title: Hated in the Nation

text: James Hawes directed the episode. He focused on pacing the escalation as the scope of the storyline changed from local to global, also choosing a limited colour palette to match the episode's genre. "Hated in the Nation" is a near-future story set and filmed in London, the production encompassing 32 locations and taking place over 23 days. The headquarters of Granular was shot on five locations. Faye Marsay played Blue Coulson, having auditioned for a part in series three episode "Men Against Fire". Kelly Macdonald starred as DCI Karin Parke. The episode's climax takes place in the safe house and was filmed over three days. The ending was filmed in Gran Canaria, as production time was too limited to shoot in the tropics. It originally featured a shot of Blue putting a knife in her bag. The soundtrack was credited to Martin Phipps, while the closing song was composed by Alev Lenz.


title: Hated in the Nation

text: Work on the graphics and social media interfaces of the episode was extensive, as this was key to the narrative. The company Painting Practice worked on the design of the robotic bees, which needed to be recognisable as bees but also have a creepy aspect to them. At 89 minutes in length, "Hated in the Nation" is the longest episode of "Black Mirror". Splitting the episode into two parts was considered but as the programme is an anthology series and series three would be the first to premiere on Netflix, it was kept as one episode.


title: Hated in the Nation

text: "Hated in the Nation" is a police procedural and a work of detective fiction. Zack Handlen, writing for "The A.V. Club", found that it "follows the standard beats of the cop series practically to the letter". Because of its length and tone, "Collider"s Adam Chitwood wrote that it "feels very much like a feature film of sorts". The episode was widely compared by critics to the 1990s science-fiction drama series "The X-Files", which used bees as a recurring theme. Emily VanDerWerff of "Vox" wrote that "The X-Files" trope of one detective being a "believer" and their colleague a "skeptic" was adapted to Blue being "tech-savvy" and Karin being a "virtual Luddite". Alex Mullane of "Digital Spy" instead drew comparison to the films "Minority Report" (2002) and "I, Robot" (2004), as each features a detective investigating murder in the context of a science-fiction world.


title: Hated in the Nation

text: With "The Verge"s Lizzie Plaugic identifying a theme of cyberbullying, the episode explores the lack of consequences that social media users face for their words, and the effect that those words have on others. "Screen Rant" Marian Phillips used the term "cancel culture" to describe this situation. Mullane wrote that Jo Powers was a "not-terribly-subtle" take on Katie Hopkins, a controversial British commentator. Mullane found that the episode does not show Powers positively, but also criticises "the manner in which people rally against such figures". Plaugic saw the preschool teacher who sent Powers hate mail as illustrative of how people's social media presences can be "completely disconnected from their lives". Handlen saw it fitting that Scholes was "a bit of a nothing" character, as the episode "stresses the power of anonymity". VanDerWerff thought that Scholes could be viewed as a self-insertion by Brooker, the character "full of outlandishly grand ideas" and forcing others to "consider the darker side of technology". Rob Leane wrote in "Den of Geek" that accounts in "So You've Been Publicly Shamed" were relevant to the episode, such as a woman whose career was significantly affected by a viral image of her swearing beside a military cemetery sign. Brooker was asked if "policing Twitter" was a solution to issues identified by the episode and replied: "I don't know the answer!" He said that "people should be more accountable", but that it was "difficult to see how you do that without the law getting involved".


title: Hated in the Nation

text: Other topics include government surveillance and environmentalism. David Sims of "The Atlantic" saw government surveillance to be "a particularly prevalent concern in the U.K." due to its scope. In "Variety", Sonia Saraiya linked the themes of social media and government surveillance in that "both blur the divide between the public and private spheres", and the episode explores whether either "ends up making us more connected or safer". On the subject of environmentalism, Mullane saw the setting as a "near-future in which species are regularly blinking out of existence due to climate change" and "human indifference", among them bees. Leane found that similar bee technologies had been piloted in the real world, including the RoboBee, which is designed for agriculture or disaster relief. Greenpeace has made recommendations that governments should invest in prevention of colony collapse disorder over such technologies.


title: Hated in the Nation

text: Allusions are made to previous episodes, largely through news tickers and trending topics on displayed social media screens. Blue says that she left forensics after seeing materials confiscated from Iain Rannoch, a child torturer and murderer from "White Bear". A news channel shown, UKN, appeared in previous episodes. A ticker announces the MASS technology from "Men Against Fire". Another reports on a technology from "White Christmas"—cookies—being ruled to have human rights, while a later ticker references "Playtest" character Shou Saito and "White Bear" character Victoria Skillane. Trending social media topics reference a video game from "Playtest", the prime minister from "The National Anthem" and White Bear from the episode of the same name. The hashtag #DeathTo trends with Skillane and a ticker says that she attempts suicide in jail. Waldo of "The Waldo Moment" is seen as a laptop sticker.


title: Hated in the Nation

text: On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the episode received an average score of 80% based on 20 reviews, indicating positive reception. The episode received ratings of 8.3 out of 10 in "Paste", four out of five stars in "Vulture" and "The Telegraph", an A− in "Entertainment Weekly" and a B+ in "The A.V. Club". Euan Ferguson of "The Observer" saw it the best of the series three episodes, while Handlen thought it neither best nor worst. Chancellor Agard of "Entertainment Weekly" praised it as "very strong". Some critics viewed the episode as too long, with Sims saying that it "makes its point very repetitively", though Mullane found that the episode was "well-paced" and "didn't drag". Contrastingly, "The Telegraph"s Robbie Collin reviewed that Hawes used the runtime "to give the moral complexities of Brooker's script the breathing space they deserve". "Vulture"s Charles Bramesco reviewed that there was "agile movement between cerebral sci-fi and emotionally rooted moralizing". Handlen saw the episode as "underdeveloped in some places" and "overdeveloped in others".


title: Hated in the Nation

text: The cast received praise. Macdonald and Marsay received positive reception as Karin and Blue, respectively, with Agard writing that they "just gave fantastic performances that complemented each other". Bramesco said that Macdonald "lays claim to the episode's best lines", having demonstrated much "wry comedy". Wong as Li and Miles as Pickering were also praised. Agard approved of Scholes being grounded by "motivations in something personal", though Plaugic saw his character as less interesting than an unexplored potential for the episode to show how #DeathTo participants act once realising its effects. The soundtrack was also praised, with Collin praising Phipps' "keening" score and Mullane finding a composition by Lenz "beautifully haunting".


title: Hated in the Nation

text: The story received mixed commentary. VanDerWerff found that the "full weight" of Scholes' actions "doesn't register as much as it could", though praising the "nasty" twist and "nicely inconclusive" ending. Handlen concurred that the episode "downplays the massive deaths" but dissented in finding that the ending does not give "sufficient resolution" for Scholes. Plaugic believed that the episode "never figures out exactly what it's critiquing". Agard was "genuinely engaged with the story", while Bramesco praised the writing for a "surprising facility for the stylized language of pulp crime novels". Ferguson found the episode "clever" and "ripe with thought". Some minor details were criticised. Mullane thought it odd that no character attempted to block the air vent during the bee attack, when it seems that characters previously look at the vent, while VanDerWerff noted that the story remains in the U.K. despite the #DeathTo game not appearing to be limited to the country.


title: Hated in the Nation

text: "Hated in the Nation" received mixed positions on many critics' rankings of the 23 instalments in the "Black Mirror" series, from best to worst.


title: Hated in the Nation

text: "IndieWire" authors ranked the 22 "Black Mirror" instalments excluding "Bandersnatch" by quality, giving "Hated in the Nation" a position of 5th. Eric Anthony Glover of "Entertainment Tonight" found the episode to be 11th-best of the 19 episodes from series one to four. Additionally, Proma Khosla of "Mashable" ranked the same instalments by tone, concluding that "Hated in the Nation" was the third-most bleak.


title: Afrojack

text: Nick Leonardus van de Wall (; born 9 September 1987), better known as Afrojack, is a Dutch DJ, music producer and remixer from Spijkenisse, South Holland. In 2007, he founded the record label Wall Recordings; his debut album "Forget the World" was released in 2014. Afrojack regularly features as one of the ten best artists in the Top 100 DJs published by "DJ Mag". He is also the CEO of LDH Europe.


title: Afrojack

text: Van de Wall was born and raised in Spijkenisse, South Holland, to a Dutch mother and a Surinamese father. He developed an interest in music at an early age and learned to play the piano at the age of five. From a single-parent household, his mother Debbie owned a local gym. After leaving school, Van de Wall studied graphic design at the Grafisch Lyceum Rotterdam in Rotterdam for a year before embarking on a career as a DJ/producer. At the age of 11, he started producing his own tracks from home for "five hours a day," and it took him a good seven years to produce his first release, "In Your Face."


title: Afrojack

text: At the age of 14, Van de Wall started DJing at local pubs and clubs and earning additional income by designing websites for fellow musicians. In 2007, he released "In Your Face", the first recording under the Afrojack name. He received international success with the song "Take Over Control" featuring Eva Simons, which charted in 10 countries. He took part in Episode 2 of 'Behind The Speedo', which is a comedy series by Redfoo.


title: Afrojack

text: His 2010 entry into the poll at number 19 was the highest new entry of that year's list. Afrojack was listed as number 7 on the "DJ Mag" Top 100 DJs of 2011. He ranked at number 9 on "DJ Mag's" Top 100 DJs of 2012. In 2013, he ranked at number 9 again.


title: Afrojack

text: In July 2010, Afrojack created an Essential Mix for BBC Radio 1. He released the "Lost & Found" EP on 22 December 2010. In 2011, he was featured on Pitbull's number 1 hit single "Give Me Everything" along with Ne-Yo and Nayer. He also contributed to the single "Run the World (Girls)" by Beyoncé. In January 2012 Afrojack received a European Border Breakers Award. Afrojack's newest single "The Spark" featuring Spree Wilson has so far hit number 3 in Australia and New Zealand, and top 10 in over 7 more countries. In 2013, Afrojack was the 7th highest-earning DJ in the world, according to "Forbes" magazine.


