title: Bon Jovi discography

text: "Keep the Faith" (1992) marked a change in the band's appearance and sound, eschewing the glam metal from its 1980s albums in a favor of a different hard rock sound. The album debuted at number one in the UK and Australia, cracked the top 5 in the US and was certified 2× Platinum by the RIAA for shipping two million copies in the United States. The ballad "Bed of Roses" peaked at number 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and the album's title track hit number one on the Mainstream Rock Tracks. The greatest hits album "Cross Road" (1994) debuted at number one and was the best-selling album in United Kingdom for 1994. "Always", the first of the compilation's two new tracks, spent six months in the top 10 of the "Billboard" Hot 100, was certified platinum in the US and became Bon Jovi's highest selling single.


title: Bon Jovi discography

text: "These Days" (1995) was the group's first release after the departure of bassist Alec John Such. The record was a commercial success in the Asian and European markets, debuting at number one in the UK and spending four consecutive weeks at the top. In Japan, the album topped the Oricon chart with first week sales of 379,000 copies, becoming the second fastest selling international album in chart's history. Its lead single "This Ain't a Love Song" reached number 14 in the US and number six in the UK. "Crush" (2000) became the band's sixth and fifth consecutive number one album in Australia and the United Kingdom, respectively, and reached 2× Platinum in the US. The success of the album was largely due to its lead single "It's My Life" which was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group, while the album was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 2001 ceremony.


title: Bon Jovi discography

text: "Bounce" (2002) and "Have a Nice Day" (2005) debuted at number two on the "Billboard" 200, Bon Jovi's highest debuts in the band's 20-year history up to that point. The lead single "Have a Nice Day" was an international hit, reaching the top 10 in Australia, Europe and the UK. The second single "Who Says You Can't Go Home" reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot Country Songs after being remixed into a country duet with Jennifer Nettles. With success of the single, Bon Jovi was the first rock band to have reached the top spot on both the rock and country "Billboard" chart. The song's success inspired the Nashville-influenced tenth studio record "Lost Highway" (2007). The album debuted at number one in the US, making it the band's first number one in its home country since the late eighties. Although the album achieved great success, including a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album, the band returned to its rock roots with the eleventh studio album "The Circle" (2009), which debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200. The lead singles from both albums "(You Want to) Make a Memory" and "We Weren't Born to Follow" received Grammy nominations for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.


title: Bon Jovi discography

text: The second greatest hits album "Greatest Hits" (2010) was released as a single-disc version and as an enhanced double-disc version which features four new songs. It performed well in Australia, reaching 3× platinum in two months. The album's first single was "What Do You Got?" and its accompanying music video was the first Bon Jovi music video to be filmed in 3D. "What About Now" (2013) was the band's fifth release to reach the top of the "Billboard" 200, debuting at number one. Its lead single "Because We Can" was released two months before the album. This was followed by a fan compilation album "Burning Bridges" (2015), which failed to enter the top 10 on the "Billboard" 200. "This House Is Not for Sale" (2016) debuted at number one in the US with sales mostly driven by a concert ticket promotion. The album returned to the top spot two years later thanks to another concert tour, as the album was included in the ticket price.


title: Louis Malle

text: Louis Marie Malle (; 30 October 1932 – 23 November 1995) was a French film director, screenwriter, and producer who worked in both French cinema and Hollywood. Described as "eclectic" and "a filmmaker difficult to pin down," Malle's filmography encompassed a variety genres ranging from documentaries, to romances, to period dramas, and thrillers; often detailing provocative or controversial subject matter.


title: Louis Malle

text: His most famous works include the crime thriller "Elevator to the Gallows" (1958), the romantic drama "The Lovers" (1958), the World War II drama "Lacombe, Lucien" (1974), the period drama "Pretty Baby" (1978), the romantic crime film "Atlantic City" (1980), the dramedy "My Dinner with Andre" (1981), and the autobiographical "Au revoir les enfants" (1987). He also co-directed the landmark underwater documentary "The Silent World" with Jacques Cousteau, which won the 1956 Palme d'Or and the 1957 Academy Award for Best Documentary.


title: Louis Malle

text: Malle was one of only four directors to have won the Golden Lion twice. His other accolades included three Césars, two BAFTAs, and three Oscar nominations. He was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts in 1991.


title: Louis Malle

text: Malle was born into a wealthy industrialist family in Thumeries, Nord, France, the son of Françoise (Béghin) and Pierre Malle.


title: Louis Malle

text: During World War II, Malle attended a Roman Catholic boarding school near Fontainebleau. As an 11-year-old he witnessed a Gestapo raid on the school, in which three Jewish students, including his close friend, and a Jewish teacher were rounded up and deported to Auschwitz. The school's headmaster, Père Jacques, was arrested for harboring them and sent to the concentration camp at Mauthausen. Malle would later address these events in his autobiographical film "Au revoir les enfants" (1987).


title: Louis Malle

text: As a young man, Malle initially studied political science at Sciences Po from 1950 to 1952 (some sources incorrectly state that he studied at the Sorbonne) before turning to film studies at IDHEC.


title: Louis Malle

text: Malle worked as the co-director and cameraman to Jacques Cousteau on the documentary "The Silent World" (1956), which won an Oscar and the Palme d'Or at the 1956 Academy Awards and Cannes Film Festival respectively. He assisted Robert Bresson on "A Man Escaped" (French title: "Un condamné à mort s'est échappé ou Le vent souffle où il veut", 1956) before making his first feature, "Ascenseur pour l'échafaud" in 1957 (released in the U.K. as "Lift to the Scaffold" and in the U.S. originally as "Frantic", later as "Elevator to the Gallows"). A taut thriller featuring an original score by Miles Davis, "Ascenseur pour l'échafaud" made an international film star of Jeanne Moreau, at the time a leading stage actress of the Comédie-Française. Malle was 24 years old.


title: Louis Malle

text: Malle's "The Lovers" ("Les Amants", 1958), which also starred Moreau, caused major controversy due to its sexual content, leading to a landmark U.S. Supreme Court case regarding the legal definition of obscenity. In "Jacobellis v. Ohio", a theater owner was fined $2,500 for obscenity. The decision was eventually reversed by the higher court, which found that the film was not obscene and hence constitutionally protected. However, the court could not agree on the definition of "obscene", which caused Justice Potter Stewart to utter his "I know it when I see it" opinion, perhaps the most famous single line associated with the court.


title: Louis Malle

text: Malle is sometimes associated with the "nouvelle vague" movement. His work does not directly fit in with or correspond to the "auteurist" theories that apply to the work of Jean-Luc Godard, François Truffaut, Claude Chabrol, Éric Rohmer and others, and he had nothing whatsoever to do with the "Cahiers du cinéma". However, Malle's work does exemplify some of the characteristics of the movement, such as using natural light and shooting on location, and his film "Zazie dans le Métro" ("Zazie in the Metro", 1960, an adaptation of the Raymond Queneau novel) inspired Truffaut to write an enthusiastic letter to Malle.


title: Louis Malle

text: Other films also tackled taboo subjects: "The Fire Within" centres on a man about to commit suicide, "Le souffle au cœur" (1971) deals with an incestuous relationship between mother and son, and "Lacombe Lucien" (1974), co-written with Patrick Modiano, is about collaboration with the Nazis in Vichy France during World War II. The second of these earned Malle his first (of three) Oscar nominations for "Best Writing, Story and Screenplay Based on Factual Material or Material Not Previously Published or Produced".


title: Louis Malle

text: Malle visited India in 1968, and made a seven-part documentary series, "L'Inde fantôme: Reflexions sur un voyage", and a documentary film, "Calcutta", which was released in cinemas. Concentrating on real India, its rituals and festivities, Malle fell afoul of the Indian government, which disliked his portrayal of the country, in its fascination with the pre-modern, and consequently banned the BBC from filming in India for several years. Malle later claimed his documentary on India was his favorite film.


title: Louis Malle

text: Malle later moved to the United States and continued to direct there. His later films include "Pretty Baby" (1978), "Atlantic City" (1980), "My Dinner with Andre" (1981), "Crackers" (1984), "Alamo Bay" (1985), "Damage" (1992) and "Vanya on 42nd Street" (1994, an adaptation of Anton Chekhov's play "Uncle Vanya") in English; "Au revoir les enfants" (1987) and "Milou en Mai" ("May Fools" in the U.S., 1990) in French. Just as his earlier films such as "The Lovers" helped popularize French films in the United States, "My Dinner with Andre" was at the forefront of the rise of American independent cinema in the 1980s.


title: Louis Malle

text: Towards the end of his life, Malle was interviewed extensively for "The Times" by cultural correspondent Melinda Camber Porter. In 1993, the interviews were included in Camber Porter's book "Through Parisian Eyes: Reflections On Contemporary French Arts And Culture".


title: Louis Malle

text: Malle was married to actress Anne-Marie Deschodt from 1965 to 1967. He later had a son, Manuel Cuotemoc Malle (born 1971), with German actress Gila von Weitershausen, and a daughter, filmmaker Justine Malle (born 1974), with Canadian actress Alexandra Stewart.


title: Louis Malle

text: He married actress Candice Bergen in 1980. They had one child, a daughter, Chloé Françoise Malle, on 8 November 1985. He died from lymphoma, aged 63, at their home in Beverly Hills, California, on 23 November 1995.


title: John Everett Millais

text: Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Baronet, ( , ; 8 June 1829 – 13 August 1896) was an English painter and illustrator who was one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. He was a child prodigy who, aged eleven, became the youngest student to enter the Royal Academy Schools. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded at his family home in London, at 83 Gower Street (now number 7). Millais became the most famous exponent of the style, his painting "Christ in the House of His Parents" (1849–50) generating considerable controversy, and he produced a picture that could serve as the embodiment of the historical and naturalist focus of the group, "Ophelia", in 1851–52.


