title: Twelve Carat Toothache

text: Rhian Daly from "NME" enjoyed the album, saying, "The occasional outdated attitude and some light filler material here and there aside, "Twelve Carat Toothache" is another step up for Post Malone. It's a record that feels distinctively, inimitably him and succeeds in his goal of sharing his truth". Writing for "The Daily Telegraph", Kathleen Johnston stated, "Despite what the polished sonics might suggest, "Twelve Carat Toothache" is an ambitious record with real range, proving that Post has found his groove as America's kaleidoscopic king of new-era pop". Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" praised the album, stating, "Some of Post Malone's brightest sounds to date: "Wrapped Around Your Finger" has 1950s sweetness and 1980s syntheticness, and "I Cannot Be (a Sadder Song)" has a bubbly undertow that recalls some of the squeakiest K-pop. "One Right Now", with the Weeknd, is more zippy dyspepsia. But even the chirpy moments don't detract from the album's tonal consistency". In a positive review, "Variety"s Chris Willman said, ""Twelve Carat Toothache" finally feels like a transitional album for one of pop's biggest stars. (And we do mean pop, not hip-hop) ... But with no small help from Bell, who's the best kind of musical enabler, Malone's turns of melodic phrase and aptitude for true confessions are making him a far more interesting artist than we could have guessed even a couple of albums ago". AllMusic's Neil Z. Yeung wrote, "While the rap-preferring fans will still gravitate to his first two efforts, listeners with an appreciative ear for his genre-sampling maturation into the mainstream will find "Twelve Carat Toothache" to be a fascinating emotional exploration of a conflicted artist who can't help but churn out star-making hits at the expense of his own happiness". Maura Johnston of "Rolling Stone" said, "His fourth album is full of big-name cameos, sweeping gestures, and pensive vibes".


title: Twelve Carat Toothache

text: In his review, Matthew Strauss of "Pitchfork" states, "Post Malone's fourth studio album is slick, streamlined, and a little less vulgar and ostentatious than his earlier work—a sign that he's taking himself more seriously, for better or worse". "Beats Per Minute" critic JT Early said, "Don't let the sparkly façade fool you – Post isn't afraid to let you know he's just as much a human being, with all its accompanying messes and drama, as the rest of us". In a mixed review, "Clash"s Robin Murray stated, "Neither one thing or another, the lack of definition on the project results in something quietly rebellious, but curiously unsatisfying". Mackenzie Cummings-Grady of "HipHopDX" said, "Lukewarm contributions from Doja Cat, the Kid Laroi, Roddy Ricch and others can't help Post Malone get out of the quicksand. He continues to be pulled in an obvious direction of glitzy Hollywood stardom but instead, maintains a chokehold on comfortability". Reviewing the album for "Consequence", Paolo Ragusa stated, ""Twelve Carat Toothache" feels thrown together and incomplete. Post Malone did himself a favor by limiting the run time of the LP, but if he's championing quality over quantity, the quality has to be more incisive, specific, vulnerable, and holistic".


title: Twelve Carat Toothache

text: "Twelve Carat Toothache" debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 with 121,000 album-equivalent units, including 21,000 pure album sales. Its tracks earned a total of 127.82 million on-demand streams. The album is Post Malone's fourth top-five album in the US.


title: 2022 IIHF World Championship

text: The 2022 IIHF World Championship was hosted by Finland from 13 to 29 May 2022, as the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) announced on 19 May 2017 in Cologne, Germany. The host cities of the World Championships were Tampere and Helsinki, of which Tampere's brand-new Nokia Arena served as the main venue of the games.


title: 2022 IIHF World Championship

text: Since all lower divisions of the 2021 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all 16 teams from the previous year's top division were set to return this year. However, in the midst of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus were suspended from competing in all IIHF tournaments for at least a year. This marked the first time that Russia missed the top division of the World Championship since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. For this tournament, the suspended nations were replaced by Austria and France, the two highest-ranked teams in 2021 that had not already qualified. Additionally, the venue in Helsinki was moved from Helsinki Halli, previously known as Hartwall Arena, to Helsinki Ice Hall due to the former being owned by Russian oligarchs.


title: 2022 IIHF World Championship

text: Finland defeated Canada 4–3 in overtime in the gold medal game for their fourth title and their first medal ever won on home ice. This marked the first time since the introduction of the playoff round in 1992 that the same two teams met in the gold medal game three tournaments in a row. Czechia won the bronze medal, their first medal since 2012, after an 8–4 win over the United States.


title: 2022 IIHF World Championship

text: The tournament saw multiple historic upsets: Austria's first victory against Czechia, and Denmark's first victory against Canada.


title: 2022 IIHF World Championship

text: Pursuant to a December 2020 ruling by the Court of Arbitration for Sport on doping sanctions, Russian athletes and teams were prohibited from competing under the Russian flag or using the Russian national anthem at any Olympic Games or world championships through 16 December 2022, and could only compete as "neutral athlete[s]." For IIHF tournaments, the Russian team was to play under the name "ROC". Instead of the Russian national anthem being played at the 2021 World Championship, Piano Concerto No.1 by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky was to be played.<br> However, on 28 February 2022, the IIHF decided to expel ROC and Belarus from the tournament due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: 2022 IIHF World Championship

text: The seedings in the preliminary round are based on the 2021 IIHF World Ranking, as of the end of the 2021 IIHF World Championship, using the serpentine system while allowing the organizer, "to allocate a maximum of two teams to separate groups".


title: 2022 IIHF World Championship

text: Each team's roster consisted of at least 15 skaters (forwards, and defencemen) and 2 goaltenders, and at most 25 skaters and 3 goaltenders. All 16 participating nations, through the confirmation of their respective national associations, had to submit a "Long List" no later than two weeks before the tournament, and a final roster by the Passport Control meeting prior to the start of the tournament.


title: 2022 IIHF World Championship

text: Only the top five goaltenders, based on save percentage, who have played at least 40% of their team's minutes, are included in this list.


title: Hemangioma

text: A hemangioma or haemangioma is a usually benign vascular tumor derived from blood vessel cell types. The most common form, seen in infants, is an infantile hemangioma, known colloquially as a "strawberry mark", most commonly presenting on the skin at birth or in the first weeks of life. A hemangioma can occur anywhere on the body, but most commonly appears on the face, scalp, chest or back. They tend to grow for up to a year before gradually shrinking as the child gets older. A hemangioma may need to be treated if it interferes with vision or breathing or is likely to cause long-term disfigurement. In rare cases internal hemangiomas can cause or contribute to other medical problems. Most of the time they tend to disappear in 10 years. The first line treatment option is beta blockers, which are highly effective in the majority of cases. Ones that form at birth are called congenital hemangiomas while ones that form later in life are called infantile hemangiomas.


title: Hemangioma

text: Hemangiomas are benign (noncancerous) vascular tumors, and many different types occur. The correct terminology for these hemangioma types is constantly being updated by the International Society for the Study of Vascular Anomalies (ISSVA). The most common are infantile hemangiomas, and congenital hemangiomas.


title: Hemangioma

text: Infantile hemangiomas are the most common benign tumor found in children. They are made up of blood vessels, often called "strawberry marks", and are more common in girls than in boys. Babies that are born early are more likely to have a hemangioma. They usually appear on the skin of infants in the days or weeks after birth. They tend to grow quickly for up to a year. Most then shrink or "involute" without further problem, however some can ulcerate and form scabs which can be painful. Depending on their location and size, they may also be disfiguring.


title: Hemangioma

text: Rarely, they may be related to disorders of the central nervous system or spine. They may also occur in the internal organs of the body, such as the liver, airway or brain.


title: Hemangioma

text: The color of the hemangioma depends on how deep it is in the skin: superficial (near the skin's surface) hemangiomas tend to be bright red; deep (furthest from the skin's surface) hemangiomas are often blue or purple; mixed hemangiomas may have colors of both superficial and deep.


title: Hemangioma

text: Congenital hemangiomas are present on the skin at birth, unlike infantile hemangiomas, which appear later. They are fully formed at birth, meaning that they do not grow after a child is born, as infantile hemangiomas do. They are less common than infantile hemangiomas. Congenital hemangiomas can be coloured from pink to blue.


title: Hemangioma

text: Congenital hemangiomas are classified according to whether they shrink and go away, or do not shrink, and do not go away, or partially shrink. Those that shrink are known as rapidly involuting congenital hemangiomas (RICH) and go away quickly. Those that do not shrink, and remain are known as noninvoluting congenital hemangiomas (NICH). Others that partially shrink are known as "partially involuting congenital hemangiomas" (PICH).


title: Hemangioma

text: A "cavernous liver hemangioma" or "hepatic hemangioma" is a benign tumour of the liver composed of hepatic endothelial cells. It is the most common liver tumour, and is usually asymptomatic and diagnosed incidentally on radiological imaging. Liver hemangiomas are thought to be congenital in origin. Several subtypes exist, including the giant hepatic hemangioma, which can cause significant complications.


title: Hemangioma

text: Drug-induced hemangiomas are reported side-effects for some drugs in nonclinical toxicology animal models, studying carcinogenesis. For example, hemangiomas of the mesenteric lymph node were increased significantly at 700 mg/kg/day of Empagliflozin in male rats, or approximately 42 times the exposure from a 25 mg clinical dose. It is inferred from nonclinical animal studies that some drugs can also produce hemangiomas in humans, and careful dosing during therapeutic drug design can ensure their safe use.


title: Hemangioma

text: Diagnosis is usually clinical. Paediatric Dermatologists are experts in diagnosing and treating hemangiomas. Depending on the location of the hemangioma, tests such as MRIs or ultrasounds can be done to see how far the hemangioma goes under the skin and whether it affects any internal organs.