title: Afrojack

text: In 2011, Afrojack co-produced music with many artists including David Guetta, Mike Brown and Madonna. In 2012, he was a headliner at a number of electronic dance music festivals, including Tomorrowland, Ultra Music Festival, and Coachella.


title: Afrojack

text: On 17 March 2015, Afrojack was featured in David Guetta's single "Hey Mama" in which he co-produced with Guetta. The song featured him along with Nicki Minaj and Bebe Rexha. On 27 July 2017, he released the "NLW EP" under the alias NLW. This marked the launch of his new alias NLW under which he would go on to produce more underground style tracks.


title: Afrojack

text: In 2016, one of his songs, "Braver", was featured on the game "Final Fantasy XV". He appeared in the 2016 documentary film about American DJ and producer Steve Aoki, titled "I'll Sleep When I'm Dead", which was subsequently nominated for a Grammy Award.


title: Afrojack

text: On 28 April 2017, he released a new single "Another Life" collaborating with fellow DJ David Guetta featuring Ester Dean. On 7 September 2017, he released the single "No Tomorrow" featuring Belly, O.T. Genasis, and Ricky Breaker.


title: Afrojack

text: On 14 February 2018, he released his track "Bed of Roses" featuring Stanaj, which was played as an ID during his set at Ultra Music Festival 2017 in Miami. In July 2018, at Tomorrowland in Boom, Belgium, he debuted many of his new tracks such as "Bassride", "Step Back", which are all included in his "Press Play" EP, releasing on 31 August 2018.


title: Afrojack

text: In March 2020, Afrojack announced that he would perform at the Eurovision Song Contest 2020, in Rotterdam alongside Glennis Grace, however, the contest was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. He performed at the contest the following year, in the same city.


title: Afrojack

text: In March 2022, Afrojack released a new track along with David Gueta called "Trampoline." The song also features featuring Missy Elliott, Bia and Doechii.


title: Afrojack

text: In September 2022, Afrojack announced "Jack to the Future" US tour. The tour includes fifteen cities.


title: Afrojack

text: Since 2007, Afrojack runs his own label, Wall Recordings, which represents producers including KIIDA, Apster, D-Wayne, D.O.D, Karim Mika, and others. The label used to operate as a sub-label to Spinnin' Records until late January 2016. Tom & Jame's Burn Down marked the last release of Wall Recordings as a sub-label. After going independent for a while, it became a sub-label to Armada Music in 2017, until it became independent again in 2019.


title: Afrojack

text: In 2019, Afrojack and Italian singer Elettra Lamborghini made their engagement public. The two were married on 26 September 2020 at Lake Como, Italy.


title: American literature

text: American literature is literature written or produced in the United States of America and in the colonies that preceded it. The American literary tradition thus is part of the broader tradition of English-language literature, but also includes literature of other traditions produced in the United States and in other immigrant languages. Furthermore, a rich tradition of oral storytelling exists amongst Native American tribes.


title: American literature

text: The American Revolutionary Period (1775–1783) is notable for the political writings of Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson. An early novel is William Hill Brown's "The Power of Sympathy" published in 1791. Writer and critic John Neal in the early-mid nineteenth century helped advance America's progress toward a unique literature and culture, by criticizing predecessors like Washington Irving for imitating their British counterparts and influencing others like Edgar Allan Poe. Edgar Allan Poe took American poetry and short fiction in new directions. Ralph Waldo Emerson pioneered the influential Transcendentalism movement; Henry David Thoreau, author of "Walden", was influenced by this movement. The conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired the writers like Harriet Beecher Stowe and by slave narratives, such as those by Frederick Douglass. Nathaniel Hawthorne's "The Scarlet Letter" (1850) explored the dark side of American history, as did Herman Melville's "Moby-Dick" (1851). Major American poets of the nineteenth century include Walt Whitman, Melville, and Emily Dickinson. Mark Twain was the first major American writer to be born away from the East Coast. Henry James achieved international recognition with novels like "The Portrait of a Lady" (1881).


title: American literature

text: Following World War I, modernist literature rejected nineteenth century forms and values. F. Scott Fitzgerald captured the carefree mood of the 1920s, but John Dos Passos and Ernest Hemingway, who became famous with "The Sun Also Rises" and "A Farewell to Arms", and William Faulkner adopted experimental forms. American modernist poets included diverse figures: Wallace Stevens, T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Ezra Pound, and E. E. Cummings. Depression era writers included John Steinbeck, author of "The Grapes of Wrath" (1939). America's involvement in World War II influenced works such as Norman Mailer's "The Naked and the Dead" (1948), Joseph Heller's "Catch-22" (1961) and Kurt Vonnegut Jr.'s "Slaughterhouse-Five" (1969). Prominent playwrights of these years include Eugene O'Neill, who won a Nobel Prize. In the mid-twentieth century, drama was dominated by Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, as well as the musical theater.


title: American literature

text: In late 20th century and early 21st century there has been increased popular and academic acceptance of the literature written by immigrant, ethnic, Native American, and LGBT writers, and of writings in other languages than English.


title: American literature

text: Examples of pioneers in these areas include Asian American authors such as Maxine Hong Kingston, the Native American Louise Erdrich, and African Americans Ralph Ellison, James Baldwin, and 1993 Nobel Laureate Toni Morrison. The folk-rock songwriter Bob Dylan won the 2016 Nobel Prize in Literature, as well.


title: American literature

text: Oral literature existed amongst the various Native American tribes prior to the arrival of European colonists. The traditional territories of some tribes traverse national boundaries and such literature is not homogeneous but reflects the different cultures of these peoples.


title: American literature

text: In 1771 the first work by a Native American in English, "A Sermon Preached at the Execution of Moses Paul, an Indian", by Samson Occom, from the Mohegan tribe, was published and went through 19 editions. "The Life and Adventures of Joaquin Murieta" (1854) by John Rollin Ridge (Cherokee, 1827–67) was the first novel by a Native American, and "O-gi-maw-kwe Mit-I-gwa-ki" ("Queen of the Woods") (1899) by Simon Pokagon (Potawatomi, 1830–99) was "the first Native American novel devoted to the subject of Indian life".


title: American literature

text: A significant event in the development of Native American literature in English came with the awarding of the Pulitzer Prize in 1969 to N. Scott Momaday (Kiowa tribe) for his novel "House Made of Dawn" (1968).


title: American literature

text: The Thirteen Colonies have often been regarded as the center of early American literature. However, the first European settlements in North America had been founded elsewhere many years earlier, and the dominance of the English language in American culture was not yet apparent. The first item printed in Pennsylvania was in German and was the largest book printed in any of the colonies before the American Revolution. Spanish and French had two of the strongest colonial literary traditions in the areas that now comprise the United States, and discussions of early American literature commonly include texts by Samuel de Champlain alongside English-language texts by Thomas Harriot and Captain John Smith. Moreover, a wealth of oral literary traditions existed on the continent among the numerous different Native American tribes. Political events, however, would eventually make English the lingua franca as well as the literary language of choice for the colonies at large. Such events included the English capture of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam in 1664, with the English renaming it New York and changing the administrative language from Dutch to English.


title: American literature

text: From 1696 to 1700, only about 250 separate items were issued from the major printing presses in the American colonies. This is a small number compared to the output of the printers in London at the time. London printers published materials written by New England authors, so the body of American literature was larger than what was published in North America. However, printing was established in the American colonies before it was allowed in most of England. In England, restrictive laws had long confined printing to four locations, where the government could monitor what was published: London, York, Oxford, and Cambridge. Because of this, the colonies ventured into the modern world earlier than their provincial English counterparts.


title: American literature

text: Back then, some of the American literature were pamphlets and writings extolling the benefits of the colonies to both a European and colonial audience. Captain John Smith could be considered the first American author with his works: "A True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Noate as Hath Happened in Virginia ..." (1608) and "The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles" (1624). Other writers of this manner included Daniel Denton, Thomas Ashe, William Penn, George Percy, William Strachey, Daniel Coxe, Gabriel Thomas, and John Lawson.


title: American literature

text: The religious disputes that prompted settlement in America were important topics of early American literature. A journal written by John Winthrop, "The History of New England", discussed the religious foundations of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Edward Winslow also recorded a diary of the first years after the "Mayflower's" arrival. "A modell of Christian Charity" by John Winthrop, the first governor of Massachusetts, was a Sermon preached on the "Arbella" (the flagship of the Winthrop Fleet) in 1630. This work outlined the ideal society that he and the other Separatists would build in an attempt to realize a "Puritan utopia". Other religious writers included Increase Mather and William Bradford, author of the journal published as a "History of Plymouth Plantation, 1620–47". Others like Roger Williams and Nathaniel Ward more fiercely argued state and church separation. Others, such as Thomas Morton, cared little for the church; Morton's "The New English Canaan" mocked the Puritans and declared that the local Native Americans were better people than them.


title: American literature

text: Other late writings described conflicts and interaction with the Indians, as seen in writings by Daniel Gookin, Alexander Whitaker, John Mason, Benjamin Church, and Daniel J. Tan. John Eliot translated the Bible into the Algonquin language (1663) as Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God. It was the first complete Bible printed in the Western hemisphere; Stephen Daye printed 1,000 copies on the first printing press in the American colonies.


title: American literature

text: Of the second generation of New England settlers, Cotton Mather stands out as a theologian and historian, who wrote the history of the colonies with a view to God's activity in their midst and to connecting the Puritan leaders with the great heroes of the Christian faith. His best-known works include the "Magnalia Christi Americana" (1702), the "Wonders of the Invisible World" and "The Biblia Americana".


title: American literature

text: Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield represented the Great Awakening, a religious revival in the early 18th century that emphasized Calvinist thought. Other Puritan and religious writers include Thomas Hooker, Thomas Shepard, John Wise, and Samuel Willard. Less strict and serious writers included Samuel Sewall (who wrote a diary revealing the daily life of the late 17th century), and Sarah Kemble Knight.


