title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: Georgi Bedjamov, President of the Federation of Bobsleigh and Skeleton of Russia and former co-owner of Vneshprombank, was arrested in March 2016 in Monaco after an international arrest warrant was issued against him by the Russian authorities on charges of fraudulent bankruptcy and embezzlement. Bedjamov was liberated in July 2016 by the Prince, a decision that was later confirmed by the Monaco Appeal Court. Russian sources alleged that Rybolovlev helped Georgi Bedjamov escape Russian authorities, but Rybolovlev denied these claims in an interview to the French newspaper "Le Parisien" in late October 2016.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In December 2016, the Football Leaks scandal revealed that Rybolovlev and football agent Jorge Mendes had set up a secret system to illegally buy players' shares. Using a Cyprus-based offshore investment fund named Browsefish Limited, Rybolovlev manipulated the price of his own players through third-party ownerships (TPO). Rybolovlev resorted to the use of offshore companies to hide his identity, as TPO's are illegal in Europe. Investigations revealed for example that football player Fabinho was already 48.5% owned by Rybolovlev when he was loaned to AS Monaco by Rio Ave F.C.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: AS Monaco denied these allegations and that such a scheme was ever put into place, arguing that reports published in the French and European press to the contrary "contain false information and many inaccuracies".


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: Dmitry and Elena Rybolovlev wed in 1987 in Perm, Russia. They met in medical school. They have two daughters: Ekaterina, born in 1989, and Anna, born in 2001. In 2015, Ekaterina married Uruguayan businessman Juan Sartori who is an owner of a 20% stake in England's Sunderland AFC. Der Spiegel reported in 2018 that Rybolovlev neither speaks English nor French.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: Elena Rybolovleva filed for divorce on 22 December 2008, citing in her divorce petition the "serial infidelity" of her husband. At the same occasion, Elena officially asked the Geneva State prosecutor for protection of her assets from Rybolovlev.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In February 2014, Elena was detained in Cyprus for allegedly stealing a $28 million diamond ring she later proved her ex-husband had given her while they were still married.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In May that year, a Geneva court awarded Elena a record settlement of $4.8 billion. This would have been the most expensive divorce settlement in history at the time. However, Rybolovlev's lawyers successfully appealed the 2014 ruling in June 2015. The Geneva court reversed the earlier decision, ruling that Elena's settlement be reduced to 564 million Swiss francs.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: Finally, in October 2015, Rybolovlev and Elena announced they had reached an amicable settlement of their divorce, and that all legal actions in relation to the case would cease. Financial terms of the settlement were not disclosed.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In the "Forbes" billionaires list for 2021, Rybolovlev was ranked the 391st richest person in the world with a net worth of $6.7 billion.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: He is the owner of €80 million superyacht "Anna I", which was sold in 2021, and his new $250 million yacht, also called "Anna". Both yachts were built by Feadship and designed by Michael Leach, with Anna being the company's biggest superyacht to date.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In July 2021, Rybolovlev acquired a new sailing ClubSwan 125 yacht, named "Skorpios" after the Greek island owned by his family trusts. The 43-meter racing vessel took four years to build at Nautor's Swan yard in Finland. The yacht was designed to be a record-breaker and is able to reach a speed of roughly 15 knots upwind and remain consistently faster than the wind speed downwind thanks to innovations including the addition of a single curved foil that provides sideways and vertical lift in varying conditions. Skorpios' skipper is Olympic gold medalist and two-world champion Fernando Echávarri, while Rybolovlev is the racing yacht's helmsman.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: Rybolovlev also owns a racing yacht of the ClubSwan 50 model, now renamed "Sparti". With this model, he won the ClubSwan 50 World Championship title during The Nations Trophy regatta in Palma Bay, Spain in October 2019. In the event's 2020 reiteration, Rybolovlev's ClubSwan 50 yacht took third place overall after winning two of that year's four races, making it the only team to win medals in the ClubSwan World Championship over two consecutive years.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: Trusts in the name of his Rybolovlev's daughter, Ekaterina, have made several significant property purchases around the world since 2008. The trusts have bought properties in Florida, Hawaii, New York City, Monaco, as well as two islands in Greece. Rybolovlev also owns an estate in Saint-Tropez on the Cote d'Azur in the south of France, houses in Gstaad, Switzerland, and used to own property in Geneva and Paris with his former wife. In 2013, the property purchases were contested by Rybolovlev's estranged wife, Elena, during the couple's divorce proceedings.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: "The New York Times" reported that in 2008, Rybolovlev and his wife made house-hunting trips to New York City and aimed to buy their first property in the US, eyeing an apartment at 15 Central Park West, but the seller eventually withdrew from the deal. Rybolovlev subsequently looked to Florida, where American businessman Donald Trump was selling a 6 acre Palm Beach residence on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In 2008, Ekaterina Rybolovleva's trust bought the 18-bedroom Maison de L'Amitie in Palm Beach, Florida, from the American businessman Donald Trump. Amidst concerns during his campaign about rubbing shoulders with Russian officials, Trump has claimed that the sale of Maison de L'Amitié, which he purchased for $40 million in 2004 and sold to Rybolovlev for $95 million, is the only dealing he has done with a Russian. In February 2018, U.S. Senator Ron Wyden (D-OR) wrote to the US Treasury Department to request records on the purchase of the property. However, a spokesman for the Rybolovev family reiterated that the deal has long been publicly scrutinized since it was announced over a decade ago. As of February 2018, the trust's investment in the property looked on track to yield a significant return.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In 2016, Rybolovlev razed the mansion on the property after being granted permission to subdivide the land into three lots, two of which have since sold for a combined $71.34 million. The third lot of 2.23 acres was sold in July 2019 for $37.3 million. Although the property's price was originally listed at $42 million, all three lots were sold for a total of $108.2 million, still roughly $13 million more than what Rybolovlev had paid for the property in 2008.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In December 2011, the trust bought a 10-room, apartment at 15 Central Park West in New York City for $88 million, from Joan Weill, the wife of Sanford I. Weill, the former chairman of Citigroup. This was a record price for an apartment in the city at the time of its purchase.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In 2011, Rybololev also bought a $20 million property in Kauai, Hawaii, from the American actor Will Smith. During his ownership, 21 acres were added to the estate, and put on the market for $29.5 million in 2015.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In April 2013, Ekaterina Rybolovlev's trust bought a group of companies from the Greek heiress Athina Onassis Roussel. The assets included the 74 acre Greek island of Skorpios and its smaller islet, Sparti. The sale price was reported as $154 million. In October 2018, Dmitry Rybolovlev started a major development project on the island with the aim to transform it into a luxury resort. The total investment in the project amounts to €184 million. The work was supposed to end in 2020. At the beginning of 2021, the completion date was shifted to 2024. The investment in the resort was estimated at €165 million, and the estimated price of a weekly rental was estimated at €1 million.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: On 8 November 2021, the Co-Ordination Authority of the Peloponnese, Western Sterea Hellas, and Ionian islands prefecture, after a petition was submitted by a number of inhabitants of nearby Lefkada island, annulled a permit allowing enlargement works on the Skorpios small port. Representatives of the Rybolovlev investment company declared that they would appeal the decision.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In 2010, Rybolovlev bought the 2,000m Belle Époque style penthouse apartment on the Avenue d'Ostende in the Monte Carlo district of Monaco. The property was bought for €220 million. Its previous owners include Christian and Nick Candy, British brothers behind the "Candy & Candy" interior design and property development business, and earlier, Brazilian banker Edmond Safra, who died in a fire at the apartment in 1999.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: Rybolovlev and his former wife owned a property in Geneva, Switzerland, which they demolished in 2008 and planned to replace with a replica of the palace of Marie-Antoinette, the Petit Trianon at the Palace of Versailles. The project was abandoned amidst the couple's divorce proceedings. Rybolovlev has also built two houses worth $135 million in the Swiss alpine resort of Gstaad.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: Rybolovlev's art collection has included paintings by Paul Gauguin, Auguste Rodin, Amedeo Modigliani, Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Claude Monet, Mark Rothko. and Vincent van Gogh. He was also the owner of "Salvator Mundi" by Leonardo da Vinci, or studio, until it was sold at Christie's auction house for a record-breaking $450 million on 15 November 2017.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In early 2015, it was reported that Rybolovlev may have been a victim of a complex art fraud to the tune of $1 billion allegedly perpetrated by the art dealer Yves Bouvier, who was indicted on charges of fraud and complicity in money laundering. In 2015, Rybolovlev was again at the center of a controversy after it was alleged that he bought two stolen Picassos from art dealer Olivier Thomas through the mediation of Yves Bouvier. In September 2015 he returned the paintings, valued at $30 million, to the artist's stepdaughter. In October 2018, Rybolovlev launched a lawsuit against Sotheby's in Manhattan federal court, alleging that the auction house "materially assisted the largest art fraud in history". Rybolovlev's lawyers said "Sotheby's was the willing auction house that knowingly and intentionally made the fraud possible" because it knew how much Bouvier paid the sellers. Sotheby's has denied these allegations.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: On 6 November 2018, Rybolovlev was questioned by the Monegasque police. His lawyers stated that this happened on the basis of information obtained from the phone of one of Rybolovlev's previous lawyers, Tetiana Bersheda, which is the subject of an appeal in Monaco. Rybolovlev was subsequently named a "formal suspect" in a graft investigation by Monaco's chief prosecutor. He was released from custody and placed under judicial control.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In an interview with the "Nice Matin" in December 2018, Rybolovlev's lawyer, Me Hervé Temime, criticised repeated violations of the investigation's secrecy that he attributed to vested interests against Rybolovlev. He also stated that "the seriousness of the initial scam" was understated "because of the wealth" of Rybolovlev in what he described as an ostracism of rich Russians.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In June 2019, Sotheby's request to have the case against it thrown out was denied by a US federal court in Manhattan. The court argued that Sotheby's had failed to establish "exceptional circumstances" to justify such a move. The auction house also had to allow public access to previously sealed or redacted documents detailing correspondence between Yves Bouvier, Sotheby's staff as well as Sotheby's senior director and vice-chairman for private sales Samuel Valette. According to the "Art Newspaper", the correspondence reveals "that Bouvier paid Sotheby's $83 million for Salvator Mundi, suggesting a 53.62% markup on the painting, as Rybolovlev had alleged". Next to Salvator Mundi, the documents pertain to pricing negotiations between Bouvier and Sotheby's for Gustav Klimt's "Wasserschlangen II" in 2012, Picasso's "L'Homme Assis Au Verre" and Modigliani's "Nu Couché au Coussin Bleu".