title: Hemangioma

text: Hemangiomas usually fade gradually over time, and many do not require treatment. However, hemangiomas that may be disfiguring or that are located at sites that can cause impairment (eyelids, airway) require early treatment intervention, typically with beta blockers. Management options may include: A lot of treatment is based on case to case of each patient, with every case being different.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: Sanjeev Bhaskar (born 31 October 1963) is a British actor, comedian and television presenter. He is best known for his work in the BBC Two sketch comedy series "Goodness Gracious Me" and as the star of the sitcom "The Kumars at No. 42". He also presented and starred in a documentary series called "India with Sanjeev Bhaskar" in which he travelled to India and visited his ancestral home in today's Pakistan. Bhaskar's more dramatic acting roles include the lead role of Dr Prem Sharma in "The Indian Doctor" and a main role as DI Sunny Khan in "Unforgotten". Bhaskar has been the Chancellor of the University of Sussex since 2009.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: In 2003, he was listed in "The Observer" as one of the 50 funniest acts in British comedy. In 2006, Bhaskar was honoured with the title OBE – Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: Bhaskar was born on 31 October 1963 in Ealing, London, to Inderjit and Janak Bhaskar, who came to the U.K. after the partition of India, and grew up living above the family launderette in Heston, Hounslow, Middlesex. He was raised in Hinduism.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: He earned a degree in marketing from Hatfield Polytechnic before landing a job as a marketing executive at IBM.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: Bhaskar soon realised that he preferred comedy to marketing and joined forces with an old college friend, Nitin Sawhney, to start a musical comedy double act called ""The Secret Asians"" which they first performed in 1996 at the now-defunct Tom Allen Arts Centre in East London. This performance was featured on a BBC magazine show called "Reportage". They performed extensively also at the Watermans Arts Centre with numerous other acts at a regular Asian comedy night called "One Nation Under a Groove...Innit". Their real break came when they were performing a show at the Oval House venue in South London where, after a strong review in "Time Out" magazine by journalist and playwright Bonnie Greer, they were approached by Anil Gupta, the producer of what was to become the BBC sketch series "Goodness Gracious Me".


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: Bhaskar has starred in a number of British-produced films including "The Guru" and "Anita and Me". He also had a cameo as a shop owner in Yash Raj Films' production "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom". He had a major role in the 2019 film, "Yesterday", in which he and his wife Meera Syal played a married couple.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: Bhaskar, the Kumars and Gareth Gates collectively released the official single for Comic Relief in 2003, 'Spirit in the Sky', which spent three weeks at the top of the UK Singles chart and was the second highest selling single of the year. In 2008 Bhaskar made his musical theatre debut as King Arthur in "Spamalot" at London's Palace Theatre. In October 2008 he was featured on BBC Radio 4's "Desert Island Discs".


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: He appeared as a guest on the BBC's "Top Gear" in 2003, setting a time of 1:51.0 around a wet "Top Gear" test track in a Suzuki Liana, placing him 32nd on the original leader board. In March 2010 he featured on the BBC Radio 4 comedy show "I've Never Seen Star Wars". On 23 July 2010 he was guest on the BBC comedy panel game "Would I Lie To You?"


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: As part of the BBC's series of programmes on the 60th anniversary of the independence of India and Pakistan, he filmed a BBC documentary series "India with Sanjeev Bhaskar" with director Deep Sehgal which was broadcast in August 2007. According to the BBC it included "an emotional journey" to his father's ancestral home which is now in Pakistan. His first book "India with Sanjeev Bhaskar", based on the documentary series, became a "Sunday Times" bestseller in 2007. He also featured in a Channel 4 documentary series called "The House That Made Me". This show, produced by Nutopia in 2010, recreated his childhood home and introduced him to the characters of his youth.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: He wrote and starred in the ITV sitcom "Mumbai Calling" and the UK tour of the hit American improv show "Totally Looped".


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: On 31 October 2014 Bhaskar hosted Kermode and Mayo's Film Review, standing in for Simon Mayo on the BBC's flagship film show. He also played the lead character in the online animation Rajesh Finesse in 2014.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: In 2005 Bhaskar was awarded the Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the New Year Honours List. On 23 February 2009 he was appointed chancellor of the University of Sussex, and he was formally installed at the university's summer graduation ceremony on 22 July 2009. On 26 July 2019 Bhaskar was awarded an honorary doctorate by the university in recognition of his ten years in post as chancellor.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: In January 2005, Bhaskar married comedian Meera Syal in Lichfield, Staffordshire. They have a son, Shaan, who was born at the Portland Hospital on 2 December 2005.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: In February 2009 Bhaskar and other entertainers wrote an open letter to "The Times" protesting against the trial of leaders of the Baháʼí Faith then being held in Iran.


title: Sanjeev Bhaskar

text: Before the 2010 general election Bhaskar was one of 48 celebrities who signed a letter warning against Conservative Party policy towards the BBC.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Judith Arlene Resnik (April 5, 1949 – January 28, 1986) was an American electrical engineer, software engineer, biomedical engineer, pilot and NASA astronaut who died in the Space Shuttle "Challenger" disaster. She was the fourth woman, the second American woman and the first Jewish woman of any nationality to fly in space, logging 145 hours in orbit.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Recognized while still a child for her intellectual brilliance, Resnik was accepted at Carnegie Institute of Technology after becoming only the sixteenth woman in the history of the United States to have attained a perfect score on the SAT exam. She graduated with a degree in electrical engineering from Carnegie Mellon before attaining a PhD in electrical engineering from the University of Maryland.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Resnik worked for RCA as an engineer on Navy missile and radar projects, as a senior systems engineer for Xerox Corporation, and published research on special-purpose integrated circuitry. She was also a pilot and made research contributions to biomedical engineering as a research fellow at the National Institutes of Health.


title: Judith Resnik

text: At age 28, Resnik was selected by NASA as a mission specialist. She was part of NASA Astronaut Group 8, the first group to include women. While training on the astronaut program, she developed software and operating procedures for NASA missions. Her first space flight was the STS-41-D mission in August and September 1984, the twelfth Space Shuttle flight, and the maiden voyage of, where her duties included operating its robotic arm. Her second Shuttle mission was STS-51-L in January 1986 aboard. She died when it broke up shortly after liftoff and crashed into the ocean.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Judith Arlene Resnik was born in Akron, Ohio, on April 5, 1949, the daughter of Marvin Resnik, an optometrist, and his wife Sarah ( Polensky), a legal secretary. She had a brother, Charles, who was four years younger. Her father was the son of a rabbi, and he had been born in Preluke in Ukraine. His family had emigrated to Mandatory Palestine in the 1920s, and then to the United States after the 1929 Hebron massacre. He was fluent in eight languages and served in the U.S. Army during World War II in military intelligence, conducting prisoner of war interrogations and aerial reconnaissance in the Pacific Theater and the subsequent occupation of Japan. Resnik grew up in an observant Jewish home, studying at Hebrew school at Beth El Synagogue in Akron and celebrating her Bat Mitzvah in 1962. The Bat Mitzvah was not common at this time.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Resnik was noticed for her intellectual ability while still in kindergarten, and she entered elementary school a year early. She attended Fairlawn Elementary School, Simon Perkins Junior High School, and Harvey S. Firestone High School. She was an outstanding student, excelling in mathematics, languages and piano. She played classical piano, and at one point considered a career as a concert pianist. Before college, she attained a perfect score on her SAT exam, the only woman in the country to do so that year and only the sixteenth woman in US history. She graduated from Firestone in 1966 as valedictorian and runner-up homecoming queen.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Although her mother disapproved of her dating, Resnik had a series of boyfriends. She preferred to socialize with boys from the nearby Copley High School rather than from Firestone, where her intellectual reputation preceded her. She met Len Nahmi at a basketball game. He was half Irish and half Lebanese, and her mother disapproved of him. Nonetheless, she continued to see him secretly, and when she stayed with a cousin in Cleveland while taking a college course available to high school students, she also met with him there. Her parents acrimoniously divorced while she was a teenager, and custody was given to her mother, as was the custom in the United States. Her mother's dislike of Nahmi became more intense, and Nahmi eventually ended their relationship to spare Resnik more pain. When she was 17, she prepared and filed a successful court case so that her custody could be switched from her mother to her father, with whom she was particularly close. She tore up letters from her mother unopened. Her father remarried, and she acquired twin stepsisters, Linda and Sandy, who were nine years older than she was, and with whom she became close.


title: Judith Resnik

text: At age 17, Resnik entered Carnegie Institute of Technology, where she joined the Alpha Epsilon Phi sorority. She began college intending to become a math major, but in her second year, after attending electrical engineering lectures with her boyfriend Michael Oldak, she developed a passion for the subject. She was one of three female students in electrical engineering. She was a gourmet cook and a navigator in sports car rallies, in which she took part many times with Oldak in his Triumph TR6. She earned a Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering from Carnegie Mellon University (as it now was) in 1970. She became a member of Tau Beta Pi and Eta Kappa Nu honor societies.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Resnik married Oldak on July 14, 1970. Her mother attended the wedding; two sets of invitations were sent out, one describing her as her father's daughter, and the other as her mother's. Upon graduation from Carnegie Mellon, Resnik and Oldak moved to Moorestown, New Jersey, where they both worked for RCA. She was a design engineer on missile and radar projects and won the Graduate Study Program Award. She performed circuit design for the missile and surface radar division. While at RCA, she worked for the Navy building custom integrated circuitry for the phased-array radar control systems and developed electronics and software for NASA's sounding rocket and telemetry systems programs. An academic paper she wrote on special purpose integrated circuitry caught the attention of NASA during this time. She registered for master's degree evening courses at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1971, Oldak was accepted into Georgetown University Law Center, and they moved to Washington, D.C. Resnik continued to work for RCA, transferring to its office in Springfield, Virginia, and she continued pursuing her master's degree at the University of Maryland. She then entered a doctoral program. Resnik and Oldak divorced in 1975—he wanted children and she did not—but they remained in contact and on good terms.