title: American literature

text: New England was not the only area in the colonies with a literature: southern literature was also growing at this time. The diary of planter William Byrd and his "The History of the Dividing Line" (1728) described the expedition to survey the swamp between Virginia and North Carolina but also comments on the differences between American Indians and the white settlers in the area. In a similar book, "Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West", William Bartram described the Southern landscape and the Indian tribes he encountered; Bartram's book was popular in Europe, being translated into German, French and Dutch.


title: American literature

text: As the colonies moved toward independence from Britain, an important discussion of American culture and identity came from the French immigrant J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur, whose "Letters from an American Farmer" (1782) addresses the question "What is an American?" by moving between praise for the opportunities and peace offered in the new society and recognition that the solid life of the farmer must rest uneasily between the oppressive aspects of the urban life and the lawless aspects of the frontier, where the lack of social structures leads to the loss of civilized living.


title: American literature

text: This same period saw the beginning of African-American literature, through the poet Phillis Wheatley and the slave narrative of Olaudah Equiano, "The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano" (1789). At this time American Indian literature also began to flourish. Samson Occom published his "A Sermon Preached at the Execution of Moses Paul" and a popular hymnbook, "Collection of Hymns and Spiritual Songs", "the first Indian best-seller".


title: American literature

text: The Revolutionary period also contained political writings, including those by colonists Samuel Adams, Josiah Quincy, John Dickinson, and Joseph Galloway, the last being a loyalist to the crown. Two key figures were Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine. Franklin's "Poor Richard's Almanack" and "The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin" are esteemed works with their wit and influence toward the formation of a budding American identity. Paine's pamphlet "Common Sense" and "The American Crisis" writings are seen as playing a key role in influencing the political tone of the time.


title: American literature

text: During the Revolutionary War, poems and songs such as "Nathan Hale" were popular. Major satirists included John Trumbull and Francis Hopkinson. Philip Morin Freneau also wrote poems about the War.


title: American literature

text: During the 18th century, writing shifted from the Puritanism of Winthrop and Bradford to Enlightenment ideas of reason. The belief that human and natural occurrences were messages from God no longer fit with the budding anthropocentric culture. Many intellectuals believed that the human mind could comprehend the universe through the laws of physics as described by Isaac Newton. One of these was Cotton Mather. The first book published in North America that promoted Newton and natural theology was Mather's "The Christian Philosopher" (1721). The enormous scientific, economic, social, and philosophical, changes of the 18th century, called the Enlightenment, impacted the authority of clergyman and scripture, making way for democratic principles. The increase in population helped account for the greater diversity of opinion in religious and political life as seen in the literature of this time. In 1670, the population of the colonies numbered approximately 111,000. Thirty years later it was more than 250,000. By 1760, it reached 1,600,000. The growth of communities and therefore social life led people to become more interested in the progress of individuals and their shared experience in the colonies. These new ideas can be seen in the popularity of Benjamin Franklin's "Autobiography".


title: American literature

text: Even earlier than Franklin was Cadwallader Colden (1689 - 1776), whose book "The History of the Five Indian Nations", published in 1727 was one of the first texts published on Iroquois history. Colden also wrote a book on botany, which attracted the attention of Carl Linnaeus, and he maintained a long term correspondence with Benjamin Franklin.


title: American literature

text: In the post-war period, Thomas Jefferson established his place in American literature through his authorship of the Declaration of Independence, his influence on the U.S. Constitution, his autobiography, his Notes on the State of Virginia, and his many letters. The Federalist essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay presented a significant historical discussion of American government organization and republican values. Fisher Ames, James Otis, and Patrick Henry are also valued for their political writings and orations.


title: American literature

text: Early American literature struggled to find a unique voice in existing literary genre, and this tendency was reflected in novels. European styles were frequently imitated, but critics usually considered the imitations inferior.


title: American literature

text: In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the first American novels were published. These fictions were too lengthy to be printed for public reading. Publishers took a chance on these works in hopes they would become steady sellers and need to be reprinted. This scheme was ultimately successful because male and female literacy rates were increasing at the time. Among the first American novels are Thomas Attwood Digges's "Adventures of Alonso", published in London in 1775 and William Hill Brown's "The Power of Sympathy" published in 1789. Brown's novel depicts a tragic love story between siblings who fell in love without knowing they were related.


title: American literature

text: In the next decade, important women writers also published novels. Susanna Rowson is best known for her novel "Charlotte: A Tale of Truth", published in London in 1791. In 1794 the novel was reissued in Philadelphia under the title, "Charlotte Temple". "Charlotte Temple" is a seduction tale, written in the third person, which warns against listening to the voice of love and counsels resistance. She also wrote nine novels, six theatrical works, two collections of poetry, six textbooks, and countless songs. Reaching more than a million and a half readers over a century and a half, "Charlotte Temple" was the biggest seller of the 19th century before Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin". Although Rowson was extremely popular in her time and is often acknowledged in accounts of the development of the early American novel, "Charlotte Temple" often is criticized as a sentimental novel of seduction.


title: American literature

text: Hannah Webster Foster's "The Coquette: Or, the History of Eliza Wharton" was published in 1797 and was extremely popular. Told from Foster's point of view and based on the real life of Eliza Whitman, the novel is about a woman who is seduced and abandoned. Eliza is a "coquette" who is courted by two very different men: a clergyman who offers her a comfortable domestic life and a noted libertine. Unable to choose between them, she finds herself single when both men get married. She eventually yields to the artful libertine and gives birth to an illegitimate stillborn child at an inn. "The Coquette" is praised for its demonstration of the era's contradictory ideas of womanhood. even as it has been criticized for delegitimizing protest against women's subordination.


title: American literature

text: Both "The Coquette" and "Charlotte Temple" are novels that treat the right of women to live as equals as the new democratic experiment. These novels are of the sentimental genre, characterized by overindulgence in emotion, an invitation to listen to the voice of reason against misleading passions, as well as an optimistic overemphasis on the essential goodness of humanity. Sentimentalism is often thought to be a reaction against the Calvinistic belief in the depravity of human nature.


title: American literature

text: While many of these novels were popular, the economic infrastructure of the time did not allow these writers to make a living through their writing alone.


title: American literature

text: Charles Brockden Brown is the earliest American novelist whose works are still commonly read. He published "Wieland" in 1798, and in 1799 published "Ormond", "Edgar Huntly", and "Arthur Mervyn". These novels are of the Gothic genre.


title: American literature

text: The first writer to be able to support himself through the income generated by his publications alone was Washington Irving. He completed his first major book in 1809 titled "A History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty".


title: American literature

text: Of the picaresque genre, Hugh Henry Brackenridge published "Modern Chivalry" in 1792–1815; Tabitha Gilman Tenney wrote "Female Quixotism: Exhibited in the Romantic Opinions and Extravagant Adventure of Dorcasina Sheldon" in 1801; Royall Tyler wrote "The Algerine Captive" in 1797.


title: American literature

text: Other notable authors include William Gilmore Simms, who wrote "Martin Faber" in 1833, "Guy Rivers" in 1834, and "The Yemassee" in 1835. Lydia Maria Child wrote "Hobomok" in 1824 and "The Rebels" in 1825. John Neal wrote "Keep Cool" in 1817, "Logan, A Family History" in 1822, "Seventy-Six" in 1823, "Randolph" in 1823, "Errata" in 1823, "Brother Jonathan" in 1825, and "Rachel Dyer" (earliest use of the Salem witch trials as the basis for a novel) in 1828. Catherine Maria Sedgwick wrote "A New England Tale" in 1822, "Redwood" in 1824, "Hope Leslie" in 1827, and "The Linwoods" in 1835. James Kirke Paulding wrote "The Lion of the West" in 1830, "The Dutchman's Fireside" in 1831, and "Westward Ho!" in 1832. Omar ibn Said, a Muslim slave in the Carolinas, wrote an autobiography in Arabic in 1831, considered an early example of African-American literature. Robert Montgomery Bird wrote "Calavar" in 1834 and "Nick of the Woods" in 1837. James Fenimore Cooper was a notable author best known for his novel "The Last of the Mohicans" written in 1826. George Tucker produced in 1824 the first fiction of Virginia colonial life with "The Valley of Shenandoah". He followed in 1827 with one of the country's first science fictions: "A Voyage to the Moon: With Some Account of the Manners and Customs, Science and Philosophy, of the People of Morosofia, and Other Lunarians".


title: American literature

text: After the war with Britain in 1812, there was an increasing desire to produce a uniquely American literature and culture. Literary figures who took up the cause included Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, and James Fenimore Cooper. Irving wrote humorous works in "Salmagundi" and the satire "A History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker" (1809). Bryant wrote early romantic and nature-inspired poetry, which evolved away from their European origins. Cooper's "Leatherstocking Tales" about Natty Bumppo (which includes "The Last of the Mohicans", 1826) treated uniquely American material in ways that were popular both in the new country and Europe.


title: American literature

text: John Neal as a critic played a key role in developing American literary nationalism. Neal criticized Irving and Cooper for relying on old British conventions of authorship to frame American phenomena, arguing that "to succeed ... [the American writer] must resemble nobody ... [he] must be unlike all that have gone before [him]" and issue "another Declaration of Independence, in the great Republic of Letters." As a pioneer of the literary device he referred to "natural writing", Neal was "the first in America to be natural in his diction" and his work represents "the first deviation from ... Irvingesque graciousness."


title: American literature

text: Edgar Allan Poe was born in Boston but raised in Virginia and identified with the South. In 1832, he began writing short stories, such as "The Masque of the Red Death", "The Pit and the Pendulum", and "The Fall of the House of Usher", that explore hidden depths of human psychology and push the boundaries of fiction. Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue", is seen as the first detective story.


