title: Troubadour

text: The English word "troubadour" was borrowed from the French word first recorded in 1575 in an historical context to mean "langue d'oc poet at the court in the 12th and 13th century" (Jean de Nostredame, "Vies des anciens Poètes provençaux", p. 14 in Gdf. Compl.). The first use and earliest form of "troubador" is "trobadors", found in a 12th-century Occitan text by Cercamon.


title: Troubadour

text: The French word itself is borrowed from the Occitan "trobador". It is the oblique case of the nominative "trobaire" "composer", related to "trobar" "to compose, to discuss, to invent" (Wace, "Brut", editions I. Arnold, 3342). "Trobar" may come, in turn, from the hypothetical Late Latin *"tropāre" "to compose, to invent a poem" by regular phonetic change. This reconstructed form is based on the Latin root "tropus", meaning a trope. In turn, the Latin word derives ultimately from Greek ("trópos"), meaning "turn, manner". Intervocal Latin shifted regularly to in Occitan (cf. Latin "sapere" → Occitan "saber", French "savoir" "to know"). The Latin suffix "-ātor", "-ātōris" explains the Occitan suffix, according to its declension and accentuation: Gallo-Romance *"tropātor" → Occitan "trobaire" (subject case) and *"tropātōre" → Occitan "trobador" (oblique case).


title: Troubadour

text: There is an alternative theory to explain the meaning of "trobar" as "to compose, to discuss, to invent". It has the support of some historians, specialists of literature, and musicologists to justify the troubadours' origins in Arabic Andalusian musical practices. According to them, the Arabic word "ṭaraba" "music" (from the triliteral root "ṭ–r–b" "provoke emotion, excitement, agitation; make music, entertain by singing" as in , "ṭarab ʾandalusī") could partly be the etymon of the verb "trobar". Another Arabic root had already been proposed before: "ḍ–r–b" () "strike", by extension "play a musical instrument". They entertain the possibility that the nearly homophonous "ḍ–r–b" root may have contributed to the sense of the newly coined Romance verb "trobar".


title: Troubadour

text: Some proponents of this theory argue, only on cultural grounds, that both etymologies may well be correct, and that there may have been a conscious poetic exploitation of the phonological coincidence between "trobar" and the triliteral Arabic root "ṭ–r–b" when Sufi Islamic musical forms with a love theme first spread from Al-Andalus to southern France. It has also been pointed out that the concepts of "finding", "music", "love", and "ardour"—the precise semantic field attached to the word troubadour—are allied in Arabic under a single root "w–j–d" () that plays a major role in Sufic discussions of music, and that the word troubadour may in part reflect this. Nevertheless, the linguistic facts do not support a hypothetical theory: the word "trover" is mentioned in French as early as the 10th century before "trobar" in Occitan (see above) and the word "trovere" → "trouvère" appears almost simultaneously in French as "trobador" in Occitan (see above).


title: Troubadour

text: In archaic and classical troubadour poetry, the word is only used in a mocking sense, having more or less the meaning of "somebody who makes things up". Cercamon writes:


title: Troubadour

text: Peire d'Alvernha also begins his famous mockery of contemporary authors "cantarai d'aquest trobadors", after which he proceeds to explain why none of them is worth anything. When referring to themselves seriously, troubadours almost invariably use the word "chantaire" ("singer").


title: Troubadour

text: The early study of the troubadours focused intensely on their origins. No academic consensus was ever achieved in the area. Today, one can distinguish at least eleven competing theories (the adjectives used below are a blend from the Grove Dictionary of Music and Roger Boase's "The Origins and Meaning of Courtly Love"):


title: Troubadour

text: The earliest troubadour whose work survives is Guilhèm de Peitieus, better known as Duke William IX of Aquitaine (1071–1126). Peter Dronke, author of "The Medieval Lyric", however, believes that "[his] songs represent not the beginnings of a tradition but summits of achievement in that tradition." His name has been preserved because he was the Duke of Aquitaine, but his work plays with already established structures; Eble II of Ventadorn is often credited as a predecessor, though none of his work survives. Orderic Vitalis referred to William composing songs about his experiences on his return from the Crusade of 1101 (c. 1102). This may be the earliest reference to troubadour lyrics. Orderic also provides us (1135) with what may be the first description of a troubadour performance: an eyewitness account of William of Aquitaine.