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In July 2020, criminal proceedings against Bouvier for fraud and money laundering were dismissed by Monaco's Court of Revision on the procedural grounds that "the investigations had been conducted in a biased and unfair manner". In January 2021, Swiss prosecutors closed a two-year-long investigation into Bouvier, though Rybolovlev may appeal the filing order. As of February 2021, litigation between Rybolovlev and Bouvier is still ongoing in a number of jurisdictions, including the US, London and Paris. After the Swiss prosecutor closed the investigation, Rybolovlev's lawyers filed an appeal claiming the case was "one of the most serious the art world has ever known, be duly considered and finally judged on its merits".


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In September 2021, Rybolovlev filed a case with the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) against the Department of Justice of Monaco in a case of attorney-client privilege violation within the Bouvier affair. During the investigation in Monaco, the judge seized the phone of Rybolovlev's lawyer in order to verify the authenticity of the records which were a part of the proceedings. However, he accessed all the information contained in the lawyer's smartphone. Rybolovlev and his lawyer contested this use of the telephone and alleged a violation of the attorney-client privilege.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: Rybolovlev provided financial assistance to the reconstruction of Saint Petersburg's Oranienbaum Palace, as well as to the restoration of the Conception Convent (also known as Zachatyevsky Monastery) in Moscow. He donated €17.5 million for the re-building of the Cathedral of Nativity of Theotokos in Moscow, and was involved in the restoration of several icon paintings in the Cathedral of Exaltation of the Cross recreated in Belogorsk Saint Nicolas Monastery. He donated funds for the construction of the Russian Orthodox Church of St Nicholas in Limassol, Cyprus.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In 2010, Rybolovlev was awarded the Order of St Seraphim of Sarov I degree by Patriarch Kirill for funding the restoration of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Most Holy Mother of God in Zachatyevsky Convent.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In April 2020, Rybolovlev made a donation in the amount of 80 million rubles (more than $1 million) through his "Financial house" investment company to the Perm Territory Charitable Foundation to fight the coronavirus.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In October 2020, Rybolovlev announced he would donate €250,000 to help rebuild the pitch of Saint-Martin-Vésubie, which was destroyed during Storm Alex. The donation follows a letter written by local 11 year old twins to Rybolovlev asking for financial help for a stadium where ASM's academy spends a period of their pre-season on a yearly basis.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In November 2021, Rybolovlev's family charitable foundation was founded in Lefkada (Greece) to support his philanthropic activities in the region.


title: Dmitry Rybolovlev

text: In 2022, in the wake of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, it was announced by AS Monaco that the club and Rybolovlev, in a personal capacity, donated to the Mongasque Red Cross to support its efforts of delivering humanitarian aid to civilian victims of the conflict.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: Skittles are multicolored fruit-flavored button-shaped candies produced and marketed by the Wrigley Company, a division of Mars, Inc.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: Skittles consist of hard sugar shells imprinted with the letter 'S', similar to M&M's which have the letter "M". The interior consists mainly of sugar, corn syrup, and hydrogenated palm kernel oil along with fruit juice, citric acid, natural and artificial flavors. Skittles are sold in a variety of flavor collections, such as Tropical, Wild Berry, Brightside, Dessert, Sweet Heat, Smoothie, and Sour.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: Skittles were first made commercially in 1974 by a British company. An animated television advertisement from that year bears the logo of the "Galaxy" company and is copyrighted by Jack Candies Ltd, a Mars distribution subsidiary. They were first introduced in North America in 1979 as an import confectionery. In 1982, domestic production of Skittles began in the United States.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: The name of the candy, Skittles, comes from the sports game of the same name, named as such for the resemblance of the sweet to items used in the game.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: Skittles' "taste the rainbow" theme was created by the New York ad agency D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: On March 2, 2009, Skittles launched a web-based marketing campaign where the official website became a small overlay with options to view different social media sites in the main area, including its official YouTube channel, a Facebook profile, and a Twitter account. The move was debated by people interested in social media.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: In 2009, the production of Skittles ceased using animal-derived gelatin, making them suitable for vegetarians, vegans and certain religious groups.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: Skittles were involved in two political incidents in the 2010s. In the aftermath of the killing of Trayvon Martin, protestors used Skittles, which Martin had reportedly been carrying along with AriZona watermelon fruit juice, as a symbol during rallies. Though Mars' brief statement of condolences was criticized by some outlets, such as "Adweek", for being too subdued, Mars' response in 2016 to a Skittles-based image macro (which was posted by Donald Trump's presidential campaign as an analogy for immigration) was praised for its tact and directness. MWWPR said Mars' responses could influence public relations best practices.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: In 2016, Skittles faced controversy over temporarily changing the color of the candies from the signature rainbow appearance to white in support of Pride month, LGBT rights and London Pride. The Wrigley Company, a separate representing party of the Skittles brand, mass-produced the limited-edition colorless candies. Skittles' rainbow themed packaging had also been altered temporarily to complement the achromatic confectionery within. On the back of each monochrome package, the Wrigley Company included an explanation for the company's marketing decision: "So this is kind of awkward, but we're just gonna go ahead and address the rainbow-colored elephant in the room. You have the rainbow... we have the rainbow... and usually that's just hunky-dory. But this Pride, only one rainbow deserves to be the centre of attention - yours. And we're not going to be the ones to steal your rainbow thunder, no siree." However, the message was met with confusion in some areas, with "The Huffington Post" publishing an article titled "Some People Think Skittles' All-White Pride Candies Are Racist", exploring the idea that by going all-white, the company failed to acknowledge the diversity defined by the LGBT community.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: Every June, Skittles repeats the colorless marketing to spread Pride awareness and raise proceeds for an LGBT charity, such as the Switchboard helpline in the United Kingdom. For the 2020 Pride edition, Skittles changed the candy colors from a rainbow to all gray in the United States, with the tagline "Only one rainbow matters during PRIDE". However, the white colour continued to be used in countries such as the United Kingdom.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: Skittles' marketing has become known for its avant-garde viral marketing techniques, particularly in conjunction with the Super Bowl. In 2018, it produced a Super Bowl commercial that was viewed by only one person. In 2019, it conducted a pre-Super Bowl campaign featuring "", which was performed one time only at The Town Hall in New York City.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: In July 2022, a lawsuit seeking class-action status was filed in California regarding the continued use of titanium dioxide as a coloring agent. The lawsuit was voluntarily dismissed without prejudice in November 2022.


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: Skittles are produced in a wide variety of flavors and colors, including sour varieties. Skittles has hinted at new flavor releases on its Facebook page, using such statuses as "Locking myself in the Rainbow kitchen until I see some results!" A 2011 posting contained confirmation of a new flavor: "Putting the last touches on a new Skittles flavor. Tweak the Rainbow."


title: Skittles (confectionery)

text: In the United States and Canada, in 2013, Skittles replaced the lime-flavored Skittles with green apple, causing a backlash from many consumers. The lime flavor became part of the Darkside packets, which were discontinued in 2015 and followed up by the Orchards packets, which were discontinued in 2017. Lime was also part of the "Long Lost Lime" packets that came out in summer 2017 and 2018. The Darkside flavor was revived in 2019. In 2021, the "All Lime" packets containing only the lime flavor were released for a limited time. In September 2021, Skittles announced that the green apple-flavored Skittles would be replaced with the original lime flavor. In 2022, Skittles Gummies were released.


title: Iddo Goldberg

text: Iddo Goldberg (; born 5 August 1975) is an Israeli-British actor born in Israel. He is known for his roles as Ben in "Secret Diary of a Call Girl", Freddie Thorne in "Peaky Blinders", Isaac Walton in "Salem" and Bennett Knox in "Snowpiercer".


title: Iddo Goldberg

text: Goldberg was born in Haifa, Israel, to a family of Jewish descent. He moved to London with his family at the age of 10. His father hails from Riga, Latvia, and emigrated to Northern Rhodesia (present-day Zambia) during the 1930s, obtaining a degree in architecture from a British university. Goldberg's mother's family is based in Jerusalem, Israel. His parents first met when his father arrived in Israel for a vacation. They raised him in Israel and later he went to secondary school at JFS in North London along with his siblings. He also has family relatives in Haifa, Israel.


title: Iddo Goldberg

text: Goldberg has had several notable roles, including Brandon in the two series of "Attachments" and Ben on "Secret Diary of a Call Girl", where his then girlfriend Ashley Madekwe also had a regular role. He appeared as semi-regular 15Peter20 in Chris Morris and Charlie Brooker's short-lived comedy "Nathan Barley". He appeared in the 2008 war film "Defiance".


title: Iddo Goldberg

text: In 2013, Goldberg starred as Freddie Thorne in the first series of the BBC Two crime drama "Peaky Blinders". He co-starred in the 2012 film "And While We Were Here".


title: Iddo Goldberg

text: In addition to a Tumblr account that features his photographs, Goldberg makes short films that are posted there. He directed the short "Supper" (2012) with Joey Slotnick and Lauren Katz and music videos by James Rousseau, "Anyone (Acoustic/Live)" (2012) and "Hair of the Dog" (2012). Goldberg made a film about his maternal grandmother called "Luba" (2010).