title: American literature

text: Humorous writers were also popular and included Seba Smith and Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber in New England and Davy Crockett, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, Johnson J. Hooper, Thomas Bangs Thorpe, and George Washington Harris writing about the American frontier.


title: American literature

text: In New England, a group of writers known as Boston Brahmins included James Russell Lowell, then in later years Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.


title: American literature

text: In 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson, who had renounced his ministry, published his essay "Nature", which argued that men should dispense with organized religion and reach a lofty spiritual state by studying and interacting with the natural world. He expanded his influence with his lecture "The American Scholar", delivered in Cambridge in 1837, which called upon Americans to create a uniquely American writing style. Both the nation and the individual should declare independence. Emerson's influence fostered the movement now known as Transcendentalism. Among the leaders was Emerson's friend, Henry David Thoreau, a nonconformist and critic of American commercial culture. After living mostly by himself for two years in a nearby cabin by a wooded pond, Thoreau wrote "Walden" (1854), a memoir that urges resistance to the dictates of society. Other Transcendentalists included Amos Bronson Alcott, Margaret Fuller, George Ripley, Orestes Brownson, and Jones Very.


title: American literature

text: As one of the great works of the Revolutionary period was written by a Frenchman, so too was a work about America from this generation. Alexis de Tocqueville's two-volume "Democracy in America" (1836&1840)described his travels through the young nation, making observations about the relations between American politics, individualism, and community.


title: American literature

text: The political conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and his paper "The Liberator", along with poet John Greenleaf Whittier and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her world-famous "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852). These efforts were supported by the continuation of the slave narrative autobiography.


title: American literature

text: In 1837, the young Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864) collected some of his stories as "Twice-Told Tales", a volume rich in symbolism and occult incidents. Hawthorne went on to write full-length "romances", quasi-allegorical novels that explore the themes of guilt, pride, and emotional repression. His masterpiece, "The Scarlet Letter" (1850), is a drama, set in Puritan Massachusetts, about a woman cast out of her community for committing adultery with a minister who refuses to acknowledge his own sin.


title: American literature

text: Herman Melville (1819–1891) made a name for himself with "Typee" and "Omoo" , adventure tales based loosely on his own life at sea and jumping ship to live among south sea natives. After becoming friends with Hawthorne in 1850, Melville was inspired by his allegories and psychology, "Moby-Dick" (1851) became not only an adventurous whaling tale but an exploration of obsession, the nature of evil, and human struggle against the elements. It was a critical and commercial failure, as were his next novels. He turned to poetry, and did not return to fiction until the short novel "Billy Budd". which was left unfinished at his death in 1893. Melville dramatizes the conflicting claims of duty and compassion on board a ship in time of war. His more profound books sold poorly, and he had been long forgotten by the time of his death. He was rediscovered in the early 20th century.


title: American literature

text: Anti-transcendental works from Melville, Hawthorne, and Poe all comprise the Dark Romanticism sub-genre of popular literature at this time.


title: American literature

text: Slave narrative autobiography from this period include Frederick Douglass's "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave" (1845) and Harriet Jacobs's "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl" (1861). At this time, American Indian autobiography develops, most notably in William Apess's "A Son of the Forest" (1829) and George Copway's "The Life, History and Travels of Kah-ge-ga-gah-bowh" (1847). Moreover, minority authors were beginning to publish fiction, as in William Wells Brown's "Clotel; or, The President's Daughter" (1853), Frank J. Webb's "The Garies and Their Friends", (1857) Martin Delany's "Blake; or, The Huts of America" (1859–62) and Harriet E. Wilson's "Our Nig: Sketches from the Life of a Free Black" (1859) as early African-American novels, and John Rollin Ridge's "The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta" (1854), which is considered the first Native American novel but which also is an early story about Mexican-American issues.


title: American literature

text: Mark Twain (the pen name used by Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 1835–1910) was among the first major American writers to be born away from the East Coast – in the border state of Missouri. His regional masterpieces were the memoir "Life on the Mississippi" and the novels "Adventures of Tom Sawyer" and "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" (1884). Twain's style – influenced by journalism, wedded to the vernacular, direct and unadorned but also highly evocative and irreverently humorous – changed the way Americans write their language. His characters speak like real people and sound distinctively American, using local dialects, newly invented words, and regional accents.


title: American literature

text: Other writers interested in regional differences and dialect were George W. Cable, Thomas Nelson Page, Joel Chandler Harris, Mary Noailles Murfree (Charles Egbert Craddock), Sarah Orne Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, Henry Cuyler Bunner, and William Sydney Porter (O. Henry). A version of local color regionalism that focused on minority experiences can be seen in the works of Charles W. Chesnutt (writing about African Americans), of María Ruiz de Burton, one of the earliest Mexican-American novelists to write in English, and in the Yiddish-inflected works of Abraham Cahan.


title: American literature

text: William Dean Howells also represented the realist tradition through his novels, including "The Rise of Silas Lapham" (1885) and his work as editor of "The Atlantic Monthly".


title: American literature

text: Henry James (1843–1916) confronted the Old World-New World dilemma by writing directly about it. Although he was born in New York City, James spent most of his adult life in England. Many of his novels center on Americans who live in or travel to Europe. With its intricate, highly qualified sentences and dissection of emotional and psychological nuance, James's fiction can be daunting. Among his more accessible works are the novellas "Daisy Miller" (1878), about an American girl in Europe, and "The Turn of the Screw" (1898), a ghost story.


title: American literature

text: Stephen Crane (1871–1900), best known for his Civil War novel "The Red Badge of Courage" (1895), depicted the life of New York City prostitutes in "" (1893). And in "Sister Carrie" (1900), Theodore Dreiser (1871–1945) portrayed a country girl who moves to Chicago and becomes a kept woman. Frank Norris's (1870 – 1902) fiction was predominantly in the naturalist genre. His notable works include "McTeague: A Story of San Francisco" (1899), "" (1901) and "The Pit" (1903). Norris along with Hamlin Garland (1860 – 1940) wrote about the problems of American farmers and other social issues from a naturalist perspective. Garland is best known for his fiction involving hard-working Midwestern farmers. ("Main-Travelled Roads" (1891), "Prairie Folks" (1892), "" (1892).)


title: American literature

text: Edward Bellamy's utopian novel "Looking Backward" (1888) was concerned with political and social issues.


title: American literature

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, American novelists were expanding fiction to encompass both high and low life and sometimes connected to the naturalist school of realism. In her stories and novels, Edith Wharton (1862–1937) scrutinized the upper-class, Eastern-seaboard society in which she had grown up. One of her finest books, "The Age of Innocence" (1920), centers on a man who chooses to marry a conventional, socially acceptable woman rather than a fascinating outsider.


title: American literature

text: Social issues and the power of corporations was the central concern of some writers at this time. Upton Sinclair (1878-1968), most famous for his muckraking novel "The Jungle" (1906), advocated socialism. Jack London (1876- 1916) was also very committed to social justice and socialism through some of his books as "The Iron Heel" or "The People of the Abyss". Other political writers of the period included Edwin Markham (1852-1940) and William Vaughn Moody. Journalistic critics, including Ida M. Tarbell and Lincoln Steffens, were labeled "The Muckrakers". Henry Brooks Adams's literate autobiography, "The Education of Henry Adams" (1907) also depicted a stinging description of the education system and modern life.


title: American literature

text: Race was a common issue as well, as seen in the work of Pauline Hopkins, who published five influential works from 1900 to 1903. Similarly, Sui Sin Far wrote about Chinese-American experiences, and Maria Cristina Mena wrote about Mexican-American experiences.


title: American literature

text: Prominent among mid-western and western American writers were Willa Cather (1843-1947) and Wallace Stegner (1909-1993), both of whom had a major opus set largely in their regions.


title: American literature

text: Experimentation in style and form soon joined the new freedom in subject matter. In 1909, Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), by then an expatriate in Paris, published "Three Lives", an innovative work of fiction influenced by her familiarity with cubism, jazz, and other movements in contemporary art and music. Stein labeled a group of American literary figures who lived in Paris in the 1920s and 1930s the "Lost Generation".


title: American literature

text: The 1920s brought sharp changes to American literature. Many writers had direct experience of the First World War, and they used it to frame their writings. Writers like Henry James, Gertrude Stein, and poets Ezra Pound, H.D. and T. S. Eliot demonstrate the growth of an international perspective in American literature. American writers had long looked to European models for inspiration, but whereas the literary breakthroughs of the mid-19th century came from finding distinctly American styles and themes, writers from this period were finding ways of contributing to a flourishing international literary scene, not as imitators but as equals. Something similar was happening back in the States, as Jewish writers (such as Abraham Cahan) used the English language to reach an international Jewish audience.


title: American literature

text: The period of peace and debt-fueled economic expansion that followed WWI was the setting for many of the stories and novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940). Fitzgerald's work captured the restless, pleasure-hungry, defiant mood of the 1920s, a decade he named the Jazz Age. Fitzgerald's characteristic theme, expressed poignantly in his masterpiece "The Great Gatsby", is the tendency of youth's golden dreams to dissolve in failure and disappointment. Fitzgerald also dwells on the collapse of long-held American Ideals, such as liberty, social unity, good governance and peace, features which were severely threatened by the pressures of modern early 20th century society. Sinclair Lewis and Sherwood Anderson also wrote novels with critical depictions of American life. John Dos Passos wrote a famous anti-war novel, "Three Soldiers", describing scenes of blind hatred, stupidity, and criminality; and the suffocating regimentation of army life. He also wrote about the war in the U.S.A. trilogy which extended into the Depression. Experimental in form, the U.S.A. trilogy weaves together various narrative strands, which alternate with contemporary news reports, snatches of the author's autobiography, and capsule biographies of public figures including Eugene Debs, Robert La Follette and Isadora Duncan.


title: American literature

text: Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) saw violence and death first-hand as an ambulance driver in World War I, and the carnage persuaded him that abstract language was mostly empty and misleading. He cut out unnecessary words from his writing, simplified the sentence structure, and concentrated on concrete objects and actions. He adhered to a moral code that emphasized grace under pressure, and his protagonists were strong, silent men who often dealt awkwardly with women. "The Sun Also Rises" and "A Farewell to Arms" are generally considered his best novels; in 1954, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.