title: Judith Resnik

text: While working on her doctorate, Resnik switched jobs in 1974, and went to work as a research fellow in biomedical engineering at the Laboratory of Neurophysiology at the National Institutes of Health. As a biomedical engineer, Resnik researched the physiology of visual systems. In 1977 she earned her PhD in electrical engineering with honors at the University of Maryland, writing her dissertation on "Bleaching kinetics of visual pigments". Her research involved the effects of electrical currents on the retina. An academic paper co-written by her concerning the biomedical engineering of optometry ("A novel rapid scanning microspectrophotometer and its use in measuring rhodopsin photoproduct pathways and kinetics in frog retinas") was published in the "Journal of the Optical Society of America" in 1978.


title: Judith Resnik

text: After her divorce from Oldak, Resnik reconnected with Nahmi, who was now a commercial airline pilot. When he heard that the National Air and Space Administration (NASA) was recruiting women to become astronauts, he encouraged her to apply. They read "Carrying the Fire", the 1974 book by Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins, and she met with him in his office at the National Air and Space Museum. She also met with another former astronaut, John Glenn, who was now a United States senator from her home state of Ohio. Nahmi convinced her to obtain a private pilot's license to bolster her credentials. Resnik qualified as a pilot in 1977, while completing her Ph.D., having achieved near-perfect scores in her flying exams (two 100s and a 98). When she received a promotion at RCA and again when she completed her doctorate, he suggested she send NASA a telegram informing them.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Resnik's mentor and advisor, Professor Angel G. Jordan, then Dean of Carnegie Mellon College of Engineering and later provost of Carnegie Mellon, also encouraged Resnik to apply for the program. After she completed her doctorate, Resnik became a senior systems engineer for Xerox Corporation in Los Angeles, working in product development. She rented an apartment in Redondo Beach, California, where she would jog along the beach to improve her stamina and reduce her weight.


title: Judith Resnik

text: In January 1978, at age 28, Resnik was selected as a mission specialist with NASA Astronaut Group 8, one of twenty-nine men and six women selected out of 8,029 applicants in the first NASA astronaut selection that included women. This involved taking a pay cut, as her new salary was considerably less than what she was being paid at Xerox. Her fellow astronaut candidates nicknamed her "JR". She dated some of them. She trained intensely and with great determination, focusing particularly on her physical fitness. She piloted the Northrop T-38 Talon, an aircraft used by NASA astronauts for transportation and training. Astronaut Jerome Apt described her as "an excellent pilot". Asked about Resnik, fellow astronaut Rhea Seddon said: "I thought she was really really bright, obviously a very beautiful person, flirtatious, funny. She was just a live wire. We would do the happy hours, or we'd go on these NASA trips, and Judy was just a star attraction."


title: Judith Resnik

text: Resnik worked on research into the principle of orbital systems, flight software and the development of systems of manual control of spacecraft. She developed the software and operating procedures for the Space Shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (RMS). She also developed the deployment systems for the tethered satellite systems and worked on orbiter development, writing software for NASA to use on its missions. She disliked the part of her job that required making public appearances and drumming up support for the space program. She avoided television interviews when possible, and resented intrusive questions about her private life, such as questions about her divorce.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Other astronauts felt that either Resnik or Sally Ride would become the first woman in the group to fly in space, as they received the sorts of technical assignments that best prepared them for flight, such as capsule communicator (CapCom) duties. The shortlisted candidates for the mission specialist assignments for the STS-7 mission included all six women, but since the mission involved the use of the RMS, the choice of the first to fly on the Space Shuttle narrowed to Resnik, Ride and Anna Fisher, who had specialized on it. Resnik was considered best qualified, but was passed over in favor of Ride because it was felt that Resnik was less comfortable with public affairs issues, and the first American woman to fly in space would attract an unusual amount of public interest.


title: Judith Resnik

text: In February 1983, Resnik was assigned to the crew of STS-41-D, the twelfth Space Shuttle flight, the maiden voyage of the , along with Henry Hartsfield, Michael Coats, Steven Hawley and Mike Mullane. During a visit to a contractor's factory, Resnik whispered to Mullane: "there are no maidens on this flight". She was the center of attention on such visits, and one contractor engineer became a stalker, sending her unwelcome letters, poems and gifts. Eventually, after he appeared in the office, he had to be dealt with by NASA security. After Hawley and Mullane had a fawning encounter with actor Bo Derek, who was working on the film "Tarzan, the Ape Man", Resnik started calling Mullane "Tarzan" and Hawley "Cheetah"; when the office secretaries heard about this, they began referring to the STS-41-D crew as the "zoo crew". Resnik was a fan of the actor Tom Selleck, and had a coffee cup that said: "Excuse No. 1: I'm Saving Myself for Tom Selleck." Her crewmates hid a poster of Tom Selleck behind the bathroom curtain on "Discovery".


title: Judith Resnik

text: The STS-41-D mission's launch was delayed three times. The first attempt, on June 25, 1984, was aborted due to a failure of the backup computer. The following day, during the second attempt, the computer detected a fault in one of the Space Shuttle main engines, and shut them down four seconds before liftoff. This was the first time a NASA space mission had been aborted after starting the engines since Gemini 6 in 1965. "Discovery" had to be taken back to the Vehicle Assembly Building, where the faulty engine was replaced. A further launch attempt was made on August 29, but was again delayed for a day due to a software issue. Finally, on August 30, "Discovery" lifted off for the first time, and was in orbit eight minutes later. Resnik invited her family to watch the launch from the VIP viewing area. This included her father, brother, Oldak and Nahmi. Her mother was also in attendance, to avoid bad publicity.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Resnik became the second American woman in space. She was also the first American Jewish astronaut to go into space, and the first Jewish woman. Her duties included operating the Space Shuttle's robotic arm, which she helped create and on which she was an expert. On the first day of the mission, Resnik and Mullane deployed the first of three commercial communications satellites, the SBS-4 satellite for Satellite Business Systems. On the second day, the crew released a second satellite, Syncom IV-2, also known as Leasat 2, for the U.S. Navy. While Hartsfield was filming its release with the IMAX camera for the documentary "The Dream is Alive", Resnik's hair became caught in the camera's belt feed mechanism. The camera jammed, and she had to be cut free with scissors. Strands of loose hair floated about the cabin. Hartsfield informed the mission control center that the camera had jammed, but did not say why. Coats was able to repair the camera, and Hartsfield continued filming, while Resnik kept her distance. The crew deployed a third satellite, Telstar 302 for Telesat of Canada, without mishap the following day.


title: Judith Resnik

text: That day Resnik also deployed the OAST-1 solar array wing, considered a potential future way of generating more electrical power during space missions. After performing several dynamic tests that day and the next, she reported that the experiment was well-behaved and matched ground simulations of the array. During the mission, she held up a hand-written sign saying "Hi Dad" to the cameras, and in a live televised broadcast told President Ronald Reagan "the Earth looks great". When Reagan asked her if the flight was all she hoped it would be, she replied, "It certainly is and I couldn't have picked a better crew to fly with." After the mission, Hartsfield described Resnik as the "astronaut's astronaut", and Mullane wrote: "I was also happy to be crewed with Judy ... She was smart, hardworking, and dependable, all the things you would want in a fellow crewmember."


title: Judith Resnik

text: "Discovery" landed at Edwards Air Force Base on September 5, after a flight lasting 6 days and 56 minutes.


title: Judith Resnik

text: On January 29, 1985, NASA announced that Resnik had been assigned to the crew of STS-51-L. The main objective of this mission was to launch TDRS-B, the second in a series of NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellites. It would also carry the Spartan (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy), which would use two ultraviolet spectrometers to study the tail of Comet Halley. Resnik was primarily responsible for the operation of the RMS and, with fellow astronaut Ronald McNair, would deploy and later retrieve the Spartan. The flight would also carry Christa McAuliffe, a teacher-observer selected as part of NASA's Teacher in Space Project. Resnik was part of the team of astronauts who flew to Washington, D.C., to speak to the 113 finalists, and provide them an insider's view of a Space Shuttle mission. They were taken to the National Air and Space Museum, where they viewed "The Dream is Alive" with its scenes of Resnik deploying a satellite and eating and sleeping in space. She told them that it was a shame that they could not all fly in space, but privately she disagreed with NASA's decision to send non-astronauts on the Space Shuttle. Resnik's assignment was tied to McAuliffe's; NASA wanted McAuliffe to fly with a veteran female astronaut.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Initially scheduled for January 24, 1986, the launch was delayed until January 28 by rain, high winds, a troublesome bolt on the 's hatch and freezing temperatures. Resnik's father and stepmother, and her brother and his family watched the launch from the VIP area, as did her Firestone High math teacher. Selleck declined her invitation to attend. Resnik carried a locket for her niece, a signet ring for her nephew and a cigarette lighter for Nahmi.


title: Judith Resnik

text: "Challenger" lifted off from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B at 11:38 on January 28. A minute later it broke up, torn apart by aerodynamic forces after a catastrophic failure of an O-ring seal on the starboard solid rocket booster. The cabin remained intact until it hit the water at , killing all on board. Resnik's last recorded words aboard "Challenger" regarded scanning for "LVLH" (low-vertical/low-horizontal), reminding the cockpit crew of a switch configuration change to the attitude direction indicator.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Following the disaster, examination of the recovered vehicle cockpit revealed that the Personal Egress Air Packs were activated for pilot Michael J. Smith and two other crew members. The location of Smith's activation switch on the back of his seat means either Resnik or Ellison Onizuka likely activated it for him. Mike Mullane wrote:


title: Judith Resnik

text: This is the only evidence that shows Onizuka and Resnik were alive after the cockpit separated from the vehicle. If the cabin had lost pressure, the air packs alone would not have sustained the crew during the two-minute descent. Resnik's remains were recovered from the crashed vehicle cockpit by Navy divers from the . They were cremated and buried in Arlington National Cemetery on May 20, 1986, commingled with those of her six "Challenger" crewmates.