title: John Everett Millais

text: By the mid-1850s, Millais was moving away from the Pre-Raphaelite style to develop a new form of realism in his art. His later works were enormously successful, making Millais one of the wealthiest artists of his day, but some former admirers including William Morris saw this as a sell-out (Millais notoriously allowed one of his paintings to be used for a sentimental soap advertisement). While these and early 20th-century critics, reading art through the lens of Modernism, viewed much of his later production as wanting, this perspective has changed in recent decades, as his later works have come to be seen in the context of wider changes and advanced tendencies in the broader late nineteenth-century art world, and can now be seen as predictive of the art world of the present.


title: John Everett Millais

text: Millais's personal life has also played a significant role in his reputation. His wife Effie was formerly married to the critic John Ruskin, who had supported Millais's early work. The annulment of the Ruskin marriage and Effie's subsequent marriage to Millais have sometimes been linked to his change of style, but she became a powerful promoter of his work and they worked in concert to secure commissions and expand their social and intellectual circles.


title: John Everett Millais

text: Millais was born in Southampton, England, in 1829, of a prominent Jersey-based family. His parents were John William Millais and Emily Mary Millais (née Evermy). Most of his early childhood was spent in Jersey, to which he retained a strong devotion throughout his life. The author Thackeray once asked him "when England conquered Jersey." Millais replied "Never! Jersey conquered England." The family moved to Dinan in Brittany for a few years in his childhood.


title: John Everett Millais

text: His mother's "forceful personality" was the most powerful influence on his early life. She had a keen interest in art and music, and encouraged her son's artistic bent, promoting the relocating of the family to London to help develop contacts at the Royal Academy of Art. He later said "I owe everything to my mother."


title: John Everett Millais

text: His artistic talent won him a place at the Royal Academy Schools at the still unprecedented age of eleven. While there, he met William Holman Hunt and Dante Gabriel Rossetti with whom he formed the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (known as the "PRB") in September 1847 in his family home on Gower Street, off Bedford Square.


title: John Everett Millais

text: Millais's "Christ in the House of His Parents" (1849–50) was highly controversial because of its realistic portrayal of a working class Holy Family labouring in a messy carpentry workshop. Later works were also controversial, though less so. Millais achieved popular success with "A Huguenot" (1851–52), which depicts a young couple about to be separated because of religious conflicts. He repeated this theme in many later works. All these early works were painted with great attention to detail, often concentrating on the beauty and complexity of the natural world. In paintings such as "Ophelia" (1851–52) Millais created dense and elaborate pictorial surfaces based on the integration of naturalistic elements. This approach has been described as a kind of "pictorial eco-system." "Mariana" is a painting that Millais painted in 1850–51 based on the play" Measure for Measure" by William Shakespeare and the poem of the same name by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, from 1830. In the play, the young Mariana was to be married, but was rejected by her betrothed when her dowry was lost in a shipwreck.


title: John Everett Millais

text: This style was promoted by the critic John Ruskin, who had defended the Pre-Raphaelites against their critics. Millais's friendship with Ruskin introduced him to Ruskin's wife Effie. Soon after they met, she modelled for his painting "The Order of Release". As Millais painted Effie, they fell in love. Despite having been married to Ruskin for several years, Effie was still a virgin. Her parents realised something was wrong and she filed for an annulment.


title: John Everett Millais

text: In 1855, after her marriage to Ruskin was annulled, Effie and John Millais married. He and Effie eventually had eight children: Everett, born in 1856; George, born in 1857; Effie, born in 1858; Mary, born in 1860; Alice, born in 1862; Geoffroy, born in 1863; John in 1865; and Sophie in 1868. Their youngest son, John Guille Millais, became a naturalist, wildlife artist, and Millais's posthumous biographer. Their daughter Alice (1862–1936), later Alice Stuart-Worsley after she married Charles Stuart-Worsley, was a close friend and muse of the composer Edward Elgar, and is thought to have been an inspiration for themes in his Violin Concerto.


title: John Everett Millais

text: Effie's younger sister Sophie Gray sat for several pictures by Millais, prompting some speculation about the nature of their apparently fond relationship.


title: John Everett Millais

text: After his marriage, Millais began to paint in a broader style, which was condemned by Ruskin as "a catastrophe." It has been argued that this change of style resulted from Millais's need to increase his output to support his growing family. Unsympathetic critics such as William Morris accused him of "selling out" to achieve popularity and wealth. His admirers, in contrast, pointed to the artist's connections with Whistler and Albert Moore, and influence on John Singer Sargent. Millais himself argued that as he grew more confident as an artist, he could paint with greater boldness. In his article "Thoughts on our art of Today" (1888) he recommended Velázquez and Rembrandt as models for artists to follow. Paintings such as "The Eve of St. Agnes" and "The Somnambulist" clearly show an ongoing dialogue between the artist and Whistler, whose work Millais strongly supported. Other paintings of the late 1850s and 1860s can be interpreted as anticipating aspects of the Aesthetic Movement. Many deploy broad blocks of harmoniously arranged colour and are symbolic rather than narratival. From 1862, the Millais family lived at 7 Cromwell Place, Kensington, London.


title: John Everett Millais

text: Later works, from the 1870s onwards demonstrate Millais's reverence for Old Masters such as Joshua Reynolds and Velázquez. Many of these paintings were of an historical theme. Notable among these are "The Two Princes Edward and Richard in the Tower" (1878) depicting the Princes in the Tower, "The Northwest Passage" (1874) and the "Boyhood of Raleigh" (1871). Such paintings indicate Millais's interest in subjects connected to Britain's history and expanding empire. Millais also achieved great popularity with his paintings of children, notably "Bubbles" (1886) – famous, or perhaps notorious, for being used in the advertising of "Pears soap" – and "Cherry Ripe". His last project (1896) was to be a painting entitled "The Last Trek." Based on his illustration for his son's book, it depicted a hunter lying dead in the veldt, his body contemplated by two onlookers.


title: John Everett Millais

text: His many landscape paintings of this period usually depict difficult or dangerous terrain. The first of these, "Chill October" (1870) was painted in Perth, near his wife's family home. "Chill October" (Collection of Andrew Lloyd Webber) was the first of the large-scale Scottish landscapes Millais painted periodically throughout his later career. Usually autumnal and often bleakly unpicturesque, they evoke a mood of melancholy and sense of transience that recalls his cycle-of-nature paintings of the later 1850s, especially "Autumn Leaves" (Manchester Art Gallery) and "The Vale of Rest" (Tate Britain), though with little or no direct symbolism or human activity to point to their meaning.


title: John Everett Millais

text: In 1870 Millais returned to full landscape pictures, and over the next twenty years painted a number of scenes of Perthshire where he was annually found hunting and fishing from August until late into the autumn each year. Most of these landscapes are autumnal or early winter in season and show bleak, dank, water-fringed bog or moor, loch, and riverside. Millais never returned to "blade by blade" landscape painting, nor to the vibrant greens of his own outdoor work in the early fifties, although the assured handling of his broader, freer later style is equally accomplished in its close observation of scenery. Many were painted elsewhere in Perthshire, near Dunkeld and Birnam, where Millais rented grand houses each autumn to hunt and fish. "Christmas Eve", his first full landscape snow scene, painted in 1887, was a view looking towards Murthly Castle.


title: John Everett Millais

text: Millais was also very successful as a book illustrator, notably for the works of Anthony Trollope and the poems of Tennyson. His complex illustrations of the parables of Jesus were published in 1864. His father-in-law commissioned stained-glass windows based on them for Kinnoull Parish Church, Kinnoull. He also provided illustrations for magazines such as "Good Words". As a young man Millais frequently went on sketching expeditions to Keston and Hayes. While there he painted a sign for an inn where he used to stay, near to Hayes church (cited in Chums annual, 1896, page 213).


title: John Everett Millais

text: Millais was elected as an associate member of the Royal Academy of Arts in 1853, and was soon elected as a full member of the Academy, in which he was a prominent and active participant. In July 1885, Queen Victoria created him a baronet, of Palace Gate, in the


title: John Everett Millais

text: the Island of Jersey, making him the first artist to be honoured with a hereditary title. After the death of Lord Leighton in 1896, Millais was elected President of the Royal Academy. He died later in the same year from throat cancer. He was buried in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral.


title: John Everett Millais

text: Additionally, between 1881 and 1882, Millais was elected and acted as the president of the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists.


title: John Everett Millais

text: When Millais died in 1896, the Prince of Wales (later to become King Edward VII) chaired a memorial committee which commissioned a statue of the artist. The statue, by Thomas Brock, was installed at the front of the National Gallery of British Art (now Tate Britain) in the garden on the east side in 1905. On 23 November that year, the "Pall Mall Gazette" called it "a breezy statue, representing the man in the characteristic attitude in which we all knew him." In 1953, Tate director Norman Reid attempted to have it replaced by Auguste Rodin's "John the Baptist", and in 1962 again proposed its removal, calling its presence "positively harmful." His efforts were frustrated by the statue's owner, the Ministry of Works. Ownership was transferred from the Ministry to English Heritage in 1996, and by them in turn to the Tate. In 2000, under Stephen Deuchar's directorship, the statue was removed to the side of the building to welcome visitors to the refurbished Manton Road entrance. In 2007 the artist was the subject of a major retrospective at Tate Britain, London visited by 151,000 people. The exhibition then traveled to the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, followed by venues in Fukuoka and Tokyo, Japan, and seen by over 660,000 visitors in total.