title: Troubadour

text: "Picauensis uero dux ... miserias captiuitatis suae ... coram regibus et magnatis atque Christianis coetibus multotiens retulit rythmicis uersibus cum facetis modulationibus". (X.21)


title: Troubadour

text: Then the Poitevin duke ... the miseries of his captivity ... before kings, magnates, and Christian assemblies many times related with rhythmic verses and witty measures.


title: Troubadour

text: The first half of the 12th century saw relatively few recorded troubadours. Only in the last decades of the century did troubadour activity explode. Almost half of all troubadour works that survive are from the period 1180–1220.


title: Troubadour

text: In total, moreover, there are over 2,500 troubadour lyrics available to be studied as linguistic artifacts (Akehurst, 23).


title: Troubadour

text: The troubadour tradition seems to have begun in western Aquitaine (Poitou and Saintonge) and Gascony, from there spreading over into eastern Aquitaine (Limousin and Auvergne) and Provence. At its height it had become popular in Languedoc and the regions of Rouergue, Toulouse, and Quercy (c. 1200). Finally, in the early 13th century it began to spread into first Italy and then Catalonia, whence to the rest of modern Spain and then Portugal. This development has been called the "rayonnement des troubadours" ().


title: Troubadour

text: The classical period of troubadour activity lasted from about 1170 until about 1213. The most famous names among the ranks of troubadours belong to this period. During this period the lyric art of the troubadours reached the height of its popularity and the number of surviving poems is greatest from this period. During this period the "canso", or love song, became distinguishable as a genre. The master of the "canso" and the troubadour who epitomises the classical period is Bernart de Ventadorn. He was highly regarded by his contemporaries, as were Giraut de Bornelh, reputed by his biographer to be the greatest composer of melodies to ever live, and Bertran de Born, the master of the "sirventes", or political song, which became increasingly popular in this period.


title: Troubadour

text: The classical period came to be seen by later generations, especially in the 14th and 15th centuries and outside of Occitania, as representing the high point of lyric poetry and models to be emulated. The language of the classic poets, its grammar and vocabulary, their style and themes, were the ideal to which poets of the troubadour revival in Toulouse (creation of the Consistori del Gay Saber in 1323) and their Catalan and Castilian contemporaries aspired. During the classical period the "rules" of poetic composition had first become standardised and written down, first by Raimon Vidal and then by Uc Faidit.


title: Troubadour

text: The 450 or so troubadours known to historians came from a variety of backgrounds. They made their living in a variety of ways, lived, and travelled in many different places, and were actors in many types of social context. The troubadours were not wandering entertainers. Typically, they stayed in one place for a lengthy period of time under the patronage of a wealthy nobleman or woman. Many did travel extensively, however, sojourning at one court and then another.


title: Troubadour

text: The earliest known troubadour, the Duke of Aquitaine, came from the high nobility. He was followed immediately by two poets of unknown origins, known only by their sobriquets, Cercamon and Marcabru, and by a member of the princely class, Jaufre Rudel. Many troubadours are described in their "vidas" as poor knights. It was one of the most common descriptors of status: Berenguier de Palazol, Gausbert Amiel, Guilhem Ademar, Guiraudo lo Ros, Marcabru, Peire de Maensac, Peirol, Raimon de Miraval, Rigaut de Berbezilh, and Uc de Pena. Albertet de Sestaro is described as the son of a noble jongleur, presumably a petty noble lineage.


title: Troubadour

text: Later troubadours especially could belong to lower classes, ranging from the middle class of merchants and "burgers" (persons of urban standing) to tradesmen and others who worked with their hands. Salh d'Escola and Elias de Barjols were described as the sons of merchants and Elias Fonsalada was the son of a burger and jongleur. Perdigon was the son of a "poor fisherman" and Elias Cairel of a blacksmith. Arnaut de Mareuil is specified in his "vida" as coming from a poor family, but whether this family was poor by noble standards or materially is not apparent.