title: American literature

text: William Faulkner (1897–1962) won the Nobel Prize in 1949. Faulkner encompassed a wide range of humanity in Yoknapatawpha County, a Mississippian region of his own invention. He recorded his characters' seemingly unedited ramblings in order to represent their inner states, a technique called "stream of consciousness". He also jumbled time sequences to show how the past – especially the slave-holding era of the Deep South – endures in the present. Among his great works are "Absalom, Absalom!", "As I Lay Dying", "The Sound and the Fury", and "Light in August".


title: American literature

text: Depression era literature offered blunt, direct social criticism. John Steinbeck (1902–1968) set many of his stories in Salinas, California, where he was born. His style was simple and evocative, winning him the favor of the readers but not of the critics. His poor, working-class characters struggled to lead a decent and honest life. "The Grapes of Wrath" (1939), considered his masterpiece, is a strong, socially-oriented novel of the Joads, a poor family from Oklahoma and their journey to California in search of a better life. Other of his popular novels include "Tortilla Flat", "Of Mice and Men", "Cannery Row", and "East of Eden". He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1962.


title: American literature

text: In his short life, Nathanael West produced two short novels that later came to be considered classics. "Miss Lonelyhearts" plumbs the life of reluctant (and, to comic effect, male) advice columnist who cannot deal with the tragic letters he receives. "The Day of the Locust" satirizes Hollywood stereotypes and the dark ironies of Hollywood life.


title: American literature

text: In non-fiction, James Agee's "Let Us Now Praise Famous Men" observes and depicts the lives of three struggling tenant-farming families in Alabama in 1936. Combining factual reporting with poetic beauty, Agee presented an accurate and detailed report of what he had seen coupled with insight into his feelings about the experience and the difficulties of capturing it for a broad audience. In doing so, he created an enduring portrait of a nearly invisible segment of the American population.


title: American literature

text: Henry Miller's semi-autobiographical novels of sexual exploration, written and published in Paris, were deemed pornographic and officially banned from the United States until 1962. By then, the themes and stylistic innovations in "Tropic of Cancer" (1934) and "Black Spring" had already set an example that paved the way for sexually frank novels of personal experience of the 1950s and 1960s.


title: American literature

text: The period was dominated by the last few of the realistic modernists, the wildly Romantic beatniks, and explorations of personal, racial, and ethnic themes.


title: American literature

text: World War II was the subject of several major novels: Norman Mailer's "The Naked and the Dead" (1948), Joseph Heller's "Catch-22" (1961) and Kurt Vonnegut Jr.'s "Slaughterhouse-Five" (1969). While the Korean war was a source of trauma for the protagonist of "The Moviegoer" (1962), by Southern author Walker Percy, winner of the National Book Award; his attempt at exploring "the dislocation of man in the modern age."


title: American literature

text: Though born in Canada, Chicago raised Saul Bellow became one of the most influential American writers. Works like "The Adventures of Augie March" (1953) and "Herzog" (1964), Bellow painted vivid portraits of Jewish life in America that opened the way for further work. He was honored by the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1976. Other noteworthy novels are J.D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye" (1951), Sylvia Plath's "The Bell Jar" (1963), and Russian-American Vladimir Nabokov's "Lolita" (1955). The highly popular "To Kill a Mockingbird" (1960) by Harper Lee was a less intense novel of racial inequality and white responsibility.


title: American literature

text: The 1950s poetry and fiction of the "Beat Generation" developed, initially from a New York circle of intellectuals and then established more officially later in San Francisco. The term "Beat" referred to the countercultural rhythm of the Jazz scene, to a sense of rebellion regarding the conservative stress of post-war society, and to an interest in new forms of spiritual experience through drugs, alcohol, philosophy, and religion (specifically Zen Buddhism). Allen Ginsberg set the tone with his Whitmanesque poem "Howl" (1956), a work that begins: "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness". Among the achievements of the Beats, in the novel, are Jack Kerouac's "On the Road" (1957), the chronicle of a soul-searching travel through the continent, and William S. Burroughs's "Naked Lunch" (1959), a more experimental work structured as a series of vignettes relating, among other things, the narrator's travels and experiments with hard drugs.


title: American literature

text: In contrast, John Updike approached American life from a more reflective but no less subversive perspective. His 1960 novel "Rabbit, Run", the first of four chronicling the rising and falling fortunes of Harry "Rabbit" Angstrom over the course of four decades against the backdrop of the major events of the second half of the 20th century, broke new ground on its release in its characterization and detail of the American middle class and frank discussion of taboo topics such as adultery. Notable among Updike's characteristic innovations was his use of present-tense narration, his rich, stylized language, and his attention to sensual detail. His work is also deeply imbued with Christian themes. The two final installments of the Rabbit series, "Rabbit is Rich" (1981) and "Rabbit at Rest" (1990), were both awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Other notable works include the Henry Bech novels (1970–98), "The Witches of Eastwick" (1984), "Roger's Version" (1986) and "In the Beauty of the Lilies" (1996), which literary critic Michiko Kakutani called "arguably his finest".


title: American literature

text: Frequently linked with Updike is the novelist Philip Roth. Roth vigorously explores Jewish identity in American society, especially in the postwar era and the early 21st century. Frequently set in Newark, New Jersey, Roth's work is known to be highly autobiographical, and many of Roth's main characters, most famously the Jewish novelist Nathan Zuckerman, are thought to be alter egos of Roth. With these techniques, and armed with his articulate and fast-paced style, Roth explores the distinction between reality and fiction in literature while provocatively examining American culture. His most famous work includes the Zuckerman novels, the controversial "Portnoy's Complaint" (1969), and "Goodbye, Columbus" (1959). Among the most decorated American writers of his generation, he has won every major American literary award, including the Pulitzer Prize for his major novel "American Pastoral" (1997).


title: American literature

text: In the realm of African-American literature, Ralph Ellison's 1952 novel "Invisible Man" was instantly recognized as among the most powerful and important works of the immediate post-war years. The story of a black Underground Man in the urban north, the novel laid bare the often repressed racial tension that still prevailed while also succeeding as an existential character study. Richard Wright was catapulted to fame by the publication in subsequent years of his now widely studied short story, "The Man Who Was Almost a Man" (1939), and his controversial second novel, "Native Son" (1940), and his legacy was cemented by the 1945 publication of "Black Boy", a work in which Wright drew on his childhood and mostly autodidactic education in the segregated South, fictionalizing and exaggerating some elements as he saw fit. Because of its polemical themes and Wright's involvement with the Communist Party, the novel's final part, "American Hunger", was not published until 1977.


title: American literature

text: Perhaps the most ambitious and challenging post-war American novelist was William Gaddis, whose uncompromising, satiric, and large novels, such as "The Recognitions" (1955) and "J R" (1975) are presented largely in terms of unattributed dialog that requires almost unexampled reader participation. Gaddis's primary themes include forgery, capitalism, religious zealotry, and the legal system, constituting a sustained polyphonic critique of modern American life. Gaddis's work, though largely ignored for years, anticipated and influenced the development of such ambitious "postmodern" fiction writers as Thomas Pynchon, David Foster Wallace, Joseph McElroy, William H. Gass, and Don DeLillo. Another neglected and challenging postwar American novelist, albeit one who wrote much shorter works, was John Hawkes, whose surreal visionary fiction addresses themes of violence and eroticism and experiments audaciously with narrative voice and style. Among his most important works is the short nightmarish novel "The Lime Twig" (1961).


title: American literature

text: In the postwar period, the art of the short story again flourished. Among its most respected practitioners was Flannery O'Connor, who developed a distinctive Southern gothic esthetic in which characters acted at one level as people and at another as symbols. A devout Catholic, O'Connor often imbued her stories, among them the widely studied "A Good Man is Hard to Find" and "Everything That Rises Must Converge", and two novels, "Wise Blood" (1952); "The Violent Bear It Away" (1960), with deeply religious themes, focusing particularly on the search for truth and religious skepticism against the backdrop of the nuclear age. Other important practitioners of the form include Katherine Anne Porter, Eudora Welty, John Cheever, Raymond Carver, Tobias Wolff, and the more experimental Donald Barthelme.


title: American literature

text: Though its exact parameters remain disputable, from the early 1990s to the present day the most salient literary movement has been postmodernism. Thomas Pynchon, a seminal practitioner of the form, drew in his work on modernist fixtures such as temporal distortion, unreliable narrators, and internal monologue and coupled them with distinctly postmodern techniques such as metafiction, ideogrammatic characterization, unrealistic names (Oedipa Maas, Benny Profane, etc.), plot elements and hyperbolic humor, deliberate use of anachronisms and archaisms, a strong focus on postcolonial themes, and a subversive commingling of high and low culture. In 1973, he published "Gravity's Rainbow", a leading work in this genre, which won the National Book Award and was unanimously nominated for the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction that year. His other major works include his debut, "V." (1963), "The Crying of Lot 49" (1966), "Mason & Dixon" (1997), and "Against the Day" (2006).


title: American literature

text: Toni Morrison, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature, writing in a distinctive lyrical prose style, published her controversial debut novel, "The Bluest Eye", to critical acclaim in 1970. Coming on the heels of the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1965, the novel, widely studied in American schools, includes an elaborate description of incestuous rape and explores the conventions of beauty established by a historically racist society, painting a portrait of a self-immolating black family in search of beauty in whiteness. Since then, Morrison has experimented with lyric fantasy, as in her two best-known later works, "Song of Solomon" (1977) and "Beloved" (1987), for which she was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction; along these lines, critic Harold Bloom has drawn favorable comparisons to Virginia Woolf, and the Nobel committee to "Faulkner and to the Latin American tradition [of magical realism]." "Beloved" was chosen in a 2006 survey conducted by "The New York Times" as the most important work of fiction of the last 25 years.