title: Judith Resnik

text: Resnik was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. She was also awarded the NASA Space Flight Medal for her first flight. Landmarks and buildings named for her include a dormitory at her alma mater, Carnegie Mellon University; Judith A. Resnik Elementary School in Gaithersburg, Maryland; Judith A. Resnik Community Learning Center (formerly Fairlawn Elementary) which she had attended was renamed in her honor in her hometown of Akron; and Judith A. Resnik Middle School, established in 2016, in San Antonio, Texas. A crater on the Moon was named after her, as was one on Venus, where all features are named after women. An asteroid, 3356 Resnik, was also named after her.


title: Judith Resnik

text: A memorial to Resnik and the rest of the crew of "Challenger" was dedicated in Seabrook, Texas, where she lived while stationed at the Johnson Space Center. She is also commemorated on the Space Mirror Memorial at the Kennedy Space Center. The IEEE Judith A. Resnik Award was established in 1986 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and is presented annually to an individual or team in recognition of outstanding contributions to space engineering in areas of relevance to the IEEE. The Society of Women Engineers (SWE) awards the Resnik Challenger Medal annually to "a woman who has changed the space industry, has personally contributed innovative technology verified by flight experience ... and will be recognized through future decades as having created milestones in the development of space as a resource for all humankind." The Challenger Center was established in 1986 by the families of the "Challenger" crew, including Resnik's brother, Charles, in honor of the crew members. Its goal is to increase children's interest in science, technology, engineering and mathematics.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Katie Irene "Kate" Gosselin (née Kreider; born March 28, 1975) is an American television personality. She achieved national and international recognition on the US reality TV show "Jon & Kate Plus 8," in which she and Jon Gosselin were profiled as they raised their atypical family of sextuplets and twins.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Katie Irene Kreider, who is of German, Scottish, and English descent, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Charlene (née Kolak) and Kenton Kreider, a pastor. The third of five children, she has three sisters, Kendra, Christen and Clairissa, and one brother, Kevin.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Kreider became a registered nurse after completing a diploma program at the Reading Hospital and Medical Center in Reading, Pennsylvania. She then worked as a labor and delivery nurse in Wyomissing, Pennsylvania.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Kreider met Jon Gosselin at a company picnic on October 5, 1997. They were married on June 12, 1999. Gosselin became pregnant through fertility treatment because polycystic ovary syndrome left her unable to conceive otherwise. On October 8, 2000, she gave birth to twin girls, Cara Nicole and Madelyn "Mady" Kate, who were premature at 35 weeks gestation. After further treatments, Gosselin became pregnant again and, on May 10, 2004, in Hershey, Pennsylvania, at the Penn State Hershey Medical Center, she gave birth to sextuplets: sons Aaden Jonathan, Collin Thomas, and Joel Kevin; and daughters Alexis Faith, Hannah Joy, and Leah Hope. Born at just shy of 30 weeks gestation, the sextuplets were 10 weeks premature, which is common in the multiple births resulting from fertility treatments. The early birth required the six infants to be placed on ventilators.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Following the birth of the sextuplets, the Gosselins were featured in the NBC reality TV show "Home Delivery" when their home in Wyomissing was renovated to accommodate the large family.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: The family was then featured in a special on Discovery Health in September 2005 entitled "Surviving Sextuplets and Twins". A year later they were featured in another special entitled "Sextuplets and Twins: One Year Later". With high ratings from the specials, Discovery Health signed the couple to a reality series which began airing in April 2007, called "Jon & Kate Plus 8", documenting their lives. To produce the show, the family was filmed three or four days per week and the show's first two seasons aired on Discovery Health Channel before moving to The Learning Channel (TLC). The family received payment for appearing on the show.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Jon and Kate announced on June 22, 2009, in an episode that they were separating. However, the two had met with Pennsylvania attorneys on the day that the episode aired to finalize plans for divorce rather than separation. They stated that their eight children will remain in their Pennsylvania home, and the two of them will move back and forth to accommodate the custody agreement. In separate interviews, they stated that the show would continue. However, TLC announced on June 23, 2009, that the show would be suspended with immediate effect. According to TLC, Jon and Kate had moved the focus away from the family and the change in the dynamic, as well as the production difficulties that had occurred because the couple was no longer living together, made it unclear whether the show was still viable.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: On August 13, 2009, the police were called to the Gosselin family home in Wernersville, Pennsylvania, after the couple were engaged in a verbal fight. Kate arrived at the home during Jon's scheduled time with their children because she did not approve of the babysitter he was using. No arrests were made and no charges were filed against either party.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: On December 16, 2009, it was announced that the couple's divorce was finalized. Kate was granted the ownership of the family home and primary custody of the children.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Since the divorce, Kate has had a contentious relationship with her ex-husband, which has repeatedly made headlines. Kate announced in August 2016 that she enrolled Collin in a program to help him with his "special needs". On August 22, 2017, the police were called to an orthodontist's office in Wyomissing, Pennsylvania, after Jon and Kate got into a custody dispute over one of their sextuplet daughters. It was reported that either Jon or Kate took their then 13-year-old daughter to the orthodontist and the argument erupted over who would be taking her home. No one was arrested, and in the end, the daughter went home with Jon while Kate was referred to Berks County District Attorney's office for a clearer interpretation of the child custody agreement. It was later reported that the sextuplet daughter involved in the dispute may have been Hannah.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: In August 2018, Jon revealed in an Instagram live video that Hannah "permanently" lives with him, as there has been an ongoing custody battle with Kate over their daughter. It was reported that in April 2018, a judge ruled in favor of Jon having custody of Hannah, which prompted Kate to appeal this decision on May 4, 2018. The judge denied the appeal on June 14, 2018, as Kate "did not present legal argument to justify this Court's jurisdiction," according to court documents.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: On October 24, 2018, Jon and his attorney filed papers for physical and legal custody of Collin. They claimed that it would be in Collin's best interest to live with his father upon his release from the inpatient center Kate enrolled him in. On December 4, 2018, Jon won sole physical and legal custody of Collin, as Kate and her attorney failed to appear. It was reported on December 26, 2018, that Collin was released from the inpatient center and returned home with Jon for good. As of 2018, Kate and her ex-husband are no longer in communication, except through their attorneys. In August 2019, "In Touch Weekly" reported that Kate was not attempting to win custody of both Hannah and Collin from her ex-husband. According to Jon, neither Hannah nor Collin have contact with their mother.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: On September 29, 2009, TLC announced the change in title of "Jon & Kate Plus 8" to "Kate Plus 8", continuing to follow Gosselin as a divorced mother, with Jon appearing infrequently on the show going forwards. The show was canceled during season five following Jon's decision to withdraw from the series, with the last episode - the finale of that season - airing on November 23 of that year. Season 2 of "Kate Plus 8" premiered on November 28, 2010, and reruns of the show still air on TLC.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Gosselin filmed a talk show pilot with Paula Deen in September 2009. By late December 2009, it was announced that Gosselin was no longer being considered for the role, having been deemed "too controversial" by executives, and the show had not been picked up by a network by the end of the year. Gosselin was a contestant in the tenth season of "Dancing with the Stars", and was partnered with professional dancer Tony Dovolani. She was eliminated from the competition in its fifth week in April 2010. Shortly after being eliminated, it was rumored that Gosselin was scheduled to appear in the upcoming season of the popular TV show "The Bachelorette"; this was denied by both TLC and the show's creator, Mike Fleiss.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: On June 24, 2010, it was announced that Gosselin would be returning as a co-host on "The View", having previously co-hosted it twice.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: In August 2011, it was announced that "Kate Plus 8 " had not been renewed for a new season. The final episode of the show aired on September 12, 2011.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Gosselin and her children appeared in an episode of "Celebrity Wife Swap" in February 2013. Gosselin switched places with Kendra Wilkinson. On March 19, 2014, it was announced that Gosselin and her eight children would return for a reunion special of "Kate Plus 8", scheduled to air in June of the same year. In August of the same year, it was announced that "Kate Plus 8" would return for a new season on January 13, 2015, again on TLC. Season 5 premiered on November 22, 2016. Whilst season 6 was filming, Gosselin went through a custody battle with her ex-husband over two of their children, Collin and Hannah; following Jon's decision to withdraw from filming, the majority of season 6 was canceled, airing in 2017 with just three episodes.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Gosselin has written three non-fiction books. Her first book, written with Jon Gosselin and Beth Carson, was published in November 2008, titled: "Multiple Blessings". It debuted at number five on "The New York Times" Best Sellers list and sold over 500,000 copies by the end of 2009. Her second book, "Eight Little Faces", was released in April 2009 and also debuted at number five on "The New York Times" Best Sellers list. Her third book, titled "I Just Want You To Know", was released on April 13, 2010, selling approximately 10,000 copies in its first week and debuting at number 11 on "The New York Times" Best Sellers list.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Kate Gosselin worked as a nurse when "Jon and Kate Plus 8" first aired in 2007, practicing as a labor and delivery nurse at the "Reading Hospital and Medical Center" in Pennsylvania. In 2021 she obtained her multi-state, registered nurse license in North Carolina.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: In March 2021, Kate relocated to Troutman, North Carolina with four of her children; Alexis, Aaden, Leah, and Joel, who still live with her. The twins are currently both away at college in New York, with Cara attending Fordham University and Mady attending Syracuse University. However, Cara and Mady reside with their mother when home from their respective colleges. Meanwhile, Hannah and Collin remain with their father back in Pennsylvania. After the move, Kate obtained her multi-state, registered nurse license in North Carolina on June 30, 2021.


title: Kate Gosselin

text: Gosselin has become closely associated with the slang term known as Karen, and its "can-I-speak-to-your-manager" bob haircut, which Gosselin has worn.


title: Lieutenant general

text: Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was normally subordinate to a captain general.