title: John Everett Millais

text: Millais's relationship with Ruskin and Effie has been the subject of several dramas, beginning with the silent film "The Love of John Ruskin" from 1912. There have also been stage and radio plays and an opera. The 2014 film, "Effie Gray", written by Emma Thompson, featured Tom Sturridge as Millais. The Pre-Raphaelites have been the subjects of two BBC period dramas. The first, entitled "The Love School", was shown in 1975, starring Peter Egan as Millais. The second was "Desperate Romantics", in which Millais is played by Samuel Barnett. It was first broadcast on BBC 2 Tuesday, 21 July 2009.


title: Memoir

text: A memoir (; , ) is any nonfiction narrative writing based in the author's personal memories. The assertions made in the work are thus understood to be factual. While memoir has historically been defined as a subcategory of biography or autobiography since the late 20th century, the genre is differentiated in form, presenting a narrowed focus. A biography or autobiography tells the story "of a life", while a memoir often tells the story of a particular event or time, such as touchstone moments and turning points from the author's life. The author of a memoir may be referred to as a memoirist or a memorialist.


title: Memoir

text: Memoirs have been written since the ancient times, as shown by Julius Caesar's "Commentarii de Bello Gallico", also known as "Commentaries on the Gallic Wars". In the work, Caesar describes the battles that took place during the nine years that he spent fighting local armies in the Gallic Wars. His second memoir, "Commentarii de Bello Civili" (or "Commentaries on the Civil War") is an account of the events that took place between 49 and 48 BC in the civil war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Senate. The noted Libanius, teacher of rhetoric who lived between an estimated 314 and 394 AD, framed his life memoir as one of his literary orations, which were written to be read aloud in the privacy of his study. This kind of memoir refers to the idea in ancient Greece and Rome, that memoirs were like "memos", or pieces of unfinished and unpublished writing, which a writer might use as a memory aid to make a more finished document later on.


title: Memoir

text: The "Sarashina Nikki" is an example of an early Japanese memoir, written in the Heian period. A genre of book writing, Nikki Bungaku, emerged during this time.


title: Memoir

text: In the Middle Ages, Geoffrey of Villehardouin, Jean de Joinville, and Philippe de Commines wrote memoirs, while the genre was represented toward the end of the Renaissance, through the works of Blaise de Montluc and Margaret of Valois, that she was the first woman to write her "Memoirs" in modern-style.


title: Memoir

text: Until the Age of Enlightenment encompassing the 17th and 18th centuries, works of memoir were written by Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury; François de La Rochefoucauld, Prince de Marcillac of France; and Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, who wrote "Memoirs" at his family's home at the castle of La Ferté-Vidame. While Saint-Simon was considered a writer possessing a high level of skill for narrative and character development, it wasn't until well after his death that his work as a memoirist was recognized, resulting in literary fame.


title: Memoir

text: Over the latter half of the 18th through the mid-20th century, memoirists generally included those who were noted within their chosen profession. These authors wrote as a way to record and publish their own account of their public exploits. Authors included politicians or people in court society and were later joined by military leaders and businessmen. An exception to these models is Henry David Thoreau's 1854 memoir "Walden", which presents his experiences over the course of two years in a cabin he built near Walden Pond.


title: Memoir

text: Twentieth-century war memoirs became a genre of their own, including, from the First World War, Ernst Jünger ("Storm of Steel") and Frederic Manning's "Her Privates We". Memoirs documenting incarceration by Nazi Germany during the war include Primo Levi's "If This Is a Man", which covers his arrest as a member of the Italian Resistance Movement, followed by his life as a prisoner in Auschwitz; and Elie Wiesel's "Night", which is based on his life prior to and during his time in the Auschwitz, Buna Werke, and Buchenwald concentration camps.


title: Memoir

text: In the early 1990s, memoirs written by ordinary people experienced a sudden upsurge, as an increasing number of people realized that their ancestors’ and their own stories were about to disappear, in part as a result of the opportunities and distractions of technological advances. At the same time, psychology and other research began to show that familiarity with genealogy helps people find their place in the world and that life review helps people come to terms with their own past.


title: Memoir

text: With the advent of inexpensive digital book production in the first decade of the 21st century, the genre exploded. Memoirs written as a way to pass down a personal legacy, rather than as a literary work of art or historical document, are emerging as a personal and family responsibility.


title: Memoir

text: The Association of Personal Historians was a trade association for professionals who assisted individuals, families, and organizations in documenting their life stories. It dissolved in 2017.


title: Memoir

text: With the expressed interest of preserving history through the eyes of those who lived it, some organizations work with potential memoirists to bring their work to fruition. The Veterans History Project, for example, compiles the memoirs of those who have served in a branch of the United States Armed Forces – especially those who have seen active combat.


title: Memoir

text: The term 'memoir' has been used in an academic context to describe an essay on a learned subject. Examples include explanatory texts accompanying geologic maps.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: , known professionally as , was a Japanese actor and a matinée idol. He was a popular star in Hollywood during the silent film era of the 1910s and early 1920s. Hayakawa was the first actor of Asian descent to achieve stardom as a leading man in the United States and Europe. His "broodingly handsome" good looks and typecasting as a sexually dominant villain made him a heartthrob among American women during a time of racial discrimination, and he became one of the first male sex symbols of Hollywood.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: After withdrawing from the Japanese naval academy and attempting suicide at 18, Hayakawa attended the University of Chicago, where he studied political economics in accordance with his wealthy parents' wish that he become a banker. Upon graduating, he traveled to Los Angeles in order to board a scheduled ship back to Japan, but decided to try out acting in Little Tokyo. There, Hayakawa impressed Hollywood figures and was signed on to star in "The Typhoon" (1914). He made his breakthrough in "The Cheat" (1915), and thereafter became famous for his roles as a forbidden lover. Hayakawa was one of the highest paid stars of his time, earning $5,000 per week in 1915, and $2 million per year through his own production company from 1918 to 1921. Because of rising anti-Japanese sentiment and business difficulties, Hayakawa left Hollywood in 1922 and performed on Broadway and in Japan and Europe for many years before making his Hollywood comeback in "Daughter of the Dragon" (1931).


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Of his talkies, Hayakawa is probably best known for his role as Kuala, the pirate captain in "Swiss Family Robinson" (1960) and Colonel Saito in "The Bridge on the River Kwai" (1957), for which he earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Hayakawa starred in over 80 feature films, and three of his films ("The Cheat", "The Dragon Painter", and "The Bridge on the River Kwai") stand in the United States National Film Registry.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Hayakawa was born in the village of Nanaura, now part of a town called Chikura, in the city of Minamibōsō in Chiba Prefecture, Japan, on June 10, 1886. From a young age he yearned to go overseas and took on English studies in preparation. His father was the head of a fishermen's union with some wealth. He had five siblings.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: From an early age, Hayakawa's family intended him to become an officer in the Imperial Japanese Navy. However, while a student at the naval academy in Etajima, he swam to the bottom of a lagoon (he grew up in a shellfish diving community) on a dare and ruptured his eardrum. The injury caused him to fail the navy physical. His father felt shame and embarrassment by his son's failure and this drove a wedge between them. The strained relationship drove the 18-year-old Hayakawa to attempt (ritual suicide). One evening, Hayakawa entered a shed on his parents' property and prepared the venue. He put his dog outside and attempted to uphold his family's samurai tradition by stabbing himself more than 30 times in the abdomen. The barking dog brought Hayakawa's parents to the scene and his father used an axe to break down the door, saving his life.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: After he recovered from the suicide attempt, Hayakawa moved to the United States and began to study political economics at the University of Chicago to fulfill his family's new wish that he become a banker. While a student, he reportedly played quarterback for the football team and was once penalized for using jujitsu to bring down an opponent. Hayakawa graduated from the University of Chicago in 1912, and subsequently made plans to return to Japan. Hayakawa traveled to Los Angeles and awaited a transpacific steamship. During his stay, he discovered the Japanese Theatre in Little Tokyo and became fascinated with acting and performing plays.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: The above account, however, is disputed, in part or in whole. According to professor of Japanese language and literature at UC San Diego Daisuke Miyao, Hayakawa's turn to acting was in reality less eventful; there is no record of Hayakawa having attended University of Chicago or having played sports there. Hayakawa's acting career instead likely followed a series of odd jobs in California: as a dishwasher, waiter, ice cream vendor, and factory worker; his theatrical appearances also were just another temporary pursuit.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Another revisionist account by author Orie Nakagawa holds that Hayakawa had always intended to go to California to find work under his older brother in San Francisco; his father, however, convinced him to study at Chicago instead, and Hayakawa did so for a year before leaving to return to his original pursuits.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: It was around this time that Hayakawa first assumed the stage name , meaning "snowy continent" ( means "snow" and means "continent"). One of the productions in which Hayakawa performed was called "The Typhoon". Tsuru Aoki, a member of the acting troupe, was so impressed with Hayakawa's abilities and enthusiasm that she enticed film producer Thomas H. Ince to see the play. Ince saw the production and offered to turn it into a silent film with the original cast. Eager to return to Japan, Hayakawa tried to dissuade Ince by requesting the then-astronomic fee of $500 a week, but Ince agreed to his request.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: "The Typhoon" (1914) became an instant hit and was followed by two additional pictures produced by Ince, "The Wrath of the Gods" (1914) co-starring Hayakawa's new wife, Aoki, and "The Sacrifice" (1914). With Hayakawa's rising stardom, Jesse L. Lasky soon offered Hayakawa a contract, which he accepted, making him part of Famous Players-Lasky (now Paramount Pictures).


