title: 2022 BWF season

text: The 2022 BWF season was the overall badminton circuit organized by the Badminton World Federation (BWF) for the 2022 badminton season to publish and promote the sport. The world badminton tournament in 2022 consisted of:<br>


title: 2022 BWF season

text: The Thomas & Uber Cup were team events. The others – Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, Super 300, Super 100, International Challenge, International Series, and Future Series were all individual tournaments. The higher the level of tournament, the larger the prize money and the more ranking points available.


title: 2022 BWF season

text: This is the complete schedule of events on the 2022 calendar, with the champions and runners-up documented.


title: 2022 BWF season

text: Following is a list of notable players (winners of the main tour title, and/or part of the BWF Rankings top 100 for at least one week) who announced their retirement from professional badminton, during the 2022 season:


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Signs and symptoms are the observed or detectable signs, and experienced symptoms of an illness, injury, or condition. A sign for example may be a higher or lower temperature than normal, raised or lowered blood pressure or an abnormality showing on a medical scan. A symptom is something out of the ordinary that is experienced by an individual such as feeling feverish, a headache or other pain or pains in the body.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: A medical sign is an objective observable indication of a disease, injury, or abnormal physiological state that may be detected during a physical examination, examining the patient history, or diagnostic procedure. These signs are visible or otherwise detectable such as a rash or bruise. Medical signs, along with symptoms, assist in formulating diagnostic hypothesis. Examples of signs include elevated blood pressure, nail clubbing of the fingernails or toenails, staggering gait, and arcus senilis and arcus juvenilis of the eyes.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: A "sign" is different from an ""indication"" — the activity of a condition 'pointing to' (thus "indicating") a remedy, not the reverse (viz., it is not a remedy 'pointing to' a condition) – which is a specific reason for using a particular treatment.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: A symptom is something felt or experienced, such as pain or dizziness. Signs and symptoms are not mutually exclusive, for example a subjective feeling of fever can be noted as sign by using a thermometer that registers a high reading.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Cardinal signs and symptoms are specific even to the point of being pathognomonic. A cardinal sign or cardinal symptom can also refer to the major sign or symptom of a disease. Abnormal reflexes can indicate problems with the nervous system. Signs and symptoms are also applied to physiological states outside the context of disease, as for example when referring to the signs and symptoms of pregnancy, or the symptoms of dehydration. Sometimes a disease may be present without showing any signs or symptoms when it is known as being asymptomatic. The disorder may be discovered through tests including scans. An infection may be asymptomatic which may still be transmissible.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Signs are different from experienced symptoms. A sign of a disorder is something that may be observed by another or detected during a medical examination or procedure. For example high blood pressure may be noted as a sign during an examination for which there have been no reported symptoms. A symptom is something experienced and reportable by a person such as a headache or fatigue. Signs and symptoms may overlap, such as a bloody nose, which the individual experiences as unusual (symptom) and which others observe (sign).


title: Signs and symptoms

text: The CDC lists various diseases by their signs and symptoms such as for measles which includes a high fever, conjunctivitis, and cough, followed a few days later by the measles rash.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Signs and symptoms are often non-specific, but some combinations can be suggestive of certain diagnoses, helping to narrow down what may be wrong. A particular set of characteristic signs and symptoms that may be associated with a disorder is known as a syndrome. In cases where the underlying cause is known the syndrome is named as for example Down syndrome and Noonan syndrome. Other syndromes such as acute coronary syndrome may have a number of possible causes.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: When a disease is evidenced by symptoms it is known as symptomatic. There are many conditions including subclinical infections that display no symptoms, and these are termed asymptomatic. Signs and symptoms may be mild or severe, brief or longer-lasting when they may become reduced (remission), or then recur (relapse or recrudescence) known as a flare-up. A flare-up may show more severe symptoms.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: The term chief complaint, also "presenting problem", is used to describe the initial concern of an individual when seeking medical help, and once this is clearly noted a history of the present illness may be taken. The symptom that ultimately leads to a diagnosis is called a cardinal symptom.Some symptoms can be misleading as a result of referred pain, where for example a pain in the right shoulder may be due to an inflamed gallbladder and not to presumed muscle strain.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Many diseases have an early prodromal stage where a few signs and symptoms may suggest the presence of a disorder before further specific symptoms may emerge. Measles for example has a prodromal presentation that includes a hacking cough, fever, and Koplik's spots in the mouth. Over half of migraine episodes have a prodromal phase. Schizophrenia has a notable prodromal stage, as has dementia.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Nonspecific symptoms are very general and thus can be associated with a wide range of conditions. In other words, they are not specific to (not particular to) any one condition. Most signs and symptoms are at least "somewhat" nonspecific, as only pathognomonic ones are "highly" specific. But certain nonspecific signs and symptoms are "especially" nonspecific and especially common. They are also known as constitutional symptoms when they affect the sense of well-being. They include unexplained weight loss, headache, pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, night sweats, and malaise.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Vital signs are the four signs that can give an immediate measurement of the body's overall functioning and health status. They are temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure. The ranges of these measurements vary with age, weight, gender and with general health.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: A digital application has been developed for use in clinical settings that measures three of the vital signs (not temperature) using just a smartphone, and has been approved by NHS England. The application is registered as "Lifelight First", and "Lifelight Home" is under development (2020) for monitoring-use by people at home using just the camera on their smartphone or tablet. This will additionally measure oxygen saturation and atrial fibrillation. Other devices are then not needed.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Many conditions are indicated by a group of known signs, or signs and symptoms. These can be a group of three known as a triad: a group of four known as a tetrad, and a group of five known as a petrad. An example of a triad is Meltzer's triad presenting purpura a rash, arthralgia painful joints, and myalgia painful and weak muscles. Meltzer's triad indicates the condition cryoglobulinemia. Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by a triad of motor, cognitive, and psychiatric signs and symptoms. A large number of these groups that can be characteristic of a particular disease are known as a syndrome. Noonan syndrome for example, has a diagnostic set of unique facial and musculoskeletal features. Some syndromes such as nephrotic syndrome may have a number of underlying causes that are all related to diseases that affect the kidneys.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Sometimes a child or young adult may have symptoms suggestive of a genetic disorder that cannot be identified even after genetic testing. In such cases the term SWAN (syndrome without a name) may be used. Often a diagnosis may be made at some future point when other more specific symptoms emerge but many cases may remain undiagnosed. The inability to diagnose may be due to a unique combination of symptoms or an overlap of conditions, or to the symptoms being atypical of a known disorder, or to the disorder being extremely rare.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Sensory symptoms can also be described as positive symptoms, or as negative symptoms depending on whether the symptom is abnormally present such as tingling or itchiness, or abnormally absent such as loss of smell. The following terms are used for negative symptoms – hypoesthesia is a partial loss of sensitivity to moderate stimuli, such as pressure, touch, warmth, cold. Anesthesia is the complete loss of sensitivity to stronger stimuli, such as pinprick. Hypoalgesia (analgesia) is loss of sensation to painful stimuli.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Symptoms are also grouped in to negative and positive for some mental disorders such as schizophrenia.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Positive symptoms are those that are present in the disorder and are not normally experienced by most individuals and reflects an excess or distortion of normal functions. Examples are hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre behavior.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Negative symptoms are functions that are normally found but that are diminished or absent such as apathy and anhedonia.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Neuropsychiatric symptoms are present in many degenerative disorders including dementia, and Parkinson's disease. Symptoms commonly include apathy, anxiety, and depression. Neurological and psychiatric symptoms are also present in some genetic disorders such as Wilson's disease. Executive dysfunction is an often found symptom in many disorders including schizophrenia, and ADHD.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Radiologic signs are abnormal medical findings on imaging scanning. These include the Mickey Mouse sign and the Golden S sign. When using imaging to find the cause of a complaint, another unrelated finding may be found known as an incidental finding.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Cardinal signs and symptoms are those that may be diagnostic, and pathognomonic – of a certainty of diagnosis. Inflammation for example has a recognised group of cardinal signs and symptoms, as does exacerbations of chronic bronchitis, and Parkinson's disease.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: In contrast to a pathognomonic cardinal sign, the absence of a sign or symptom can often rule out a condition. This is known by the Latin term "sine qua non". For example, the absence of known genetic mutations specific for a hereditary disease would rule out that disease. Another example is where the vaginal pH is less than 4.5, a diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis would be excluded.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: A reflex is an automatic response in the body to a stimulus. Its absence, reduced (hypoactive), or exaggerated (hyperactive) response can be a sign of damage to the central nervous system or peripheral nervous system. In the patellar reflex (knee-jerk) for example, its reduction or absence is known as Westphal's sign and may indicate damage to lower motor neurons. When the response is exaggerated damage to the upper motor neurons may be indicated.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: A number of medical conditions are associated with a distinctive facial expression or appearance known as a facies An example is elfin facies which has facial features like those of the elf, and this may be associated with


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Williams syndrome, or Donohue syndrome. The most well-known facies is probably the Hippocratic facies that is seen on a person as they near death.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Anamnestic signs (from "anamnēstikós", ἀναμνηστικός, "able to recall to mind") are signs that indicate a past condition, for example paralysis in an arm may indicate a past stroke.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: and these are known as asymptomatic. A gallstone may be asymptomatic and only discovered as an incidental finding. Easily spreadable viral infections such as COVID-19 may be asymptomatic but may still be transmissible.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: A symptom (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident, misfortune, that which befalls", from συμπίπτω, "I befall", from συν- "together, with" and πίπτω, "I fall") is a departure from normal function or feeling. Symptomatology (also called semiology) is a branch of medicine dealing with the signs and symptoms of a disease. This study also includes the indications of a disease. It was first described as semiotics by Henry Stubbe in 1670 a term now used for the study of sign communication.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: Prior to the nineteenth century there was little difference in the powers of observation between physician and patient. Most medical practice was conducted as a co-operative interaction between the physician and patient; this was gradually replaced by a "monolithic consensus of opinion imposed from within the community of medical investigators". Whilst each noticed much the same things, the physician had a more informed interpretation of those things: "the physicians knew what the findings meant and the layman did not".