title: Troubadour

text: Many troubadours also possessed a clerical education. For some this was their springboard to composition, since their clerical education equipped them with an understanding of musical and poetic forms as well as vocal training. The "vidas" of the following troubadours note their clerical status: Aimeric de Belenoi, Folquet de Marselha (who became a bishop), Gui d'Ussel, Guillem Ramon de Gironella, Jofre de Foixà (who became an abbot), Peire de Bussignac, Peire Rogier, Raimon de Cornet, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ.


title: Troubadour

text: The Occitan words "trobador" and "trobaire" are relatively rare compared with the verb "trobar" (compose, invent), which was usually applied to the writing of poetry. It signified that a poem was original to an author ("trobador") and was not merely sung or played by one. The term was used mostly for poetry only and in more careful works, like the "vidas", is not generally applied to the composition of music or to singing, though the troubadour's poetry itself is not so careful. Sometime in the middle of the 12th century, however, a distinction was definitely being made between an inventor of original verse and the performers of others'. The latter were called "joglars" in both Occitan and Catalan, from the Latin "ioculatores", giving rise also to the French "jongleur", Castilian "juglar", and English juggler, which has come to refer to a more specific breed of performer. The medieval "jongleur/joglar" is really a minstrel.


title: Troubadour

text: At the height of troubadour poetry (the "classical period"), troubadours are often found attacking "jongleurs" and at least two small genres arose around the theme: the "ensenhamen joglaresc" and the "sirventes joglaresc". These terms are debated, however, since the adjective "joglaresc" seems to imply "in the manner of the "jongleurs"". Inevitably, however, pieces of these genres are verbal attacks at "jongleurs", in general and in specific, with named individuals being called out. It is clear, for example from the poetry of Bertran de Born, that "jongleurs" were performers who did not usually compose. They often performed the troubadours' songs: singing, playing instruments, dancing, and even doing acrobatics.


title: Troubadour

text: In the late 13th century Guiraut Riquier bemoaned the inexactness of his contemporaries and wrote a letter to Alfonso X of Castile, a noted patron of literature and learning of all kinds, for clarification on the proper reference of the terms "trobador" and "joglar". According to Riquier, every vocation deserved a name of its own and the sloppy usage of "joglar" assured that it covered a multitude of activities, some, no doubt, with which Riquier did not wish to be associated. In the end Riquier argued—and Alfonso X seems to agree, though his "response" was probably penned by Riquier—that a "joglar" was a courtly entertainer (as opposed to popular or low-class one) and a troubadour was a poet and composer.


title: Troubadour

text: Despite the distinctions noted, many troubadours were also known as jongleurs, either before they began composing or alongside. Aimeric de Belenoi, Aimeric de Sarlat, Albertet Cailla, Arnaut de Mareuil, Elias de Barjols, Elias Fonsalada, Falquet de Romans, Guillem Magret, Guiraut de Calanso, Nicoletto da Torino, Peire Raimon de Tolosa, Peire Rogier, Peire de Valeira, Peirol, Pistoleta, Perdigon, Salh d'Escola, Uc de la Bacalaria, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ were jongleur-troubadours.


title: Troubadour

text: A "vida" is a brief prose biography, written in Occitan, of a troubadour. The word "vida" means "life" in Occitan. In the chansonniers, the manuscript collections of medieval troubadour poetry, the works of a particular author are often accompanied by a short prose biography. The "vidas" are important early works of vernacular prose nonfiction. Nevertheless, it appears that many of them derive their facts from literal readings of their objects' poems, which leaves their historical reliability in doubt. Most of the "vidas" were composed in Italy in the 1220s, many by Uc de Saint Circ.


title: Troubadour

text: A "razo" (from Occitan for "reason") was a similar short piece of Occitan prose detailing the circumstances of a particular composition. A "razo" normally introduced the poem it explained; it might, however, share some of the characteristics of a "vida". The "razos" suffer from the same problems as the "vidas" in terms of reliability. Many are likewise the work of Uc de Saint Circ.


title: Troubadour

text: A phenomenon arose in Italy, recognised around the turn of the 20th century by Giulio Bertoni, of men serving in several cities as "podestàs" on behalf of either the Guelph or Ghibelline party and writing political verse in Occitan rhyme. These figures generally came from the urban middle class. They aspired to high culture and though, unlike the nobility, they were not patrons of literature, they were its disseminators and its readers.