title: American literature

text: Writing in a lyrical, flowing style that eschews excessive use of the comma and semicolon, recalling William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway in equal measure, Cormac McCarthy seizes on the literary traditions of several regions of the United States and includes multiple genres. He writes in the Southern Gothic aesthetic in his Faulknerian 1965 debut, "The Orchard Keeper", and "Suttree" (1979); in the Epic Western tradition, with grotesquely drawn characters and symbolic narrative turns reminiscent of Melville, in "Blood Meridian" (1985), which Harold Bloom styled "the greatest single book since Faulkner's "As I Lay Dying"", calling the character of Judge Holden "short of Moby Dick, the most monstrous apparition in all of American literature"; in a much more pastoral tone in his celebrated Border Trilogy (1992–98) of "bildungsromans", including "All the Pretty Horses" (1992), winner of the National Book Award; and in the post-apocalyptic genre in the Pulitzer Prize-winning "The Road" (2007). His novels are noted for achieving both commercial and critical success, several of his works having been adapted to film.


title: American literature

text: Don DeLillo, who rose to literary prominence with the publication of his 1985 novel, "White Noise", a work broaching the subjects of death and consumerism and doubling as a piece of comic social criticism, began his writing career in 1971 with "Americana". He is listed by Harold Bloom as being among the preeminent contemporary American writers, in the company of such figures as Philip Roth, Cormac McCarthy, and Thomas Pynchon. His 1997 novel "Underworld" chronicles American life through and immediately after the Cold War and is usually considered his masterpiece. It was also the runner-up in a survey that asked writers to identify the most important work of fiction of the last 25 years. Among his other important novels are "Libra" (1988), "Mao II" (1991) and "Falling Man" (2007).


title: American literature

text: Seizing on the distinctly postmodern techniques of digression, narrative fragmentation and elaborate symbolism, and strongly influenced by the works of Thomas Pynchon, David Foster Wallace began his writing career with "The Broom of the System", published to moderate acclaim in 1987. His second novel, "Infinite Jest" (1996), a futuristic portrait of America and a playful critique of the media-saturated nature of American life, has been consistently ranked among the most important works of the 20th century, and his final novel, unfinished at the time of his death, The Pale King (2011), has garnered much praise and attention. In addition to his novels, he also authored three acclaimed short story collections: "Girl with Curious Hair" (1989), "Brief Interviews with Hideous Men" (1999) and "" (2004).


title: American literature

text: Jonathan Franzen, Wallace's friend and contemporary, rose to prominence after the 2001 publication of his National Book Award-winning third novel, "The Corrections". He began his writing career in 1988 with the well-received "The Twenty-Seventh City", a novel centering on his native St. Louis, but did not gain national attention until the publication of his essay, "Perchance to Dream", in "Harper's Magazine", discussing the cultural role of the writer in the new millennium through the prism of his own frustrations. "The Corrections", a tragicomedy about the disintegrating Lambert family, has been called "the literary phenomenon of [its] decade" and was ranked as one of the greatest novels of the past century. In 2010, he published "Freedom" to great critical acclaim.


title: American literature

text: Other notable writers at the turn of the century include Michael Chabon, whose Pulitzer Prize-winning "The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay" (2000) tells the story of two friends, Joe Kavalier and Sam Clay, as they rise through the ranks of the comics industry in its heyday; Denis Johnson, whose 2007 novel "Tree of Smoke" about falsified intelligence during Vietnam both won the National Book Award and was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and was called by critic Michiko Kakutani "one of the classic works of literature produced by [the Vietnam War]"; and Louise Erdrich, whose 2008 novel "The Plague of Doves", a distinctly Faulknerian, polyphonic examination of the tribal experience set against the backdrop of murder in the fictional town of Pluto, North Dakota, was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize, and her 2012 novel "The Round House", which builds on the same themes, was awarded the 2012 National Book Award.


title: American literature

text: Puritan poetry was highly religious, and one of the earliest books of poetry published was the "Bay Psalm Book" (1640), a set of translations of the biblical Psalms; however, the translators' intention was not to create literature, but to create hymns that could be used in worship. Among lyric poets, the most important figures are Anne Bradstreet, who wrote personal poems about her family and homelife; pastor Edward Taylor, whose best poems, the "Preparatory Meditations", were written to help him prepare for leading worship; and Michael Wigglesworth, whose best-selling poem, "The Day of Doom" (1660), describes the time of judgment. It was published in the same year that anti-Puritan Charles II was restored to the British throne. He followed it two years later with "God's Controversy With New England". Nicholas Noyes was also known for his doggerel verse.


title: American literature

text: The 18th century saw an increasing emphasis on America itself as fit subject matter for its poets. This trend is most evident in the works of Philip Freneau (1752–1832), who is also notable for the unusually sympathetic attitude to Native Americans, which was reflective of his skepticism toward American culture. However, this late colonial-era poetry generally was influenced by contemporary poetry in Europe. The work of Rebecca Hammond Lard (1772–1855), is still relevant today, writing about the environment as well as also human nature.


title: American literature

text: The Fireside Poets (also known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets) were some of America's first major poets domestically and internationally. They were known for their poems being easy to memorize due to their general adherence to poetic form (standard forms, regular meter, and rhymed stanzas) and were often recited in the home (hence the name) as well as in school (such as "Paul Revere's Ride"), as well as working with distinctly American themes, including some political issues such as abolition. They included Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. Longfellow achieved the highest level of acclaim and is often considered the first internationally acclaimed American poet, being the first American poet given a bust in Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner.


title: American literature

text: Walt Whitman (1819–1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830–1886), two of America's greatest 19th-century poets could hardly have been more different in temperament and style. Walt Whitman was a working man, a traveler, a self-appointed nurse during the American Civil War (1861–1865), and a poetic innovator. His magnum opus was "Leaves of Grass", in which he uses a free-flowing verse and lines of irregular length to depict the all-inclusiveness of American democracy. Taking that motif one step further, the poet equates the vast range of American experience with himself without being egotistical. For example, in "Song of Myself", the long, central poem in "Leaves of Grass", Whitman writes: "These are really the thoughts of all men in all ages and lands, they are not original with me".


title: American literature

text: In his words Whitman was a poet of "the body electric". In "Studies in Classic American Literature", the English novelist D. H. Lawrence wrote that Whitman "was the first to smash the old moral conception that the soul of man is something 'superior' and 'above' the flesh."


title: American literature

text: By contrast, Emily Dickinson lived the sheltered life of a genteel unmarried woman in small-town Amherst, Massachusetts. Her poetry is ingenious, witty, and penetrating. Her work was unconventional for its day, and little of it was published during her lifetime. Many of her poems dwell on the topic of death, often with a mischievous twist. One, "Because I could not stop for Death", begins, "He kindly stopped for me". The opening of another Dickinson poem toys with her position as a woman in a male-dominated society and an unrecognized poet: "I'm nobody! Who are you? / Are you nobody too?"


title: American literature

text: American poetry arguably reached its peak in the early-to-mid-20th century, with such noted writers as Wallace Stevens and his "Harmonium" (1923) and "The Auroras of Autumn" (1950), T. S. Eliot and his "The Waste Land" (1922), Robert Frost and his "North of Boston" (1914) and "New Hampshire" (1923), Hart Crane and his "White Buildings" (1926) and the epic cycle, "The Bridge" (1930), Ezra Pound, "The Cantos" (1917–1969). William Carlos Williams and his epic poem about his New Jersey hometown, "Paterson", Marianne Moore, E. E. Cummings, Edna St. Vincent Millay and Langston Hughes.


title: American literature

text: Pound's poetry is complex and sometimes obscure, with references to other art forms and to a vast range of Western and Eastern literature. He influenced many poets, notably T. S. Eliot (1888–1965), another expatriate. Eliot wrote spare, cerebral poetry, carried by a dense structure of symbols. In "The Waste Land", he embodied a jaundiced vision of post–World War I society in fragmented, haunted images. Like Pound's, Eliot's poetry could be highly allusive, and some editions of "The Waste Land" come with footnotes supplied by the poet. In 1948, Eliot won the Nobel Prize in Literature.


title: American literature

text: Among the most respected postwar American poets are: John Ashbery, the key figure of the surrealistic New York School of poetry, and his celebrated "Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror" (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1976); Elizabeth Bishop and her "North & South" (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1956) and "Geography III" (National Book Award, 1970); Richard Wilbur and his "Things of This World", winner of both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award for Poetry in 1957; John Berryman and his "The Dream Songs", (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1964, National Book Award, 1968); A.R. Ammons, whose "Collected Poems 1951-1971" won a National Book Award in 1973 and whose long poem "Garbage" earned him another in 1993; Theodore Roethke and his "The Waking" (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1954); James Merrill and his epic poem of communication with the dead, "The Changing Light at Sandover" (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1977); Louise Glück for "The Wild Iris" (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1993) and "Faithful and Virtuous Night" (National Book Award, 2014), who is additionally the only living American author publishing primarily written poetry awarded the Nobel prize in literature; W.S. Merwin for "The Carrier of Ladders" (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1971) and "The Shadow of Sirius" (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 2009); Mark Strand for "Blizzard of One" (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1999); Robert Hass for "Time and Materials", which won both the Pulitzer Prize and National Book Award for Poetry in 2008 and 2007 respectively; and Rita Dove for "Thomas and Beulah" (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1987).


title: American literature

text: In addition, in this same period the confessional, whose origin is often traced to the publication in 1959 of Robert Lowell's "Life Studies", and beat schools of poetry enjoyed popular and academic success, producing such widely anthologized voices as Allen Ginsberg, Charles Bukowski, Gary Snyder, Anne Sexton, and Sylvia Plath, among many others.