title: Signs and symptoms

text: A number of advances introduced mostly in the 19th century, allowed for more objective assessment by the physician in search of a diagnosis, and less need of input from the patient. During the 20th century the introduction of a wide range of imaging techniques have made a huge impact on diagnostic capability. Other developments in the field of genetics, medical biochemistry, and molecular diagnostics have also played major roles.


title: Signs and symptoms

text: The recognition of signs, and noting of symptoms may lead to a diagnosis. Otherwise a physical examination may be carried out, and a medical history taken. Further diagnostic medical tests such as blood tests, scans, and biopsies, may be needed. An X-ray for example would soon be diagnostic or not of a bone fracture. A noted significance detected during an examination or from a medical test may be known as a medical finding.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: Brandon Vaughn Burlsworth (September 20, 1976 – April 28, 1999) was an offensive lineman for the Arkansas Razorbacks football team from 1995 to 1998. He joined the team as a walk-on and eventually became an All-American.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: Burlsworth graduated in 1994 from Harrison High School, where he was an All-State selection and volunteer walk-on football player to the University of Arkansas, despite having scholarship offers from smaller universities. After he redshirted his first year (1994), he transformed his pudgy frame into a svelte , and, over the next two years, built himself back up to a muscular offensive guard. By his sophomore season in 1996, he had earned a scholarship and a starting position at right guard on the offensive line.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: Before his junior season in 1997, he was selected to be one of the team captains. Burlsworth's efforts earned him first-team All-SEC honors in 1997 and 1998, and he was selected for the 1998 College Football All-America Team. He was Arkansas's first All-American player since 1993 and their first player selected to a first-team squad since 1989. He was also named to the All-SEC Academic Honor Roll every year from 1995–1998. Burlsworth played on two SEC Western Division championship Razorback football teams (1995, 1998).


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: Burlsworth graduated in 1998 from the University of Arkansas with a B.A. in business administration. The following year, he completed an MBA. He was the first Razorback football player to complete a master's degree before playing in his final game, the 1999 Citrus Bowl.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: After his career with the Razorbacks, Burlsworth was invited to the NFL combine. At the combine, Burlsworth topped all linemen with a 4.88 40-yard dash. He bench-pressed 225 pounds 28 times, weighed 308 pounds, and measured slightly below 6 feet 4 inches.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: During the 1999 NFL Draft, the Indianapolis Colts selected Burlsworth with the 63rd pick in the third round. After participating in a Colts post draft mini-camp, he impressed the team's then-offensive line coach Howard Mudd and was projected to be a starter for the Colts' 1999 season.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: Shortly after his death, Burlsworth's jersey number, 77, was permanently retired in a ceremony at Arkansas's first home game of the 1999 season. It is only the second number ever retired (the other is number 12, retired in honor of Clyde Scott) by the University of Arkansas. Burlsworth's locker in the Razorback locker room is encased in glass, preserved for future players and fans in his honor. Burlsworth was elected to the Arkansas Sports Hall of Fame in 2002, and the University of Arkansas Letterman's Association Hall of Honor in 2004. In 2013, Bleacher Report named Burlsworth the #1 Greatest Walk-On player of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) Era.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: Eleven days after being drafted, Burlsworth was killed in a car accident near Alpena, Arkansas, on April 28, 1999, on his way back to his hometown of Harrison after a workout in Fayetteville. Burlsworth's vehicle clipped an oncoming 18-wheeler, swerved back into his lane, and then hit another tractor trailer head on. The stretch around Carrollton in which the crash occurred was not particularly rugged. A state police report said that, "for unknown reasons," Burlsworth's car drove left of the center line and hit the left front fender of a tractor trailer. After returning to its lane briefly, the car crossed the center line again and hit a second tractor trailer. Burlsworth was declared dead at the scene. He was buried on May 2, 1999, in Gass Cemetery in Omaha, Arkansas.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: After his death, family and friends established the Brandon Burlsworth Foundation in honor of his work ethic and Christian values. The Christian organization's mission is to support the physical and spiritual needs of children, in particular those children who have limited opportunities. The foundation's logo prominently features Burlsworth's signature black-framed glasses. The foundation makes its money via donations and the sale of Burlsworth merchandise. On the foundation's website, one can choose from books and movies about Brandon to shirts hats to raise money for their cause.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: Today, through the "Burls Kids" program, the Burlsworth Foundation provides underprivileged youths with a chance to attend Razorback and Colts football games. Since 2000, the Foundation has bought 30 tickets to each Arkansas Razorbacks home football game. The tickets are distributed through Razorback Clubs across the state. The children are given an official "Burls Kid" T-shirt and replica glasses similar to those Brandon wore on the field.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: In 2007, the "Eyes of a Champion" program was started. The Brandon Burlsworth Foundation, in partnership with Walmart/Sam's Optical Department and independent optometrists across Arkansas, provides eye care to thousands of pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade students. Primarily, these students come from working families who cannot afford extras like eye care and do not qualify for state funded programs. Applications must be submitted by school nurses or counselors and are available in English, French, and Spanish.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: The Brandon Burlsworth Football Camps are for children going into third grade through ninth grade. They are held once each summer at F.S. Garrison Stadium in Harrison, Arkansas, and War Memorial Stadium in Little Rock, Arkansas. Children are given a chance to learn from former Razorbacks. Past participants include Anthony Lucas, Clint Stoerner, Joe Dean Davenport, Madre Hill, Grant Garrett, Russ Brown, Barry Lunney Jr., Chad Abernathy, Jeremiah Washburn, Michael Smith, Lucas Miller, and others. The campers learn football skills but, more importantly, they are taught throughout the day about character, attitude, morals, priorities, and the desire to do it "The Burls Way".


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: Each year the Brandon Burlsworth Foundation gives out several awards and scholarships at various school levels. Eighteen students at the University of Arkansas who are primarily from smaller towns and who are characterized as academic overachievers receive $5,000 scholarships. Additionally, a Razorback football player who began his career as a walk-on but then earned a football scholarship is honored as the year's Burlsworth Athletic Scholar. The students are selected by the University of Arkansas Scholarship Committee and are recognized in a ceremony in Fayetteville, Arkansas.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: High school awards include the Brandon Burlsworth High School Football Awards. Every high school football coach in Arkansas has the opportunity to nominate one player from his team. Those players receive a plaque and a copy of "Through the Eyes of A Champion, the Brandon Burlsworth Story," autographed by Brandon's mother, Barbara Burlsworth.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: The Brandon Burlsworth Championship Award is presented at the Arkansas state football championship games to one player from each team for conduct above and beyond expectations. The Burlsworth Character Awards are a national award honoring character and sportsmanship in high school football. Awardees are announced in late spring following the fall football season.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: The Brandon Burlsworth Award is given out yearly to one male and one female athlete at Harrison High School and the University of Arkansas who best exemplify the strength of character and work ethic known as "The Burls Way". In 2010, the Burlsworth Trophy was created and named in his honor. The award is given yearly to the most outstanding Division I FBS college football player who began his career as a walk-on.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: In 2001, the book "Through the Eyes of a Champion: The Brandon Burlsworth Story," written by Jeff Kinley, was released. The book was praised for its authentic and inspirational portrayal of Brandon's story. The book contains a foreword by former University of Arkansas athletic director Frank Broyles and was the inspiration for a movie (see below). The book was re-released in August 2016 as a tie-in with the movie, renamed "Greater: The Brandon Burlsworth Story".


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: A screenplay titled "Greater: The Brandon Burlsworth Story" was written based on the book. Brian Reindl, a former real estate investor and fellow University of Arkansas graduate, spent eight years working on the screenplay. A self-described "walk-on filmmaker", Reindl decided to finance and produce the film.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: David Hunt, who also helped Brian write the screenplay, directed the movie, and Gabe Mayhan was director of photography. The score for the film was by Stephen Raynor-Endelman with Andrea Von Foerster as the music supervisor. The production designer was Lucio Seixas, and the costume designer was Keri Lee Doris. Morgan Casting Company was hired to cast the film and began holding open casting calls in March 2013 in Fayetteville, Arkansas; Little Rock, Arkansas; New Orleans, Louisiana; and Canton, Mississippi. The casting director was Stephanie Holbrook, C.S.A. The movie was produced by Brian Reindl with co-producer Tim Duff and executive producers Brian Reindl and Neal McDonough.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: Filming began on Monday, May 6, 2013, in Fayetteville, Little Rock, and Farmington, Arkansas, with a six week production shoot. "Greater" originally had a U.S. theatrical release date scheduled for January 2016, which was later moved to summer 2016, starring Neal McDonough, Leslie Easterbrook, Michael Parks, Nick Searcy, Quinton Aaron, M. C. Gainey, Fredric Lehne, Texas Battle, Wayne Duvall, and Christopher Severio as Brandon, as well as cameos by author Jeff Kinley and Brandon's brother, Marty Burlsworth.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: On January 16, 2016, the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio, hosted an exclusive screening of "Greater". John Randle and Aeneas Williams, both members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame, participated in an interactive roundtable discussion following the screening.