title: Lieutenant general

text: In modern armies, lieutenant general normally ranks immediately below general and above major general; it is equivalent to the navy rank of vice admiral, and in air forces with a separate rank structure, it is equivalent to air marshal. A lieutenant general commands an army corps, made up of typically three army divisions, and consisting of around 60 000 to 70 000 soldiers (U.S.).


title: Lieutenant general

text: The seeming incongruity that a lieutenant general outranks a major general (whereas a major outranks a lieutenant) is due to the derivation of major general from sergeant major general, which was a rank subordinate to lieutenant general (as a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major).


title: Lieutenant general

text: In contrast, in Russia and a number of other countries of the former Soviet Union, lieutenant general is a "two"-star rank, immediately below colonel general, and above major general – in these systems this last rank having one star, without any use of the brigadier general of many Western countries.


title: Lieutenant general

text: However, some countries of Latin America (such as Brazil and Chile) use divisional general as the equivalent of lieutenant general. In addition, because no brigadier general rank is used in Japan and Taiwan, lieutenant general is the rank of divisional commander. Therefore, it corresponds to divisional general of these countries. In a number of smaller states which employ NATO and western style military organisational structures, because of the limited number of soldiers in their armies, the rank of lieutenant general is the highest army rank in use. In Latvia, Lithuania, and Singapore, the chief of defence is a lieutenant general, and in the Irish Defence Forces and Israel Defence Forces, the Chief of Staff holds this rank.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The TurboGrafx-16, known as the outside North America, is a home video game console designed by Hudson Soft and sold by NEC Home Electronics. It was the first console marketed in the fourth generation, commonly known as the 16-bit era, though the console has an 8-bit central processing unit (CPU) coupled with a 16-bit graphics processor. It was released in Japan in 1987 and in North America in 1989. In Europe, the console is known as the PC Engine, after the Japanese model was imported and distributed in the United Kingdom and France from 1988. In Japan, the system was launched as a competitor to the Famicom, but the delayed United States release meant that it ended up competing with the Sega Genesis and later the Super NES.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The console has an 8-bit CPU and a dual 16-bit graphics processing unit (GPU) chipset consisting of a video display controller (VDC) and video color encoder. The GPUs are capable of displaying 482 colors simultaneously, out of 512. With dimensions of just 14 cm × 14 cm × 3.8 cm (5.5 in × 5.5 in × 1.5 in), the Japanese PC Engine is the smallest major home game console ever made. Games were released on HuCard cartridges and later the CD-ROM optical format with the TurboGrafx-CD add-on. The "16" in its North American name and the marketing of the console as a 16-bit platform despite having an 8-bit CPU was criticized by some as deceptive.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In Japan, the PC Engine was very successful. It gained strong third-party support and outsold the Famicom at its 1987 debut, eventually becoming the Super Famicom's main rival. However, the TurboGrafx-16 failed to break into the North American market and was a commercial failure, which has been blamed on the delayed release and inferior marketing. In Europe the Japanese models were grey market imported, modified, and distributed in France and the United Kingdom beginning in 1988, but an official PAL model (named simply "TurboGrafx" without the "16") planned for 1990 was cancelled following the disappointing North American launch with the already-manufactured stock of systems liquidated via mail-order retailers.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: At least 17 distinct models of the console were made, including portable versions and those that integrated the CD-ROM add-on. An enhanced model, the PC Engine SuperGrafx, was rushed to market in 1989. It featured many performance enhancements and was intended to supersede the standard PC Engine. It failed to catch on—only six titles were released that took advantage of the added power and it was quickly discontinued. The final model was discontinued in 1994. It was succeeded by the PC-FX, which was released only in Japan and was not successful.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The PC Engine was created as a collaborative effort between Hudson Soft, who created video game software, and NEC, a company which was dominant in the Japanese personal computer market with their PC-88 and PC-98 platforms. NEC lacked the vital experience in the video gaming industry and approached numerous video game studios for support. By pure coincidence, NEC's interest in entering the lucrative video game market coincided with Hudson's failed attempt to sell designs for then-advanced graphics chips to Nintendo. The two companies successfully joined to then develop the new system.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The PC Engine made its debut in the Japanese market on October 30, 1987, and it was a tremendous success. The PC Engine had an elegant, "eye-catching" design, and it was very small compared to its rivals. This, coupled with a strong software lineup and third-party support from high-profile developers such as Namco and Konami gave NEC a temporary lead in the Japanese market. The PC Engine sold 500,000 units in its first week of release.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The CD-ROM expansion was a major success for the CD-ROM format, selling 60,000 units in its first five months of release in Japan. By 1989, NEC had sold over consoles and more than 80,000 CD-ROM units in Japan.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In 1988, NEC decided to expand to the American market and directed its U.S. operations to develop the system for the new audience. NEC Technologies boss Keith Schaefer formed a team to test the system. They found out that there was a lack of enthusiasm in its name "PC Engine" and also felt its small size was not very suitable to American consumers who would generally prefer a larger and "futuristic" design. They decided to call the system the "TurboGrafx-16", a name representing its graphical speed and strength and its 16-bit GPU. They also completely redesigned the hardware into a large, black casing. This lengthy redesign process and NEC's questions about the system's viability in the United States delayed the TurboGrafx-16's debut.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The TurboGrafx-16 was eventually released in the New York City and Los Angeles test markets in late August 1989. However, this was two weeks after Sega of America released the Sega Genesis with a 16-bit CPU to test markets. Unlike NEC, Sega did not waste time redesigning the original Japanese Mega Drive system, making only slight aesthetic changes.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The Genesis quickly eclipsed the TurboGrafx-16 after its American debut. NEC's decision to pack-in "Keith Courage in Alpha Zones", a Hudson Soft game unknown to western gamers, proved costly as Sega packed-in a port of the hit arcade title "Altered Beast" with the Genesis. NEC's American operations in Chicago were also overhyped about its potential and quickly produced 750,000 units, far above actual demand. This was very profitable for Hudson Soft as NEC paid Hudson Soft royalties for every console produced, whether sold or not. By 1990, it was clear that the system was performing very poorly and severely edged out by Nintendo and Sega's marketing.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In late 1989, NEC announced plans for a coin-op arcade video game version of the TurboGrafx-16. However, NEC cancelled the plans in early 1990.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In Europe, the console is known by its original Japanese name PC Engine, rather than its American name TurboGrafx-16. PC Engine imports from Japan drew a cult following, with a number of unauthorized PC Engine imports available along with NTSC-to-PAL adapters in the United Kingdom during the late 1980s. In 1989, a British company called Mention manufactured an adapted PAL version called the PC Engine Plus. However, the system was not officially supported by NEC. From November 1989 to 1993, PC Engine consoles as well as some add-ons were imported from Japan by French importer Sodipeng ("Société de Distribution de la PC Engine"), a subsidiary of Guillemot International. This came after considerable enthusiasm in the French press. The PC Engine was largely available in France and Benelux through major retailers. It came with French language instructions and also an AV cable to enable its compatibility with SECAM television sets.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: After seeing the TurboGrafx-16 falter in America, NEC decided to cancel their European releases. Units for the European markets were already produced, which were essentially US models modified to run on PAL television sets. NEC sold this stock to distributors; in the United Kingdom, Telegames released the console in 1990 in extremely limited quantities.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: By March 1991, NEC claimed that it had sold 750,000 TurboGrafx-16 consoles in the United States and 500,000 CD-ROM units worldwide.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In an effort to relaunch the system in the North American market, in mid-1992 NEC and Hudson Soft transferred management of the system in North America to a new joint venture called Turbo Technologies Inc. and released the TurboDuo, an all-in-one unit that included the CD-ROM drive built in. However the North American console gaming market continued to be dominated by the Genesis and Super NES, which was released in North America in August 1991. In May 1994 Turbo Technologies announced that it was dropping support for the Duo, though it would continue to offer repairs for existing units and provide ongoing software releases through independent companies in the U.S. and Canada.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In Japan, NEC had sold a total of PC Engine units and CD-ROM² units . This adds up to a total of more than PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16 units sold in Japan and the United States , and CD-ROM² units sold in Japan. The final licensed release for the PC Engine was "Dead of the Brain Part 1 & 2" on June 3, 1999, on the Super CD-ROM² format.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The "CD-ROM²" is an add-on attachment for the PC Engine that was released in Japan on December 4, 1988. The add-on allows the core versions of the console to play PC Engine games in CD-ROM format in addition to standard HuCards. This made the PC Engine the first video game console to use CD-ROM as a storage media. Moreover, the PC Engine was also the very first machine of any type, computer or game console, to offer game software on CD-ROM format. (Whereas the first CD-ROM game software on a computer was a conversion from floppy disc of Mediagenic/Activision's The Manhole for the Macintosh computer, in black & white, released December, 1989, a year after PC Engine Fighting Street, a conversion of Capcom's arcade Street Fighter, and No-Ri-Ko, an adventure/dating simulator notable for the being the first multimedia game, utilizing RedBook Audio digital speech and digitized sprite graphics.) The PC Engine CD-ROM2 add-on consisted of two devices - the CD player itself and the interface unit, which connects the CD player to the console and provides a unified power supply and output for both. It was later released as the "TurboGrafx-CD" in the United States in November 1989, with a remodeled interface unit in order to suit the different shape of the TurboGrafx-16 console. The TurboGrafx-CD had a launch price of $399.99 and did not include any bundled games. "Fighting Street" and "" were the TurboGrafx-CD launch titles; "Ys Book I & II" soon followed.