title: American literature

text: Although the American theatrical tradition can be traced back to the arrival of Lewis Hallam's troupe in the mid-18th century and was very active in the 19th century, as seen by the popularity of minstrel shows and of adaptations of "Uncle Tom's Cabin", American drama attained international status only in the 1920s and 1930s, with the works of Eugene O'Neill, who won four Pulitzer Prizes and the Nobel Prize.


title: American literature

text: American dramatic literature, by contrast, remained dependent on European models, although many playwrights did attempt to apply these forms to American topics and themes, such as immigrants, westward expansion, temperance, etc. At the same time, American playwrights created several long-lasting American character types, especially the "Yankee", the "Negro" and the "Indian", exemplified by the characters of Jonathan, Sambo and Metamora. In addition, new dramatic forms were created in the Tom Shows, the showboat theater and the minstrel show. Among the best plays of the period are James Nelson Barker's "Superstition; or, the Fanatic Father", Anna Cora Mowatt's "Fashion; or, Life in New York", Nathaniel Bannister's "Putnam, the Iron Son of '76", Dion Boucicault's "The Octoroon; or, Life in Louisiana", and Cornelius Mathews's "Witchcraft; or, the Martyrs of Salem".


title: American literature

text: Realism began to influence American drama, partly through Howells, but also through Europeans such as Ibsen and Zola. Although realism was most influential in set design and staging—audiences loved the special effects offered up by the popular melodramas—and in the growth of local color plays, it also showed up in the more subdued, less romantic tone that reflected the effects of the Civil War and continued social turmoil on the American psyche.


title: American literature

text: The most ambitious attempt at bringing modern realism into the drama was James Herne's "Margaret Fleming" (1890), which addressed issues of social determinism through realistic dialogue, psychological insight, and symbolism. The play was not successful, and both critics and audiences thought it dwelt too much on unseemly topics and included improper scenes, such as the main character nursing her husband's illegitimate child onstage.


title: American literature

text: In the middle of the 20th century, American drama was dominated by the work of playwrights Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, as well as by the maturation of the American musical, which had found a way to integrate script, music and dance in such works as "Oklahoma!" and "West Side Story". Later American playwrights of importance include Edward Albee, Sam Shepard, David Mamet, August Wilson and Tony Kushner.


title: American literature

text: One of the developments in late-20th-century American literature was the increase of literature written by and about ethnic minorities beyond African Americans and Jewish Americans. This development came alongside the growth of the Civil Rights Movement and its corollary, the ethnic pride movement, which led to the creation of Ethnic Studies programs in most major universities. These programs helped establish the new ethnic literature as worthy objects of academic study, alongside such other new areas of literary study as women's literature, gay and lesbian literature, working-class literature, postcolonial literature, and the rise of literary theory as a key component of academic literary study.


title: American literature

text: The second half of the twentieth century saw the emergence of American Jewish writers such as Saul Bellow, Norman Mailer, Joseph Heller, Philip Roth, Chaim Potok, and Bernard Malamud. Potok's novels about a young New York Jewish boy's coming of age, "The Chosen" and "The Promise" figured prominently in this movement.


title: American literature

text: After being relegated to cookbooks and autobiographies for most of the 20th century, Asian American literature achieved widespread notice through Maxine Hong Kingston's fictional memoir, "The Woman Warrior" (1976), and her novels "China Men" (1980) and "Tripmaster Monkey: His Fake Book". Chinese-American author Ha Jin in 1999 won the National Book Award for his second novel, "Waiting", about a Chinese soldier in the Revolutionary Army who has to wait 18 years to divorce his wife for another woman, all the while having to worry about persecution for his protracted affair, and twice won the PEN/Faulkner Award, in 2000 for "Waiting" and in 2005 for "War Trash".


title: American literature

text: Other notable Asian-American novelists include Amy Tan, best known for her novel, "The Joy Luck Club" (1989), tracing the lives of four immigrant families brought together by the game of Mahjong, and Korean American novelist Chang-Rae Lee, who has published "Native Speaker", "A Gesture Life", and "Aloft". Such poets as Marilyn Chin and Li-Young Lee, Kimiko Hahn and Janice Mirikitani have also achieved prominence, as has playwright David Henry Hwang. Equally important has been the effort to recover earlier Asian American authors, started by Frank Chin and his colleagues; this effort has brought Sui Sin Far, Toshio Mori, Carlos Bulosan, John Okada, Hisaye Yamamoto and others to prominence.


title: American literature

text: Indian-American author Jhumpa Lahiri won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for her debut collection of short stories, "Interpreter of Maladies" (1999), and went on to write a well-received novel, "The Namesake" (2003), which was shortly adapted to film in 2007. In her second collection of stories, "Unaccustomed Earth", released to widespread commercial and critical success, Lahiri shifts focus and treats the experiences of the second and third generation.


title: American literature

text: Hispanic literature also became important during this period, starting with acclaimed novels by Tomás Rivera ("...y no se lo tragó la tierra") and Rudolfo Anaya ("Bless Me, Ultima"), and the emergence of Chicano theater with Luis Valdez and "Teatro Campesino". Latina writing became important thanks to authors such as Sandra Cisneros, an icon of an emerging Chicano literature whose 1983 bildungsroman "The House on Mango Street" is taught in schools across the United States, Denise Chavez's "The Last of the Menu Girls" and Gloria Anzaldúa's "".


title: American literature

text: Dominican-American author Junot Díaz received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for his 2007 novel "The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao", which tells the story of an overweight Dominican boy growing up as a social outcast in Paterson, New Jersey. Another Dominican author, Julia Alvarez, is well known for "How the García Girls Lost Their Accents" and "In the Time of the Butterflies". Cuban American author Oscar Hijuelos won a Pulitzer for "The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love", and Cristina García received acclaim for "Dreaming in Cuban".


title: American literature

text: Celebrated Puerto Rican novelists who write in English and Spanish include Giannina Braschi, author of the Spanglish classic "Yo-Yo Boing!" and Rosario Ferré, best known for "Eccentric Neighborhoods". Puerto Rico has also produced important playwrights such as René Marqués ("The Oxcart"), Luis Rafael Sánchez ("The Passion of Antigone Perez"), and José Rivera ("Marisol"). Major poets of Puerto Rican diaspora who write about the life of American immigrants include Julia de Burgos ("I was my own route fui"), Giannina Braschi ("Empire of Dreams"), and Pedro Pietri ("Puerto Rican Obituary"). Pietri was a co-founder of the Nuyorican Poets Café, a performance space for poetry readings. Lin-Manuel Miranda, a Nuyorican poet and playwright, wrote the popular Broadway musicals "Hamilton" and "In the Heights".


title: American literature

text: Spurred by the success of N. Scott Momaday's Pulitzer Prize–winning "House Made of Dawn", Native American literature showed explosive growth during this period, known as the Native American Renaissance, through such novelists as Leslie Marmon Silko (e.g., "Ceremony"), Gerald Vizenor (e.g., "" and numerous essays on Native American literature), Louise Erdrich ("Love Medicine" and several other novels that use a recurring set of characters and locations in the manner of William Faulkner), James Welch (e.g., "Winter in the Blood"), Sherman Alexie (e.g., "The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven"), and poets Simon Ortiz and Joy Harjo. The success of these authors has brought renewed attention to earlier generations, including Zitkala-Sa, John Joseph Mathews, D'Arcy McNickle and Mourning Dove.


title: American literature

text: More recently, Arab American literature, largely unnoticed since the New York Pen League of the 1920s, has become more prominent through the work of Diana Abu-Jaber, whose novels include "Arabian Jazz" and "Crescent" and the memoir "The Language of Baklava".


title: Australian English

text: Australian English (AusE, AusEng, AuE, AuEng, en-AU) is the set of varieties of the English language native to Australia. It is the country's common language and "de facto" national language; while Australia has no official language, English is the first language of the majority of the population, and has been entrenched as the "de facto" national language since European settlement, being the only language spoken in the home for 72% of Australians. It is also the main language used in compulsory education, as well as federal, state and territorial legislatures and courts.


title: Australian English

text: Australian English began to diverge from British and Irish English after the First Fleet established the Colony of New South Wales in 1788. Australian English arose from a dialectal 'melting pot' created by the intermingling of early settlers who were from a variety of dialectal regions of Great Britain and Ireland, though its most significant influences were the dialects of Southeast England. By the 1820s, the native-born colonists' speech was recognisably distinct from speakers in Britain and Ireland.


title: Australian English

text: Australian English differs from other varieties in its phonology, pronunciation, lexicon, idiom, grammar and spelling. Australian English is relatively consistent across the continent, although it encompasses numerous regional and sociocultural varieties. 'General Australian' describes the "de facto" standard dialect, which is perceived to be free of pronounced regional or sociocultural markers and is often used in the media.


title: Australian English

text: The earliest Australian English was spoken by the first generation of native-born colonists in the Colony of New South Wales from the end of the 18th century. These native-born children were exposed to a wide range of dialects from across the British Isles. Similar to early American English, the process of dialect levelling and koineisation which ensued produced a relatively homogeneous new variety of English which was easily understood by all. Peter Miller Cunningham's 1827 book "Two Years in New South Wales" described the distinctive accent and vocabulary that had developed among the native-born colonists.


title: Australian English

text: The dialects of South East England, including most notably the traditional Cockney dialect of London, were particularly influential on the development of the new variety and constituted 'the major input of the various sounds that went into constructing' Australian English. All the other regions of England were represented among the early colonists. A large proportion of early convicts and colonists were from Ireland, and spoke Irish as a sole or first language. They were joined by other non-native speakers of English from Scotland and Wales.


title: Australian English

text: The first of the Australian gold rushes in the 1850s began a large wave of immigration, during which about two percent of the population of the United Kingdom emigrated to the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria. The Gold Rushes brought immigrants and linguistic influences from many parts of the world. An example was the introduction of vocabulary from American English, including some terms later considered to be typically Australian, such as "bushwhacker" and "squatter". This American influence was continued with the popularity of American films from the early 20th century and the influx of American military personnel during World War II; seen in the enduring persistence of such universally-accepted terms as "okay" and "guys".