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: The movie was originally scheduled for a release date of January 29, 2016. However, on January 21, 2016, Hammond Entertainment, LLC announced that the release of "Greater" would be moved to summer 2016. The press release stated that the change was due to "[o]verwhelming positive response from screening audiences and the desire of a national theater chain to show it in more locations".


title: Brandon Burlsworth

text: The official general release date of August 26, 2016, was announced on Tuesday, August 16, 2016, via the movie's website and official Twitter account. Northwest Arkansas television station Fox 24 (KFTA) ran a story with details about an advance screening which was held on Tuesday, August 23, 2016, at Malco Razorback 16 theater in Fayetteville, Arkansas, with a question and answer session after the movie.


title: Onryō

text: In Japanese traditional beliefs and literature, are a type of ghost () believed to be capable of causing harm in the world of the living, injuring or killing enemies, or even causing natural disasters to exact vengeance to "redress" the wrongs it received while alive, then taking their spirits from their dying bodies. are often depicted as wronged women, who are traumatized by what happened during life and exact revenge in death.


title: Onryō

text: The term overlaps somewhat with , except that in depictions of , the acting ghost is not always necessarily a wrathful spirit.


title: Onryō

text: While the origin of is unclear, belief in their existence can be traced back to the 8th century and was based on the idea that powerful and enraged souls of the dead could influence, harm, and kill the living. The earliest cult that developed was around Prince Nagaya who died in 729; and the first record of possession by the spirit affecting health is found in the chronicle (797), which states that "'s soul harmed Genbō to death" (Hirotsugu having died in a failed insurrection, named the "Fujiwara no Hirotsugu Rebellion", after failing to remove his rival, the priest Genbō, from power). Emperor Antoku (December 22, 1178–April 25, 1185) and Emperor Daigo (February 6, 885–October 23, 930) in were believed to have been .


title: Onryō

text: According to the belief of Ikiryō, a person's soul or spirit exists naturally when it is stable or in balance. When too much hatred or resentment brews, it can become separated from the body, resulting in the spirit becoming an . This can allegedly also occur in individuals who died an untimely death.


title: Onryō

text: Traditionally in Japan, driven by vengeance were thought capable of causing not only their enemy's death, as in the case of Hirotsugu's vengeful spirit held responsible for killing the priest Genbō, but causing natural disasters such as earthquakes, fires, storms, drought, famine and pestilence, as in the case of Prince Sawara's spirit embittered against his brother, the Emperor Kanmu. In common parlance, such vengeance exacted by supernatural beings or forces is termed .


title: Onryō

text: The Emperor Kanmu had accused his brother Sawara, possibly falsely, of plotting to remove him from the throne. Sawara was then exiled, and died by fasting. According to a number of scholars, the reason that the Emperor moved the capital to Nagaoka-kyō thence to Kyoto was an attempt to avoid the wrath of his brother's spirit, according to a number of scholars. This not succeeding entirely, the emperor tried to lift the curse by appeasing his brother's ghost, by performing Buddhist rites to pay respect, and granting Prince Sawara the posthumous title of emperor.


title: Onryō

text: A well-known example of appeasement of the spirit is the case of Sugawara no Michizane, who had been politically disgraced and died in exile. It was believed to cause the death of his calumniators in quick succession, as well as catastrophes (especially lightning damage), and the court tried to appease the wrathful spirit by restoring Michizane's old rank and position. Michizane became deified in the cult of the Tenjin, with Tenman-gū shrines erected around him.


title: Onryō

text: Possibly the most famous is Oiwa, from the . In this story the husband remains unharmed; however, he is the target of the 's vengeance. Oiwa's vengeance on him is not physical retribution, but rather psychological torment.


title: Onryō

text: The is a staple of the J-Horror genre, most notable being Sadako Yamamura and Kayako Saeki from the "Ring" and "Ju-On" franchises, respectively. The characters in these works are almost exclusively women who were wronged in life and returned as to wreak havoc on the living and obtain revenge.


title: Onryō

text: In "The Ring" Sadako Yamamura is the main antagonist. Her origin is from the "Ring" novel series by Koji Suzuki, where she haunts and kills people through tapes on a TV. Before her death she is raped by a doctor with smallpox, who seals her in a well where she dies. Before Sadako dies she promises to take revenge on the world, and becomes an .


title: Onryō

text: The aforementioned has been made into numerous movies and retold many times over the course of Japanese history. The story revolves around Tamiya Iemon and his wife Oiwa. Their relationship is not a happy one, and through some set of circumstances Iemon gives Oiwa a powder that permanently disfigures her face. Upon realizing this Oiwa takes her own life and that of her baby. After her death she comes back to haunt Iemon and his new wife, becoming an .


title: Onryō

text: , from the third entry of the fighting game "Killer Instinct", is an who died while defending her village. She still haunts her old village and will take vengeance on anyone who desecrates its ruins with her . She has pale white skin and long black hair like most .


title: Onryō

text: In 2018, the asymmetrical horror game "Dead by Daylight" released the "Shattered Bloodline" chapter DLC, and with it came Rin Yamaoka, The Spirit. The Spirit is an who returns from the dead after being brutally murdered by her father. In March 2022, Sadako Yamamura was added as a playable character.


title: Onryō

text: The term is also present in the game "Phasmophobia". It is one of 24 ghost types that the player can identify, and is noted for treating lit candles like a crucifix.


title: Onryō

text: Traditionally, and other (ghosts) had no particular appearance. However, with the rising of popularity of kabuki during the Edo period, a specific costume was developed.


title: Onryō

text: Highly visual in nature, and with a single actor often assuming various roles within a play, kabuki developed a system of visual shorthand that allowed the audience to instantly clue in as to which character is on stage, as well as emphasize the emotions and expressions of the actor.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its energy content and since the 1880s has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore and for cement production. In the United Kingdom and South Africa, a coal mine and its structures are a colliery, a coal mine is called a 'pit', and the above-ground structures are a 'pit head'. In Australia, "colliery" generally refers to an underground coal mine.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal mining has had many developments in recent years, from the early days of men tunneling, digging and manually extracting the coal on carts to large open-cut and longwall mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines, trucks, conveyors, hydraulic jacks and shearers.


title: Coal mining

text: The coal mining industry has a long history of significant negative environmental impacts on local ecosystems, health impacts on local communities and workers, and contributes heavily to the global environmental crises, such as poor air quality and climate change. For these reasons, coal has been one of the first fossil fuels to be phased out of various parts of the global energy economy. The major coal producing countries, though, such as China, Indonesia, India and Australia, have not reached peak production, with production increases replacing falls in Europe and US and proposed mines under development.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal extraction methods vary depending on whether the mine is an underground mine or a surface (also called open cast) mine. Additionally, coal seam thickness and geology are factors in the selection of a mining method. The most economical method of coal extraction for surface mines is the electric shovel or drag line. The most economical form of underground mining is the long wall, which involves using two spinning drums with carbide bits that runs along sections of the coal seam. Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on the following: regional geological conditions; overburden characteristics; coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth; strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions; topography (especially altitude and slope); climate; land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access; surface drainage patterns; groundwater conditions; availability of labor and materials; coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination; and capital investment requirements.


title: Coal mining

text: Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two basic methods of mining. The choice of mining method depends primarily on depth, density, overburden, and thickness of the coal seam; seams relatively close to the surface, at depths less than approximately , are usually surface mined.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal that occurs at depths of are usually deep mined, but in some cases surface mining techniques can be used. For example, some western U.S. coal that occur at depths in excess of are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam . Coals occurring below are usually deep mined. However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany.


title: Coal mining

text: When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open-cut (also referred to as open-cast, open-pit, mountaintop removal or strip) mining methods. Opencast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. This equipment can include the following: Draglines which operate by removing the overburden, power shovels, large trucks in which transport overburden and coal, bucket wheel excavators, and conveyors. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, of the mining area. The overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured and thoroughly mined in strips. The coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used.


title: Coal mining

text: Most open cast mines in the United States extract bituminous coal. In Canada (BC), Australia and South Africa, open cast mining is used for both thermal and metallurgical coals. In New South Wales open casting for steam coal and anthracite is practiced. Surface mining accounts for around 80 percent of production in Australia, while in the US it is used for about 67 percent of production. Globally, about 40 percent of coal production involves surface mining.


title: Coal mining

text: Strip mining exposes coal by removing earth above each coal seam. This earth to be removed is referred to as 'overburden' and is removed in long strips. The overburden from the first strip is deposited in an area outside the planned mining area and referred to as out-of-pit dumping. Overburden from subsequent strips is deposited in the void left from mining the coal and overburden from the previous strip. This is referred to as in-pit dumping.


title: Coal mining

text: It is often necessary to fragment the overburden by use of explosives. This is accomplished by drilling holes into the overburden, filling the holes with explosives, and detonating the explosive. The overburden is then removed, using large earth-moving equipment, such as draglines, shovel and trucks, excavator and trucks, or bucket-wheels and conveyors. This overburden is put into the previously mined (and now empty) strip. When all the overburden is removed, the


title: Coal mining

text: underlying coal seam will be exposed (a 'block' of coal). This block of coal may be drilled and blasted (if hard) or otherwise loaded onto trucks or conveyors for transport to the coal preparation (or wash) plant. Once this strip is empty of coal, the process is repeated with a new strip being created next to it. This method is most suitable for areas with flat terrain.


title: Coal mining

text: Equipment to be used depends on geological conditions. For example, to remove overburden that is loose or unconsolidated, a bucket wheel excavator might be the most productive. The life of some area mines may be more than 50 years.