title: Iddo Goldberg

text: Goldberg played villain T. O. Morrow and his android Red Tornado in the CBS series "Supergirl" in 2015.


title: Cory Barlog

text: Cory Barlog (born September 2, 1975) is an American video game designer, director, and writer who is the current creative director of video game development at Santa Monica Studio. He is best known for his work on "God of War" (2005), "God of War II" (2007), and "God of War" (2018).


title: Cory Barlog

text: Barlog was born in Sacramento, California, on September 2, 1975, the son of fantasy novelist J. M. Barlog.


title: Cory Barlog

text: In his early career, Barlog worked as a lead animator at Paradox Development on "" and "". After joining Santa Monica Studio, he was the lead animator for "God of War" (2005) and directed "God of War II" (2007), for which he won a BAFTA for his writing work on the game. He also served as game director of "God of War III" (2010) for the first eight months of its development. Although not part of Sony at the time, he helped in writing "" (2010).


title: Cory Barlog

text: Barlog was a keynote speaker at "ECAROcon" 2008, and later worked at LucasArts. In an interview, he announced that he was working on a tie-in video game for the 2015 film "". He was reported to be in Sweden to develop the title with Avalanche Studios, best known for "Just Cause". Despite various gaming websites confirming that the game was in development over the coming years, Barlog had left Avalanche Studios early in its development and the game never materialized.


title: Cory Barlog

text: In March 2012, it was announced that Barlog had joined Crystal Dynamics to direct the cinematics for the new "Tomb Raider" game and direct an unannounced game. However, he left the company in April 2013.


title: Cory Barlog

text: In August 2013, it was announced that Barlog would return to Santa Monica Studio. He currently serves as the studio's creative director and directed "God of War" (2018). For the game, he won the Game Award for Best Game Direction, while the game itself won Game of the Year and the BAFTA Games Award for Best Game. He also wrote the foreword to the novelization of the game, which was written by his father. He also produced the sequel "God of War Ragnarök" (2022).


title: 12.7×108mm

text: The 12.7×108mm cartridge is a 12.7 mm heavy machine gun and anti-materiel rifle cartridge used by the former Soviet Union, the former Warsaw Pact countries, modern Russia, China and other countries. It was invented in 1934 to create a cartridge like the German 13.2mm TuF anti-tank rifle round and the American .50 Browning Machine Gun round (12.7×99mm NATO).


title: 12.7×108mm

text: It is used in the same roles as the NATO .50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO) cartridge. The two differ in bullet shape and weight, and the casing of the 12.7×108mm is slightly longer, and its larger case capacity allow it to hold slightly more of a different type of powder. The 12.7×108mm can be used to engage a wide variety of targets on the battlefield, and will destroy unarmored vehicles, penetrate lightly armored vehicles and damage external ancillary equipment (i.e.: searchlights, radar, transmitters, vision blocks, engine compartment covers) on heavily armored vehicles such as tanks. It will also ignite gasoline and—since 2019—diesel fuel (experimental "Avers" AP/I round).


title: 12.7×108mm

text: According to guidelines the 12.7×108mm case can handle up to 360 MPa (52,213 psi) piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum CIP pressure to certify for sale to consumers.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The President of the Republic of Indonesia () is both the head of state and the head of government of the Republic of Indonesia. The president leads the executive branch of the Indonesian government and is the commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Since 2004, the president and vice president are directly elected to a five-year term, once renewable, allowing for a maximum of 10 years in office.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Indonesian presidency was established during the formulation of the 1945 Constitution by the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK). The office was first filled on 18 August 1945 when Sukarno was elected by acclamation by the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) because according to the Transitional Provisions of the Constitution, "the President and the Vice President for the first time shall be elected by the PPKI." Also, the body responsible for the presidential elections, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), had not yet been formed. On 16 October 1945, Vice President Mohammad Hatta announced a vice-presidential decree which gave the Central National Committee of Indonesia (KNIP) legislative powers. On 11 November 1945, the KNIP made the decision to separate the role of Head of State from that of Head of Government. Although a new constitution had not been set up yet, Indonesia was now a de facto parliamentary democracy with the president as a ceremonial Head of State whose function was to ask the prime minister as the Head of the Government to form a new Cabinet.


title: President of Indonesia

text: During the Indonesian National Revolution, both Sukarno and Hatta were captured by the Dutch in Yogyakarta on 18 December 1948. Sukarno then gave a mandate for Sjafruddin Prawiranegara to form an emergency Government. This was done and the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PDRI) was formed in Sumatra with Prawiranegara as its chairman. Prawiranegara handed back his mandate to Sukarno on 13 July 1949. On 17 December 1949, Sukarno was elected president of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia (RIS) and presidential mandate passed to Assaat. When it became clear that RIS was going to be replaced by a unitary state, Asaat stepped down from the presidency and Sukarno once again became president on 15 August 1950.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Indonesia now adopted the constitution that had been intended for RIS. Officially known as the Provisional Constitution, the document confirmed the president's role as the head of state, but limited him to a mostly ceremonial role. He appointed a prime minister on the advice of formateurs.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Despite his limited constitutional role, Sukarno commanded great moral authority. Nonetheless, he was never content with the role of ceremonial head of State, and grew increasingly disenchanted with western-style parliamentary democracy. In the early 1950s, he began calling for the implementation of "Guided Democracy," in which decisions would be made after lengthy deliberation with a view toward achieving a consensus under presidential "guidance."


title: President of Indonesia

text: The rest of the decade saw a series of unstable governments. Taking advantage of the situation, Sukarno made a speech in April 1959 and suggested that Indonesia return to the 1945 Constitution. The People reacted enthusiastically and there was strong pressure on the Constitutional Assembly, the body responsible for formulating a new constitution, to adopt the 1945 Constitution. When the assembly did not budge, Sukarno issued a presidential decree on 5 July 1959 declaring that Indonesia was returning to the 1945 Constitution. That document made the president head of government as well as head of state. In May 1963, the People's Consultative Assembly appointed Sukarno president for Life.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Although Indonesia had re-adopted the 1945 Constitution, it did not mean that it was strictly adhered to. The MPR, which at this stage was still on a provisional basis (MPRS), was subservient to the president despite its status of the Nation's highest Governing Body. It was only in 1966, when the political tide began to turn against Sukarno that the MPRS nominally regained its rightful constitutional status. In 1967, Sukarno was forced to resign as president, and army chief of staff Suharto was appointed as acting president.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Suharto was appointed president in his own right in 1968. During his rise to power, Suharto seemed determined to observe at least the forms of the constitution, and this continued when he became president. Suharto allowed the MPR to execute its constitutional duty of formulating the Outlines of State Policy (GBHN); as president, he was responsible for implementing them. Suharto also made it a presidential obligation to deliver accountability speeches near the end of his terms. During the speech, Suharto outlined the achievements that his administration had made and how those achievements had adhered to the GBHN set by the MPR. Despite the constitutional and democratic façade, Suharto made sure that the MPR was also subservient to him. In 1969, a law was passed that required appointments to the MPR to be made official by the president. He also took measures that largely emasculated the opposition parties. For example, he had the power to issue governmental regulations in lieu of law, which nominally had to be approved by the House of People's Representatives (DPR, the pre-2004 legislative branch). However, given the DPR's infrequent sessions and the near-total dominance of the pro-government political grouping, Golkar, such approval was a mere formality. Thus, for all intents and purposes, Suharto ruled by decree for most of his tenure. For the better part of Suharto's rule, he effectively held all governing power in the nation.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Suharto fell from power in May 1998 and the presidency experienced changes as a result of the reform movement. Compared to Suharto, who had all of his accountability speeches accepted, B. J. Habibie had his only accountability speech rejected. Abdurrahman Wahid then became the first president who had to beat another candidate to be elected, as Sukarno and Suharto had been sole candidates. As a result of this, Wahid was also the first president to be elected through counting votes instead of by acclamation. However, Wahid was impeached and removed from office by the MPR. This was a clear sign that while the presidency is the key institution, the MPR was now truly a check on the president's power. Wahid was replaced by his vice president, Megawati Sukarnoputri, daughter of Sukarno and former opposition leader during Suharto's presidency. Megawati is the first and, so far, only female ever to become President of Indonesia.


title: President of Indonesia

text: During the 2001 MPR Annual Session, it was finally decided that from 2004 onwards, the president will directly be elected by the people. In 2004 election, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono became Indonesia's first directly elected president, beating incumbent Megawati Sukarnoputri in the runoff election. In 2014, Yudhoyono finished his second presidential term and was barred from seeking re-election.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The 3rd Indonesian presidential election was held on 9 July 2014 and matched former general and Suharto's ex-son in law Prabowo Subianto against the governor of Jakarta, Joko Widodo. On 22 July the General Elections Commission announced Joko Widodo's victory. He and his vice president, Jusuf Kalla, were sworn in on 20 October 2014, for a 5-year term.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Amended 1945 Constitution: The presidential candidate has to be an Indonesian citizen since their birth, who has not willingly become a citizen in another nation, has not betrayed the nation, and is physically and mentally capable of performing the duties. Amended Constitution also states that further criteria will be determined by laws. The president is also required to be nominated by a Political Party or a coalition of Political Parties.