title: Australian English

text: The publication of Edward Ellis Morris's "Austral English: A Dictionary Of Australasian Words, Phrases And Usages" in 1898, which extensively catalogued Australian English vocabulary, started a wave of academic interest and codification during the 20th century which resulted in Australian English becoming established as an endonormative variety with its own internal norms and standards. This culminated in publications such as the 1981 first edition of the Macquarie Dictionary, a major English language dictionary based on Australian usage, and the 1988 first edition of The Australian National Dictionary, a historical dictionary documenting the history of Australian English vocabulary and idiom.


title: Australian English

text: The most obvious way in which Australian English is distinctive from other varieties of English is through its unique pronunciation. It shares most similarity with New Zealand English. Like most dialects of English, it is distinguished primarily by the phonetic quality of its vowels.


title: Australian English

text: The vowels of Australian English can be divided according to length. The long vowels, which include monophthongs and diphthongs, mostly correspond to the tense vowels used in analyses of Received Pronunciation (RP) as well as its centring diphthongs. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, correspond to the RP lax vowels.


title: Australian English

text: There exist pairs of long and short vowels with overlapping vowel quality giving Australian English phonemic length distinction, which is also present in some regional south-eastern dialects of the UK and eastern seaboard dialects in the US. An example of this feature is the distinction between "ferry" and "fairy" .


title: Australian English

text: As with New Zealand English and General American English, the weak-vowel merger is complete in Australian English: unstressed is merged into (schwa), unless it is followed by a velar consonant. Examples of this feature are the following pairings, which are pronounced identically in Australian English: "Rosa's" and "roses", as well as "Lennon" and "Lenin". Other examples are the following pairs, which rhyme in Australian English: "abbott" with "rabbit", and "dig it" with "bigot".


title: Australian English

text: Most varieties of Australian English exhibit only a partial trap-bath split. The words "bath", "grass" and "can't" are always pronounced with the "long" of "father". Throughout the majority of the country, the "flat" of "man" is the dominant pronunciation for the "a" vowel in the following words: "dance", "advance", "plant", "example" and "answer". The exception is the state of South Australia, where a more advanced trap-bath split has taken place, and where the dominant pronunciation of all the preceding words incorporates the "long" of "father".


title: Australian English

text: There is little variation in the sets of consonants used in different English dialects but there are variations in how these consonants are used. Australian English is no exception.


title: Australian English

text: Australian English is uniformly non-rhotic; that is, the sound does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant. As with many non-rhotic dialects, linking can occur when a word that has a final in the spelling comes before another word that starts with a vowel. An intrusive may similarly be inserted before a vowel in words that do not have in the spelling in certain environments, namely after the long vowel and after word final . This can be heard in "law-r-and order," where an intrusive R is voiced between the AW and the A.


title: Australian English

text: As with North American English, Intervocalic alveolar flapping is a feature of Australian English: prevocalic and surface as the alveolar tap after sonorants other than as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel in the same breath group. Examples of this feature are that the following pairs are pronounced similarly or identically: "latter" and "ladder", as well as "rated" and "raided".


title: Australian English

text: "Yod"-dropping generally occurs after , , , but not after , and . Accordingly, "suit" is pronounced as , "lute" as , "Zeus" as and "enthusiasm" as . Other cases of and , as well as and , have coalesced to , , and respectively for many speakers. is generally retained in other consonant clusters.


title: Australian English

text: In common with most varieties of Scottish English and American English, the phoneme is pronounced as a "dark" (velarised) "l" () in almost all positions, unlike other dialects such as Received Pronunciation and Hiberno (Irish) English, where a light "l" (i.e. a non-velarised "l") is used in many positions.


title: Australian English

text: Differences in stress, weak forms and standard pronunciation of isolated words occur between Australian English and other forms of English, which while noticeable do not impair intelligibility.


title: Australian English

text: The affixes "-ary", "-ery", "-ory", "-bury", "-berry" and "-mony" (seen in words such as "necessary, mulberry" and "matrimony") can be pronounced either with a full vowel () or a schwa (). Although some words like "necessary" are almost universally pronounced with the full vowel, older generations of Australians are relatively likely to pronounce these affixes with a schwa while younger generations are relatively likely to use a full vowel, which is similar to the situation in British English.


title: Australian English

text: Words ending in unstressed "-ile" derived from Latin adjectives ending in "-ilis" are pronounced with a full vowel, so that "fertile" sounds like "fur tile" rather than rhyming with "turtle" .


title: Australian English

text: In addition, miscellaneous pronunciation differences exist when compared with other varieties of English in relation to various isolated words, with some of those pronunciations being unique to Australian English. For example:


title: Australian English

text: Relative to many other national dialect groupings, Australian English is relatively homogeneous across the country. Some relatively minor regional differences in pronunciation exist. A limited range of word choices is strongly regional in nature. Consequently, the geographical background of individuals may be inferred if they use words that are peculiar to particular Australian states or territories and, in some cases, even smaller regions. In addition, some Australians speak creole languages derived from Australian English, such as Australian Kriol, Torres Strait Creole and Norfuk.


title: Australian English

text: Academic research has also identified notable sociocultural variation within Australian English, which is mostly evident in phonology.


title: Australian English

text: Although Australian English is relatively homogeneous, there are some regional variations. The dialects of English spoken in the various states and territories of Australia differ slightly in vocabulary and phonology.


title: Australian English

text: Most regional differences are in word usage. Swimming clothes are known as "cossies" or "swimmers" in New South Wales, "togs" in Queensland, and "bathers" in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia. What Queensland calls a "stroller" is usually called a "pram" in Victoria, Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales, and Tasmania.


title: Australian English

text: Preference for some synonymous words also differ between states. "Garbage" (i.e., garbage bin, garbage truck) dominates over "rubbish" in New South Wales and Queensland, while "rubbish" is more popular in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia.


title: Australian English

text: Additionally, the word "footy" generally refers to the most popular football code in an area; that is, rugby league or rugby union depending on the local area, in most of New South Wales and Queensland, and Australian rules football elsewhere. In some pockets of Melbourne & Western Sydney it will refer to Association football. Beer glasses are also named differently in different states. Distinctive grammatical patterns exist such as the use of the interrogative "eh" (also spelled "ay" or "aye"), which is particularly associated with Queensland. "Secret Santa" () and "Kris Kringle" are used in all states, with the former being more common in Queensland.


title: Australian English

text: The most pronounced variation in phonology is between South Australia and the other states and territories. The trap–bath split is more complete in South Australia, in contrast to the other states. Accordingly, words such as "dance", "advance", "plant", "example" and "answer" are pronounced with (as in "father") far more frequently in South Australia while the older (as in "mad") is dominant elsewhere in Australia. "L"-vocalisation is also more common in South Australia than other states.


title: Australian English

text: In Western Australian and Queensland English, the vowels in "near" and "square" are typically realised as centring diphthongs (), whereas in the other states they may also be realised as monophthongs: .


title: Australian English

text: A feature common in Victorian English is salary–celery merger, whereby a Victorian pronunciation of "Ellen" may sound like "Alan" and Victoria's capital city "Melbourne" may sound like "Malbourne" to speakers from other states. There is also regional variation in before (as in "school" and "pool").


title: Australian English

text: In some parts of Australia, notably Victoria, a fully backed allophone of , transcribed , is common before . As a result, the pairs full/fool and pull/pool differ phonetically only in vowel length for those speakers. The usual allophone for is further forward in Queensland and New South Wales than Victoria.


title: Australian English

text: The General Australian accent serves as the standard variety of English across the country. According to linguists, it emerged during the 19th century. General Australian is the dominant variety across the continent, and is particularly so in urban areas. The increasing dominance of General Australian reflects its prominence on radio and television since the latter half of the 20th century.


title: Australian English

text: Recent generations have seen a comparatively smaller proportion of the population speaking with the "Broad" sociocultural variant, which differs from General Australian in its phonology. The Broad variant is also found across the continent and is relatively more prominent in rural and outer-suburban areas.


title: Australian English

text: A largely historical "Cultivated" sociocultural variant, which adopted features of British Received Pronunciation and which was commonplace in official media during the early 20th century, had become largely extinct by the onset of the 21st century.


title: Australian English

text: Australian Aboriginal English is made up of a range of forms which developed differently in different parts of Australia, and are said to vary along a continuum, from forms close to Standard Australian English to more non-standard forms. There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use.


title: Australian English

text: Academics have also noted the emergence of numerous ethnocultural dialects of Australian English that are spoken by people from some minority non-English speaking backgrounds. These ethnocultural varieties contain features of General Australian English as adopted by the children of immigrants blended with some non-English language features, such as Afro-Asiatic languages and languages of Asia. Samoan English is also influencing Australian English.


title: Australian English

text: High rising terminal was noted and studied in Australian English earlier than in other varieties of English; to this effect, the feature is sometimes called "Australian questioning intonation". Research published in 1986, regarding vernacular speech in Sydney, suggested that high rising terminal was initially spread by young people in the 1960s, and also claimed it was used more than twice as often by young people than older people, and more common among women than men. In the United Kingdom, it has occasionally been considered one of the variety's stereotypical features, and its spread there blamed on the popularity of Australian soap operas.


title: Australian English

text: Australian English has many words and idioms which are unique to the dialect and have been written on extensively.


title: Australian English

text: Internationally well-known examples of Australian terminology include "outback", meaning a remote, sparsely populated area, "the bush", meaning either a native forest or a country area in general, and "g'day", a greeting. "Dinkum", or "fair dinkum" means "true" or "is that true?", among other things, depending on context and inflection. The derivative "dinky-di" means "true" or devoted: a "dinky-di Aussie" is a "true Australian".


title: Australian English

text: Australian poetry, such as "The Man from Snowy River", as well as folk songs such as "Waltzing Matilda", contain many historical Australian words and phrases that are understood by Australians even though some are not in common usage today.