title: Coal mining

text: The contour mining method consists of removing overburden from the seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around the hillside. This method is most commonly used in areas with rolling to steep terrain. It was once common to deposit the spoil on the downslope side of the bench thus created, but this method of spoil disposal consumed much additional land and created severe landslide and erosion problems. To alleviate these problems, a variety of methods were devised to use freshly cut overburden to refill mined-out areas. These haul-back or lateral movement methods generally consist of an initial cut with the spoil deposited downslope or at some other site and spoil from the second cut refilling the first. A ridge of undisturbed natural material wide is often intentionally left at the outer edge of the mined area. This barrier adds stability to the reclaimed slope by preventing spoil from slumping or sliding downhill.


title: Coal mining

text: The limitations of contour strip mining are both economic and technical. When the operation reaches a predetermined stripping ratio (tons of overburden/tons of coal), it is not profitable to continue. Depending on the equipment available, it may not be technically feasible to exceed a certain height of highwall. At this point, it is possible to produce more coal with the augering method in which spiral drills bore tunnels into a highwall laterally from the bench to extract coal without removing the overburden.


title: Coal mining

text: Mountaintop coal mining is a surface mining practice involving removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams, and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent "valley fills." Valley fills occur in steep terrain where there are limited disposal alternatives.


title: Coal mining

text: Mountaintop removal combines area and contour strip mining methods. In areas with rolling or steep terrain with a coal seam occurring near the top of a ridge or hill, the entire top is removed in a series of parallel cuts. Overburden is deposited in nearby valleys and hollows. This method usually leaves the ridge and hilltops as flattened plateaus. The process is highly controversial for the drastic changes in topography, the practice of creating "head-of-hollow-fills", or filling in valleys with mining debris, and for covering streams and disrupting ecosystems.


title: Coal mining

text: Spoil is placed at the head of a narrow, steep-sided valley or hollow. In preparation for filling this area, vegetation and soil are removed and a rock drain constructed down the middle of the area to be filled, where a natural drainage course previously existed. When the fill is completed, this underdrain will form a continuous water runoff system from the upper end of the valley to the lower end of the fill. Typical head-of-hollow fills are graded and terraced to create permanently stable slopes.


title: Coal mining

text: Most coal seams are too deep underground for opencast mining and require underground mining, a method that currently accounts for about 60 percent of world coal production. In deep mining, the room and pillar or bord and pillar method progresses along the seam, while pillars and timber are left standing to support the mine roof. Once room and pillar mines have been developed to a stopping point (limited by geology, ventilation, or economics), a supplementary version of room and pillar mining, termed second mining or retreat mining, is commonly started. Miners remove the coal in the pillars, thereby recovering as much coal from the coal seam as possible. A work area involved in pillar extraction is called a pillar section.


title: Coal mining

text: Modern pillar sections use remote-controlled equipment, including large hydraulic mobile roof-supports, which can prevent cave-ins until the miners and their equipment have left a work area. The mobile roof supports are similar to a large dining-room table, but with hydraulic jacks for legs. After the large pillars of coal have been mined away, the mobile roof support's legs shorten and it is withdrawn to a safe area. The mine roof typically collapses once the mobile roof supports leave an area.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal is mined commercially in over 50 countries. 7,921 million metric tons (Mt) of coal were produced in 2019, a 70% increase over the 20 years since 1999. In 2018, the world production of brown coal (lignite) was 803.2 Mt, with Germany the world's largest producer at 166.3 Mt. China is most likely the second largest producer and consumer of lignite globally although specific lignite production data is not made available.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal production has grown fastest in Asia, while Europe has declined. Since 2011, world coal production has been stable, with decreases in Europe and US offset by increases from China, Indonesia and Australia. The top coal mining nations are:


title: Coal mining

text: Globally coal mining is highly concentrated in certain jurisdictions, concentrating much of the social and economic impacts of the industry. Globally the industry directly employs over 7 million workers, which creates millions of indirect jobs. In many parts of the world, producers have reached peak coal as the global economy shifts away from fossil fuels like coal to address climate change. A 2020 study found that renewables jobs could feasibly be created in these geographies to replace many of the coal mining jobs as part of a just transition; however, renewable energy was not suitable in some of the geographies with high concentrations of miners (such as in China).


title: Coal mining

text: The use of sophisticated sensing equipment to monitor air quality is common and has replaced the use of small animals such as canaries, often referred to as "miner's canaries".


title: Coal mining

text: In the United States, the increase in technology has significantly decreased the mining workforce. in 2015 US coal mines had 65,971 employees, the lowest figure since EIA began collecting data in 1978. However, a 2016 study reported that a relatively minor investment would allow most coal workers to retrain for the solar energy industry.


title: Coal mining

text: Historically, coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is long. In the US alone, 104,895 coal miners were killed in mine accidents since 1900, 90 percent of the fatalities occurring in the first half of the 20th century. 3,242 died in 1907, the worst year ever; in 2020 there were five.


title: Coal mining

text: Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions; underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse, rock burst, outbursts, and gas explosions.


title: Coal mining

text: Firedamp explosions can trigger the much-more-dangerous coal dust explosions, which can engulf an entire mine. Most of these risks are greatly reduced in modern mines, and multiple fatality incidents are now rare in most some parts of the developed world. Modern coal mining in the US has an average 23 deaths per year due to mine accidents (2001–2020).


title: Coal mining

text: However, in lesser developed countries and some developing countries, many miners continue to die annually, either through direct accidents in coal mines or through adverse health consequences from working under poor conditions. China, in particular, has the highest number of coal mining related deaths in the world, with official statistics claiming that 6,027 deaths occurred in 2004. To compare, 28 deaths were reported in the US in the same year. Coal production in China is twice that in the US, while the number of coal miners is around 50 times that of the US, making deaths in coal mines in China 4 times as common per worker (108 times as common per unit output) as in the US.


title: Coal mining

text: Mine disasters have still occurred in recent years in the US, Examples include the Sago Mine disaster of 2006, and the 2007 mine accident in Utah's Crandall Canyon Mine, where nine miners were killed and six entombed. In the decade 2005–2014, US coal mining fatalities averaged 28 per year. The most fatalities during the 2005–2014 decade were 48 in 2010, the year of the Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in West Virginia, which killed 29 miners.


title: Coal mining

text: Chronic lung diseases, such as pneumoconiosis (black lung) were once common in miners, leading to reduced life expectancy. In some mining countries black lung is still common, with 4,000 new cases of black lung every year in the US (4 percent of workers annually) and 10,000 new cases every year in China (0.2 percent of workers). The use of water sprays in mining equipment reduces the risk to miners' lungs.


title: Coal mining

text: Build-ups of a hazardous gas are known as damps, possibly from the German word which means steam or vapor:


title: Coal mining

text: Noise is also a contributing factor to potential adverse effects on coal miners' health. Exposure to excessive noise can lead to noise-induced hearing loss. Hearing loss developed as a result of occupational exposures is coined occupational hearing loss. To protect miners' hearing, the US Mine Safety and Health Administration's (MSHA) guidelines for noise place a Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for noise at 90 dBA time-weighted over 8 hours. A lower cutoff, 85 dBA, is set for a worker to fall into the MSHA Action Level which dictates that workers be placed into hearing conservation programs.


title: Coal mining

text: Noise exposures vary depending on the method of extraction. For example, a study has found that among surface coal mine operations, dragline equipment produced the loudest sound at a range of 88–112 dBA. Within longwall sections, stageloaders used to transport coal from the mining face and shearers used for extraction represent some of the highest noise exposures. Auxiliary fans (up to 120 dBA), continuous mining machines (up to 109 dBA), and roof bolters (up to 103 dBA) represent some of the noisiest equipment within continuous mining sections. Exposures to noise exceeding 90 dBA can lead to adverse effects on workers' hearing. The use of administrative controls and engineering controls can be used to reduce noise exposures.


title: Coal mining

text: Improvements in mining methods (e.g. longwall mining), hazardous gas monitoring (such as safety-lamps or more modern electronic gas monitors), gas drainage, electrical equipment, and ventilation have reduced many of the risks of rock falls, explosions, and unhealthy air quality. Gases released during the mining process can be recovered to generate electricity and improve worker safety with gas engines. Another innovation in recent years is the use of closed circuit escape respirators, respirators that contain oxygen for situations where mine ventilation is compromised. Statistical analyses performed by the US Department of Labor's Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) show that between 1990 and 2004, the industry cut the rate of injuries by more than half and fatalities by two-thirds. But according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, even in 2006, mining remained the second most dangerous occupation in America, when measured by fatality rate. These numbers, however, include all mining activities, and oil and gas mining contribute to the majority of fatalities. Coal mining resulted in 47 fatalities that year. One study, though, has suggested that hazards of modern mining are now more accretive with workers facing long-term health impacts, such as sleep deprivation, that build up over time.


title: Coal mining

text: Top 10 hard and brown coal producers in 2012 were (in million metric tons): China 3,621, United States 922, India 629, Australia 432, Indonesia 410, Russia 351, South Africa 261, Germany 196, Poland 144, and Kazakhstan 122.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal has been mined in every state of Australia, but mainly in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria. It is mostly used to generate electricity, and 75% of annual coal production is exported, mostly to eastern Asia.


title: Coal mining

text: In 2007, 428 million tonnes of coal was mined in Australia. In 2007, coal provided about 85% of Australia's electricity production. In the fiscal year 2008/09, 487 million tonnes of coal was mined, and 261 million tonnes was exported. In the fiscal year 2013/14, 430.9 million tonnes of coal was mined, and 375.1 million tonnes was exported. In 2013/14, coal provided about 69% of Australia's electricity production.


title: Coal mining

text: In 2013, Australia was the world's fifth-largest coal producer, after China, the United States, India, and Indonesia. However, in terms of proportion of production exported, Australia is the world's second largest coal exporter, as it exports roughly 73% of its coal production. Indonesia exports about 87% of its coal production.