title: Troubadour

text: The first "podestà"-troubadour was Rambertino Buvalelli, possibly the first troubadour native to the Italian Peninsula, who was "podestà" of Genoa between 1218 and 1221. Rambertino, a Guelph, served at one time or another as "podestà" of Brescia, Milan, Parma, Mantua, and Verona. It was probably during his three-year tenure there that he introduced Occitan lyric poetry to the city, which was later to develop a flourishing Occitan literary culture.


title: Troubadour

text: Among the "podestà"-troubadours to follow Rambertino, four were from Genoa: the Guelphs Luca Grimaldi, who also served in Florence, Milan, and Ventimiglia, and Luchetto Gattilusio, who served in Milan, Cremona, and Bologna, and the Ghibellines Perceval Doria, who served in Arles, Avignon, Asti, and Parma, and Simon Doria, sometime "podestà" of Savona and Albenga. Among the non-Genoese "podestà"-troubadours was Alberico da Romano, a nobleman of high rank who governed Vicenza and Treviso as variously a Ghibelline and a Guelph. He was a patron as well as a composer of Occitan lyric.


title: Troubadour

text: Mention should be made of the Provençal troubadour Isnart d'Entrevenas, who was "podestà" of Arles in 1220, though he does not fit the phenomenon Giulio Bertoni first identified in Italy.


title: Troubadour

text: The "trobairitz" were the female troubadours, the first female composers of secular music in the Western tradition. The word "trobairitz" was first used in the 13th-century "Romance of Flamenca" and its derivation is the same as that of "trobaire" but in feminine form. There were also female counterparts to the "joglars": the "joglaresas". The number of trobairitz varies between sources: there were twenty or twenty-one named trobairitz, plus an additional poet known only as Domna H. There are several anonymous texts ascribed to women; the total number of trobairitz texts varies from twenty-three (Schultz-Gora), twenty-five (Bec), thirty-six (Bruckner, White, and Shepard), and forty-six (Rieger). Only one melody composed by a trobairitz (the Comtessa de Dia) survives. Out of a total of about 450 troubadours and 2,500 troubadour works, the trobairitz and their corpus form a minor but interesting and informative portion. They are, therefore, quite well studied.


title: Troubadour

text: The trobairitz were in most respects as varied a lot as their male counterparts, with the general exceptions of their poetic style and their provenance. They wrote predominantly "cansos" and "tensos"; only one "sirventes" by a named woman, Gormonda de Monpeslier, survives (though two anonymous ones are attributed to women). One "salut d'amor", by a woman (Azalais d'Altier) to a woman (Clara d'Anduza) is also extant and one anonymous "planh" is usually assigned a female authorship. They wrote almost entirely within the "trobar leu" style; only two poems, one by Lombarda and another Alais, Yselda, and Carenza, are usually considered to belong to the more demanding "trobar clus". None of the trobairitz were prolific, or if they were their work has not survived. Only two have left us more than one piece: the Comtessa de Dia, with four, and Castelloza, with three or four. One of the known trobairitz, Gaudairença, wrote a song entitled "Coblas e dansas", which has not survived; no other piece of hers has either.


title: Troubadour

text: The trobairitz came almost to a woman from Occitania. There are representatives from the Auvergne, Provence, Languedoc, the Dauphiné, Toulousain, and the Limousin. One trobairitz, Ysabella, may have been born in Périgord, Northern Italy, Greece, or Palestine. All the trobairitz whose families we know were high-born ladies; only one, Lombarda, was probably of the merchant class. All the trobairitz known by name lived around the same time: the late 12th and the early 13th century (c. 1170 – c. 1260). The earliest was probably Tibors de Sarenom, who was active in the 1150s (the date of her known composition is uncertain). The latest was either Garsenda of Forcalquier, who died in 1242, though her period of poetic patronage and composition probably occurred a quarter century earlier, or Guilleuma de Rosers, who composed a "tenso" with Lanfranc Cigala, known between 1235 and 1257. There exist brief prose biographies—"vidas"—for eight trobairitz: Almucs de Castelnau (actually a "razo"), Azalais de Porcairagues, the Comtessa de Dia, Castelloza, Iseut de Capio (also a "razo"), Lombarda, Maria de Ventadorn, and Tibors de Sarenom.