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Hayakawa's second film for Famous Players-Lasky was "The Cheat" (1915), directed by Cecil B. DeMille. "The Cheat" co-starred Fannie Ward as Hayakawa's love interest and was a huge success, making Hayakawa a romantic idol and sex symbol to the female movie-going public. "It caused a sensation," says Stephen Gong, the executive director of San Francisco's Center for Asian American Media. "The idea of the rape fantasy, forbidden fruit, all those taboos of race and sex—it made him a movie star. And his most rabid fan base was white women." With his popularity and "broodingly handsome" good looks, Hayakawa commanded a salary that reached over $3,500 a week at the height of his fame in 1919. In 1917, he built his residence, a castle-styled mansion, at the corner of Franklin Avenue and Argyle Street in Hollywood, which was a local landmark until it was demolished in 1956.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Following "The Cheat", Hayakawa became a leading man for romantic dramas in the 1910s and early 1920s. He also began acting in Westerns and action films. He sought for roles, but dissatisfied with being constantly typecast, Hayakawa decided to form his own production company. There is some lack of clarity on how Haworth Pictures Corporation got its original funding. Hayakawa himself gave two different versions. The first was in his autobiography; he tells of William Joseph Connery, a fellow University of Chicago alumnus, introducing him to A.B.C. Dohrmann, the president of a china and glassware company in San Francisco who was willing to pay one million dollars to establish the company. In the second version, Connery's parents were multimillionaire coal mine owners who provided the million dollars.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Over the next three years, Hayakawa produced 23 films and had earned $2 million by 1920, of which he was able to pay back the $1 million he had borrowed from Connery. Hayakawa produced, starred in, and contributed to the design, writing, editing, and directing of the films. Critics hailed Hayakawa's understated, Zen-influenced acting style. Hayakawa sought to bring , or the "absence of doing", to his performances, in direct contrast to the then-popular studied poses and broad gestures. In 1918, Hayakawa personally chose the American serials actress Marin Sais to appear opposite him in a series of films, the first being the racial drama "The City of Dim Faces" (1918), followed by "His Birthright" (1918), which also starred Aoki. His collaboration with Sais ended with "Bonds of Honor" (1919). Hayakawa also appeared opposite Jane Novak in "The Temple of Dusk" (1918) and Aoki in "The Dragon Painter" (1919). According to Goldsea Hayakawa's fame rivaled that of Douglas Fairbanks, Charlie Chaplin and John Barrymore. Hayakawa drove a gold plated Pierce-Arrow and entertained lavishly in his "Castle", which was known as the scene of some of Hollywood's wildest parties. Shortly before Prohibition took effect in 1920, he bought a large supply of liquor, leading him to joke that he owed his social success to his liquor supply. He took Aoki on a trip to Monaco where he gambled at the Monte Carlo Casino.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Hayakawa left Hollywood in 1922; different authors give various explanations such as prevailing anti-Japanese sentiment and business difficulties. Nakagawa focuses on three events in particular: first on the set of "The Swamp" (1921) his appendix ruptured and while he was at the hospital there was an attempt to usurp his insurance money, second there was a baseless tabloid report that Aoki had attempted suicide, and third Hayakawa believed there was an attempt on his life by the Robertson-Cole Pictures Corporation, (accused of supporting anti-Japanese legislation,) for insurance money by the collapse of an unsafe earthquake sequence on the set of "The Vermilion Pencil", leading to his suing the studio. He visited Japan with Aoki for the first time since he had come to the US. He returned soon afterwards, however and played the lead role in "Tiger Lily" on Broadway in 1923. The next decade and a half saw him also perform in Japan and Europe. In London, Hayakawa starred in "The Great Prince Shan" (1924) and "The Story of Su" (1924). In 1925, he wrote a novel, "The Bandit Prince", and adapted it into a short play. In 1930, Hayakawa performed in "Samurai", a one-act play written specifically for him, in front of Great Britain's King George V and Queen Mary. Hayakawa became widely known in France, where audiences "enthusiastically embraced" him and made his French debut, "La Bataille" (1923), a critical and financial success. German audiences found Hayakawa "sensational" and in Russia he was considered one of the "wonderful actors" of America. In addition to numerous Japanese films, Hayakawa also produced a Japanese-language stage version of "The Three Musketeers". In the initial decades of his career, Hayakawa established himself as the first leading man of Asian descent in American and European cinema. He was also the first non-Caucasian actor to achieve international stardom.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Returning to the United States again in 1926 to appear on Broadway—and later in vaudeville—Hayakawa opened a Zen temple and study hall on New York's Upper West Side. Hayakawa later transitioned into doing talkies; his return to Hollywood and sound film debut came in "Daughter of the Dragon" (1931), starring opposite Chinese American performer Anna May Wong. His accent did not go over well when sound was added to movies. Hayakawa played a samurai in the German-Japanese co-production "The Daughter of the Samurai" (1937). The same year, Hayakawa went to France to perform in "Yoshiwara" (1937), but was trapped in the country and separated from his family upon the German occupation of France in 1940. Hayakawa made few films in the following years, but supported himself financially by selling his watercolor paintings. He became friends with writer Jirōhachi Satsuma who was also trapped in France. Goldsea states that he joined the French Resistance and helped Allied flyers during World War II, although Hayakawa states that he mainly helped the local Japanese community during the war and after. His nomadic lifestyle continued until 1950.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: In 1949, Humphrey Bogart's production company located Hayakawa and offered him a role in "Tokyo Joe." Before issuing a work permit, the American Consulate investigated Hayakawa's activities during the war and found that he had in no way contributed to the German war effort. Hayakawa followed "Tokyo Joe" with "Three Came Home" (1950), in which he played real-life POW camp commander Lieutenant-Colonel Suga, before returning to France.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: After the war, Hayakawa's on-screen roles can best be described as "the honorable villain", a figure exemplified by his portrayal of Colonel Saito in "The Bridge on the River Kwai" (1957). The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture and Hayakawa earned a nomination for the Best Supporting Actor; he was also nominated for a Golden Globe. He called the role the highlight of his career. After the film, Hayakawa largely retired from acting. Throughout the following years he performed guest appearances on a handful of television shows and films, making his final performance in the animated film "The Daydreamer" (1966).


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: After retiring, Hayakawa dedicated himself to Zen Buddhism, became an ordained Zen master, worked as a private acting coach, and wrote his autobiography "Zen Showed Me the Way".


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Throughout Hayakawa's career, many segments of American society were filled with feelings of anti-Japanese sentiment, partly from nationalism rising from World War I and World War II. Hayakawa was constantly typecast as a villain or forbidden lover and was unable to play parts that would be given to white actors such as Douglas Fairbanks. Hayakawa stated, "Such roles [in The Wrath of the Gods, The Typhoon, and The Cheat] are not true to our Japanese nature... They are false and give people a wrong idea of us. I wish to make a characterization which shall reveal us as we really are." In 1949, he lamented, "My one ambition is to play a hero". Hayakawa's dilemma was analogous to that of Rudolph Valentino, nine years his junior; both were foreign born, and were typecast as exotic or forbidden lovers. Although Hayakawa's contract with Famous Players expired in May 1918, the studio still asked him to star in "The Sheik". Hayakawa refused in order to start his own company. With influence from June Mathis, the role went to the barely known Valentino, turning him into a screen icon overnight.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Writing to the "What the Picture Did for Me" section of the "Exhibitors Herald" in March 1922, a theater owner in Denison, Iowa, with a population of about 3,500, revealed the mixed feelings about Hayakawa in middle America (and the language used to describe him): "The Jap is sure a good actor, but some people don't seem to like him." In 1930, the Production Code came into effect (enforced after 1934) which forbade portrayals of miscegenation in film. This meant that unless Hayakawa's co-star was an Asian actress, he would not be able to portray a romance with her. Hayakawa was placed in this awkward position due to his ethnicity. Naturalization laws at that time prevented him from becoming a U.S. citizen and because of anti-miscegenation laws, he could not marry someone of another race.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Hayakawa's early films were not popular in Japan because many felt that his roles portrayed Japanese men as sadistic and cruel. Many Japanese viewers found this portrayal insulting. Nationalistic groups in particular were censorious. Some Japanese believed that Hayakawa was contributing to increased anti-Japanese sentiment in the U.S., and regarded him as a traitor to the Japanese people. After Hayakawa established himself as an American superstar, the negative tone in the press that regarded him as a national and racial shame lessened by a noticeable degree, and Japanese media started publicizing Hayakawa's cinematic achievements instead. His later films were also not popular, because he was seen as "too Americanized" during a time of nationalism.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: On May 1, 1914, Hayakawa married fellow performer Tsuru Aoki, who co-starred in several of his films. Hayakawa had previously married a white actress, Ruth Noble, a fellow vaudeville performer who had co-starred with him in "The Bandit Prince." Noble gave birth to a son, Alexander Hayes, but they divorced in 1929 and Hayakawa got custody of the child. Sessue and Aoki adopted him, changing his name to Yukio, and they raised and educated him in Japan. Later, they adopted two more daughters: Yoshiko, an actress, and Fujiko, a dancer. Aoki died in 1961.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Physically, Hayakawa possessed "an athlete's physique and agility". A 1917 profile on Hayakawa stated that he "is proficient in jiu-jitsu, an expert fencer, and can swim like a fish. He is a good horseman and plays a fast tennis racket. He is tall for a Japanese, being five feet seven and a half inches (171.45 cm) in height, and weighs 157 pounds (71.21 kg)."


