Vishnu as Varaha, shakes his tusk and three balls of mud fall in the South, which he declares as the three "pinda"s (riceballs) to be given to the Pitrs (ancestors). Varaha's association with the three "pinda"s is reiterated in later texts like the epic's appendix "Harivamsa", the "Vishnudharmottara Purana" and the "Brahma Purana". This tale constitutes the mythology of "Pitr-yajna" or Shraddha, sacrifice to the ancestors.


title: Varaha

text: The "Brahma Purana" narrates about Varaha's deliverance of the Pitrs (manes). Once, the Pitrs lust for Urja (also known as Svadha and Koka), the daughter of the moon-god Chandra. Cursed by Chandra, the Pitrs fall as humans on the Himalayan mountains from their elevated positions, while Koka transforms into a river in the mountains. The demons attack the Pitrs, who hides under a slab in the Koka river. Eulogized by the Pitrs, Varaha uplifted the drowning Pitrs from the river by his tusks. Then, he performs the rites of Shraddha by performing libations and "pinda"s to the Pitrs with the Earth acting as Chaya - his consort in the rituals. Varaha liberated the Pitrs from the curse and blessed Koka to be reborn as Svadha (the food or oblations offered to Pitrs) and become the wife of the Pitrs. Further, Narakasura (also called Bhauma) was born to the earth due to her contact with Varaha. Also, Varaha's temple was established at Kokamukha, where Varaha freed the Pitrs.


title: Varaha

text: The "Vishnu Purana", the "Brahma Purana" and the "Bhagavata Purana", in the episode of the killing of the demon Narakasura by Krishna avatar of Vishnu, mentions that the demon was the son of Varaha and the earth goddess Bhudevi. In some versions of the tale, Vishnu-Varaha promises the earth that he will not kill their son, without her consent. In the Krishna form, Vishnu slays the demon with the support of Satyabhama, Krishna's consort and an avatar of Bhudevi.


title: Varaha

text: The "Brahmavaivarta Purana" narrates that Varaha slew Hiranyaksha and rescued the earth from the waters. Varaha and the earth goddess were attracted to each other and made love. After they regained consciousness, Varaha worshipped the earth and decreed that the earth be worshipped at specific occasions, such as the construction of a house, lakes, wells, dams, etc. From their union, Mangala, the god of the planet Mars, was born.


title: Varaha

text: The "Avantikshetra Mahatmya" of the "Skanda Purana" states that after slaying Hiranyaksha, the Shipra River springs from the heart of Varaha. Thus, the sacred river is described as the daughter of Varaha.


title: Varaha

text: The "Mahabharata" lays the foundation for the avatar concept in Vishnu theology; the term "pradurbhava" ("manifestation") appears in the early lists, instead the term "avatar". Varaha is listed as one of the four incarnations of Narayana-Vishnu who "relieve the burden of the earth" in an early list; in another list which may be a later addition to the epic, Varaha is one among eight "pradurbhava"s. Some manuscripts of the epic expand the list to the classical ten Dashavatar list; with Varaha listed as third or fourth "pradurbhava". Varaha is referred to "yajna-varaha" ("sacrifice boar") in some instances.


title: Varaha

text: The "Agni Purana" while narrating tales of the Dashavatara in sequence briefly mentions that the Hiranyaksa, a chief of "asura"s (demons) defeated the gods and captured Svarga (heaven). Vishnu, in his third avatar as Varaha, slew the demons.


title: Varaha

text: The "Linga Purana" mentions that Vishnu takes the avatars due to a curse by the sage Bhrigu. It mentions Varaha as the third of the Dashavatara. The "Narada Purana", the "Shiva Purana" and the "Padma Purana" concurs placing Varaha as third of ten avatars.


title: Varaha

text: The "Bhagavata Purana" and "Garuda Purana" mention Varaha as second of 22 avatars. They say that Varaha, "the lord of sacrifices", rescued the earth from the netherworld or the waters. In two other instances in the "Garuda Purana", Varaha is mentioned as third of the classical Dashavatara.


title: Varaha

text: The "Narada Purana" has a variant of Caturvyuha with Narayana, Varaha, Vamana and Balarama (Haladhara) as the four emanations.


title: Varaha

text: The "Linga Purana", the "Shiva Purana" and the "Maheshvara Khanda" Book of the "Skanda Purana" mention Vishnu taking the Varaha form in the tale of the origin of the linga (the aniconic symbol of Shiva). Once, Brahma and Vishnu contest for superiority. An infinite, fiery pillar signifying the linga appears. Brahma as a "hamsa" (swan) flies up to find its top; while Varaha as large boar went lower to search its base. However, both fail the ends of the linga. Shiva appears in the place of linga and enlightens them that he is the Supreme Being. The "Shiva Purana" says that Vishnu chose the boar form due to the beast's inborn ability to burrow. It also notes that the current kalpa is known as "Varaha-kalpa" due to Vishnu's form as Varaha in the beginning of the kalpa. This tale is iconographically depicted in the Lingodbhava icon of Shiva as emerging from a cosmic pillar, while Vishnu as Varaha is seen at the base going down and Brahma as a swan flying at the top. The Lingodbhava icon of the Shiva-worshipping Shaiva sect was aimed to counter the avatar theory of Vishnu that presented him as the Supreme Being. The icon elevated Shiva to the Supreme Being position and demoted Vishnu as inferior to Shiva by belittling the Varaha avatar. Similarly, the Sharabha form of Shiva offset Narasimha, the lion-man avatar of Vishnu.