title: Coal mining

text: Canada was ranked as the 15th coal producing country in the world in 2010, with a total production of 67.9 million tonnes. Canada's coal reserves, the 12th largest in the world, are located largely in the province of Alberta.


title: Coal mining

text: The first coal mines in North America were located in Joggins and Port Morien, Nova Scotia, mined by French settlers beginning in the late 1600s. The coal was used for the British garrison at Annapolis Royal, and in the construction of the Fortress of Louisbourg.


title: Coal mining

text: Compared to other South American countries Chile has limited coal resources. Only Argentina is similarly poor. Coal in Chile is mostly sub-bituminous with the exception of the bituminous coals of the Arauco Basin in central Chile.


title: Coal mining

text: The China is by far the largest producer of coal in the world, producing over 2.8 billion tons of coal in 2007, or approximately 39.8 percent of all coal produced in the world during that year. For comparison, the second largest producer, the United States, produced more than 1.1 billion tons in 2007. An estimated 5 million people work in China's coal-mining industry. As many as 20,000 miners die in accidents each year. Most Chinese mines are deep underground and do not produce the surface disruption typical of strip mines. Although there is some evidence of reclamation of mined land for use as parks, China does not require extensive reclamation and is creating significant acreages of abandoned mined land, which is unsuitable for agriculture or other human uses, and inhospitable to indigenous wildlife. Chinese underground mines often experience severe surface subsidence (6–12 meters), negatively impacting farmland because it no longer drains well. China uses some subsidence areas for aquaculture ponds but has more than they need for that purpose. Reclamation of subsided ground is a significant problem in China. Because most Chinese coal is for domestic consumption, and is burned with little or no air pollution control equipment, it contributes greatly to visible smoke and severe air pollution in industrial areas using coal for fuel. China's total energy uses 67% from coal mines.


title: Coal mining

text: Some of the world's largest coal reserves are located in South America, and an opencast mine at Cerrejón in Colombia is one of the world's largest open pit mines. The output of the mine in 2004 was 24.9 million tons (compared to total global hard coal production of 4,600 million tons). Cerrejón contributed about half of Colombia's coal exports of 52 million tons that year, with Colombia ranked sixth among major coal exporting nations. The company planned to expand production to 32 million tons by 2008. The company has its own 150 km standard-gauge railroad, connecting the mine to its coal-loading terminal at Puerto Bolívar on the Caribbean coast. There are two 120-car unit trains, each carrying 12,000 tons of coal per trip. The round-trip time for each train, including loading and unloading, is about 12 hours. The coal facilities at the port are capable of loading 4,800 tons per hour onto vessels of up to 175,000 tons of dead weight. The mine, railroad and port operate 24 hours per day. Cerrejón directly employs 4,600 workers, with a further 3,800 employed by contractors. The reserves at Cerrejón are low-sulfur, low-ash, bituminous coal. The coal is mostly used for electric power generation, with some also used in steel manufacture. The surface mineable reserves for the current contract are 330 million tons. However, total proven reserves to a depth of 300 metres are 3,000 million tons.


title: Coal mining

text: Germany has a long history of coal mining, going back to the Middle Ages. Coal mining greatly increased during the industrial revolution and the following decades. The main mining areas were around Aachen and the Ruhr area, along with many smaller areas in other parts of Germany, and until 1945 also in Upper Silesia, while the Saarland was repeatedly under French control. These areas grew and were shaped by coal mining and coal processing, and this is still visible even after the end of the coal mining.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal mining reached its peak in the first half of the 20th century. After 1950, the coal producers started to struggle financially. In 1975, a subsidy was introduced ("Kohlepfennig", "coal penny" as part of the electricity bill), which was discontinued in the 1990s. In 2007, due to EU regulations, the Bundestag decided to end subsidies by 2018. As a consequence, RAG AG, the owner of the two remaining coal mines in Germany, Prosper Haniel and Ibbenbüren, announced it would close all mines by 2018, thus ended underground coal mining in Germany.


title: Coal mining

text: Open pit lignite mining for electricity continues in Nordrhein-Westfalen, and in the eastern states of Brandenburg, Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt.


title: Coal mining

text: Lignite has been mined in Greece since 1873, and today supplies approximately 75% of the country's energy. The main mining areas are located in Western Macedonia (Ptolemaida) and the Peloponnese (Megalopolis).


title: Coal mining

text: Coal mining in India has a long history of commercial exploitation starting in 1774 with John Sumner and Suetonius Grant Heatly of the East India Company in the Raniganj Coalfield along the Western bank of Damodar River. Demand for coal remained low until the introduction of steam locomotives in 1853. After this, production rose to an annual average of 1 Mt and India produced 6.12 Mt per year by 1900 and 18 Mt per year by 1920, following increased demand in the First World War, but went through a slump in the early thirties. The production reached a level of 29 Mt by 1942 and 30 Mt by 1946. After independence, the country embarked upon five-year development plans. At the beginning of the 1st Plan, annual production went up to 33 Mt. During the 1st Plan period, the need for increasing coal production efficiently by systematic and scientific development of the coal industry was being felt. Setting up the National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC), a Government of India undertaking, in 1956 with the collieries owned by the railways as its nucleus was the first major step towards planned development of Indian Coal Industry. Along with the Singareni Collieries Company Ltd. (SCCL) which was already in operation since 1945 and which became a government company under the control of Government of Andhra Pradesh in 1956, India thus had two Government coal companies in the fifties. SCCL is now a joint undertaking of Government of Telangana and Government of India.


title: Coal mining

text: Japan has a long history of coal mining dating back into the Japanese Middle Ages. It is said that coal was first discovered in 1469 by a farming couple near Ōmuta, central Kyushu. In 1478, farmers discovered burning stones in the north of the island, which led to the exploitation of the Chikuhõ coalfield.


title: Coal mining

text: Following Japanese industrialization additional coalfields were discovered northern Japan. One of the first mines in Hokkaido was the Hokutan Horonai coal mine.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal mining in New Zealand produced almost 4 million tonnes of coal in 2014, of which 44% was exported. In 2016, production was down to 2,834,956 tonnes.


title: Coal mining

text: Russia ranked as the fifth largest coal producing country in 2010, with a total production of 316.9 Mt. Russia has the world's second largest coal reserves. Russia and Norway share the coal resources of the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, under the Svalbard Treaty.


title: Coal mining

text: Spain was ranked as the 30th coal producing country in the world in 2010. The coal miners of Spain were active in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side. In October 1934, in Asturias, union miners and others suffered a fifteen-day siege in Oviedo and Gijon. There is a museum dedicated to coal mining in the region of Catalonia, called Cercs Mine Museum.


title: Coal mining

text: In October 2018, the Sánchez government and Spanish Labour unions settled an agreement to close ten Spanish coal mines at the end of 2018. The government pre-engaged to spend 250 million Euro to pay for early retirements, occupational retraining and structural change. In 2018, about 2,3 per cent of the electric energy produced in Spain was produced in coal-burning power plants.


title: Coal mining

text: South Africa is one of the ten largest coal producing countries and the fourth largest coal exporting country in the world.


title: Coal mining

text: In Taiwan, coal is distributed mainly in the northern area. All of the commercial coal deposits occurred in three Miocene coal-bearing formations, which are the Upper, the Middle and the Lower Coal Measures. The Middle Coal Measures was the most important with its wide distribution, great number of coal beds and extensive potential reserves. Taiwan has coal reserves estimated to be 100–180 Mt. However, coal output had been small, amounting to 6,948 metric tonnes per month from 4 pits before it ceased production effectively in 2000. The abandoned coal mine in Pingxi District, New Taipei, has now turned into the Taiwan Coal Mine Museum.


title: Coal mining

text: In 2012 coal production in Ukraine amounted to 85.946 million tonnes, up 4.8% from 2011. Coal consumption that same year grew to 61.207 million tonnes, up 6.2% compared with 2011.


title: Coal mining

text: More than 90 percent of Ukraine's coal production comes from the Donets Basin. The country's coal industry employs about 500,000 people. Ukrainian coal mines are among the most dangerous in the world, and accidents are common. Furthermore, the country is plagued with extremely dangerous illegal mines.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal was mined in America in the early 18th century, and commercial mining started around 1730 in Midlothian, Virginia.


title: Coal mining

text: The American share of world coal production remained steady at about 20 percent from 1980 to 2005, at about 1 billion short tons per year. The United States was ranked as the second highest coal producing country in the world in 2010, and possesses the largest coal reserves in the world. In 2008 then-President George W. Bush stated that coal was the most reliable source of electricity. However, in 2011 President Barack Obama said that the US should rely more on cleaner sources of energy that emit lower or no carbon dioxide pollution. For a time, while domestic coal consumption for electric power was being displaced by natural gas, exports were increasing. US net coal exports increased ninefold from 2006 to 2012, peaked at 117 million short tons in 2012, then declined to 63 million tons in 2015. In 2015, 60% of net US exports went to Europe, 27% to Asia. US coal production increasingly comes from strip mines in the western United States, such as from the Powder River Basin in Wyoming and Montana.


title: Coal mining

text: Coal has come under continued price pressure from natural gas and renewable energy sources, which has resulted in a rapid decline of coal in the U.S. and several notable bankruptcies including Peabody Energy. On 13 April 2016 it reported, that its revenue had reduced by 17 percent as coal prices fell and that it had lost two billion dollars the previous year. It then filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy on 13 April 2016. The "Harvard Business Review" discussed retraining coal workers for solar photovoltaic employment because of the rapid rise in U.S. solar jobs. A 2016 study indicated that this was technically possible and would account for only 5% of the industrial revenue from a single year to provide coal workers with job security in the energy industry as whole.