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In 1991, NEC introduced an upgraded version of the CD-ROM² System known as the "Super CD-ROM²", which updates the BIOS to Version 3.0 and increases buffer RAM from 64 KB to 256 KB. This upgrade was released in several forms: the first was the "PC Engine Duo" on September 21, a new model of the console with a CD-ROM drive and upgraded BIOS/RAM already built into the system. This was followed by the "Super System Card" released on October 26, an upgrade for the existing CD-ROM² add-on that serves as a replacement to the original System Card. PC Engine owners who did not already own the original CD-ROM² add-on could instead opt for the Super-CD-ROM² unit, an updated version of the add-on released on December 13, which combines the CD-ROM drive, interface unit and Super System Card into one device.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: On March 12, 1994, NEC introduced a third upgrade known as the , which increases the amount of onboard RAM of the Super CD-ROM² System to 2MB. This upgrade was released in two models: the "Arcade Card Duo", designed for PC Engine consoles already equipped with the Super CD-ROM² System, and the "Arcade Card Pro", a model for the original CD-ROM² System that combines the functionalities of the Super System Card and Arcade Card Duo into one. The first games for this add-on were ports of the Neo-Geo fighting games "Fatal Fury 2" and "Art of Fighting". Ports of "World Heroes 2" and "Fatal Fury Special" were later released for this card, along with several original games released under the "Arcade CD-ROM²" standard. By this point support for both the TurboGrafx-16 and Turbo Duo was already waning in North America; thus, no North American version of either Arcade Card was produced, though a Japanese Arcade Card can still be used on a North American console through a HuCard converter.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The "PC Engine CoreGrafx" is an updated model of the PC Engine, released in Japan on December 8, 1989. It has the same form factor as the original PC Engine, but it changes the color scheme from white and red to black and blue and replaces the original's radio frequency-output connector with a composite video AV port. It also used a revised CPU, the HuC6280A, which supposedly fixed some minor audio issues. A recolored version of the model, known as the "PC Engine CoreGrafx II", was released on June 21, 1991. Aside from the different coloring (light grey and orange), it is nearly identical to the original CoreGrafx except that the CPU was changed back to the original HuC6280.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The PC Engine SuperGrafx, released on the same day as the CoreGrafx in Japan, is an enhanced variation of the PC Engine hardware with updated specs. This model has a second HuC6270A (VDC), a HuC6202 (VDP) that combines the output of the two VDCs, four times as much RAM, twice as much video RAM, and a second layer/plane of scrolling. It also uses the revised HuC6280A CPU, but the sound and color palette were not upgraded, making the expensive price tag a big disadvantage to the system. As a result, only five exclusive SuperGrafx games and two hybrid games ("Darius Plus" and "Darius Alpha" were released as standard HuCards which took advantage of the extra video hardware if played on a SuperGrafx) were released, and the system was quickly discontinued. The SuperGrafx has the same expansion port as previous PC Engine consoles, but requires an adapter in order to utilize the original CD-ROM² System add-on, due to the SuperGrafx console's large size.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The "PC Engine Shuttle" was released in Japan on November 22, 1989, as a less expensive model of the console, retailing at ¥18,800. It was targeted primarily towards younger players with its spaceship-like design and came bundled with a TurboPad II controller, which is shaped differently from the other standard TurboPad controllers. The reduced price was made possible by slimming down the expansion port of the back, making it the first model of the console that was not compatible with the CD-ROM² add-on. However, it does have a slot for a memory backup unit, which is required for certain games. The RF output used on the original PC Engine was also replaced with an A/V port for the Shuttle.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The PC Engine Shuttle was distributed in South Korea also. It was released in 1990 by Daewoo Electronics.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The "PC Engine GT" is a portable version of the PC Engine, released in Japan on December 1, 1990, and then in the United States as the TurboExpress. It can play only HuCard games. It has a backlit, active-matrix color LCD screen, the most advanced on the market for a portable video game unit at the time. The screen contributed to its high price and short battery life, however, which hurt its performance in the market. It also has a TV tuner adapter as well as a two-player link cable.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The "PC Engine LT" is a model of the console in a laptop form, released on December 13, 1991, in Japan, retailing at ¥99,800. The LT does not require a television display (and does not have any AV output) as it has a built-in flip-up screen and speakers, just as a laptop would have, but, unlike the GT, the LT runs on a power supply. Its expensive price meant that few units were produced compared to other models. The LT has full expansion port capability, so the CD-ROM² unit is compatible with the LT the same way as it is with the original PC Engine and CoreGrafx. However, the LT requires an adapter to use the enhanced Super CD-ROM² unit.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: NEC Home Electronics released the "PC Engine Duo" in Japan on September 21, 1991, which combined the PC Engine and Super CD-ROM² unit into a single console. The system can play HuCards, audio CDs, CD+Gs, standard CD-ROM² games and Super CD-ROM² games. The North American version, the "TurboDuo", was launched in October 1992.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: Two updated variants were released in Japan: the "PC Engine Duo-R" on March 25, 1993, and the "PC Engine Duo-RX" on June 25, 1994. The changes were mostly cosmetic, but the RX included a new 6-button controller.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The "PC-KD863G" is a CRT monitor with built-in PC Engine console, released on September 27, 1988, in Japan for ¥138,000. Following NEC's PCs' naming scheme, the PC-KD863G was designed to eliminate the need to buy a separate television set and a console. It output its signals in RGB, so it was clearer at the time than the console which was still limited to RF and composite. However, it has no BUS expansion port, which made it incompatible with the CD-ROM² System and memory backup add-ons.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The "X1-Twin" was the first licensed PC Engine-compatible hardware manufactured by a third-party company, released by Sharp in April 1989 for ¥99,800. It is a hybrid system that can run PC Engine games and X1 computer software.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: Pioneer Corporation's LaserActive supports an add-on module which allows the use of PC Engine games (HuCard, CD-ROM² and Super CD-ROM²) as well as new "LD-ROM²" titles that work only on this device. NEC also released their own LaserActive unit (NEC PCE-LD1) and PC Engine add-on module, under an OEM license. A total of eleven LD-ROM titles were produced, with only three of them released in North America.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: Outside North America and Japan, the TurboGrafx-16 console was released in South Korea by a third-party company, Haitai, under the name "Vistar 16". It was based on the American version but with a new curved design. Daewoo Electronics distributed the PC Engine Shuttle in the South Korean market as well.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The TurboGrafx-16 uses a Hudson Soft HuC6280 CPU—an 8-bit CPU modified with two 16-bit graphics processors—running at 7.6 MHz. It includes 8 KB of RAM, 64 KB of Video RAM, and the ability to display 482 colors at once from a 512-color palette. The sound hardware, built into the HuC6280 CPU, includes a PSG running at 3.58 MHz and a 5-10 bit stereo PCM.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: TurboGrafx-16 games use the HuCard ROM cartridge format, thin credit card-sized cards that insert into the front slot of the console. PC Engine HuCards have 38 connector pins. TurboGrafx-16 HuCards (alternatively referred to as "TurboChips") reverse eight of these pins as a region lockout method. The power switch on the console also acts as a lock that prevents HuCards from being removed while the system is powered on. The European release of the TurboGrafx-16 did not have its own PAL-formatted HuCards as a result of its limited release, with the system instead supporting standard HuCards and outputting a PAL 50 Hz video signal.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In Japan the PC Engine was originally sold with a standard controller known simply as the Pad. It has rectangular shape with a directional pad, two action buttons numbered "I" and "II", and two rubber "Select" and "Run" buttons, matching the number of buttons on the Famicom's primary controller (as well as a standard NES controller). Another controller known as the TurboPad was also launched separately with the console, which added two "Turbo" switches for the I and II buttons with three speed settings. The switches allow for a single button press to register multiple inputs at once (for instance, this allows for rapid fire in scrolling shooters). The TurboPad became standard-issue with the TurboGrafx-16 in North America, as well as subsequent models of the PC Engine in Japan starting with the PC Engine Coregrafx, immediately phasing out the original PC Engine Pad.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: All PC Engine and TurboGrafx-16 consoles only have one controller port; in order to use multiple controllers on the same system and play multiplayer games, a separate peripheral, known in Japan as the MultiTap and in North America as the TurboTap, was required, which allowed up to five controllers to be plugged into the system. The Cordless Multitap was also available exclusively in Japan, sold as a set with a single Cordless Pad, with additional wireless controllers available separately.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: Due to using different diameter controller ports, PC Engine controllers and peripherals are not compatible with TurboGrafx-16 consoles and vice versa. The TurboDuo would revert to using the same controller port that the PC Engine uses, resulting in new TurboDuo-branded versions of the TurboPad and TurboTap peripherals, known as the DuoPad and the DuoTap respectively, to be made. An official TurboGrafx-16/Duo Adapter was also produced, which was an extension cable that allowed any TurboGrafx-16 controller or peripheral to be connected into the TurboDuo console (as well as any PC Engine console as a side-effect).