title: President of Indonesia

text: 2017 Law No. 7 Regarding Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections<br>The presidential candidate must:


title: President of Indonesia

text: This law also stipulates that only political parties or a coalition of political parties that obtained 20% of the seats in the DPR or 25% of the total valid votes in the previous election may nominate president and vice president candidate.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The 1950 Provisional Constitution: The presidential candidate has to be an Indonesian citizen aged at least 30 years old. They cannot be someone who is deemed to be undesirable or has had their right to take part in elections stripped. They are also required to not be involved with any private corporations.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Amended 1945 Constitution: Together with the vice president, the president is elected directly by the people on a ticket. Further election rules are determined by laws passed by the DPR. The president-elect is required to read either an oath or a promise of office before officially becoming president. The term of office is five years and after that the president can be re-elected for only one more term. The president and vice president candidate must receive over half the votes total, including at least 20% of the votes in at least half the 34 provinces to win. In the event that no pairs of candidates for President and Vice President are elected, the two pairs of candidates who get the first and second most votes in the general election are elected directly by the people and the pair that receives the most votes is elected as President and Vice President.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Original 1945 Constitution: Together with the vice president, the president is elected by the MPR with the largest number of votes. The president-elect is also required to read either an oath or a promise of office before officially becoming president. The term of office is five years and after that the president can be re-elected again.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The 1950 Provisional Constitution: Together with the vice president, the president is elected according to rules specified by laws. The president-elect is required to read either an oath or a promise or a statement of office before officially becoming president. The president is constitutionally required to live where the seat of Government is.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Before entering his/her office, the President or Vice President must take an oath or affirmation in the session of the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). If the MPR is unable to hold a session, the oath or promise is made in a session of the People's Representative Council (DPR). If the DPR is unable to hold a session, the oath or affirmation is made before the leadership of the MPR in the presence of the leadership of the Supreme Court.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Oath of Office of the President of the Republic of Indonesia: "I swear by God to fulfill the duties of President (Vice President) of the Republic of Indonesia to the best of my capabilities and in the fairest way possible, to uphold the Constitution by all means and to execute all laws and regulations as straightforwardly as possible as well as to dedicate myself to the service of the Nation and the People."


title: President of Indonesia

text: Pledge of Office of the President of the Republic of Indonesia: "I solemnly pledge to fulfill the duties of President (Vice President) of the Republic of Indonesia to the best of my capabilities and in the fairest way possible, to uphold the Constitution by all means and to execute all laws and regulations as straightforwardly as possible as well as to dedicate myself to the service of the Nation and the People."


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Amended 1945 Constitution: The president has constitutional authority over the government and has the power to name and remove ministers. The president has the right to propose bills to DPR, to discuss bills with the DPR to reach an agreement, make government regulations in accordance with laws, and in the case of emergencies has the power to make Government regulations in lieu of law. Militarily, the president holds supreme authority over the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Diplomatically, the president can only sign treaties, rehabilitate prisoners, and appoint Judicial Committee members with the DPR's agreement. The President can only appoint ambassadors and accept ambassadors from other countries by taking into account the DPR's considerations. The president has the power to grant pardons but must consider the advice of the Supreme Court. The president also has the final say over chief justice candidates.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Original 1945 Constitution: The president has constitutional authority over the Government and has the power to name and remove ministers. The president has the power to create laws with the agreement of the People's Representative Council (DPR), to make Government regulations in accordance with laws, and in the case of emergencies has the power to make Government regulations in lieu of law. Militarily, the president holds supreme authority over the Army, Navy, and Air Force whilst security-wise, the president has the power to declare a State of Emergency. Diplomatically, the president, with the agreement of the DPR, has the power to declare war, peace, and to sign treaties. In addition, the president appoints ambassadors and consuls as well as accepting ambassadors from other countries. Finally, the president has power to give amnesties and pardons as well as awarding titles and honours.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The 1950 Provisional Constitution: The president has the power to name cabinets and appoint the prime minister with the advice of formateurs. The president is able to remove ministers from office and has the right to be informed of important matters by the Council of Ministers. As the head of state, the president has the power to dissolve the DPR and order for an election to be held within 30 days. Militarily, the president holds supreme authority over the Armed Forces although any decision on this matter needs to be countersigned by the appropriate ministers and wartime control of troops has to be placed under an Armed Forces Commander. The president requires permission from the DPR to declare war and sign treaties although the president has independent power to appoint ambassadors and to accept them. The president also has the power to grant pardons.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Amended 1945 Constitution: The president is assisted by the vice president and their ministers. The ministers are appointed and dismissed by the president. Each minister is in charge of certain government affairs. The president is also allowed to form their own advisory teams which will further be regulated by laws passed by DPR.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Original 1945 Constitution: The president is assisted by the vice president and their ministers. The president is also able to seek advice from the Supreme Advisory Council (DPA).


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Amended 1945 Constitution: If the president dies, resigns, removed, or is unable to perform their duties for any reason, they are replaced by the vice president. If the vice president becomes vacant, the president nominates two candidates and the MPR has to elect a new vice president out of the candidates within 60 days. If the president and the vice president dies, resigns, or are unable to perform their duties for any reason, the government will be taken over together by the minister of home affairs, minister of foreign affairs, and minister of defense. No later than 30 days after that, MPR must elect a new president and vice president from the two candidates nominated by the political party or coalition of political parties whose candidates were the winner and the runner-up in the previous presidential election.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Under the amended constitution, the president (also vice president) can now be impeached and removed from office. If the president is viewed to have violated the law in the form of treason against the state, corruption, bribery, other serious crimes, or disgraceful acts, and/or no longer meets the requirements to be president, the DPR can ask the Constitutional Court to look into the matter, during which it has 90 days to make a decision. The DPR's request to the Constitutional Court can only be made with the support of 2/3 of the total number of DPR members who are present at the session which is attended by at least 2/3 of the DPR's members (At least 44.44% of the total members of the DPR). If the Constitutional Court decides that the president has violated the law, the DPR can motion for the MPR to convene. The president would then be given one last chance to defend himself before the MPR makes the decision whether or not the president should be impeached. The decision of the MPR to dismiss the President and/or the Vice President is made with the approval of at least 2/3 of the members of the MPR who are present at the session which is attended by at least 3/4 of all members of the MPR (at least 50% of the total members of the MPR).


title: President of Indonesia

text: The Original 1945 Constitution: If the president dies, resigns, or is unable to perform their duties for any reason, they are replaced by the vice president.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The 1950 Provisional Constitution: If the president dies, resigns, or is unable to perform their duties for any reason, they are replaced by the vice president.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Although there is no article about president (and vice president) impeachment in the original 1945 Constitution, Sukarno and Abdurrahman Wahid were still impeached in 1967 and 2001. Article on the impeachment of the president and vice president were made after the impeachment of Abdurrahman Wahid in the 3rd amendment to the Constitution.


title: President of Indonesia

text: Law No.7 of 1978 stipulates that former presidents are entitled to a pension. Former presidents are also entitled to a house, with electricity, water, and telephone bills covered by the government. In addition to that, former presidents shall have free healthcare for their families and a car with a chauffeur.


title: President of Indonesia

text: The presidents of Indonesia, as the issuer of decorations and the Grandmaster of Star Decorations () are automatically awarded the highest class of all civilian and military Star Decorations. Currently there are 14 decorations which will be bestowed upon them soon after taking office, namely:


title: President of Indonesia

text: The most recent presidential election was held in 2019 where the incumbent president Joko Widodo and his running mate Ma'ruf Amin defeated Prabowo Subianto and his running mate Sandiaga Uno with 55.5% of the vote.


title: President of Indonesia

text: As of , there are two living former Indonesian presidents. The most recent former president to pass away was Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, on 11 September 2019. The living former presidents, in order of service, are:


title: BRIT School

text: The BRIT School is a British performing and creative arts school located in Selhurst, Croydon, England, with a mandate to provide education and vocational training for the performing arts, music, music technology, theatre, musical theatre, dance, applied theatre, production arts and the creative arts film and media production (FMP), interactive digital design (IDD), visual arts and design (VAD). Selective in its intake, the school is notable for its celebrity alumni.


title: BRIT School

text: Opened on 22 October 1991 under the CTC programme, the school is funded by the British Government with support from the British Record Industry Trust and other charity partners and donations and maintains an independent school status from the local education authority.


title: BRIT School

text: Mark Featherstone-Witty had been inspired by Alan Parker's 1980s film "Fame" to create a secondary school specialising in the performing arts. By the time he started trying to raise money through the School for Performing Arts Trust (SPA), he had refined a novel integrated curriculum. He approached Sir Richard Branson to be the project champion who agreed, on the condition that other record companies chipped in. As it happened, the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) were concerned with home taping and realised they had no political influence to bring the necessary pressure to bear. The then Conservative government needed to give impetus to their flagging City Technology College scheme.


title: BRIT School

text: For over 30 years, the BRIT School has been the beneficiary of funding from the British record industry, with a substantial annual contribution from the proceeds of the Brit Awards, administered via the record industry's charity, the BRIT Trust.


title: BRIT School

text: In 2012, the school expanded acquiring part of the former Selhurst High School building next door. Three new courses, Production Arts, Interactive Digital Design and Community Arts Practise were introduced to coincide with this. There are currently 1352 Students on roll. The school's former principal Sir Nick Williams was knighted in the New Years Honours List 2013 for services to education.


title: BRIT School

text: In 2021/2022 The school celebrated its 30th birthday and was awarded a PRS Music heritage award shaping UK Art and culture for 30 years


title: BRIT School

text: The school was founded in 1991 under the auspices of the City Technology Colleges (CTC) initiative with sponsorship from the British Record Industry Trust (BRIT). Each year the BRIT Awards Music Ceremony raises money, some of which is used to help the continuing sponsorship of the school along with other music charities.


title: BRIT School

text: The school recognises that most of its students intend to make a career in the arts, entertainment and communications industries, but the school expects all to follow full-time courses to completion. It has two professional theatres, the Obie Theatre, which can seat audiences of up to 324 and standing audiences up to 500; and the BRIT Theatre, which opened in January 2012 and seats audiences of up to 280. There are also various dance studios, musical theatre studios, and TV and radio studios.