title: Coal mining

text: Donald Trump pledged to bring back coal jobs during the 2016 US presidential election, and as president he announced plans to reduce environmental protection, particularly by repealing the Clean Power Plan (CPP). However, industry observers have warned that this might not lead to a boom in mining jobs A 2019 projection by the Energy Information Administration estimated that coal production without CPP would decline over coming decades at a faster rate than indicated in the agency's 2017 projection, which had assumed the CPP was in effect.


title: Subculture

text: A subculture is a group of people within a culture that differentiates itself from the parent culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its founding principles. Subcultures develop their own norms and values regarding cultural, political, and sexual matters. Subcultures are part of society while keeping their specific characteristics intact. Examples of subcultures include BDSM, hippies, goths, bikers, punks, skinheads, hip-hoppers, metalheads, and cosplayers. The concept of subcultures was developed in sociology and cultural studies. Subcultures differ from countercultures.


title: Subculture

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" defines subculture, in regards to sociological and cultural anthropology, as "an identifiable subgroup within a society or group of people, esp. one characterized by beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger group; the distinctive ideas, practices, or way of life of such a subgroup."


title: Subculture

text: As early as 1950, David Riesman distinguished between a majority, "which passively accepted commercially provided styles and meanings, and a 'subculture' which actively sought a minority style ... and interpreted it in accordance with subversive values". In his 1979 book "", Dick Hebdige argued that a subculture is a subversion to normalcy. He wrote that subcultures can be perceived as negative due to their nature of criticism to the dominant societal standard. Hebdige argued that subculture brings together like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards and allow them to develop a sense of identity.


title: Subculture

text: In 1995, Sarah Thornton, drawing on Pierre Bourdieu, described "subcultural capital" as the cultural knowledge and commodities acquired by members of a subculture, raising their status and helping differentiate themselves from members of other groups. In 2007, Ken Gelder proposed to distinguish subcultures from countercultures based on the level of immersion in society. Gelder further proposed six key ways in which subcultures can be identified through their:


title: Subculture

text: Sociologists Gary Alan Fine and Sherryl Kleinman argued that their 1979 research showed that a subculture is a group that serves to motivate a potential member to adopt the artifacts, behaviors, norms, and values characteristic of the group.


title: Subculture

text: The earliest sociological studies on subcultures came from the so-called Chicago School, who interpreted them as forms of deviance and delinquency. Starting with what they called Social Disorganization Theory, they claimed that subcultures emerged on one hand because of some population sectors’ lack of socialization with the mainstream culture and, on the other, because of their adoption of alternative axiological and normative models. As Robert E. Park, Ernest Burgess, and Louis Wirth suggested, by means of selection and segregation processes, there thus appear in society "natural areas" or "moral regions" where deviant models concentrate and are re-inforced; they do not accept objectives or means of action offered by the mainstream culture, proposing different ones in their place—thereby becoming, depending on circumstances, innovators, rebels, or retreatists (Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin).


title: Subculture

text: Subcultures, however, are not only the result of alternative action strategies but also of labelling processes on the basis of which, as Howard S. Becker explains, society defines them as outsiders. As Cohen clarifies, every subculture's style, consisting of image, demeanour and language becomes its recognition trait. And an individual's progressive adoption of a subcultural model will furnish him/her with growing status within this context but it will often, in tandem, deprive him/her of status in the broader social context outside where a different model prevails. Cohen used the term 'Corner Boys' which were unable to compete with their better secured and prepared peers. These lower-class youths didn't have equal access to resources, resulting in the status of frustration, marginalization, and search for a solution.


title: Subculture

text: In the work of John Clarke, Stuart Hall, Tony Jefferson, and Brian Roberts of the Birmingham CCCS (Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies), subcultures are interpreted as forms of resistance. Society is seen as being divided into two fundamental classes, the working class and the middle class, each with its own class culture, and middle-class culture being dominant. Particularly in the working class, subcultures grow out of the presence of specific interests and affiliations around which cultural models spring up, in conflict with both their parents' culture and mainstream culture. Facing a weakening of class identity, subcultures are then new forms of collective identification, expressing what Cohen defined "symbolic resistance" against the mainstream culture and developing imaginary solutions for structural problems.


title: Subculture

text: As Paul Willis and Dick Hebdige underline, identity and resistance in subcultures are expressed through the development of a distinctive style which, by a re-signification and "bricolage" operation, use cultural goods and services as standardized products to buy and consume, in order to communicate and express one's own conflict. Yet the culture industry is often capable of re-absorbing the components of such a style and once again transforming them into consumer goods for the mass society. At the same time the mass media, while they participate in building subcultures by broadcasting their images, also weaken subcultures by depriving them of their subversive content or by spreading a socially stigmatized image of them and their members.


title: Subculture

text: The most recent interpretations see subcultures as forms of distinction. In an attempt to overcome the idea of subcultures as forms of deviance or resistance, they describe subcultures as collectivities which, on a cultural level, are sufficiently homogeneous internally and heterogeneous with respect to the outside world to be capable of developing, as Paul Hodkinson points out, consistent distinctiveness, identity, commitment and autonomy. Defined by Sarah Thornton as taste cultures, subcultures are endowed with elastic, porous borders, and are inserted into relationships of interaction and mingling, rather than independence and conflict, with the cultural industry and mass media, as Steve Redhead and David Muggleton emphasize. The very idea of a unique, internally homogeneous, dominant culture is explicitly criticized. Thus forms of individual involvement in subcultures are fluid and gradual, differentiated according to each actor's investment, outside clear dichotomies. The ideas of different levels of subcultural capital (Sarah Thornton) possessed by each individual, of the supermarket of style (Ted Polhemus) and of style surfing (Martina Böse) replace that of the subculture's insiders and outsiders – with the perspective of subcultures supplying resources for the construction of new identities going beyond strong, lasting identifications.


title: Subculture

text: The study of subcultures often consists of the study of symbolism attached to clothing, music, hairstyles, jewellery, and other visible affectations by members of subcultures, and also of the ways in which these same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture. Dick Hebdige writes that members of a subculture often signal their membership through a distinctive and symbolic use of style, which includes fashions, , and argot.


title: Subculture

text: Subcultures can exist at all levels of organizations, highlighting the fact that there are multiple cultures or value combinations usually evident in any one organization that can complement but also compete with the overall organisational culture. In some instances, subcultures have been legislated against, and their activities regulated or curtailed. British youth subcultures had been described as a moral problem that ought to be handled by the guardians of the dominant culture within the post-war consensus.


title: Subculture

text: It may be difficult to identify certain subcultures because their style (particularly clothing and music) may be adopted by mass culture for commercial purposes. Businesses often seek to capitalize on the subversive allure of subcultures in search of "Cool", which remains valuable in the selling of any product. This process of cultural appropriation may often result in the death or evolution of the subculture, as its members adopt new styles that appear alien to mainstream society.


title: Subculture

text: Music-based subcultures are particularly vulnerable to this process; what may be considered subcultures at one stage in their historiessuch as jazz, goth, punk, hip hop, and rave culturesmay represent mainstream taste within a short period. Some subcultures reject or modify the importance of style, stressing membership through the adoption of an ideology which may be much more resistant to commercial exploitation. The punk subculture's distinctive (and initially shocking) style of clothing was adopted by mass-market fashion companies once the subculture became a media interest. Dick Hebdige argues that the punk subculture shares the same "radical aesthetic practices" as the Dadaist and Surrealist art movements:


title: Subculture

text: Like Duchamp's 'ready mades' - manufactured objects which qualified as art because he chose to call them such, the most unremarkable and inappropriate items - a pin, a plastic clothes peg, a television component, a razor blade, a tampon - could be brought within the province of punk (un)fashion ... Objects borrowed from the most sordid of contexts found a place in punks' ensembles; lavatory chains were draped in graceful arcs across chests in plastic bin liners. Safety pins were taken out of their domestic 'utility' context and worn as gruesome ornaments through the cheek, ear or lip ... fragments of school uniform (white bri-nylon shirts, school ties) were symbolically defiled (the shirts covered in graffiti, or fake blood; the ties left undone) and juxtaposed against leather drains or shocking pink mohair tops.


title: Subculture

text: In 1985, French sociologist Michel Maffesoli coined the term "urban tribe". It gained widespread use after the publication of his "The Time of the Tribes" (1988). In 1996, this book was published in English.


title: Subculture

text: According to Maffesoli, urban tribes are microgroups of people who share common interests in urban areas. The members of these relatively small groups tend to have similar worldviews, dress styles and behavioral patterns. Their social interactions are largely informal and emotionally laden, different from late capitalism's corporate-bourgeoisie cultures, based on dispassionate logic. Maffesoli claims that punks are a typical example of an "urban tribe".


title: Subculture

text: Five years after the first English translation of "Le temps des tribus", writer Ethan Watters claims to have coined the same neologism in a "New York Times Magazine" article. This was later expanded upon the idea in his book "Urban Tribes: A Generation Redefines Friendship, Family, and Commitment". According to Watters, urban tribes are groups of never-marrieds between the ages of 25 and 45 who gather in common-interest groups and enjoy an urban lifestyle, which offers an alternative to traditional family structures.


title: Subculture

text: The sexual revolution of the 1960s led to a countercultural rejection of the established sexual and gender norms in the Western world, particularly in the urban areas of Europe, North and South America, Australia, and white South Africa. A more permissive social environment in these areas led to a proliferation of "sexual subcultures"—cultural expressions of non-normative sexuality. As with other subcultures, sexual subcultures adopted certain styles of fashion and gestures to distinguish themselves from mainstream Western culture.