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Hayakawa was known for his discipline and martial arts skills. While filming "The Jaguar's Claws", in the Mojave Desert, Hayakawa played a Mexican bandit, with 500 cowboys as extras. On the first night of filming, the extras drank all night and well into the next day. No work was being done, so Hayakawa challenged the group to a fight. Two men stepped forward. Hayakawa said, "The first one struck out at me. I seized his arm and sent him flying on his face along the rough ground. The second attempted to grapple and I was forced to flip him over my head and let him fall on his neck. The fall knocked him unconscious." Hayakawa then disarmed yet another cowboy. The extras returned to work, amused by the way the small man manhandled the big bruising cowboys.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Hayakawa retired from film in 1966. He died in Tokyo on November 23, 1973, from a cerebral thrombosis, complicated by pneumonia. He was buried in the Chokeiji Temple Cemetery in Toyama, Japan.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: Many of Hayakawa's films are lost. However, most of his later works, including "The Bridge on the River Kwai", the Jerry Lewis comedy "The Geisha Boy" in which Hayakawa lampoons his role in "The Bridge on the River Kwai", "Swiss Family Robinson", "Tokyo Joe", and "Three Came Home" are available on DVD. In 1960, Hayakawa was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1645 Vine Street, in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California for his contributions to the motion picture industry.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: A musical based on Hayakawa's life, "Sessue", was performed in Tokyo in 1989. In September 2007, the Museum of Modern Art held a retrospective on Hayakawa's work entitled: "Sessue Hayakawa: East and West, When the Twain Met". Japanese film director Nagisa Oshima planned to create a biopic entitled "Hollywood Zen" based on Hayakawa's life. The script was allegedly completed and set to film in Los Angeles, but due to constant delays and the death of Oshima in 2013, the project has yet to be filmed.


title: Sessue Hayakawa

text: His legacy is lasting, especially in the Asian-American community. Media professor Karla Rae Fuller wrote in 2010: "What is even more remarkable about Hayakawa's precedent-setting career in Hollywood as an Asian American is the fact that he is virtually ignored in film history as well as star studies.[...] Furthermore, the fact that he reached such a rare level of success whereby he could form and run his own production company makes his omission from the narrative of Hollywood history even more egregious."


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (, ; 18 February 1745 – 5 March 1827) was an Italian physicist, chemist and lay Catholic who was a pioneer of electricity and power who is credited as the inventor of the electric battery and the discoverer of methane. He invented the voltaic pile in 1799, and reported the results of his experiments in 1800 in a two-part letter to the president of the Royal Society. With this invention Volta proved that electricity could be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent theory that electricity was generated solely by living beings. Volta's invention sparked a great amount of scientific excitement and led others to conduct similar experiments, which eventually led to the development of the field of electrochemistry.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Volta also drew admiration from Napoleon Bonaparte for his invention, and was invited to the Institute of France to demonstrate his invention to the members of the institute. Volta enjoyed a certain amount of closeness with the emperor throughout his life and he was conferred numerous honours by him. Volta held the chair of experimental physics at the University of Pavia for nearly 40 years and was widely idolised by his students.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Despite his professional success, Volta tended to be a person inclined towards domestic life and this was more apparent in his later years. At this time he tended to live secluded from public life and more for the sake of his family until his eventual death in 1827 from a series of illnesses which began in 1823. The SI unit of electric potential is named in his honour as the volt.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Volta was born in Como, a town in northern Italy, on 18 February 1745. In 1794, Volta married an aristocratic lady also from Como, Teresa Peregrini, with whom he raised three sons: Zanino, Flaminio, and Luigi. His father, Filippo Volta, was of noble lineage. His mother, Donna Maddalena, came from the family of the Inzaghis.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: In 1774, he became a professor of physics at the Royal School in Como. A year later, he improved and popularised the electrophorus, a device that produced static electricity. His promotion of it was so extensive that he is often credited with its invention, even though a machine operating on the same principle was described in 1762 by the Swedish experimenter Johan Wilcke. In 1777, he travelled through Switzerland. There he befriended H. B. de Saussure.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: In the years between 1776 and 1778, Volta studied the chemistry of gases. He researched and discovered methane after reading a paper by Benjamin Franklin of the United States on "flammable air". In November 1776, he found methane in the marshes of Angera on Lake Maggiore, and by 1778 he managed to isolate methane. He devised experiments such as the ignition of methane by an electric spark in a closed vessel.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Volta also studied what we now call electrical capacitance, developing separate means to study both electrical potential difference ("V") and charge ("Q"), and discovering that for a given object, they are proportional. This is called Volta's Law of Capacitance, and for this work the unit of electrical potential has been named the volt.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: In 1779, he became a professor of experimental physics at the University of Pavia, a chair that he occupied for almost 40 years.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Volta's lectures were so crowded with students that the subsequent emperor Joseph II ordered the construction (based on a project by Leopold Pollack) of a new "physical theater", today the "Aula Volta". Furthermore, the emperor granted Volta substantial funding to equip the physics cabinet with instruments, purchased by Volta in England and France. At the University History Museum of the University of Pavia there are 150 of them, used by Alessandro Volta.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Luigi Galvani, an Italian physicist, discovered something he named, "animal electricity" when two different metals were connected in series with a frog's leg and to one another. Volta realised that the frog's leg served as both a conductor of electricity (what we would now call an electrolyte) and as a detector of electricity. He also understood that the frog's legs were irrelevant to the electric current, which was caused by the two differing metals. He replaced the frog's leg with brine-soaked paper, and detected the flow of electricity by other means familiar to him from his previous studies.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: In this way he discovered the electrochemical series, and the law that the electromotive force (emf) of a galvanic cell, consisting of a pair of metal electrodes separated by electrolyte, is the difference between their two electrode potentials (thus, two identical electrodes and a common electrolyte give zero net emf). This may be called Volta's Law of the electrochemical series.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: In 1800, as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by Galvani, Volta invented the voltaic pile, an early electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was zinc and copper. Initially he experimented with individual cells in series, each cell being a wine goblet filled with brine into which the two dissimilar electrodes were dipped. The voltaic pile replaced the goblets with cardboard soaked in brine.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: In announcing his discovery of the voltaic pile, Volta paid tribute to the influences of William Nicholson, Tiberius Cavallo, and Abraham Bennet.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: The battery made by Volta is credited as one of the first electrochemical cells. It consists of two electrodes: one made of zinc, the other of copper. The electrolyte is either sulfuric acid mixed with water or a form of saltwater brine. The electrolyte exists in the form and . Zinc metal, which is higher in the electrochemical series than both copper and hydrogen, is oxidized to zinc cations (Zn) and creates electrons that move to the copper electrode. The positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) capture electrons from the copper electrode, forming bubbles of hydrogen gas, H. This makes the zinc rod the negative electrode and the copper rod the positive electrode.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Thus, there are two terminals, and an electric current will flow if they are connected. The chemical reactions in this voltaic cell are as follows:


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Copper metal does not react, but rather it functions as a catalyst for the hydrogen-gas formation and an electrode for the electric current. The sulfate anion () does not undergo any chemical reaction either, but migrates to the zinc anode to compensate for the charge of the zinc cations formed there.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: However, this cell also has some disadvantages. It is unsafe to handle, since sulfuric acid, even if diluted, can be hazardous. Also, the power of the cell diminishes over time because the hydrogen gas is not released. Instead, it accumulates on the surface of the copper electrode and forms a barrier between the metal and the electrolyte solution.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: In 1809, Volta became associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. In honour of his work, Volta was made a count by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1810.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Volta retired in 1819 to his estate in Camnago, a frazione of Como, Italy, now named "Camnago Volta" in his honour. He died there on 5 March 1827, just after his 82nd birthday. Volta's remains were buried in Camnago Volta.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Volta's legacy is celebrated by the Tempio Voltiano memorial located in the public gardens by the lake. There is also a museum that has been built in his honour, which exhibits some of the equipment that Volta used to conduct experiments. Nearby stands the Villa Olmo, which houses the Voltian Foundation, an organization promoting scientific activities. Volta carried out his experimental studies and produced his first inventions near Como.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: In the Old Campus of the University of Pavia there is the classroom (Aula Volta) commissioned by Emperor Joseph II to Leopoldo Pollack in 1787 for the lectures of Alessandro Volta, while in the University History Museum there are many scientific instruments that belonged to Volta and his chair and his blackboard.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: His image was depicted on the Italian Lire 10,000 note (1990–1997) along with a sketch of his voltaic pile.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: The electric eel species "Electrophorus voltai", described in 2019 and the strongest bioelectricity producer in nature, was named after Volta.


title: Alessandro Volta

text: Volta was raised as a Catholic and for all of his life continued to maintain his belief. Because he was not ordained a clergyman as his family expected, he was sometimes accused of being irreligious and some people have speculated about his possible unbelief, stressing that "he did not join the Church", or that he virtually "ignored the church's call". Nevertheless, he cast out doubts in a declaration of faith in which he said:


title: Alessandro Volta

text: I do not understand how anyone can doubt the sincerity and constancy of my attachment to the religion which I profess, the Roman, Catholic and Apostolic religion in which I was born and brought up, and of which I have always made confession, externally and internally. I have, indeed, and only too often, failed in the performance of those good works which are the mark of a Catholic Christian, and I have been guilty of many sins: but through the special mercy of God I have never, as far as I know, wavered in my faith... In this faith I recognise a pure gift of God, a supernatural grace; but I have not neglected those human means which confirm belief, and overthrow the doubts which at times arise. I studied attentively the grounds and basis of religion, the works of apologists and assailants, the reasons for and against, and I can say that the result of such study is to clothe religion with such a degree of probability, even for the merely natural reason, that every spirit unperverted by sin and passion, every naturally noble spirit must love and accept it. May this confession which has been asked from me and which I willingly give, written and subscribed by my own hand, with authority to show it to whomsoever you will, for I am not ashamed of the Gospel, may it produce some good fruit!


title: Shannon Bream

text: Shannon Noelle Bream ( DePuy; born December 23, 1970) is an American journalist and attorney who appears on Fox News Channel. In 2022 she became the host of the program "Fox News Sunday". Prior to hosting Fox News Sunday she was the host of Fox News @ Night for five years. She was also a former contestant in the Miss America 1991 and Miss USA 1995 pageants. Bream was also a correspondent for NEWS 12 Long Island in the 1990s.