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: Many peripherals were produced for both the TurboGrafx-16 and PC Engine. The TurboStick is a tabletop joystick designed to replicate the standard control layout of arcade games from the era. Other similar joystick controllers were produced by third-party manufacturers, such as the Python 4 by QuickShot and the Stick Engine by ASCII Corporation. The TurboBooster attached to the back of the system and allowed it to output composite video and stereo audio. Hudson released the Ten no Koe 2 in Japan, which enabled the ability to save progress in compatible HuCard titles. In 1991, NEC Avenue released the Avenue Pad 3, which added a third action button labelled "III" that could be assigned via a switch to function as either the Select or Run button, as many games had begun to use one of those for in-game commands. The Avenue Pad 6 was released in 1993 in conjunction with the PC Engine port of "", adding four action buttons numbered "III" through "VI"; unlike the three-button pad, these buttons did not duplicate existing buttons, and instead added new functionalities in compatible titles. Another six-button controller, the Arcade Pad 6, was released by NEC Home Electronics in 1994, replacing the TurboPad as the bundled controller of the PC Engine Duo-RX (the last model of the console).


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: A total of 686 commercial games were released for the TurboGrafx-16. In North America, the system featured "Keith Courage in Alpha Zones" as a pack-in game, a conversion of the PC Engine title Mashin Eiyuuden Wataru. The PC Engine console received strong third-party support in Japan, while the TurboGrafx-16 console struggled to gain the attention of other developers. Hudson brought over many of its popular franchises, such as "Bomberman", "Bonk", and "Adventure Island", to the system with graphically impressive follow-ups. Hudson also designed and published several original titles such as "Air Zonk" and "Dungeon Explorer". Compile published "Alien Crush" and "Devil's Crush", two well-received virtual pinball games. Namco contributed several high-quality conversions of its arcade games, such as "Valkyrie no Densetsu", "Pac-Land", "Galaga '88", "Final Lap Twin", and "Splatterhouse", as did Capcom with a port of "".


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: A large portion of the TurboGrafx-16's library is made up of horizontal and vertical-scrolling shooters. Examples include Konami's "Gradius" and "Salamander", Hudson's "Super Star Soldier" and "Soldier Blade", Namco's "Galaga '88", Irem's "R-Type", and Taito's "Darius Alpha, Darius Plus" and "Super Darius". The console is also known for its platformers and role-playing games; Victor Entertainment's "The Legendary Axe" won numerous awards and is seen among the TurboGrafx-16's definitive titles. "Ys I & II", a compilation of two games from Nihon Falcom's "Ys" series, was particularly successful in Japan. Cosmic Fantasy 2 was an RPG ported from Japan to the United States that earned Electronic Gaming Magazine RPG of the year in 1993.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In Japan, the PC Engine was very successful, and at one point it was the top-selling console in the nation. In North America and Europe the situation was reversed, with both Sega and Nintendo dominating the console market at the expense of NEC. Initially, the TurboGrafx-16 sold well in the U.S., but eventually it suffered from lack of support from third-party software developers and publishers.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In 1990, "ACE" magazine praised the console's racing game library, stating that, compared to "all the popular consoles, the PC Engine is way out in front in terms of the range and quality of its race games." Reviewing the Turbo Duo model in 1993, "GamePro" gave it a "thumbs down". Though they praised the system's CD sound, graphics, and five-player capability, they criticized the outdated controller and the games library, saying the third party support was "almost nonexistent" and that most of the first party games were localizations of games better suited to the Japanese market. In 2009, the TurboGrafx-16 was ranked the 13th greatest video game console of all time by IGN, citing "a solid catalog of games worth playing," but also a lack of third party support and the absence of a second controller port.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The controversy over bit width marketing strategy reappeared with the advent of the Atari Jaguar console. Mattel did not market its 1979 Intellivision system with bit width, although it used a 16-bit CPU.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In 1994, NEC released a new console, the Japanese-exclusive PC-FX, a 32-bit system with a tower-like designs. It was a commercial failure, leading NEC to abandon the video game industry.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: Emulation programs for the TurboGrafx-16 exist for several modern and retro operating systems and architectures. Popular and regularly updated programs include Mednafen and BizHawk.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In 2006, a number of TurboGrafx-16 (TurboChip/HuCARD), TurboGrafx-CD (CD-ROM²) and Turbo Duo (Super CD-ROM²) games were released on Nintendo's Virtual Console download service for the Wii, and later the Wii U, and Nintendo 3DS, including several that were originally never released outside Japan. In 2011, ten TurboGrafx-16 games were released on the PlayStation Network for play on the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable in the North American region.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In 2010, Hudson released an iPhone application entitled "TurboGrafx-16 GameBox" which allowed users to buy and play a number of select Turbo Grafx games via in-app purchases.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: The 2012 JRPG "Hyperdimension Neptunia Victory" features a character known as Peashy, that pays homage to the console.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In 2016, rapper Kanye West's 8th solo album was initially announced to be titled "Turbo Grafx 16". The album, however, was eventually scrapped.


title: TurboGrafx-16

text: In 2019, Konami announced at E3 2019 and at Tokyo Game Show 2019 the TurboGrafx-16 Mini, a dedicated console featuring many built-in games. On March 6, 2020, Konami announced that the TurboGrafx-16 Mini and its peripheral accessories will be delayed indefinitely from its previous March 19, 2020, launch date due to the COVID-19 pandemic disrupting supply chains in China. It was released in North America on May 22, 2020, and released in Europe on June 5, 2020.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Scotch-Irish (or Scots-Irish) Americans are American descendants of Ulster Protestants who emigrated from Ulster in northern Ireland to America during the 18th and 19th centuries, whose ancestors had originally migrated to Ireland mainly from the Scottish Lowlands and Northern England in the 17th century. In the 2017 American Community Survey, 5.39 million (1.7% of the population) reported Scottish ancestry, an additional 3 million (0.9% of the population) identified more specifically with Scotch-Irish ancestry, and many people who claim "American ancestry" may actually be of Scotch-Irish ancestry.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: The term "Scotch-Irish" is used primarily in the United States, with people in Great Britain or Ireland who are of a similar ancestry identifying as Ulster Scots people. Many left for America but over 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians still lived in Ulster in 1700. Many English-born settlers of this period were also Presbyterians. When King Charles I attempted to force these Presbyterians into the Church of England in the 1630s, many chose to re-emigrate to North America where religious liberty was greater. Later attempts to force the Church of England's control over dissident Protestants in Ireland led to further waves of emigration to the trans-Atlantic colonies.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: The term is first known to have been used to refer to a people living in northeastern Ireland. In a letter of April 14, 1573, in reference to descendants of "gallowglass" mercenaries from Scotland who had settled in Ireland, Elizabeth I of England wrote:


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: We are given to understand that a nobleman named Sorley Boy MacDonnell and others, who be of the Scotch-Irish race ...


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: This term continued in usage for over a century before the earliest known American reference appeared in a Maryland affidavit in 1689–90.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: "Scotch-Irish," according to James Leyburn, "is an Americanism, generally unknown in Scotland and Ireland, and rarely used by British historians". It became common in the United States after 1850. The term is somewhat ambiguous because some of the Scotch-Irish have little or no Scottish ancestry at all: numerous dissenter families had also been transplanted to Ulster from northern England, in particular the border counties of Northumberland and Cumberland. Smaller numbers of migrants also came from Wales, the Isle of Man, and the southeast of England, and others were Protestant religious refugees from Flanders, the German Palatinate, and France (such as the French Huguenot ancestors of Davy Crockett). What united these different national groups was a base of Calvinist religious beliefs, and their separation from the established church (the Church of England and Church of Ireland in this case). That said, the large ethnic Scottish element in the Plantation of Ulster gave the settlements a Scottish character.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Upon arrival in North America, these migrants at first usually identified simply as Irish, without the qualifier "Scotch". It was not until a century later, following the surge in Irish immigration after the Great Irish Famine of the 1840s, that the descendants of the earlier arrivals began to commonly call themselves "Scotch-Irish" to distinguish themselves from the newer, poor, predominantly Catholic immigrants. At first, the two groups had little interaction in America, as the Scots-Irish had become settled many decades earlier, primarily in the backcountry of the Appalachian region. The new wave of Catholic Irish settled primarily in port cities such as Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, Memphis and New Orleans, where large immigrant communities formed and there were an increasing number of jobs. Many of the new Irish migrants also went to the interior in the 19th century, attracted to jobs on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals and railroads.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: The usage "Scots-Irish" developed in the late 19th century as a relatively recent version of the term. Two early citations include: 1) "a grave, elderly man of the race known in America as 'Scots-Irish (1870); and 2) "Dr. Cochran was of stately presence, of fair and florid complexion, features which testified his Scots-Irish descent" (1884). In Ulster-Scots (or "Ullans"), Scotch-Irish Americans are referred to as the "Scotch Airish o' Amerikey".


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Twentieth-century English author Kingsley Amis endorsed the traditional "Scotch-Irish" usage implicitly in noting that "nobody talks about "butterscottish" or "hopscots", ... or "Scottish pine"", and that while "Scots" or "Scottish" is how people of Scots origin refer to themselves in Scotland, the traditional English usage "Scotch" continues to be appropriate in "compounds and set phrases".


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: The word "Scotch" was the favored adjective for things ""of Scotland"", including people, until the early 19th century, when it was replaced by the word "Scottish". People in Scotland refer to themselves as Scots, as a noun, or adjectivally/collectively as Scots or Scottish. The use of "Scotch" as an adjective has been dropped in the UK, but remains in use in the U.S. in place names, names of plants, breeds of dog, a type of tape, etc., and in the term Scotch-Irish.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Although referenced by Merriam-Webster dictionaries as having first appeared in 1744, the American term "Scotch-Irish" is undoubtedly older. An affidavit of William Patent, dated March 15, 1689, in a case against a Mr. Matthew Scarbrough in Somerset County, Maryland, quotes Mr. Patent as saying he was told by Scarbrough that "it was no more sin to kill me then to kill a dogg, or any Scotch Irish dogg".


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" says the first use of the term "Scotch-Irish" came in Pennsylvania in 1744:


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Some historians describe these immigrants as "Ulster Irish" or "Northern Irish". It is true that many sailed from the province of Ulster ... part of much larger flow which drew from the lowlands of Scotland, the north of England, and every side of the Irish Sea. Many scholars call these people "Scotch-Irish". That expression is an Americanism, rarely used in Britain and much resented by the people to whom it was attached. "We're no Eerish bot Scoatch," one of them was heard to say in Pennsylvania.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Fischer prefers to speak of "borderers" (referring to the historically war-torn England-Scotland border) as the population ancestral to the "backcountry" "cultural stream" (one of the four major and persistent cultural streams from Ireland and Britain which he identifies in American history). He notes the borderers had substantial English and Scandinavian roots. He describes them as being quite different from Gaelic-speaking groups such as the Scottish Highlanders or Irish (that is, Gaelic-speaking and predominantly Roman Catholic).


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: An example of the use of the term is found in "A History of Ulster": "Ulster Presbyterians – known as the "Scotch Irish" – were already accustomed to being on the move, and clearing and defending their land."