title: Troubadour

text: Three main styles of Occitan lyric poetry have been identified: the "trobar leu" (light), "trobar ric" (rich), and "trobar clus" (closed, hermetic). The first was by far the most common: the wording is straightforward and relatively simple compared to the "ric" and literary devices are less common than in the "clus". This style was the most accessible and it was immensely popular. The most famous poet of the "trobar leu" was Bernart de Ventadorn. The "trobar clus" regularly escapes modern scholarly interpretation. Words are commonly used metaphorically and symbolically and what a poem appears to be about on its surface is rarely what is intended by the poet or understood by audiences "in the know". The "clus" style was invented early by Marcabru but only favoured by a few masters thereafter. The "trobar ric" style is not as opaque as the "clus", rather it employs a rich vocabulary, using many words, rare words, invented words, and unusual, colourful wordings.


title: Troubadour

text: Modern scholars recognise several "schools" in the troubadour tradition. Among the earliest is a school of followers of Marcabru, sometimes called the "Marcabrunian school": Bernart Marti, Bernart de Venzac, Gavaudan, and Peire d'Alvernhe. These poets favoured the "trobar clus" or "ric" or a hybrid of the two. They were often moralising in tone and critical of contemporary courtly society. Another early school, whose style seems to have fallen out of favour, was the "Gascon school" of Cercamon, Peire de Valeira, and Guiraut de Calanso. Cercamon was said by his biographer to have composed in the "old style" ("la uzansa antiga") and Guiraut's songs were "d'aquella saison" ("of that time"). This style of poetry seems to be attached to early troubadours from Gascony and was characterised by references to nature: leaves, flowers, birds, and their songs. This Gascon "literary fad" was unpopular in Provence in the early 13th century, harming the reputation of the poets associated with it.


title: Troubadour

text: In the late 13th century a school arose at Béziers, once the centre of pre-Albigensian Languedoc and of the Trencavel lordships, in the 1260s–80s. Three poets epitomise this "school": Bernart d'Auriac, Joan Esteve, Joan Miralhas, and Raimon Gaucelm. All three were natives of Béziers and lived there. All three were members of the urban middle class and no courtesans: Miralhas was possibly a potter and Bernart was a "mayestre" (teacher). All three were supporters of the French king Louis IX and the French aristocracy against the native Occitan nobility. They have been described as "Gallicised". Raimon Gaucelm supported the Eighth Crusade and even wrote a "planh", the only known one of its kind, to a burgher of Béziers. Joan Esteve and Bernart both composed in support of the French in the Aragonese Crusade. The Béziers are a shining example of the transformation of Occitania in the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade, but also of the ability of troubadours to survive it.


title: Troubadour

text: Troubadours, at least after their style became established, usually followed some set of "rules", like those of the "Leys d'amors" (compiled between 1328 and 1337). Initially all troubadour verses were called simply "vers", yet this soon came to be reserved for only love songs and was later replaced by "canso", though the term lived on as an antique expression for the troubadours' early works and was even employed with a more technically meaning by the last generation of troubadours (mid-14th century), when it was thought to derive from the Latin word "verus" (truth) and was thus used to describe moralising or didactic pieces. The early troubadours developed many genres and these only proliferated as rules of composition came to be put in writing. The known genres are:


title: Troubadour

text: All these genres were highly fluid. A cross between a "sirventes" and a "canso" was a "meg-sirventes" (half-"sirventes"). A "tenso" could be "invented" by a single poet; an "alba" or "canso" could be written with religious significance, addressed to God or the Virgin; and a "sirventes" may be nothing more than a political attack. The "maldit" and the "comiat" were often connected as a "maldit-comiat" and they could be used to attack and renounce a figure other than a lady or a lover, like a commanding officer (when combined, in a way, with the "sirventes").


title: Troubadour

text: Peire Bremon Ricas Novas uses the term "mieja chanso" (half song) and Cerverí de Girona uses a similar phrase, "miga canço", both to refer to a short "canso" and not a mixture of genres as sometimes supposed. Cerverí's "mig" (or "meig") "vers e miga canço" was a "vers" in the new sense (a moralising song) that was also highly critical and thus combined the "canso" and the "sirventes". Among the more than one hundred works of Cerverí de Girona are many songs with unique labels, which may correspond more to "titles" than "genres", but that is debatable: "peguesca" (nonsense), "espingadura" (flageolet song), "libel" (legal petition), "esdemessa" (leap), "somni" (dream), "acuyndamen" (challenge), "desirança" (nostalgia), "aniversari" (anniversary), "serena" (serene).