title: Shannon Bream

text: Bream is the daughter of Linda (née Evans) and Clarence Edward DePuy. She began study at Liberty University in Lynchburg, Virginia when she was 17 years old and, during her college years, won the pageant title Miss Virginia in 1990. She then participated and finished in the top 10 in the Miss America 1991 pageant. Her scholarship award covered much of her undergraduate education.


title: Shannon Bream

text: After graduating from Liberty University in 1993 with a degree in Business Management, "magna cum laude", Bream moved to Tallahassee to attend law school at Florida State University. She interned with Florida Congressman Bill McCollum, in the US House of Representatives. McCollum would later become the Florida Attorney General. While at law school at Florida State, she won the Miss Florida USA pageant (1995) and placed fourth in the Miss USA 1995 pageant. Again, her scholarship awards from Miss USA pageants paid for her law school education.


title: Shannon Bream

text: After graduation with a JD degree with honors from Florida State University College of Law in 1996, Bream moved to Tampa, Florida and began her career as a lawyer specializing in race discrimination and sexual harassment.


title: Shannon Bream

text: In 2001, she moved to Charlotte, North Carolina, becoming the evening and late-night news reporter for the CBS affiliate, WBTV. In 2004, after three years at WBTV, Bream joined Washington D.C.'s NBC affiliate WRC-TV. At WRC-TV, she was a weekend anchor and covered general assignments.


title: Shannon Bream

text: While at WRC-TV, Bream met Brit Hume, who was the managing editor of the Fox News Channel's Washington bureau. With his encouragement, she submitted audition tapes to Fox News. Bream joined the Fox News Channel in November 2007, and was based in the network's Washington, D.C. bureau. She then became the anchor/host of "Fox News @ Night".


title: Shannon Bream

text: On August 11, 2022, it was announced that Bream will become the permanent anchor of Fox News Sunday, beginning September 11, 2022, replacing Chris Wallace.


title: Shannon Bream

text: Bream is the author of three books: "Finding the Bright Side: The Art of Chasing What Matters", "The Women of the Bible Speak: The Wisdom of 16 Women and Their Lessons for Today," and "The Mothers and Daughters of the Bible Speak: Lessons on Faith from Nine Biblical Families". The book "The Women of the Bible Speak: The Wisdom of 16 Women and Their Lessons for Today" reached the number one spot on "The New York Times" Best Seller list.


title: Shannon Bream

text: Bream is Christian and is trained as a classical pianist. Bream's husband has a company that connects event planners with speakers, and is a brain tumor survivor.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Robert Dennis Harris (born 7 March 1957) is a British novelist and former journalist. Although he began his career in journalism and non-fiction, his fame rests upon his works of historical fiction. Beginning with the best-seller "Fatherland", Harris focused on events surrounding the Second World War, followed by works set in ancient Rome. His most recent works centre on contemporary history. Harris was educated at Selwyn College, Cambridge, where he was president of the Cambridge Union and editor of the student newspaper "Varsity".


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Robert Harris spent his childhood in a small rented house on a Nottingham council estate. His ambition to become a writer arose at an early age, from visits to the local printing plant where his father worked. Harris went to Belvoir High School in Bottesford, Leicestershire, and then King Edward VII School, Melton Mowbray, where a hall was later named after him. There he wrote plays and edited the school magazine. Harris read English literature at Selwyn College, Cambridge, where he was elected president of the Cambridge Union and editor of "Varsity", the oldest student newspaper at Cambridge University.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: After leaving Cambridge, Harris joined the BBC and worked on news and current affairs programmes such as "Panorama" and "Newsnight". In 1987, at the age of 30, he became political editor of the newspaper "The Observer". He later wrote regular columns for "The Sunday Times" and "The Daily Telegraph".


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Harris's first book, "A Higher Form of Killing" (1982) with fellow BBC journalist Jeremy Paxman, was a study of chemical and biological warfare. Other non-fiction works followed: "Gotcha! The Government, the Media and the Falklands Crisis" (1983) covering the Falklands War; "The Making of Neil Kinnock" (1984); "Selling Hitler" (1986), an investigation of the Hitler Diaries scandal; and "Good and Faithful Servant" (1990), a study of Bernard Ingham, Margaret Thatcher's press secretary.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Harris's bestselling first novel, the alternative-history "Fatherland", has as its setting a world where Nazi Germany won the Second World War. Publication enabled Harris to become a full-time novelist. It was adapted as a television film by HBO in 1994.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: His second novel "Enigma" portrayed the breaking of the German Enigma cipher during the Second World War at Cambridge University and Bletchley Park. It was adapted as a film by writer Tom Stoppard, starring Dougray Scott and Kate Winslet, in 2001.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: "Archangel" was another international best seller. It follows a British historian in contemporary Russia as he hunts for a secret notebook, believed to be Stalin's diary. It was adapted as a television film by the BBC, starring Daniel Craig, in 2005.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: In 2003 Harris turned his attention to ancient Rome with his acclaimed "Pompeii." The novel is about a Roman aqueduct engineer, working near the city of Pompeii just before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. As the aqueducts begin to malfunction, he investigates and realises the volcano is shifting the ground beneath and is near eruption. Meanwhile, he falls in love with the young daughter of a powerful local businessman who was illicitly dealing with his predecessor to divert municipal water for his own uses, and will do anything to keep that deal going.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: He followed this in 2006 with "Imperium", the first novel in a trilogy centred on the life of the great Roman orator, and lawyer Marcus Tullius Cicero.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Harris was an early and enthusiastic supporter of Tony Blair (a personal acquaintance) and a donor to New Labour, but the war in Iraq blunted his enthusiasm. "We had our ups and downs, but we didn't really fall out until the invasion of Iraq, which made no sense to me," Harris has said.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: The second novel in the Cicero trilogy, "Lustrum", was published in October 2009. It was released in February 2010 in the US under the alternative title of "Conspirata".


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: His novel "The Fear Index", focusing on the 2010 Flash Crash, was published by Hutchinson in September 2011. It follows an American expat hedge fund operator living in Geneva who activates a new system of computer algorithms that he names VIXAL-4, which is designed to operate faster than human beings, but which begins to become uncontrollable by its human operators. It was adapted as a 4-part limited series starring Josh Hartnett in 2022.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: "An Officer and a Spy" is the story of French officer Georges Picquart, a historical character, who is promoted in 1895 to run France's "Statistical Section", its secret intelligence division. He gradually realises that Alfred Dreyfus has been unjustly imprisoned for acts of espionage committed by another man who is still free and still spying for the Germans. He risks his career and his life to expose the truth. Harris was inspired to write the novel by his friend Roman Polanski, who adapted it as a film in 2019.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: "Dictator" is the long-promised conclusion to Harris's Cicero trilogy. It was published by Hutchinson on 8 October 2015.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: "Conclave", published on 22 September 2016, is a novel "set over 72 hours in the Vatican", preceding "the election of a fictional Pope."


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: "Munich", published on 21 September 2017, is a thriller set during the negotiations for the 1938 Munich Agreement between Hitler and UK Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. The story is told through the eyes of two young civil servants – one German, Hartmann, and one English, Legat, who reunite at the fateful summit, six years after they were friends at university. It was adapted as the film "Munich – The Edge of War" in 2021.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: "The Second Sleep", published on 5 September 2019, is set in the small English village of Addicott St. George in Wessex in the year 1468 (but it is not "our" 1468; it's 800 years later than the 2020s) and follows the events of a priest, Christopher Fairfax, sent there to bury the previous priest, and the secrets he discovers: about the priest, the village, and the society in which they live.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: "V2", published on 17 September 2020, is a thriller set in November 1944 which follows the parallel stories of a German V-2 rocket scientist, Rudi Graf, and a British WAAF, Kay Caton-Walsh.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: "Act of Oblivion", published on 1 September 2022, is set in 1660 and follows Richard Nayler of the Privy Council who is tasked with tracking down the regicides Edward Whalley and William Goffe.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: In 2007, Harris wrote a screenplay of his novel "Pompeii" for director Roman Polanski. Harris acknowledged in many interviews that the plot of his novel was inspired by Polanski's film "Chinatown", and Polanski said it was precisely that similarity that had attracted him to "Pompeii". The film, to be produced by Summit Entertainment, was announced at the Cannes Film Festival in 2007 as potentially the most expensive European film ever made, set to be shot in Spain. Media reports suggested Polanski wanted Orlando Bloom and Scarlett Johansson to play the two leads. The film was cancelled in September 2007 as a result of a looming actors' strike.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Polanski and Harris then turned to Harris's bestseller, "The Ghost". They co-wrote a script and Polanski announced filming for early 2008, with Nicolas Cage, Pierce Brosnan, Tilda Swinton and Kim Cattrall starring. The film was then postponed by a year, with Ewan McGregor and Olivia Williams replacing Cage and Swinton.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: The film, retitled "The Ghost Writer" in all territories except the UK, was shot in early 2009 in Berlin and on the island of Sylt in the North Sea, which stood in for London and Martha's Vineyard respectively, owing to Polanski's inability to travel legally to those places. In spite of his incarceration, he oversaw post-production from his house arrest and the film premiered at the Berlin Film Festival in February 2010.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Harris was inspired to write his novel "An Officer and a Spy" by Polanski's longtime interest in the Dreyfus affair. He also wrote a screenplay based on the story, which Polanski was to direct in 2012. The screenplay was first titled "D", after the initial written on the secret file that secured Dreyfus' conviction. After many years of production difficulties, it started filming in 2018, starring Jean Dujardin. It was produced by Alain Goldman and distributed by Gaumont in 2019.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: In June 2018 Harris reiterated his support for Polanski, and branded criticisms of Polanski's crimes as being a problem of culture and fashion. "The culture has completely changed...And so the question is: "Do you then say, OK fine, I follow the culture.' Or do I say: 'Well, he hasn't done anything since then. He won the Oscar, he got a standing ovation in Los Angeles.' The zeitgeist has changed. Do you change with it? I don't know, to be honest with you. Morally, I don't see why I should change my position because the fashion has changed."