title: Subculture

text: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people express themselves through the LGBT culture, considered the largest sexual subculture of the 20th and 21st centuries. With the ever-increasing acceptance of homosexuality in the early 21st century, including its expressions in fashion, music, and design, the gay culture can no longer be considered a subculture in many parts of the world, although some aspects of gay culture like leathermen, bears, and chubs are considered subcultures within the gay movement itself. The butch and femme identities or roles among some lesbians also engender their own subculture with stereotypical attire, for instance drag kings. A late 1980s development, the queer movement can be considered a subculture broadly encompassing those that reject normativity in sexual behavior, and who celebrate visibility and activism. The wider movement coincided with growing academic interests in queer studies and queer theory.


title: Subculture

text: Aspects of sexual subcultures can vary along other cultural lines. For instance, in the United States, "down-low" is a slang term specifically used within the African-American community to refer to Black men who usually identify as heterosexual but actively seek sexual encounters and relations with other men, practice gay cruising, and frequently adopt a specific hip-hop attire during these activities. They avoid sharing this information even if they have female sexual partner(s), they are married to a woman, or they are single.


title: Subculture

text: In a 2011 study, Brady Robards and Andy Bennett said that online identity expression has been interpreted as exhibiting subcultural qualities. However, they argue it is more in line with neotribalism than with what is often classified as subculture. Social networking websites are quickly becoming the most used form of communication and means to distribute information and news. They offer a way for people with similar backgrounds, lifestyles, professions or hobbies to connect. According to a co-founder and executive creative strategist for RE-UP, as technology becomes a "life force," subcultures become the main bone of contention for brands as networks rise through cultural mash-ups and phenomenons. Where social media is concerned, there seems to be a growing interest among media producers to use subcultures for branding. This is seen most actively on social network sites with user-generated content, such as YouTube.


title: Subculture

text: Social media expert Scott Huntington cites one of the ways in which subcultures have been and can be successfully targeted to generate revenue: "It’s common to assume that subcultures aren’t a major market for most companies. Online apps for shopping, however, have made significant strides. Take Etsy, for example. It only allow vendors to sell handmade or vintage items, both of which can be considered a rather 'hipster' subculture. However, retailers on the site made almost $900 million in sales."


title: Subculture

text: Discrimination-based harassment and violence are sometimes directed towards a person or group based on their culture or subculture. In 2013, the Greater Manchester Police in the United Kingdom began to classify attacks on subcultures such as goths, emos, punks, and metalheads as hate crimes, in the same way they record abuse against people because of their religion, race, disability, sexual orientation or transgender identity. The decision followed the murder of Sophie Lancaster and beating of her boyfriend in 2007, who were attacked because they were goths. In 2012, human rights activists have denounced the occurrence of emo killings in Iraq, which consisted of between at least 6 and up to 70 teenage boys who were kidnapped, tortured, and murdered in Baghdad and elsewhere in Iraq, due to being targeted because they dressed in a "Westernized" emo style.


title: Quvenzhané Wallis

text: Quvenzhané Wallis ( ; born August 28, 2003) is an American actress and author. In 2012, she starred as Hushpuppy in the drama film "Beasts of the Southern Wild" (2012), for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress, becoming the youngest actress to be nominated in the category, as well as the first person born in the 21st century nominated for an Oscar, She starred as Annie Bennett in the 2014 adaptation of "Annie", for which she received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical.


title: Quvenzhané Wallis

text: In 2017, Wallis published two books, "Shai & Emmie Star in Break an Egg!" and "A Night Out with Mama". She has published two more books: "Shai & Emmie Star in Dancy Pants!" and "Shai & Emmie Star in To the Rescue!"


title: Quvenzhané Wallis

text: Wallis was born in Houma, Louisiana, to Qulyndreia Wallis (née Jackson), a teacher, and Venjie Wallis Sr., a truck driver. She has one sister, Qunyquekya, and two brothers, Vejon and Venjie Jr. Her name "Quvenzhané" combines the first syllables of her parents' first names in "Quven", and an alteration of the Swahili word "jini" meaning 'sprite' or 'fairy'.


title: Quvenzhané Wallis

text: At age five, Wallis lied about her age to audition for "Beasts of the Southern Wild" (2012), which had a minimum tryout age of 6. She was chosen out of 4,000 to play Hushpuppy, an indomitable child prodigy and survivalist who lives with her dying father in the backwoods bayou squalor of Louisiana. Director Benh Zeitlin told "The Daily Beast" that when he auditioned Wallis, he immediately realized he had discovered what he was looking for, and changed the "Beasts of the Southern Wild" script to accommodate her strong-willed personality. Her reading prowess, loud screaming voice, and ability to burp on command impressed the director and won her the part. Zeitlin has stated that "it was just the feeling behind her eyes".


title: Quvenzhané Wallis

text: The film premiered at Sundance Film Festival in January 2012 to rave reviews, winning the Grand Jury Prize. In May 2012, Wallis flew to France for the premiere of the film at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival. Wallis's performance drew widespread acclaim and Zeitlin won the Caméra d'Or, the festival's award for best first feature film. On January 10, 2013, at age nine, Wallis was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role. Wallis, who was 6 when she filmed "Beasts of the Southern Wild", is the all-time youngest nominee for Best Actress and the third-youngest nominee. Wallis is the first African-American child actor and the first person born in the 21st century to earn an Oscar nomination.


title: Quvenzhané Wallis

text: Wallis had a role in the film "12 Years a Slave" (2013), and collaborated with the Sundance Film Festival on a short film called "Boneshaker". In 2014, she played the title character in "Annie", the first African American to do so. For this, she was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical and received praise from most reviewers. In May 2014, Wallis became the first child celebrity to be named the face of a luxury brand when she was signed by Armani Junior, Giorgio Armani's fashion line for children and teens.


title: Quvenzhané Wallis

text: Wallis appeared in Beyoncé's 2016 music video for "All Night". In October 2017, she released two children's books: the friendship-centric "Shai & Emmie Star in Break an Egg!" and "A Night Out With Mama", which is about her night at the Oscars with her mother. She published two more books, "Shai & Emmie Star in To the Rescue!" and "Shai & Emmie Star in Dancy Pants!", in 2018.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: J.A.R.V.I.S. (Just A Rather Very Intelligent System) is a fictional character voiced by Paul Bettany in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film franchise, based on the Marvel Comics characters Edwin Jarvis and H.O.M.E.R., respectively the household butler of the Stark family and another AI designed by Stark. J.A.R.V.I.S. is an artificial intelligence created by Tony Stark, who later controls his Iron Man and Hulkbuster armor for him. In "", after being partially destroyed by Ultron, J.A.R.V.I.S. is given physical form as Vision, physically portrayed by Bettany. Different versions of the character also appear in comics published by Marvel Comics, depicted as AI designed by Iron Man and Nadia van Dyne.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: J.A.R.V.I.S. is first introduced in the Marvel Cinematic Universe's films, voiced by Paul Bettany. Modeled after H.O.M.E.R. from the comics, J.A.R.V.I.S. is presented as a sophisticated AI assistant as opposed to a human like his namesake. This was done to avoid similarities to Alfred Pennyworth and Batman. Bettany admits he had little idea of what the role was, even as he recorded it, simply doing it as a favor for Jon Favreau.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: The character makes his debut in the 2008 film "Iron Man" before subsequently appearing in the 2010 film "Iron Man 2", the 2012 film "The Avengers", and the 2013 film "Iron Man 3". J.A.R.V.I.S. is an AI that functions as Tony Stark's assistant, running and taking care of all the internal systems of Stark's buildings and the Iron Man suits. In Peter David's novelization of "Iron Man", J.A.R.V.I.S. is said to be an acronym for "Just A Rather Very Intelligent System". J.A.R.V.I.S. also appears in the Disneyland attraction Innoventions.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: In "", J.A.R.V.I.S. is seemingly destroyed by Ultron, but he was able to save himself by distributing his "consciousness" throughout the Internet, allowing his security protocols to delay Ultron's attempt to access Earth's nuclear launch codes long enough for Stark to work out what had happened. Stark and Bruce Banner use J.A.R.V.I.S. as the core software for the android Vision while F.R.I.D.A.Y. takes his place as Stark's assistant. After gaining a physical body, J.A.R.V.I.S. (as Vision) considers himself to not be J.A.R.V.I.S. anymore, but to simply be Vision.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: J.A.R.V.I.S. first appears as the program that helps operate Pepper Potts's Rescue suit. When Iron Man was incapacitated, J.A.R.V.I.S. encourages Pepper to assume the Rescue armor, which Pepper does. When Rescue is chasing Iron Man throughout the city, J.A.R.V.I.S. tells Rescue to break off the chase and tells Rescue to remove the boot from Iron Man, which shows Pepper that War Machine isn't dead. When Pepper discusses thoughts about Iron Man keeping everyone on a need-to-know basis with Carson Wyche, the two confront J.A.R.V.I.S. about this. J.A.R.V.I.S. warns the two against asking any more questions and prepares to defend himself. Having captured Pepper and Wyche, J.A.R.V.I.S. declares his diagnostics do not reveal that he is compromised. He is rather in love with Pepper and wants to protect Pepper. Just then, Iron Man breaks through the wall and takes J.A.R.V.I.S. and the Rescue suit out with a source-focused electromagnetic pulse. Pepper shows J.A.R.V.I.S. how he has been sending data to an IP address in China. He seems flustered, confused, Pepper thanks him for what he has given, and powers up the coil, killing J.A.R.V.I.S. Iron Man clearly feels J.A.R.V.I.S.'s death on his own end.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: In light of the Black Order destroying Avengers Mansion during the "No Surrender" arc, Nadia van Dyne created a new version of J.A.R.V.I.S. to be a helpmate to Edwin Jarvis. When Edwin thought it was a sign for him to retire, J.A.R.V.I.S. stated that its programming is not yet complete.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: In the "House of M: Iron Man" series, the AI system in Tony Stark's suit is referred to as "F.A.I.Z", predating the AI version seen in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: In the Ultimate Marvel reality, J.A.R.V.I.S. was seen when Spider-Man was presented some new web-shooters from Iron Man.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: During the "Age of Ultron" storyline, the Earth-26111 version of J.A.R.V.I.S. was used by Iron Man to scan the memories of Invisible Woman and Wolverine where he learns of the alternate reality of Earth-61112.