title: Troubadour

text: Most "Crusading songs" are classified either as "cansos" or "sirventes" but sometimes separately. Some styles became popular in other languages and in other literary or musical traditions. In French, the "alba" became the "aubade", the "pastorela" the "pastourelle", and the "partimen" the "jeu parti". The "sestina" became popular in Italian literature. The troubadours were not averse to borrowing either. The "planh" developed out of the Latin "planctus" and the sonnet was stolen from the Sicilian School. The basse danse ("bassa dansa") was first mentioned in the troubadour tradition (c. 1324), but only as being performed by jongleurs.


title: Troubadour

text: Troubadours performed their own songs. Jongleurs (performers) and "cantaires" (singers) also performed troubadours' songs. They could work from chansonniers, many of which have survived, or possibly from more rudimentary (and temporary) songbooks, none of which have survived, if they even existed. Some troubadours, like Arnaut de Maruelh, had their own jongleurs who were dedicated to singing their patron's work. Arnaut's "joglar et cantaire", probably both a singer and a messenger, who carried his love songs to his lady, was Pistoleta. The messenger was commonplace in troubadour poetry; many songs reference a messenger who will bring it to its intended ear. A troubadour often stayed with a noble patron of his own and entertained his court with his songs. Court songs could be used not only as entertainment but also as propaganda, praising the patron, mocking his enemies, encouraging his wars, teaching ethics and etiquette, and maintaining religious unity.


title: Troubadour

text: The court was not the only venue for troubadour performance. Competitions were held from an early date. According to the "vida" of the Monge de Montaudon, he received a sparrow hawk, a prized hunting bird, for his poetry from the "cour du Puy", some sort of poetry society associated with the court of Alfonso II of Aragon. The most famous contests were held in the twilight of the troubadours in the 14th and 15th centuries. The "jocs florals" held by the Consistori del Gay Saber at Toulouse, by Peter IV of Aragon at Lleida, and the Consistori de la Gaya Sciència at Barcelona awarded floral prizes to the best poetry in various categories, judging it by its accordance with a code called the "Leys d'amors".


title: Troubadour

text: Troubadour songs were usually monophonic. Fewer than 300 melodies out of an estimated 2500 survive. Most were composed by the troubadours themselves. Some were set to pre-existing pieces of music. Raimbaut de Vaqueyras wrote his "Kalenda maya" ("The Calends of May") to music composed by jongleurs at Montferrat.


title: Troubadour

text: Beginning in the early 13th century, the spread of Occitan verse demanded grammars and dictionaries, especially for those whose native tongue was not Occitan, such as the Catalan and Italian troubadours, and their imitators. The production of such works only increased with the academisation of the troubadour lyric in the 14th century.


title: Troubadour

text: Some 2,600 poems or fragments of poems have survived from around 450 identifiable troubadours. They are largely preserved in songbooks called "chansonniers" made for wealthy patrons.


title: Troubadour

text: Troubadour songs are generally referred to by their incipits, that is, their opening lines. If this is long, or after it has already been mentioned, an abbreviation of the incipit may be used for convenience. A few troubadour songs are known by "nicknames", thus "D'un sirventes far" by Guilhem Figueira is commonly called the "Sirventes contra Roma". When a writer seeks to avoid using unglossed Occitan, the incipit of the song may be given in translation instead or a title may even be invented to reflect the theme of the work. Especially in translations designed for a popular audience, such as Ezra Pound's, English titles are commonly invented by the translator/editor. There are examples, however, of troubadour songs given Occitan titles in the manuscripts, such as an anonymous "pastorela" that begins "Mentre per una ribeira", which is entitled "Porquieira".


title: Troubadour

text: The number of Occitan parchment chansonniers given as extant varies between authors, depending on how they treat fragmentary and multilingual manuscripts. Conventionally, fragments are classified as fragments of the surviving chansonnier they most closely resemble and not as chansonniers in their own right. Some chansonniers have received both Occitan and French letters: troubadour D is trouvère H, W is M and X is U. The lettering ("siglas") was introduced by Karl Bartsch, who placed sources he considered more reliable higher in the alphabet. This system is imperfect, however, since many of the chansonniers produced for an Italian audience are heavily edited and do not necessarily more closely resemble the original compositions. While parchment chansonniers are more durable, paper ones also exist and have received lower-case "siglas".