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Harris has appeared on the BBC satirical panel game "Have I Got News for You" in episode three of the first series in 1990, and in episode four of the second series a year later. In the first he appeared as a last-minute replacement for the politician Roy Hattersley. On 12 October 2007, he made a third appearance on the programme, 17 years, to the day, after his first appearance. Since the gap between his second and third appearance nearly 16 years, Harris enjoyed the distinction of the longest gap between two successive appearances in the show's history until Eddie Izzard appeared on 22 April 2016, just under 20 years after her last appearance on Episode 5 of Series 11 (17 May 1996).


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: On 2 December 2010, Harris appeared on the radio programme "Desert Island Discs", when he spoke about his childhood and his friendships with Tony Blair and Roman Polanski.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Harris appeared on the American PBS show "Charlie Rose" on 10 February 2012. Harris discussed his novel "The Fear Index" which he likened to a modern-day Gothic novel along the lines of Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein". Harris also discussed the adaptation of his novel, "The Ghost" that came out as the movie, "The Ghost Writer" directed by Roman Polanski.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Harris was a columnist for "The Sunday Times", but gave it up in 1997. He returned to journalism in 2001, writing for "The Daily Telegraph". He was named "Columnist of the Year" at the 2003 British Press Awards.


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Harris lives in a former vicarage in Kintbury, near Hungerford in Berkshire, with his wife, Gill Hornby, herself a writer and sister of best-selling novelist Nick Hornby. They have four children. Harris contributed a short story, "PMQ", to Hornby's 2000 collection "Speaking with the Angel".


title: Robert Harris (novelist)

text: Formerly a donor to the Labour Party, he renounced his support for the party after the appointment of "Guardian" journalist Seumas Milne as its communications director by leader Jeremy Corbyn. He now supports the Liberal Democrats.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Electrical telegraphs were point-to-point text messaging systems, primarily used from the 1840s until the late 20th century. It was the first electrical telecommunications system and the most widely used of a number of early messaging systems called "telegraphs", that were devised to communicate text messages quicker than physical transportation. Electrical telegraphy can be considered to be the first example of electrical engineering.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Text telegraphy consisted of two or more geographically separated stations, called telegraph offices. The offices were connected by wires, usually supported overhead on utility poles. Many different electrical telegraph systems were invented, but the ones that became widespread fit into two broad categories. The first category consists of needle telegraphs in which a needle pointer is made to move electromagnetically with an electric current sent down the telegraph line. Early systems used multiple needles requiring multiple wires. The first commercial system, and the most widely used needle telegraph, was the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, invented in 1837. The second category consists of armature systems in which the current activates a telegraph sounder which makes a click. The archetype of this category was the Morse system, invented by Samuel Morse in 1838. In 1865, the Morse system became the standard for international communication using a modified code developed for German railways.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Electrical telegraphs were used by the emerging railway companies to develop train control systems, minimizing the chances of trains colliding with each other. This was built around the signalling block system with signal boxes along the line communicating with their neighbouring boxes by telegraphic sounding of single-stroke bells and three-position needle telegraph instruments.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In the 1840s, the electrical telegraph superseded optical telegraph systems, becoming the standard way to send urgent messages. By the latter half of the century, most developed nations had created commercial telegraph networks with local telegraph offices in most cities and towns, allowing the public to send messages called telegrams addressed to any person in the country, for a fee.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Beginning in 1850, submarine telegraph cables allowed for the first rapid communication between continents. Electrical telegraph networks permitted people and commerce to transmit messages across both continents and oceans almost instantly, with widespread social and economic impacts. Circa 1894, the electric telegraph led to Guglielmo Marconi's invention of wireless telegraphy, the first means of radiowave telecommunication.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In the early 20th century, manual telegraphy was slowly replaced by teleprinter networks. Increasing use of the telephone pushed telegraphy into a few specialist uses. Use by the general public was mainly special occasion telegram greetings. The rise of the internet and usage of email in the 1990s largely put an end to dedicated telegraphy networks.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Prior to the electric telegraph, semaphore systems were used, including beacons, smoke signals, flag semaphore, and optical telegraphs for visual signals to communicate over distances of land.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: An auditory predecessor was West African talking drums. In the 19th century, Yoruba drummers used talking drums to mimic human tonal language to communicate complex messages - usually regarding news of birth, ceremonies, and military conflict - over 4-5 mile distances.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: From early studies of electricity, electrical phenomena were known to travel with great speed, and many experimenters worked on the application of electricity to communications at a distance. All the known effects of electricity—such as sparks, electrostatic attraction, chemical changes, electric shocks, and later electromagnetism—were applied to the problems of detecting controlled transmissions of electricity at various distances.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In 1753, an anonymous writer in the "Scots Magazine" suggested an electrostatic telegraph. Using one wire for each letter of the alphabet, a message could be transmitted by connecting the wire terminals in turn to an electrostatic machine, and observing the deflection of pith balls at the far end. The writer has never been positively identified, but the letter was signed C.M. and posted from Renfrew leading to a Charles Marshall of Renfrew being suggested. Telegraphs employing electrostatic attraction were the basis of early experiments in electrical telegraphy in Europe, but were abandoned as being impractical and were never developed into a useful communication system.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In 1774, Georges-Louis Le Sage realised an early electric telegraph. The telegraph had a separate wire for each of the 26 letters of the alphabet and its range was only between two rooms of his home.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, providing a continuous current of electricity for experimentation. This became a source of a low-voltage current that could be used to produce more distinct effects, and which was far less limited than the momentary discharge of an electrostatic machine, which with Leyden jars were the only previously known man-made sources of electricity.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Another very early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an "electrochemical telegraph" created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering in 1809, based on an earlier, less robust design of 1804 by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo. Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) to represent almost all Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmering's design), with each of the telegraph receiver's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. An electric current was sequentially applied by the sender through the various wires representing each letter of a message; at the recipient's end, the currents electrolysed the acid in the tubes in sequence, releasing streams of hydrogen bubbles next to each associated letter or numeral. The telegraph receiver's operator would watch the bubbles and could then record the transmitted message. This is in contrast to later telegraphs that used a single wire (with ground return).