title: BRIT School

text: YouTube Music funded a new Television Studio that opened in 2019 for Film & Media Production students. This was in response to the student-run show "The BRIT Live" which airs on the BRIT School's YouTube channel, giving the students their own studio and control room to broadcast from.


title: BRIT School

text: Entry to any of the school's courses is initially by application. If applicants meet the initial entry criteria, they may then be invited to interview or audition in their chosen focus (strand) (either Film and Media Production (FMP), Applied Theatre, Dance, Interactive Digital Design, Music, Music Technology, Musical Theatre, Production Arts, Theatre and Visual Arts & Design, for sixth-form entry students), plus a meeting with relevant tutors. Entry to the Music course also includes aural and music theory tests and an audition, with entry to the Dance, Theatre, Visual Art & Design and Musical Theatre courses also including audition rounds.


title: BRIT School

text: The school has a wide catchment for students, whom often live away from school. Several students in foreign countries are accepted and move to London to attend the school.


title: BRIT School

text: A 2011 BBC News article discussed whether students who are accepted by the school get an unfair advantage in creative arts industries over those who did not.


title: Fullerene

text: A fullerene is an allotrope of carbon whose molecule consists of carbon atoms connected by single and double bonds so as to form a closed or partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven atoms. The molecule may be a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, or many other shapes and sizes. Graphene (isolated atomic layers of graphite), which is a flat mesh of regular hexagonal rings, can be seen as an extreme member of the family.


title: Fullerene

text: Fullerenes with a closed mesh topology are informally denoted by their empirical formula C, often written C"n", where "n" is the number of carbon atoms. However, for some values of "n" there may be more than one isomer.


title: Fullerene

text: The family is named after buckminsterfullerene (C), the most famous member, which in turn is named after Buckminster Fuller. The closed fullerenes, especially C, are also informally called buckyballs for their resemblance to the standard ball of association football ("soccer"). Nested closed fullerenes have been named bucky onions. Cylindrical fullerenes are also called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. The bulk solid form of pure or mixed fullerenes is called fullerite.


title: Fullerene

text: Fullerenes had been predicted for some time, but only after their accidental synthesis in 1985 were they detected in nature and outer space. The discovery of fullerenes greatly expanded the number of known allotropes of carbon, which had previously been limited to graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon such as soot and charcoal. They have been the subject of intense research, both for their chemistry and for their technological applications, especially in materials science, electronics, and nanotechnology.


title: Fullerene

text: The icosahedral cage was mentioned in 1965 as a possible topological structure. Eiji Osawa predicted the existence of in 1970. He noticed that the structure of a corannulene molecule was a subset of the shape of a football, and hypothesised that a full ball shape could also exist. Japanese scientific journals reported his idea, but neither it nor any translations of it reached Europe or the Americas.


title: Fullerene

text: Also in 1970, R. W. Henson (then of the UK Atomic Energy Research Establishment) proposed the structure and made a model of it. Unfortunately, the evidence for that new form of carbon was very weak at the time, so the proposal was met with skepticism, and was never published. It was acknowledged only in 1999.


title: Fullerene

text: In 1973, independently from Henson, a group of scientists from the USSR made a quantum-chemical analysis of the stability of and calculated its electronic structure. The paper was published in 1973, but the scientific community did not give much importance to this theoretical prediction.


title: Fullerene

text: Around 1980, Sumio Iijima identified the molecule of from an electron microscope image of carbon black, where it formed the core of a particle with the structure of a "bucky onion".


title: Fullerene

text: Also in the 1980's at MIT, Mildred Dresselhaus and Morinobu Endo, collaborating with T. Venkatesan, directed studies blasting graphite with lasers, producing carbon clusters of atoms, which would be later identified as "fullerenes."


title: Fullerene

text: In 1985, Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex, working with James R. Heath, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley from Rice University, discovered fullerenes in the sooty residue created by vaporising carbon in a helium atmosphere. In the mass spectrum of the product, discrete peaks appeared corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or seventy or more carbon atoms, namely and . The team identified their structure as the now familiar "buckyballs".


title: Fullerene

text: The name "buckminsterfullerene" was eventually chosen for by the discoverers as an homage to American architect Buckminster Fuller for the vague similarity of the structure to the geodesic domes which he popularized; which, if they were extended to a full sphere, would also have the icosahedral symmetry group. The "ene" ending was chosen to indicate that the carbons are unsaturated, being connected to only three other atoms instead of the normal four. The shortened name "fullerene" eventually came to be applied to the whole family.


title: Fullerene

text: Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their roles in the discovery of this class of molecules.


title: Fullerene

text: Kroto and the Rice team already discovered other fullerenes besides C, and the list was much expanded in the following years. Carbon nanotubes were first discovered and synthesized in 1991.


title: Fullerene

text: After their discovery, minute quantities of fullerenes were found to be produced in sooty flames, and by lightning discharges in the atmosphere. In 1992, fullerenes were found in a family of mineraloids known as shungites in Karelia, Russia.


title: Fullerene

text: The production techniques were improved by many scientists, including Donald Huffman, Wolfgang Krätschmer, Lowell D. Lamb, and Konstantinos Fostiropoulos. Thanks to their efforts, by 1990 it was relatively easy to produce gram-sized samples of fullerene powder. Fullerene purification remains a challenge to chemists and to a large extent determines fullerene prices.


title: Fullerene

text: In 2010, the spectral signatures of C and C were observed by NASA's Spitzer infrared telescope in a cloud of cosmic dust surrounding a star 6500 light years away. Kroto commented: "This most exciting breakthrough provides convincing evidence that the buckyball has, as I long suspected, existed since time immemorial in the dark recesses of our galaxy." According to astronomer Letizia Stanghellini, "It’s possible that buckyballs from outer space provided seeds for life on Earth." In 2019, ionized C molecules were detected with the Hubble Space Telescope in the space between those stars.


title: Fullerene

text: There are two major families of fullerenes, with fairly distinct properties and applications: the closed buckyballs and the open-ended cylindrical carbon nanotubes. However, hybrid structures exist between those two classes, such as carbon nanobuds — nanotubes capped by hemispherical meshes or larger "buckybuds".


title: Fullerene

text: Buckminsterfullerene is the smallest fullerene molecule containing pentagonal and hexagonal rings in which no two pentagons share an edge (which can be destabilizing, as in pentalene). It is also most common in terms of natural occurrence, as it can often be found in soot.


title: Fullerene

text: The empirical formula of buckminsterfullerene is and its structure is a truncated icosahedron, which resembles an association football ball of the type made of twenty hexagons and twelve pentagons, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge.


title: Fullerene

text: The van der Waals diameter of a buckminsterfullerene molecule is about 1.1 nanometers (nm). The nucleus to nucleus diameter of a buckminsterfullerene molecule is about 0.71 nm.


title: Fullerene

text: The buckminsterfullerene molecule has two bond lengths. The 6:6 ring bonds (between two hexagons) can be considered "double bonds" and are shorter than the 6:5 bonds (between a hexagon and a pentagon). Its average bond length is 1.4 Å.


title: Fullerene

text: Another fairly common fullerene has empirical formula , but fullerenes with 72, 76, 84 and even up to 100 carbon atoms are commonly obtained.


title: Fullerene

text: The smallest possible fullerene is the dodecahedral . There are no fullerenes with 22 vertices. The number of different fullerenes C grows with increasing "n" = 12, 13, 14, ..., roughly in proportion to "n" . For instance, there are 1812 non-isomorphic fullerenes . Note that only one form of , buckminsterfullerene, has no pair of adjacent pentagons (the smallest such fullerene). To further illustrate the growth, there are 214,127,713 non-isomorphic fullerenes , 15,655,672 of which have no adjacent pentagons. Optimized structures of many fullerene isomers are published and listed on the web.


title: Fullerene

text: Heterofullerenes have heteroatoms substituting carbons in cage or tube-shaped structures. They were discovered in 1993 and greatly expand the overall fullerene class of compounds and can have dangling bonds on their surfaces. Notable examples include boron, nitrogen (azafullerene), oxygen, and phosphorus derivatives.


title: Fullerene

text: Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical fullerenes. These tubes of carbon are usually only a few nanometres wide, but they can range from less than a micrometer to several millimeters in length. They often have closed ends, but can be open-ended as well. There are also cases in which the tube reduces in diameter before closing off. Their unique molecular structure results in extraordinary macroscopic properties, including high tensile strength, high electrical conductivity, high ductility, high heat conductivity, and relative chemical inactivity (as it is cylindrical and "planar" — that is, it has no "exposed" atoms that can be easily displaced). One proposed use of carbon nanotubes is in paper batteries, developed in 2007 by researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Another highly speculative proposed use in the field of space technologies is to produce high-tensile carbon cables required by a space elevator.


title: Fullerene

text: Buckyballs and carbon nanotubes have been used as building blocks for a great variety of derivatives and larger structures, such as


title: Fullerene

text: After the discovery of C60, many fullerenes have been synthesized (or studied theoretically by molecular modeling methods) in which some or all the carbon atoms are replaced by other elements. Non-carbon nanotubes, in particular, have attracted much attention.


title: Fullerene

text: A type of buckyball which uses boron atoms, instead of the usual carbon, was predicted and described in 2007. The structure, with each atom forming 5 or 6 bonds, was predicted to be more stable than the buckyball. However, subsequent analysis found that the predicted I symmetric structure was vibrationally unstable and the resulting cage would undergo a spontaneous symmetry break, yielding a puckered cage with rare T symmetry (symmetry of a volleyball). The number of six-member rings in this molecule is 20 and number of five-member rings is 12. There is an additional atom in the center of each six-member ring, bonded to each atom surrounding it. By employing a systematic global search algorithm, it was later found that the previously proposed fullerene is not a global maximum for 80-atom boron clusters and hence can not be found in nature; the most stable configurations have complex. The same paper concluded that boron's energy landscape, unlike others, has many disordered low-energy structures, hence pure boron fullerenes are unlikely to exist in nature.