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria, the British monarch from 1837 to 1901, and Prince Albert (her husband from 1840 until his death in 1861) had 9 children, 42 grandchildren, and 87 great-grandchildren.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Victoria and Albert had 20 grandsons and 22 granddaughters, of whom two (the youngest sons of Prince Alfred and Princess Helena) were stillborn, and two more (Prince Alexander John of Wales and Prince Harald of Schleswig-Holstein) died shortly after birth. Their first grandchild was the future German Emperor Wilhelm II, who was born to their eldest child, Princess Victoria, on 27 January 1859; the youngest was Prince Maurice of Battenberg, born on 3 October 1891 to Princess Beatrice (1857–1944), who was herself the last child born to Victoria and Albert and the last child to die. The last of Victoria and Albert's grandchildren to die (almost exactly 80 years after Queen Victoria herself) was Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone (25 February 1883 – 3 January 1981).


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Just as Victoria and Albert shared one grandfather (Duke Francis of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld) and one grandmother (Countess Augusta Reuss), two pairs of their grandchildren married each other. In 1888, Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine, whose mother was Queen Victoria's daughter Alice, married Prince Henry of Prussia, a son of Victoria's daughter Victoria. Another of Alice's children, Grand Duke Ernest Louis of Hesse, married Princess Victoria Melita, a daughter of Alice's brother Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1894, but divorced in 1901.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Prince Albert, the Prince Consort (26 August 1819 – 14 December 1861), lived long enough to see only one of his children (the Princess Royal) married and two of his grandchildren born (Wilhelm II, 1859–1941, and his sister Princess Charlotte of Prussia, 1860–1919), while Queen Victoria (24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) lived long enough to see not only all her grandchildren, but many of her 87 great-grandchildren as well. (Three of Victoria's 56 great-grandsons were stillborn, another died shortly after birth, and one of her 31 great-granddaughters was born out of wedlock.)


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Victoria, the Princess Royal and first child of Victoria and Albert (21 November 1840 – 5 August 1901), known as "Vicky", was not only mother to their first grandchild, Wilhelm II, she was also the first of Victoria and Albert's children to become a grandparent, with the birth in 1879 of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen, who was the daughter of Princess Charlotte (Queen Victoria's first granddaughter). She was also the grandmother of the last of Victoria and Albert's great-granddaughters to die, Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark (4 May 1913 – 2 October 2007), daughter of Vicky's fourth daughter, Queen Sophia of Greece. After Katherine's death in 2007, the only surviving great-grandchild of Queen Victoria was Count Carl Johan Bernadotte of Wisborg (31 October 1916 – 5 May 2012), born to Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden, daughter of Victoria and Albert's third son, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: The death of Count Carl Johan Bernadotte marked the end of a generation of royalty that began in 1879 with the birth of Princess Feodora and included the British Kings Edward VIII and George VI, the Norwegian King Olav V, the Romanian King Carol II and the Greek Kings George II, Alexander and Paul—as well as six uncrowned victims of political assassination, Earl Mountbatten of Burma (last Viceroy of India), Tsarevich Alexei of Russia and Alexei's sisters the Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria's own death in January 1901 was preceded by the deaths of three of her own children (Princess Alice in December 1878, Prince Leopold in March 1884, and Prince Alfred in July 1900) and soon followed by the Princess Royal's death in August 1901. Aside from the four boys who died as infants, Queen Victoria had survived seven of her grandchildren:


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Victoria and Albert had one pair of grandparents in common, Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and Countess Augusta Reuss of Ebersdorf, who were parents both of Albert's father Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and of Victoria's mother (and Ernest I's sister), Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Another of Victoria's (but not Albert's) grandfathers was King George III, father of Victoria's father, the Duke of Kent, and his brothers King George IV and King William IV.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria (who had ascended to the throne on 20 June 1837 and been crowned on 28 June 1838) was married to Prince Albert on 10 February 1840 by William Howley, the Archbishop of Canterbury, in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace in Westminster (London). (Albert died fourteen-and-a-half years before Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India on 1 May 1876.)