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field that will deflect a compass needle. In the same year Johann Schweigger invented the galvanometer, with a coil of wire around a compass, that could be used as a sensitive indicator for an electric current. Also that year, André-Marie Ampère suggested that telegraphy could be achieved by placing small magnets under the ends of a set of wires, one pair of wires for each letter of the alphabet. He was apparently unaware of Schweigger's invention at the time, which would have made his system much more sensitive. In 1825, Peter Barlow tried Ampère's idea but only got it to work over and declared it impractical. In 1830 William Ritchie improved on Ampère's design by placing the magnetic needles inside a coil of wire connected to each pair of conductors. He successfully demonstrated it, showing the feasibility of the electromagnetic telegraph, but only within a lecture hall.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In 1825, William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet, with a single winding of uninsulated wire on a piece of varnished iron, which increased the magnetic force produced by electric current. Joseph Henry improved it in 1828 by placing several windings of insulated wire around the bar, creating a much more powerful electromagnet which could operate a telegraph through the high resistance of long telegraph wires. During his tenure at The Albany Academy from 1826 to 1832, Henry first demonstrated the theory of the 'magnetic telegraph' by ringing a bell through of wire strung around the room in 1831.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In 1835, Joseph Henry and Edward Davy independently invented the mercury dipping electrical relay, in which a magnetic needle is dipped into a pot of mercury when an electric current passes through the surrounding coil. In 1837, Davy invented the much more practical metallic make-and-break relay which became the relay of choice in telegraph systems and a key component for periodically renewing weak signals. Davy demonstrated his telegraph system in Regent's Park in 1837 and was granted a patent on 4 July 1838. Davy also invented a printing telegraph which used the electric current from the telegraph signal to mark a ribbon of calico infused with potassium iodide and calcium hypochlorite.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The first working telegraph was built by the English inventor Francis Ronalds in 1816 and used static electricity. At the family home on Hammersmith Mall, he set up a complete subterranean system in a long trench as well as an long overhead telegraph. The lines were connected at both ends to revolving dials marked with the letters of the alphabet and electrical impulses sent along the wire were used to transmit messages. Offering his invention to the Admiralty in July 1816, it was rejected as "wholly unnecessary". His account of the scheme and the possibilities of rapid global communication in "Descriptions of an Electrical Telegraph and of some other Electrical Apparatus" was the first published work on electric telegraphy and even described the risk of signal retardation due to induction. Elements of Ronalds' design were utilised in the subsequent commercialisation of the telegraph over 20 years later.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The Schilling telegraph, invented by Baron Schilling von Canstatt in 1832, was an early needle telegraph. It had a transmitting device that consisted of a keyboard with 16 black-and-white keys. These served for switching the electric current. The receiving instrument consisted of six galvanometers with magnetic needles, suspended from silk threads. The two stations of Schilling's telegraph were connected by eight wires; six were connected with the galvanometers, one served for the return current and one for a signal bell. When at the starting station the operator pressed a key, the corresponding pointer was deflected at the receiving station. Different positions of black and white flags on different disks gave combinations which corresponded to the letters or numbers. Pavel Schilling subsequently improved its apparatus by reducing the number of connecting wires from eight to two.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: On 21 October 1832, Schilling managed a short-distance transmission of signals between two telegraphs in different rooms of his apartment. In 1836, the British government attempted to buy the design but Schilling instead accepted overtures from Nicholas I of Russia. Schilling's telegraph was tested on a experimental underground and underwater cable, laid around the building of the main Admiralty in Saint Petersburg and was approved for a telegraph between the imperial palace at Peterhof and the naval base at Kronstadt. However, the project was cancelled following Schilling's death in 1837. Schilling was also one of the first to put into practice the idea of the binary system of signal transmission. His work was taken over and developed by Moritz von Jacobi who invented telegraph equipment that was used by Tsar Alexander III to connect the Imperial palace at Tsarskoye Selo and Kronstadt Naval Base.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In 1833, Carl Friedrich Gauss, together with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber in Göttingen installed a wire above the town's roofs. Gauss combined the Poggendorff-Schweigger multiplicator with his magnetometer to build a more sensitive device, the galvanometer. To change the direction of the electric current, he constructed a commutator of his own. As a result, he was able to make the distant needle move in the direction set by the commutator on the other end of the line.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: At first, Gauss and Weber used the telegraph to coordinate time, but soon they developed other signals and finally, their own alphabet. The alphabet was encoded in a binary code that was transmitted by positive or negative voltage pulses which were generated by means of moving an induction coil up and down over a permanent magnet and connecting the coil with the transmission wires by means of the commutator. The page of Gauss' laboratory notebook containing both his code and the first message transmitted, as well as a replica of the telegraph made in the 1850s under the instructions of Weber are kept in the faculty of physics at the University of Göttingen, in Germany.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Gauss was convinced that this communication would be a help to his kingdom's towns. Later in the same year, instead of a Voltaic pile, Gauss used an induction pulse, enabling him to transmit seven letters a minute instead of two. The inventors and university did not have the funds to develop the telegraph on their own, but they received funding from Alexander von Humboldt. Carl August Steinheil in Munich was able to build a telegraph network within the city in 1835–1836. He installed a telegraph line along the first German railroad in 1835. Steinheil built a telegraph along the Nuremberg - Fürth railway line in 1838, the first earth-return telegraph put into service.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: By 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone had co-developed a telegraph system which used a number of needles on a board that could be moved to point to letters of the alphabet. Any number of needles could be used, depending on the number of characters it was required to code. In May 1837 they patented their system. The patent recommended five needles, which coded twenty of the alphabet's 26 letters.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Samuel Morse independently developed and patented a recording electric telegraph in 1837. Morse's assistant Alfred Vail developed an instrument that was called the register for recording the received messages. It embossed dots and dashes on a moving paper tape by a stylus which was operated by an electromagnet. Morse and Vail developed the Morse code signalling alphabet. The first telegram in the United States was sent by Morse on 11 January 1838, across of wire at Speedwell Ironworks near Morristown, New Jersey, although it was only later, in 1844, that he sent the message "WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT" over the from the Capitol in Washington to the old Mt. Clare Depot in Baltimore.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The first commercial electrical telegraph was the Cooke and Wheatstone system. A demonstration four-needle system was installed on the Euston to Camden Town section of Robert Stephenson's London and Birmingham Railway in 1837 for signalling rope-hauling of locomotives. It was rejected in favour of pneumatic whistles. Cooke and Wheatstone had their first commercial success with a system installed on the Great Western Railway over the from Paddington station to West Drayton in 1838. This was a five-needle, six-wire system. A major advantage of this system was it displayed the letter being sent so operators did not need to learn a code. This system suffered from failing insulation on the underground cables. When the line was extended to Slough in 1843, the telegraph was converted to a one-needle, two-wire system with uninsulated wires on poles. The cost of installing wires was ultimately more economically significant than the cost of training operators. The one-needle telegraph proved highly successful on British railways, and 15,000 sets were still in use at the end of the nineteenth century. Some remained in service in the 1930s. The Electric Telegraph Company, the world's first public telegraphy company was formed in 1845 by financier John Lewis Ricardo and Cooke.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Wheatstone developed a practical alphabetical system in 1840 called the A.B.C. System, used mostly on private wires. This consisted of a "communicator" at the sending end and an "indicator" at the receiving end. The communicator consisted of a circular dial with a pointer and the 26 letters of the alphabet (and four punctuation marks) around its circumference. Against each letter was a key that could be pressed. A transmission would begin with the pointers on the dials at both ends set to the start position. The transmitting operator would then press down the key corresponding to the letter to be transmitted. In the base of the communicator was a magneto actuated by a handle on the front. This would be turned to apply an alternating voltage to the line. Each half cycle of the current would advance the pointers at both ends by one position. When the pointer reached the position of the depressed key, it would stop and the magneto would be disconnected from the line. The communicator's pointer was geared to the magneto mechanism. The indicator's pointer was moved by a polarised electromagnet whose armature was coupled to it through an escapement. Thus the alternating line voltage moved the indicator's pointer on to the position of the depressed key on the communicator. Pressing another key would then release the pointer and the previous key, and re-connect the magneto to the line. These machines were very robust and simple to operate, and they stayed in use in Britain until well into the 20th century.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The Morse system uses a single wire between offices. At the sending station, an operator taps on a switch called a telegraph key, spelling out text messages in Morse code. Originally, the armature was intended to make marks on paper tape, but operators learned to interpret the clicks and it was more efficient to write down the message directly.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In 1851, a conference in Vienna of countries in the German-Austrian Telegraph Union (which included many central European countries) adopted the Morse telegraph as the system for international communications. The international Morse code adopted was considerably modified from the original American Morse code, and was based on a code used on Hamburg railways (Gerke, 1848). A common code was a necessary step to allow direct telegraph connection between countries. With different codes, additional operators were required to translate and retransmit the message. In 1865, a conference in Paris adopted Gerke's code as the International Morse code and was henceforth the international standard. The US, however, continued to use American Morse code internally for some time, hence international messages required retransmission in both directions.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In the United States, the Morse/Vail telegraph was quickly deployed in the two decades following the first demonstration in 1844. The overland telegraph connected the west coast of the continent to the east coast by 24 October 1861, bringing an end to the Pony Express.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: France was slow to adopt the electrical telegraph, because of the extensive optical telegraph system built during the Napoleonic era. There was also serious concern that an electrical telegraph could be quickly put out of action by enemy saboteurs, something that was much more difficult to do with optical telegraphs which had no exposed hardware between stations. The Foy-Breguet telegraph was eventually adopted. This was a two-needle system using two signal wires but displayed in a uniquely different way to other needle telegraphs. The needles made symbols similar to the Chappe optical system symbols, making it more familiar to the telegraph operators. The optical system was decommissioned starting in 1846, but not completely until 1855. In that year the Foy-Breguet system was replaced with the Morse system.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: As well as the rapid expansion of the use of the telegraphs along the railways, they soon spread into the field of mass communication with the instruments being installed in post offices. The era of mass personal communication had begun. Telegraph networks were expensive to build, but financing was readily available, especially from London bankers. By 1852, National systems were in operation in major countries:


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The New York and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Company, for example, was created in 1852 in Rochester, New York and eventually became the Western Union Telegraph Company. Although many countries had telegraph networks, there was no "worldwide" interconnection. Message by post was still the primary means of communication to countries outside Europe.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: A continuing goal in telegraphy was to reduce the cost per message by reducing hand-work, or increasing the sending rate. There were many experiments with moving pointers, and various electrical encodings. However, most systems were too complicated and unreliable. A successful expedient to reduce the cost per message was the development of telegraphese.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The first system that did not require skilled technicians to operate was Charles Wheatstone's ABC system in 1840 in which the letters of the alphabet were arranged around a clock-face, and the signal caused a needle to indicate the letter. This early system required the receiver to be present in real time to record the message and it reached speeds of up to 15 words a minute.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: In 1846, Alexander Bain patented a chemical telegraph in Edinburgh. The signal current moved an iron pen across a moving paper tape soaked in a mixture of ammonium nitrate and potassium ferrocyanide, decomposing the chemical and producing readable blue marks in Morse code. The speed of the printing telegraph was 16 and a half words per minute, but messages still required translation into English by live copyists. Chemical telegraphy came to an end in the US in 1851, when the Morse group defeated the Bain patent in the US District Court.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: For a brief period, starting with the New York–Boston line in 1848, some telegraph networks began to employ sound operators, who were trained to understand Morse code aurally. Gradually, the use of sound operators eliminated the need for telegraph receivers to include register and tape. Instead, the receiving instrument was developed into a "sounder", an electromagnet that was energized by a current and attracted a small iron lever. When the sounding key was opened or closed, the sounder lever struck an anvil. The Morse operator distinguished a dot and a dash by the short or long interval between the two clicks. The message was then written out in long-hand.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: Royal Earl House developed and patented a letter-printing telegraph system in 1846 which employed an alphabetic keyboard for the transmitter and automatically printed the letters on paper at the receiver, and followed this up with a steam-powered version in 1852. Advocates of printing telegraphy said it would eliminate Morse operators' errors. The House machine was used on four main American telegraph lines by 1852. The speed of the House machine was announced as 2600 words an hour.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: David Edward Hughes invented the printing telegraph in 1855; it used a keyboard of 26 keys for the alphabet and a spinning type wheel that determined the letter being transmitted by the length of time that had elapsed since the previous transmission. The system allowed for automatic recording on the receiving end. The system was very stable and accurate and became accepted around the world.


title: Electrical telegraph

text: The next improvement was the Baudot code of 1874. French engineer Émile Baudot patented a printing telegraph in which the signals were translated automatically into typographic characters. Each character was assigned a five-bit code, mechanically interpreted from the state of five on/off switches. Operators had to maintain a steady rhythm, and the usual speed of operation was 30 words per minute.