title: Varaha

text: Another legend in the minor Purana named "Kalika Purana" also depicts the sectarian conflicts between the Vaishnava followers of Vishnu and the Shaiva sect of Shiva. Varaha lifts the sunken earth by piercing his tusk through her. He then assumes the form of the seven-hooded serpent Shesha (Ananta) and supports the earth on one of his hoods. Thereafter, Varaha and Bhudevi enjoy as Varaha and Varahi. They have three boar sons named Suvrtta, Kanaka, and Ghora. Varaha and his progeny create mayhem in the world. The gods go to Varaha to abandon his boar form. Vishnu requests Shiva to take the form of Sharabha (also called Varaha Shiva), to kill the body of Varaha and the three sources of havoc. The retinues of Sharabha and Varaha, aided by Narasimha, fight. In the war, Narasimha is killed by Sarabha. Thereafter, Varaha requests Sarabha to dismember him and create implements of sacrifice from his body parts; Sharabha complies by slaying Varaha.


title: Varaha

text: Varaha also appears in the Shakta (Goddess-oriented) narrative in the final episode of the "Devi Mahatmya" text embedded in the "Markendeya Purana". Vishnu as Varaha creates his "shakti" Varahi (along with other deities, together called the eight matrika goddesses) to aid the Great Goddess to fight the demon Raktabija.


title: Varaha

text: The scripture "Varaha Purana" is believed to be narrated by Vishnu to Bhudevi, as Varaha. The Purana is devoted more to the "myths and genealogies" connected to the worship of Vishnu. Though Varaha is praised numerous times as the saviour of the earth from the waters, the detailed legend is not given in the Purana. The earth praises Varaha-Vishnu who rescued her numerous times in various avatars and sees the complete universe in his mouth, when Varaha laughs. The "Varaha Upanishad", a minor Upanishad, is narrated as a sermon from Varaha to the sage Ribhu.


title: Varaha

text: The "Agni Purana", "Brahma Purana", the "Markendeya Purana" and the "Vishnu Purana" say that Vishnu resides as Varaha in Ketumala-"varsha", one of the regions outside the mountains surrounding Mount Meru. The "Bhagavata Purana" says that Vishnu dwells as Varaha with the earth goddess in the Northern Kuru "varsha". The "Vayu Purana" describes an island called Varaha-dvipa near Jambudvipa, where only Vishnu as Varaha is worshipped.


title: Varaha

text: Like Vishnu's first two avatars – Matsya (fish) and Kurma (turtle) – the third avatar Varaha is depicted either in zoomorphic form as an animal (a wild boar), or anthropomorphically. The main difference in the anthropomorphic form portrayal is that the first two avatars are depicted with a torso of a man and the bottom half as animal, while Varaha has an animal (boar) head and a human body. The portrayal of the anthropomorphic Varaha is similar to the fourth avatar Narasimha (portrayed as a lion-headed man), who is the first avatar of Vishnu that is not completely animal.


title: Varaha

text: The "Agni Purana" describes that Varaha is depicted with the human body and boar head. In one configuration, he carries a gada (mace), shankha (conch), padma (lotus) with Lakshmi on his left. In another form, he is depicted with the earth goddess on his left elbow and the serpent Shesha at his feet.


title: Varaha

text: The "Vishnudharmottara Purana" describes the iconography of Nri-varaha ("human-boar"), with a human body and boar head. Varaha be depicted standing in the combative "alidha" pose (With a leg held straight and the other leg bent a little) on the four-armed serpent Shesha with folded arms. He holds a conch in his left land; on this elbow he supports the earth goddess who depicted with folded hands. He also holds mace, lotus and chakra (discus). He may also be depicted hurling the chakra at Hiranyaksha or raising a spear at the demon. Varaha can be also depicted in meditative posture like the sage Kapila or offering "pinda"s. He can depicted in battle surrounded by demons or zoomorphically as boar supporting the earth. The text prescribes Varaha worship for prosperity; the demon personifies adversity and ignorance while Varaha is wisdom, wealth and power.


title: Varaha

text: The "Matsya Purana" describes that Varaha standing with the left foot on a turtle and the right foot on the hood of Shesha. The raised earth should be on his left elbow. His left hand is placed on his Shakti (consort) on his left; while he holds a lotus and mace. The lokapala deities should surround him, worshipping him.