title: Fullerene

text: However, an irregular complex dubbed borospherene was prepared in 2014. This complex has two hexagonal faces and four heptagonal faces with in D symmetry interleaved with a network of 48 triangles.


title: Fullerene

text: Inorganic (carbon-free) fullerene-type structures have been built with the molybdenum(IV) sulfide (MoS), long used as a graphite-like lubricant, tungsten (WS), titanium (TiS) and niobium (NbS). These materials were found to be stable up to at least 350 tons/cm (34.3 GPa).


title: Fullerene

text: Icosahedral or distorted-icosahedral fullerene-like complexes have also been prepared for germanium, tin, and lead; some of these complexes are spacious enough to hold most transition metal atoms.


title: Fullerene

text: Below is a table of main closed carbon fullerenes synthesized and characterized so far, with their CAS number when known. Fullerenes with fewer than 60 carbon atoms have been called "lower fullerenes", and those with more than 70 atoms "higher fullerenes".


title: Fullerene

text: In the table, "Num.Isom." is the number of possible isomers within the "isolated pentagon rule", which states that two pentagons in a fullerene should not share edges. "Mol.Symm." is the symmetry of the molecule, whereas "Cryst.Symm." is that of the crystalline framework in the solid state. Both are specified for the most experimentally abundant form(s). The asterisk <nowiki>*</nowiki> marks symmetries with more than one chiral form.


title: Fullerene

text: When or crystals are grown from toluene solution they have a monoclinic symmetry. The crystal structure contains toluene molecules packed between the spheres of the fullerene. However, evaporation of the solvent from transforms it into a face-centered cubic form. Both monoclinic and face-centered cubic (fcc) phases are known for better-characterized and fullerenes.


title: Fullerene

text: Schlegel diagrams are often used to clarify the 3D structure of closed-shell fullerenes, as 2D projections are often not ideal in this sense.


title: Fullerene

text: In mathematical terms, the combinatorial topology (that is, the carbon atoms and the bonds between them, ignoring their positions and distances) of a closed-shell fullerene with a simple sphere-like mean surface (orientable, genus zero) can be represented as a convex polyhedron; more precisely, its one-dimensional skeleton, consisting of its vertices and edges. The Schlegel diagram is a projection of that skeleton onto one of the faces of the polyhedron, through a point just outside that face; so that all other vertices project inside that face.


title: Fullerene

text: The Schlegel diagram of a closed fullerene is a graph that is planar and 3-regular (or "cubic"; meaning that all vertices have degree 3).


title: Fullerene

text: A closed fullerene with sphere-like shell must have at least some cycles that are pentagons or heptagons. More precisely, if all the faces have 5 or 6 sides, it follows from Euler's polyhedron formula, "V"−"E"+"F"=2 (where "V", "E", "F" are the numbers of vertices, edges, and faces), that "V" must be even, and that there must be exactly 12 pentagons and "V"/2−10 hexagons. Similar constraints exist if the fullerene has heptagonal (seven-atom) cycles.


title: Fullerene

text: Open fullerenes, like carbon nanotubes and graphene, can consist entirely of hexagonal rings. In theory, a long nanotube with ends joined to form a closed torus-like sheet could also consist entirely of hexagons.


title: Fullerene

text: Since each carbon atom is connected to only three neighbors, instead of the usual four, it is customary to describe those bonds as being a mixture of single and double covalent bonds. The hybridization of carbon in C has been reported to be sp. The bonding state can be analyzed by Raman spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.


title: Fullerene

text: Additional atoms, ions, clusters, or small molecules can be trapped inside fullerenes to form inclusion compounds known as endohedral fullerenes. An unusual example is the egg-shaped fullerene TbN@, which violates the isolated pentagon rule. Evidence for a meteor impact at the end of the Permian period was found by analyzing noble gases preserved by being trapped in fullerenes.


title: Fullerene

text: In the early 2000s, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes were a hot topic in the field of research and development. "Popular Science" discussed possible uses of fullerenes (graphene) in armor.


title: Fullerene

text: In the field of nanotechnology, heat resistance and superconductivity are some of the more heavily studied properties.


title: Fullerene

text: There are many calculations that have been done using ab-initio quantum methods applied to fullerenes. By DFT and TD-DFT methods one can obtain IR, Raman and UV spectra. Results of such calculations can be compared with experimental results.


title: Fullerene

text: Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many organic reactions such as the Bingel reaction discovered in 1993.


title: Fullerene

text: Researchers have been able to increase the reactivity of fullerenes by attaching active groups to their surfaces. Buckminsterfullerene does not exhibit "superaromaticity": that is, the electrons in the hexagonal rings do not delocalize over the whole molecule.


title: Fullerene

text: A spherical fullerene of "n" carbon atoms has "n" pi-bonding electrons, free to delocalize. These should try to delocalize over the whole molecule. The quantum mechanics of such an arrangement should be like only one shell of the well-known quantum mechanical structure of a single atom, with a stable filled shell for "n" = 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98, 128, etc. (i.e., twice a perfect square number), but this series does not include 60. This 2("N" + 1) rule (with "N" integer) for spherical aromaticity is the three-dimensional analogue of Hückel's rule. The 10+ cation would satisfy this rule, and should be aromatic. This has been shown to be the case using quantum chemical modelling, which showed the existence of strong diamagnetic sphere currents in the cation.


title: Fullerene

text: As a result, in water tends to pick up two more electrons and become an anion. The "n" described below may be the result of trying to form a loose metallic bond.


title: Fullerene

text: Under high pressure and temperature, buckyballs collapse to form various one-, two-, or three-dimensional carbon frameworks. Single-strand polymers are formed using the Atom Transfer Radical Addition Polymerization (ATRAP) route.


title: Fullerene

text: "Ultrahard fullerite" is a coined term frequently used to describe material produced by high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) processing of fullerite. Such treatment converts fullerite into a nanocrystalline form of diamond which has been reported to exhibit remarkable mechanical properties.


title: Fullerene

text: Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive. The sp-hybridized carbon atoms, which are at their energy minimum in planar graphite, must be bent to form the closed sphere or tube, which produces angle strain. The characteristic reaction of fullerenes is electrophilic addition at 6,6-double bonds, which reduces angle strain by changing sp-hybridized carbons into sp-hybridized ones. The change in hybridized orbitals causes the bond angles to decrease from about 120° in the sp orbitals to about 109.5° in the sp orbitals. This decrease in bond angles allows for the bonds to bend less when closing the sphere or tube, and thus, the molecule becomes more stable.


title: Fullerene

text: Fullerenes are soluble in many organic solvents, such as toluene, chlorobenzene, and 1,2,3-trichloropropane. Solubilities are generally rather low, such as 8 g/L for C in carbon disulfide. Still, fullerenes are the only known allotrope of carbon that can be dissolved in common solvents at room temperature. Among the best solvents is 1-chloronaphthalene, which will dissolve 51 g/L of C.


title: Fullerene

text: Solutions of pure buckminsterfullerene have a deep purple color. Solutions of are a reddish brown. The higher fullerenes to have a variety of colors.


title: Fullerene

text: Millimeter-sized crystals of and , both pure and solvated, can be grown from benzene solution. Crystallization of from benzene solution below 30 °C (when solubility is maximum) yields a triclinic solid solvate ·4. Above 30 °C one obtains solvate-free fcc .


title: Fullerene

text: In 1999, researchers from the University of Vienna demonstrated that wave-particle duality applied to molecules such as fullerene.


title: Fullerene

text: Fullerenes are normally electrical insulators, but when crystallized with alkali metals, the resultant compound can be conducting or even superconducting.


title: Fullerene

text: Some fullerenes (e.g. , , , and ) are inherently chiral because they are D-symmetric, and have been successfully resolved. Research efforts are ongoing to develop specific sensors for their enantiomers.


title: Fullerene

text: Two theories have been proposed to describe the molecular mechanisms that make fullerenes. The older, “bottom-up” theory proposes that they are built atom-by-atom. The alternative “top-down” approach claims that fullerenes form when much larger structures break into constituent parts.


title: Fullerene

text: In 2013 researchers discovered that asymmetrical fullerenes formed from larger structures settle into stable fullerenes. The synthesized substance was a particular metallofullerene consisting of 84 carbon atoms with two additional carbon atoms and two yttrium atoms inside the cage. The process produced approximately 100 micrograms.


title: Fullerene

text: However, they found that the asymmetrical molecule could theoretically collapse to form nearly every known fullerene and metallofullerene. Minor perturbations involving the breaking of a few molecular bonds cause the cage to become highly symmetrical and stable. This insight supports the theory that fullerenes can be formed from graphene when the appropriate molecular bonds are severed.


title: Fullerene

text: According to the IUPAC, to name a fullerene, one must cite the number of member atoms for the rings which comprise the fullerene, its symmetry point group in the Schoenflies notation, and the total number of atoms. For example, buckminsterfullerene C is systematically named (-"I")[5,6]fullerene. The name of the point group should be retained in any derivative of said fullerene, even if that symmetry is lost by the derivation.


title: Fullerene

text: To indicate the position of substituted or attached elements, the fullerene atoms are usually numbered in a spiral path, usually starting with the ring on one of the main axes. If the structure of the fullerene does not allow such numbering, another starting atom was chosen to still achieve a spiral path sequence.


title: Fullerene

text: The latter is the case for C, which is (-"D")[5,6]fullerene in IUPAC notation. The symmetry "D" means that this is the isomer where the "C" axis goes through a pentagon surrounded by hexagons rather than pentagons.