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Many have claimed that such a distinction should not be used, and that those called Scotch-Irish are simply Irish. Other Irish limit the term "Irish" to those of native Gaelic stock, and prefer to describe the Ulster Protestants as "British" (a description many Ulster Protestants have preferred themselves to "Irish", at least since the Irish Free State broke free from the United Kingdom, although "Ulstermen" has been adopted in order to maintain a distinction from the native Irish Gaels while retaining a claim to the North of Ireland). However, as one scholar observed in 1944, "in this country [the US], where they have been called Scotch-Irish for over two hundred years, it would be absurd to give them a name by which they are not known here. ... Here their name is Scotch-Irish; let us call them by it."


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: From 1710 to 1775, over 200,000 people emigrated from Ulster to the original thirteen American colonies. The largest numbers went to Pennsylvania. From that base some went south into Virginia, the Carolinas and across the South, with a large concentration in the Appalachian region. Others headed west to western Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and the Midwest.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Transatlantic flows were halted by the American Revolution, but resumed after 1783, with total of 100,000 arriving in America between 1783 and 1812. By that point few were young servants and more were mature craftsmen, and they settled in industrial centers, including Pittsburgh, Philadelphia and New York, where many became skilled workers, foremen and entrepreneurs as the Industrial Revolution took off in the U.S. Another half million came to America 1815 to 1845; another 900,000 came in 1851–99. That migration decisively shaped Scotch-Irish culture.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: According to the "Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups", there were 400,000 U.S. residents of Irish birth or ancestry in 1790 and half of this group was descended from Ulster, and half from the other three provinces of Ireland.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: A separate migration brought many to Canada, where they are most numerous in rural Ontario and Nova Scotia.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Because of the proximity of the islands of Britain and Ireland, migrations in both directions had been occurring since Ireland was first settled after the retreat of the ice sheets. Gaels from Ireland colonized current southwestern Scotland as part of the Kingdom of Dál Riata, eventually mixing with the native Pictish culture throughout Scotland. The Irish Gaels had previously been named Scoti by the Romans, and eventually their name was applied to the entire Kingdom of Scotland.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: The origins of the Scotch-Irish lie primarily in the Lowlands of Scotland and in northern England, particularly in the Border Country on either side of the Anglo-Scottish border, a region that had seen centuries of conflict. In the near constant state of war between England and Scotland during the Middle Ages, the livelihood of the people on the borders was devastated by the contending armies. Even when the countries were not at war, tension remained high, and royal authority in one or the other kingdom was often weak. The uncertainty of existence led the people of the borders to seek security through a system of family ties, similar to the clan system in the Scottish Highlands. Known as the Border Reivers, these families relied on their own strength and cunning to survive, and a culture of cattle raiding and thievery developed.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Though remaining politically distinct, Scotland, England (considered at the time to include Wales, annexed in 1535), and Ireland came to be ruled by a single monarch with the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI, King of Scots, succeeded Elizabeth I as ruler of England and Ireland. In addition to the unstable border region, James also inherited Elizabeth's conflicts in Ireland. Following the end of the Irish Nine Years' War in 1603, and the Flight of the Earls in 1607, James embarked in 1609 on a systematic plantation of English and Scottish Protestant settlers to Ireland's northern province of Ulster. The Plantation of Ulster was seen as a way to relocate the Border Reiver families to Ireland to bring peace to the Anglo-Scottish border country, and also to provide fighting men who could suppress the native Irish in Ireland.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: The first major influx of Scots and English into Ulster had come in 1606 during the settlement of east Down onto land cleared of native Irish by private landlords chartered by James. This process was accelerated with James's official plantation in 1609, and further augmented during the subsequent Irish Confederate Wars. The first of the Stuart Kingdoms to collapse into civil war was Ireland where, prompted in part by the anti-Catholic rhetoric of the Covenanters, Irish Catholics launched a rebellion in October.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: In reaction to the proposal by Charles I and Thomas Wentworth to raise an army manned by Irish Catholics to put down the Covenanter movement in Scotland, the Parliament of Scotland had threatened to invade Ireland in order to achieve "the extirpation of Popery out of Ireland" (according to the interpretation of Richard Bellings, a leading Irish politician of the time). The fear this caused in Ireland unleashed a wave of massacres against Protestant English and Scottish settlers, mostly in Ulster, once the rebellion had broken out. All sides displayed extreme cruelty in this phase of the war. Around 4000 settlers were massacred and a further 12,000 may have died of privation after being driven from their homes. The number of native Irish that died as a result of the British colonisation is over 1,000,000, other estimations are higher. This, along with Irish Catholic refugees fleeing, caused Ireland's population to drop by 25%.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: William Petty's figure of 37,000 Protestants massacred is far too high, perhaps by a factor of ten; certainly more recent research suggests that a much more realistic figure is roughly 4,000 deaths. In one notorious incident, the Protestant inhabitants of Portadown were taken captive and then massacred on the bridge in the town. The settlers responded in kind, as did the British-controlled government in Dublin, with attacks on the Irish civilian population. Massacres of native civilians occurred at Rathlin Island and elsewhere.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: In early 1642, the Covenanters sent an army to Ulster to defend the Scottish settlers there from the Irish rebels who had attacked them after the outbreak of the rebellion. The original intention of the Scottish army was to re-conquer Ireland, but due to logistical and supply problems, it was never in a position to advance far beyond its base in eastern Ulster. The Covenanter force remained in Ireland until the end of the civil wars but was confined to its garrison around Carrickfergus after its defeat by the native Ulster Army at the Battle of Benburb in 1646. After the war was over, many of the soldiers settled permanently in Ulster. Another major influx of Scots into Ulster occurred in the 1690s, when tens of thousands of people fled a famine in Scotland to come to Ireland.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: A few generations after arriving in Ireland, considerable numbers of Ulster-Scots emigrated to the North American colonies of Great Britain throughout the 18th century (between 1717 and 1770 alone, about 250,000 settled in what would become the United States). According to Kerby Miller, "Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America" (1988), Protestants were one-third the population of Ireland, but three-quarters of all emigrants leaving from 1700 to 1776; 70% of these Protestants were Presbyterians. Other factors contributing to the mass exodus of Ulster Scots to America during the 18th century were a series of droughts and rising rents imposed by often absentee English and/or Anglo-Irish landlords.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: During the course of the 17th century, the number of settlers belonging to Calvinist dissenting sects, including Scottish and Northumbrian Presbyterians, English Baptists, French and Flemish Huguenots, and German Palatines, became the majority among the Protestant settlers in the province of Ulster. However, the Presbyterians and other dissenters, along with Catholics, were not members of the established church and were consequently legally disadvantaged by the Penal Laws, which gave full rights only to members of the Church of England/Church of Ireland.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Those members of the state church were often absentee landlords and the descendants of the British aristocracy who had been given land by the monarchy. For this reason, up until the 19th century, and despite their common fear of the dispossessed Catholic native Irish, there was considerable disharmony between the Presbyterians and the Protestant Ascendancy in Ulster. As a result of this, many Ulster-Scots, along with Catholic native Irish, ignored religious differences to join the United Irishmen and participate in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, in support of Age of Enlightenment-inspired egalitarian and republican goals.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Scholarly estimate is that over 200,000 Scotch-Irish migrated to the Americas between 1717 and 1775. As a late-arriving group, they found that land in the coastal areas of the British colonies was either already owned or too expensive, so they quickly left for the more mountainous interior where land could be obtained less expensively. Here they lived on the first frontier of America. Early frontier life was challenging, but poverty and hardship were familiar to them. The term hillbilly has often been applied to their descendants in the mountains, carrying connotations of poverty, backwardness and violence.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: The first trickle of Scotch-Irish settlers arrived in New England. Valued for their fighting prowess as well as for their Protestant dogma, they were invited by Cotton Mather and other leaders to come over to help settle and secure the frontier. In this capacity, many of the first permanent settlements in Maine and New Hampshire, especially after 1718, were Scotch-Irish and many place names as well as the character of Northern New Englanders reflect this fact. The Scotch-Irish brought the potato with them from Ireland (although the potato originated in South America, it was not known in North America until brought over from Europe). In Maine it became a staple crop as well as an economic base.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: From 1717 for the next thirty or so years, the primary points of entry for the Ulster immigrants were Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and New Castle, Delaware. The Scotch-Irish radiated westward across the Alleghenies, as well as into Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The typical migration involved small networks of related families who settled together, worshipped together, and intermarried, avoiding outsiders.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Most Scotch-Irish landed in Philadelphia. Without much cash, they moved to free lands on the frontier, becoming the typical western "squatters", the frontier guard of the colony, and what the historian Frederick Jackson Turner described as "the cutting-edge of the frontier".


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: The Scotch-Irish moved up the Delaware River to Bucks County, and then up the Susquehanna and Cumberland valleys, finding flat lands along the rivers and creeks to set up their log cabins, their grist mills, and their Presbyterian churches. Chester, Lancaster, and Dauphin counties became their strongholds, and they built towns such as Chambersburg, Gettysburg, Carlisle, and York; the next generation moved into western Pennsylvania.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: With large numbers of children who needed their own inexpensive farms, the Scotch-Irish avoided areas already settled by Germans and Quakers and moved south, through the Shenandoah Valley, and through the Blue Ridge Mountains into Virginia. These migrants followed the Great Wagon Road from Lancaster, through Gettysburg, and down through Staunton, Virginia, to Big Lick (now Roanoke), Virginia. Here the pathway split, with the Wilderness Road taking settlers west into Tennessee and Kentucky, while the main road continued south into the Carolinas.


title: Scotch-Irish Americans

text: Because the Scotch-Irish settled the frontier of Pennsylvania and western Virginia, they were in the midst of the French and Indian War and Pontiac's Rebellion that followed. The Scotch-Irish were frequently in conflict with the Indian tribes who lived on the other side of the frontier; indeed, they did most of the Indian fighting on the American frontier from New Hampshire to the Carolinas. The Irish and Scots also became the middlemen who handled trade and negotiations between the Native American tribes and the colonial governments.