title: Varaha

text: The "Narada Purana" recommends Varaha be pictured as golden in complexion, having the earth on his white tusks and holding an iron-club, a conch, a discus, a sword, a javelin in his hands and making the "abhayamudra" (hand gesture of assurance).


title: Varaha

text: The "Venkatacala Mahatmya" of the "Skanda Purana" mentions that the boar-faced, four-armed Varaha holds the discus and the conch and makes the gestures of blessing ("varadamudra") and assurance. He wears various ornaments including the Kaustubha jewel and yellow garments. The "srivatsa" symbol is on his chest. The earth goddess is seated on his left lap.


title: Varaha

text: In the zoomorphic form, Varaha is often depicted as a free-standing boar colossus, for example, the monolithic sculpture of Varaha in Khajuraho (c. 900–925) made in sandstone, is long and high. The sculpture may not resemble a boar realistically, and may have his features altered for stylistic purposes. The earth, personified as the goddess Bhudevi, clings to one of Varaha's tusks. Often the colossus is decorated by miniature figurines of deities, other celestail beings, sages, anthropomorphic planets, stars and other world creatures appearing all over his body, which signify the whole of creation. The goddess of speech and knowledge, Saraswati is often depicted on his tongue, while Brahma is often depicted on his head. Besides Khajuraho, such sculptures are found in Eran, Muradpur, Badoh, Gwalior, Jhansi and Apasadh.


title: Varaha

text: In the anthropomorphic form, Varaha often has a stylized boar face, like the zoomorphic models. The snout may be shorter. The position and size of the tusks may also be altered. The ears, cheeks, and eyes are generally based on human ones. Early sculptors in Udayagiri and Eran faced the issue of how to attach the boar head to the human body and did not show a human neck. However, in Badami, the problem was resolved by including a human neck. While some sculptures show a mane, it is dropped and replaced by a high conical crown – typical of Vishnu iconography – in others. Varaha sculptures generally look up to the right; there are very rare instances of left-facing Varaha depictions.


title: Varaha

text: Varaha has four arms, two of which hold the Sudarshana chakra (discus) and shankha (conch), while the other two hold a gada (mace), a sword, or a lotus or one of them makes the "varadamudra" (gesture of blessing). Varaha may be depicted with all of Vishnu'a attributes in his four hands: the Sudarshana chakra, the shankha, the gada and the lotus. Sometimes, Varaha may carry only two of Vishnu's attributes: a shankha and the gada personified as a female called Gadadevi. Varaha may also wear a "vanamala" - a garland of forest flowers, which is a regular characteristic in Vishnu icons. Varaha is often shown with a muscular physique and in a heroic pose. He is often depicted triumphantly emerging from the ocean as he rescues the earth.


title: Varaha

text: The earth may be personified as the goddess Bhudevi in Indian sculpture. Bhudevi is often shown as a small figure in the icon. She may be seated on or dangling from one of Varaha's tusks, or is seated on the corner of his folded elbow or his shoulder and supports herself against the tusk or the snout, as being lifted from the waters. In later Indian paintings, the whole earth or a part of it is depicted lifted up by Varaha's tusks. In Mahabalipuram, a rare portrayal shows an affectionate Varaha looking down to Bhudevi, who he carries in his arms. The earth may be portrayed as a globe, a flat stretch of mountainous land or an elaborate forest landscape with buildings, temples, humans, birds, and animals. The defeated demon may be depicted trampled under Varaha's feet or being killed in combat by Varaha. Nagas (snake gods) and their consorts Naginis (snake goddesses), residents of the underworld, may be depicted as swimming in the ocean with hands folded as a mark of devotion. Varaha may be also depicted standing on a snake or other minor creatures, denoting the cosmic waters. Sometimes, Lakshmi - Vishnu's primary consort - is depicted in the scene near the right foot of Varaha.


title: Varaha

text: The Udayagiri Varaha panel is an example of an elaborate depiction of Varaha legend. It presents the goddess earth as the dangling woman, the hero as the colossal giant. His success is cheered by a galaxy of the divine as well as human characters valued and revered in the 4th-century. Their iconography of individual characters is found in Hindu texts.


title: Varaha

text: Two iconographical forms of Varaha are popular. Yajna Varaha – denoting "yajna" (sacrifice) – is seated on a lion-throne and flanked by Bhudevi and Lakshmi. As Pralaya Varaha – indicative of lifting the earth from the stage of the "pralaya" (the dissolution of the universe) – he is depicted only with Bhudevi. Varaha may be depicted with Lakshmi alone too. In such sculptures, he may be depicted identically to Vishnu in terms of iconography with Vishnu's attributes; the boar head identifying the icon as Varaha. Lakshmi may be seated on his thigh in such portrayals.