title: Fullerene

text: In IUPAC's nomenclature, fully saturated analogues of fullerenes are called "fulleranes". If the mesh has other element(s) substituted for one or more carbons, the compound is named a "heterofullerene". If a double bond is replaced by a methylene bridge , the resulting structure is a "homofullerene". If an atom is fully deleted and missing valences saturated with hydrogen atoms, it is a "norfullerene". When bonds are removed (both sigma and pi), the compound becomes "secofullerene"; if some new bonds are added in an unconventional order, it is a "cyclofullerene".


title: Fullerene

text: Fullerene production generally starts by producing fullerene-rich soot. The original (and still current) method was to send a large electric current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The resulting electric arc vaporizes the carbon into a plasma that then cools into sooty residue. Alternatively, soot is produced by laser ablation of graphite or pyrolysis of aromatic hydrocarbons. Combustion of benzene is the most efficient process, developed at MIT.


title: Fullerene

text: These processes yield a mixture of various fullerenes and other forms of carbon. The fullerenes are then extracted from the soot using appropriate organic solvents and separated by chromatography. One can obtain milligram quantities of fullerenes with 80 atoms or more. C, C and C are available commercially.


title: Fullerene

text: Fullerenes have been extensively used for several biomedical applications including the design of high-performance MRI contrast agents, X-ray imaging contrast agents, photodynamic therapy and drug and gene delivery, summarized in several comprehensive reviews.


title: Fullerene

text: While past cancer research has involved radiation therapy, photodynamic therapy is important to study because breakthroughs in treatments for tumor cells will give more options to patients with different conditions. Recent experiments using HeLa cells in cancer research involves the development of new photosensitizers with increased ability to be absorbed by cancer cells and still trigger cell death. It is also important that a new photosensitizer does not stay in the body for a long time to prevent unwanted cell damage.


title: Fullerene

text: Fullerenes can be made to be absorbed by HeLa cells. The derivatives can be delivered to the cells by using the functional groups L-phenylalanine, folic acid, and L-arginine among others.


title: Fullerene

text: Functionalizing the fullerenes aims to increase the solubility of the molecule by the cancer cells. Cancer cells take up these molecules at an increased rate because of an upregulation of transporters in the cancer cell, in this case amino acid transporters will bring in the L-arginine and L-phenylalanine functional groups of the fullerenes.


title: Fullerene

text: Once absorbed by the cells, the derivatives would react to light radiation by turning molecular oxygen into reactive oxygen which triggers apoptosis in the HeLa cells and other cancer cells that can absorb the fullerene molecule. This research shows that a reactive substance can target cancer cells and then be triggered by light radiation, minimizing damage to surrounding tissues while undergoing treatment.


title: Fullerene

text: When absorbed by cancer cells and exposed to light radiation, the reaction that creates reactive oxygen damages the DNA, proteins, and lipids that make up the cancer cell. This cellular damage forces the cancerous cell to go through apoptosis, which can lead to the reduction in size of a tumor. Once the light radiation treatment is finished the fullerene will reabsorb the free radicals to prevent damage of other tissues. Since this treatment focuses on cancer cells, it is a good option for patients whose cancer cells are within reach of light radiation. As this research continues, the treatment may penetrate deeper into the body and be absorbed by cancer cells more effectively.


title: Fullerene

text: In 2013, a comprehensive review on the toxicity of fullerene was published reviewing work beginning in the early 1990s to present and concluded that very little evidence gathered since the discovery of fullerenes indicate that is toxic. The toxicity of these carbon nanoparticles is not only dose- and time-dependent, but also depends on a number of other factors such as:


title: Fullerene

text: It was recommended to assess the pharmacology of every new fullerene- or metallofullerene-based complex individually as a different compound.


title: Fullerene

text: Examples of fullerenes appear frequently in popular culture. Fullerenes appeared in fiction well before scientists took serious interest in them. In a humorously speculative 1966 column for "New Scientist", David Jones suggested the possibility of making giant hollow carbon molecules by distorting a plane hexagonal net with the addition of impurity atoms.


title: Godparent

text: In infant baptism and denominations of Christianity, a godparent (also known as a sponsor, or "gossiprede") is someone who bears witness to a child's christening and later is willing to help in their catechesis, as well as their lifelong spiritual formation. In the past, in some countries, the role carried some legal obligations as well as religious responsibilities. In both religious and civil views, a godparent tends to be an individual chosen by the parents to take an interest in the child's upbringing and personal development, to offer mentorship or claim legal guardianship of the child if anything should happen to the parents.


title: Godparent

text: A male godparent is a godfather, and a female godparent is a godmother. The child is a godchild (i.e. godson for boys and goddaughter for girls).


title: Godparent

text: As early as the 2nd century AD, infant baptism had begun to gain acceptance among Catholic Christians for the spiritual purification and social initiation of infants, the requirement for some confession of faith necessitated the use of adults who acted as sponsors for the child. They vocalized the confession of faith and acted as guarantors of the child's spiritual beliefs.


title: Godparent

text: Normally, these sponsors were the natural parents of a child, as emphasized in 408 by St. Augustine who suggested that they could, it seems exceptionally, be other individuals. Within a century, the "Corpus Juris Civilis" indicates that parents had been replaced in this role almost completely. This was clarified in 813 when the Synod of Mainz prohibited natural parents from acting as godparents to their own children.


title: Godparent

text: By the 5th century, male sponsors were referred to as "spiritual fathers", and by the end of the 6th century, they were being referred to as "compaters" and "commaters", suggesting that these were being seen as spiritual co-parents. This pattern was marked by the creation of legal barriers to marriage that paralleled those for other forms of kin. A decree of Justinian, dated to 530, outlawed marriage between a godfather and his goddaughter, and these barriers continued to multiply until the 11th century, forbidding marriage between natural and spiritual parents, or those directly related to them. As confirmation emerged as a separate rite from baptism from the 8th century, a second set of sponsors, with similar prohibitions, also emerged. The exact extent of these spiritual relationships as a bar to marriage in Catholicism was unclear until the Council of Trent, which limited it to relationships between the godparents, the child, and the parents.


title: Godparent

text: Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin preserved infant baptism against the attacks of more radical reformers including Anabaptists, and with it, sponsors at baptism. However, Luther strongly objected to the marriage barriers it created, Zwingli stressed the role of parents and pastors, rather than the "witnesses", in religious instruction, and Calvin and his followers tended to prefer the sponsors to be the natural parents. A single godparent was retained in baptism at Geneva and among French Calvinists, but some followers of Calvin, most notably in Scotland and eventually the English colonies in America, rejected them altogether.


title: Godparent

text: In the early church, one sponsor seems to have been the norm, but in the early Middle Ages, there seems to have been two, one of each sex, and this practice has been largely maintained in Orthodox Christianity. In 888, the Catholic Council of Metz attempted to limit the number to one, but proliferation seems to have continued. In early 14th-century Spain, as many as 20 godparents were being chosen. In England, the Synod of Worcester (1240) stipulated three sponsors (two of the same sex and one of the opposite), and this has remained the norm in the Church of England. The Council of Trent attempted to limit the numbers of godparents to one or two, but practice has differed across the Catholic world.


title: Godparent

text: Most Catholic families chose two godparents, one of each sex, one of which at least must be a baptised Catholic. It possible for children to have more than two, for example in the case where neither of the two “candidates” are Catholic, in which case someone, often a member of the family, may act as a third godparent and as guarantor of the child's faith. (See below in “modern usage”)


title: Godparent

text: In the Lutheran church, a baptized member may only have one godchild. This is because of the responsibility that goes along with it.


title: Godparent

text: The Church of England, the mother Church of the Anglican Communion, retained godparents in baptism, formally removing the marriage barriers in 1540, but the issue of the role and status of godparents continued to be debated in the English Church. They were abolished in 1644 by the Directory of Public Worship promulgated by the English Civil War Parliamentary regime, but continued to be used in some parishes in the north of England. After the Restoration in 1660, they were reintroduced to Anglicanism, with occasional objections, but dropped by almost every dissenting church. There is some evidence that the restored institution had lost some of its social importance as well as its universality.


title: Godparent

text: At present, in the Church of England, relatives can stand as godparents, and although it is not clear that parents can be godparents, they sometimes are. Godparents should be both baptised and confirmed (although it is not clear in which Church), but the requirement for confirmation can be waived. There is no requirement for clergy to baptise those from outside their parishes, and baptism can be reasonably delayed so that the conditions, including suitable godparents, can be met. As a result, individual clergy have considerable discretion over the qualifications of godparents. Many "contemporary Anglican rites likewise require parents and godparents to respond on behalf of infant [baptismal] candidates."


title: Godparent

text: Lutherans follow a similar theology of godparents as Roman Catholics. They believe that godparents "help [children] with their Christian upbringing, especially if they should lose their parents". Lutherans, like Roman Catholics, believe that a godparent must be both a baptized and confirmed Christian. Some Lutherans also follow the Roman Catholic tradition that a Christian who is not affiliated with the Lutheran denomination may serve as a witness rather than a godparent.


title: Godparent

text: The Book of Discipline stipulates that it is the duty of a godparent, also known as a sponsor, "to provide training for the children of the Church throughout their childhood that will lead to a personal commitment to Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, to an understanding of the Christian faith, and to an appreciation of the privileges and obligations of baptism and membership (¶ 225.4)." John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Church, wrote a homily titled "Serious Thoughts Concerning Godfathers and Godmothers" in which he stated that godparents are "spiritual parents to the baptized, whether they were infants or [adults]; and were expected to supply whatever spiritual helps were wanting either through the death or neglect of the natural parents." He described the role of godparents, instructing that they should call upon their godchild "to hear sermons, and shall provide that he(/she) may learn the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Commandments, and all other things which a Christian ought to know and believe to his soul's health; and that this child be virtuously brought up, to lead a godly and a Christian life." As such, the Book of Worship states that godparents/sponsors should be "selected carefully" and "should be members of Christ's holy Church; and it is the duty of pastors to instruct them concerning the significance of Holy Baptism, their responsibilities for the Christian training of the baptized child, and how these obligations may be fulfilled."