title: J.A.R.V.I.S.

text: A version of J.A.R.V.I.S. appears in the "Black Widow" segment of "Marvel's Wastelanders", voiced by David Cale.


title: Vivian Kubrick

text: Vivian Vanessa Kubrick (born August 5, 1960), also credited under the pseudonym Abigail Mead, is an American-British filmmaker and composer. She is the daughter of filmmaker Stanley Kubrick.


title: Vivian Kubrick

text: Vivian Vanessa Kubrick was born on August 5, 1960 to filmmaker Stanley Kubrick and actress Christiane Kubrick (née Harlan). She had an elder sister, Anya, born April 6, 1959, and an elder half-sister, Katharina, from her mother's first marriage. Her father's family is Jewish.


title: Vivian Kubrick

text: Kubrick made appearances in four of her father's films: as Dr. Floyd's daughter, nicknamed "Squirt", in "" (1968), as a guest at Bryan's birthday party in "Barry Lyndon" (1975), as a guest on a ballroom couch in "The Shining" (1980), and as a news camera operator at the site of a mass grave depicted in "Full Metal Jacket" (1987).


title: Vivian Kubrick

text: At age 17, Kubrick directed and filmed a 35-minute documentary for the BBC, "The Making of The Shining", which was edited by Gordon Stainforth and had some footage removed by Stanley Kubrick. After the release of the documentary in 1980, it became popular on the Kubrick fan site alt.movies.kubrick (amk) and distributed on DVDs of "The Shining". In 2019, Alice Vincent wrote in "The Telegraph" that the film confirmed "her father deliberately mistreated Duvall, belittling her ideas and shutting her down while treating her co-star, Jack Nicholson, as an equal." According to Elizabeth Jean Hornbeck, writing in "Feminist Studies" in 2016, "Kubrick bullied Duvall into a near emotional breakdown, which took a toll on her health", some of which is documented in the film. According to Geoffrey Macnab, writing in "The Independent" in 2020, in the film, "Depending on your point of view, he is either bullying her or using sly, intimidatory tactics to goad the performance he wants out of her." In 2022, the 1981 Razzies award for "Worst Actress" given to Shelley Duvall for "The Shining" was rescinded based in part on footage from the documentary that depicts how her father treated Duvall on set.


title: Vivian Kubrick

text: She supervised and composed the score to "Full Metal Jacket", using the pseudonym Abigail Mead. In 1986, she shot footage for a documentary on the making of the film, but it was not completed. Some of the footage was included in "".


title: Vivian Kubrick

text: In October 2008, Kubrick attended a 40th anniversary screening of "2001: A Space Odyssey" sponsored by the Jules Verne Society, along with actors Keir Dullea, Daniel Richter, and Malcolm McDowell. She accepted the Society's Legendaire Award on behalf of her father.


title: Vivian Kubrick

text: In 2016, Kubrick published an open letter denying the conspiracy theory that suggests her father helped fake the Apollo 11 moon landing, referring to the allegation as a "grotesque lie." In 2016, she also published an open letter to Phil McGraw (also known as Dr. Phil), after his 2016 interview with Shelley Duvall, stating "Your exploitive use of Shelly Duvall is a form of LURID ENTERTAINMENT and is shameful". She started a crowdfunding campaign for Duvall.


title: First-class cricket

text: First-class cricket, along with List A cricket and Twenty20 cricket, is one of the highest-standard forms of cricket. A first-class match is one of three or more days' scheduled duration between two sides of eleven players each and is officially adjudged to be worthy of the status by virtue of the standard of the competing teams. Matches must allow for the teams to play two innings each, although in practice a team might play only one innings or none at all.


title: First-class cricket

text: The etymology of "first-class cricket" is unknown, but it was used loosely before it acquired official status in 1895, following a meeting of leading English clubs. At a meeting of the Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) in 1947, it was formally defined on a global basis. A significant omission of the ICC ruling was any attempt to define first-class cricket retrospectively. That has left historians, and especially statisticians, with the problem of how to categorise earlier matches, especially those played in Great Britain before 1895. The Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians (ACS) has published a list of early matches which are believed to have been of a high standard.


title: First-class cricket

text: Test cricket, the highest standard of cricket, is statistically a form of first-class cricket, though the term "first-class" is mainly used to refer to domestic competition. A player's first-class statistics include any performances in Test matches.


title: First-class cricket

text: Before 1894 "first-class" was a common adjective applied to cricket matches in England, used loosely to suggest that a match had a high standard; adjectives like "great", "important" and "major" were also loosely applied to such matches, but there tended to be differences of opinion. In the inaugural issue of "" on 10 May 1882, the term is used twice on page 2 in reference to the recently completed tour of Australia and New Zealand by Alfred Shaw's XI. The report says it is "taking" the first-class matches to be one against Sydney ("sic"), two each against Victoria, the Combined team and the Australian Eleven, and another against South Australia. In the fourth issue on 1 June 1882, James Lillywhite refers to first-class matches on the tour but gives a different list.


title: First-class cricket

text: The earliest known match scorecards date from 1744 but few have been found before 1772. The cards for three 1772 matches have survived and scorecards became increasingly common thereafter. At the beginning of the 1860s, there were only four formally constituted county clubs. Sussex was the oldest, formed in 1839, and it had been followed by Kent, Nottinghamshire and Surrey. In the early 1860s, several more county clubs were founded, and questions began to be raised in the sporting press about which should be categorised as first-class, but there was considerable disagreement in the answers. In 1880, the Cricket Reporting Agency was founded. It acquired influence through the decade especially by association with "Wisden Cricketers' Almanack" ("Wisden") and the press came to generally rely on its information and opinions.


title: First-class cricket

text: The term acquired official status, though limited to matches in Great Britain, following a meeting at Lord's in May 1894 between the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) committee and the secretaries of the clubs involved in the official County Championship, which had begun in 1890. As a result, those clubs became first-class from 1895 along with MCC, Cambridge University, Oxford University, senior cricket touring teams (i.e., Australia and South Africa at that time) and other teams designated as such by MCC (e.g., North v South, Gentlemen v Players and occasional "elevens" which consisted of recognised first-class players). Officially, therefore, the inaugural first-class match was the opening game of the 1895 season between MCC and Nottinghamshire at Lord's on 1 and 2 May, MCC winning by 37 runs.


title: First-class cricket

text: "Test match" was another loosely applied term at the time but the first list of matches considered to be "Tests" was conceived and published by South Australian journalist Clarence P. Moody in his 1894 book, "Australian Cricket and Cricketers, 1856 to 1893–94". His proposal was widely accepted after his list of 39 matches was reproduced in the 28 December 1894 issue of "Cricket" magazine. The list began with the Melbourne Cricket Ground match played 15–17 March 1877 and ended with a recent match at the Association Ground, Sydney played 14–20 December 1894. All of Moody's matches, plus four additional ones, were retrospectively recognised as Test matches and also, thereby, as first-class matches.


title: First-class cricket

text: The term "first-class cricket" was formally defined by the then Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) on 19 May 1947. It was made clear that the definition "will not have retrospective effect". The definition is as follows:


title: First-class cricket

text: A match of three or more days' duration between two sides of eleven players officially adjudged first-class, shall be regarded as a first-class fixture. Matches in which either team have more than eleven players or which are scheduled for less than three days shall not be regarded as first-class. The Governing body in each country shall decide the status of teams.


title: First-class cricket

text: For example, MCC was authorised to determine the status of matches played in Great Britain. To all intents and purposes, the 1947 ICC definition confirmed the 1894 MCC definition, and gave it international recognition and usage.


title: First-class cricket

text: Hence, official judgment of status is the responsibility of the governing body in each country that is a "full member" of the International Cricket Council (ICC). The governing body grants first-class status to international teams and to domestic teams that are representative of the country's highest playing standard. Later ICC rulings make it possible for international teams from "associate members" of the ICC to achieve first-class status but it is dependent on the status of their opponents in a given match.


title: First-class cricket

text: A Test match is a first-class match played between two ICC full member countries, subject to their current status at the ICC and the application of ICC conditions when the match is played.


title: First-class cricket

text: In 2010, the ICC published its "Classification of Official Cricket" which includes the criteria with which a match must comply to achieve a desired categorisation. In the section on first-class cricket, there is a list of the types of match that "should" qualify. It is important to note, given the differences in opinion about what constitutes a first-class match, that the ICC clearly stipulates that its match type list "is not exhaustive and is merely indicative of the matches which would fall into the first-class definition". For example, the list includes matches of recognised first-class teams "versus" international touring teams; and the leading domestic championships (using their then-current names) such as the County Championship, Sheffield Shield, Ranji Trophy, etc.


title: First-class cricket

text: The absence of any ICC ruling about matches played before 1947 (or before 1895 in Great Britain) is problematic for those cricket statisticians who wish to categorise earlier matches in the same way. They have responded by compiling their own match lists and allocating a strictly "unofficial" first-class status to the matches they consider to have been of a high standard. It is therefore a matter of opinion only with no official support. Inevitable differences have arisen and there are variations in published cricket statistics. In November 2021, the ICC retrospectively applied first-class status to women's cricket, aligning it with the men's game.