title: Godparent

text: The Orthodox institution of godparenthood has been the least affected of the major traditions by change. In some Orthodox churches (Serbian, Greek) usually the best man (kum, кум, koumbaros) or bridesmaid (kuma, кума, koumbara) at a couple's wedding act as a godparent to the first or all children of the marriage. In some instances, the godfather is responsible for naming the child. A godparent to a child will then act as a sponsor at the child's wedding. Godparents are expected to be in good standing in the Orthodox church, including its rulings on divorce, and aware of the meaning and responsibilities of their role. They cannot be a minor or a parent of the child, and at least one sponsor must be Orthodox.


title: Godparent

text: In the Reformed tradition that includes the Continental Reformed, Congregationalist and Presbyterian Churches, the godparents are more often referred to as "sponsors", who have the role of standing with the child during infant baptism and pledging to instruct the child in the faith. In the baptismal liturgy of Reformed Geneva, "the traditional presence of godparents was retained". John Calvin, the progenitor of the Reformed tradition, himself served as a godparent during forty-seven baptisms. The Reformed Church in Geneva, in order to ensure confessional orthodoxy, "expected parents to select Reformed godparents." Today, many Reformed churches invite parents to select godparents for their prospective neophyte, while other parishes entrust this responsibility to the whole congregation.


title: Godparent

text: The Catholic institution of godparenthood survived the Reformation largely unchanged. A godparent must normally be an appropriate person, at least sixteen years of age, a confirmed Catholic who has received the Eucharist, not under any canonical penalty, and may not be the parent of the child. Someone who belongs to another Christian church cannot become a godparent but can be a 'witness' in conjunction with a Catholic sponsor. A witness does not have any religious role recognized by the Church.


title: Godparent

text: In 2015, the Vatican declared that transgender Catholics cannot become godparents, stating in response to a transgender man's query that transgender status "reveals in a public way an attitude opposite to the moral imperative of solving the problem of sexual identity according to the truth of one's own sexuality" and that, "[t]herefore it is evident that this person does not possess the requirement of leading a life according to the faith and in the position of godfather and is therefore unable to be admitted to the position of godfather or godmother."


title: Godparent

text: In some Catholic and Orthodox countries, particularly in southern Europe, Latin America, and the Philippines, the relationship between parents and godparents or co-godparents has been seen as particularly important and distinctive. These relationships create mutual obligations and responsibilities that may be socially useful for participants. The Portuguese and Spanish "compadre" (literally, "co-father") and "comadre" ("co-mother"), the French "marraine" and "parrain", and the archaic meaning of the English word "gossip" (from "godsib," "godsibling"), describe these relationships. By extension, they can also be used to describe a friendship.


title: Godparent

text: The Spanish and Portuguese words for the godparent roles are used for members of the wedding party—"padrino/padrinho" meaning "godfather" or "best man" and "madrina/madrinha" meaning "godmother" or "matron of honor", reflecting the custom of baptismal sponsors acting in this role in a couple's wedding.


title: Godparent

text: The Spanish custom was also adopted in the Philippines, a predominantly Christian country in Southeast Asia that was a former part of the Spanish Empire. The Filipino terms "ninong" for godfather and "ninang" for godmother, were also borrowed from Hispanic custom, and apply to godparents in both a child's baptism and the child's later confirmation. In the context of a wedding, the terms instead refer to the principal sponsors of the couple.


title: Godparent

text: Godparents are noted features of fairy tales and folklore written from the 17th century onwards, and by extension, have found their way into many modern works of fiction. In "Godfather Death", presented by the Brothers Grimm, the archetype is, unusually, a supernatural godfather. However, most are a fairy godmother as in versions of "Cinderella", "Sleeping Beauty", and "The Blue Bird". This feature may simply reflect the Catholic milieu in which most fairy tales were created, or at least recorded, and the accepted role of godparents as helpers from outside the family, but feminist Marina Warner suggests that they may be a form of wish fulfilment by female narrators.


title: Godparent

text: In the Yoruba religion Santería, godparents must have completed their santo or their Ifá. A person gets his Madrina and Yubona (co-godmother) or his Padrino and Yubon (co-godfather). A santero, aside from his co-godparents, may have an oluo (babalawo, initiate of ifa) who consults him with an ekuele (divining chain).


title: Godparent

text: There are two roles in the Jewish circumcision ceremony that are sometimes translated as "godparent". The sandek, in Orthodox Judaism a man, sits on a specially designated chair, and holds the baby boy while he is circumcised.


title: Godparent

text: Among Orthodox Ashkenazi, the kvater is the married couple who bring the child from his mother to where the circumcision is performed. The mother gives the baby to the woman, who gives the baby to her husband, who then carries the baby the rest of the way. The announcement ""Kvatter"" is the signal for the man to walk to where he will get the baby, and also for that man's wife to walk to the lady holding the baby (usually the mother), if she is not already standing there.


title: Godparent

text: Kvater is etymologically derived from the archaic German "Gevatter" ("godfather"). Historically, the Jewish ‘Godfather’ bears responsibility for seeing that the child is properly raised, if both parents die young. Amongst the Kvater's many responsibilities, he is also obligated to ensure that the Godmother (should one be appointed) is fully capable of discharging her duties. Should he deem her irresponsible, he can revoke her status as Godmother by proclamation.


title: Godparent

text: Some Chinese communities practise the custom of matching a child with a relative or family friend who becomes the godmother ("yimu" / "ganma" 義母/乾媽) or godfather ("yifu" / "gandie" 義父/乾爹). This practice is largely non-religious in nature, but commonly done to strengthen ties or to fulfil the wish of a childless adult to have a "son/daughter". In most circumstances, an auspicious day is selected on which a ceremony takes place, involving the godchild paying his/her respects to his new godfather/godmother in the presence of relatives or friends.


title: Godparent

text: Alternatively, as it is already common in Chinese kinship to use kinship terms among people that are not related (e.g. addressing a respected coworker as "brother" or one's father's friend may be referred to as "uncle"), an older friend or family friend with a deep friendship and a sufficient age gap will also informally address the other as his godparent or godchild, a gesture often initiated by the older person.


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: Milan Malpensa Airport is the largest international airport in northern Italy, serving Lombardy, Piedmont and Liguria, as well as the Swiss Canton of Ticino. The airport is northwest of Milan, next to the Ticino river dividing Lombardy and Piedmont.


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: In 2019, Malpensa Airport handled 28,846,299 passengers and was the 20th busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers and 2nd busiest airport in Italy in terms of passengers. Until 2008, Malpensa Airport was a major hub for flag carrier Alitalia. Malpensa Airport remains the second-busiest Italian airport for international passenger traffic (after Rome Fiumicino Airport), and the busiest for freight and cargo, handling over 747,000 tons of international freight annually.


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: The airport was opened in 1909 by Giovanni Agusta and Gianni Caproni to test their aircraft prototypes, before switching to civil operation in 1948.


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: The site of today's Malpensa Airport has seen aviation activities for more than 100 years. The first began on 27 May 1910, when the Caproni brothers flew their "flying machine", the Cal biplane. In the years that followed, many aircraft prototypes took off from the same site; eventually, it was decided to upgrade the farming patch to a more formal airfield. Both Gianni Caproni and Giovanni Agusta established factories on the new site; the airfield soon developed into the largest aircraft production centre in Italy.


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: During the 1920s and 1930s, the airfield hosted two squadrons of the "Regia Aeronautica Italiana" (Italian Air Force). In September 1943, Malpensa airfield was taken over by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe when northern Italy was invaded by Adolf Hitler. Soon after their arrival, the Germans laid the airfield's first concrete runway.


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: After the cessation of hostilities during the Second World War, manufacturers and politicians of the Milan and Varese regions, led by banker Benigno Ajroldi of Banca Alto Milanese, restored the airfield. They aimed to make it an industrial fulcrum for the post-war recovery of Italy. The main runway, heavily damaged by German troops as they retreated from northern Italy, was rebuilt and extended to 1,800 metres. A small wooden terminal was constructed to protect goods and passengers from bad weather.


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: Malpensa Airport officially commenced commercial operations on 21 November 1948 as "Aeroporto Città di Busto Arsizio", although the Belgian national flag-carrier Sabena had started flying to Brussels from here a year earlier. On 2 February 1950 Trans World Airlines (TWA) became the first company to fly long-haul flights from Malpensa, using Lockheed Constellations on their services to New York Idlewild Airport (now JFK).


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: A change of ownership occurred in 1952 when the Municipality of Milan took control of the airport's operator, the "Società Aeroporto di Busto Arsizio". The operator's name was subsequently changed to "" (SEA). After assuming full control, SEA decided to develop Malpensa as an international and intercontinental gateway, whereas Milan's other airport, Linate Airport, would be tasked with handling only domestic services.


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: Between 1958 and 1962 a new terminal arrived at Malpensa and the airport's two parallel runways were extended to , becoming the longest in Europe at that time. By the early 1960s, however, major European carriers such as British Airways, Air France, Lufthansa and Alitalia had moved the majority of their services to Linate Airport, which was just 11 km east of Milan's city centre, making it much easier for passengers to reach central Milan. This left Malpensa with just a handful of intercontinental links, charter flights and cargo operations. Malpensa suffered a decline in commercial traffic, with passenger numbers dropping from 525,000 in 1960 to just 331,000 by 1965. It was destined to play second fiddle to Linate Airport for another 20 years.


title: Milan Malpensa Airport

text: By the mid-1980s Linate Airport was handling seven million passengers per year and, with only a short single runway and limited parking slots, had reached its saturation point. With no available land nearby for expansion, an alternative solution was sought: "Società Esercizi Aeroportuali SpA" (SEA) quickly found that developing Malpensa was the only practical alternative.