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria, at times, had contentious relations with her children. She had trouble relating to her children when they were young, some of this possibly owing to her own isolated childhood. She also, occasionally, resented that they interfered with time that she would prefer to spend with Albert. According to one modern author, both Victoria and Albert weren't above playing favourites with their children, and unfortunately did little to hide their favouritism. Both Vicky and Alfred were the favorites of Albert, and Arthur enjoyed the favouritism of both his parents.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: According to one modern author, Victoria initially was jealous of the time that Albert had spent with Vicky, but in her widowhood Victoria made Vicky something of her confidante, and for her part, Vicky had accrued hundreds of letters from her mother, to the point that shortly before her death, she had them smuggled out of Germany by her brother's secretary, Sir Frederick Ponsonby.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Of her sons, Victoria had the most trouble with her eldest, Albert Edward, and her youngest, Leopold. Among her daughters, Victoria clashed often with Louise. She also had an awkward relationship with her second-eldest daughter, Alice, whom the queen, despite praising her thoughtfulness, also criticised as being too melancholy and self-absorbed. In her widowhood, Victoria expected Beatrice, who was only 4 when her father died, to remain at home with her, and only permitted her to marry on the condition that she and her husband remain in England.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: The eldest child of Victoria and Albert was Princess Victoria, the Princess Royal, called "Vicky" (1840–1901). On 25 January 1858 she married Prince Frederick William of Prussia (1831–1888; Crown Prince from 1861, German Emperor March–June 1888). They had eight children and twenty-three grandchildren.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Not only was the Princess Royal the first child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, she also gave them their first grandchild (the future Emperor Wilhelm II, 27 January 1859 – 4 June 1941) and was grandmother to both the first of their 87 great-grandchildren to be born, Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen (19 May 1879 – 26 August 1945), daughter of Princess Charlotte, and to the last of their 29 great-granddaughters to die, Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark (4 May 1913 – 2 October 2007), daughter of Princess Sophie.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria → Princess Victoria → German Emperor William II → Princess Victoria Louise of Prussia → Princess Frederica of Hanover (Queen of the Hellenes) → King Constantine II


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria → Princess Victoria → Princess Sophie of Prussia → Helen, Queen of Romania → King Michael I


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: The portrait below shows the Princess Royal with her husband Frederick William and with Victoria and Albert's first two grandchildren, the future Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859–1941) and Princess Charlotte (1860–1919), who were the only grandchildren born during Albert's lifetime.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Prince Albert Edward (1841–1910), then the Prince of Wales, married Princess Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925), later Queen Alexandra of the United Kingdom, on 10 March 1863. They had 3 sons (one of whom died within a day), 3 daughters, 7 grandsons (one stillborn) and 3 granddaughters. The Prince of Wales became Edward VII and Emperor of India at the death of his mother Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Edward's and Alexandra's son, George V, (reigned 1910–1936) was the father of Kings Edward VIII (reigned 1936) and George VI (1936–1952), and the grandfather of Queen Elizabeth II (reigned 1952–2022) and her sister Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon (1930–2002). Elizabeth and Margaret were therefore great-granddaughters of Edward VII and great-great-granddaughters of Queen Victoria.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria → King Edward VII → King George V → King George VI → Queen Elizabeth II → King Charles III


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Edward's and Alexandra's daughter Princess Maud of Wales became Queen of Norway when her husband, Prince Carl of Denmark, became King Haakon VII (1905–1957) upon the dissolution of Norway's union with Sweden in 1905. Their son, and Edward's grandson, became King Olav V (1957–1991); and Olav's children, King Harald V (since 1991), Princess Ragnhild and Princess Astrid, are thus great-grandchildren of Edward VII and great-great-grandchildren of Victoria and Albert.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria → King Edward VII → Princess Maud of Wales (Queen of Norway) → King Olav V → King Harald V


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Princess Alice (1843–1878) married Prince Louis of Hesse (1837–1892), later Grand Duke Louis IV of Hesse, on 1 July 1862. They had two sons (one of which, "Frittie", Prince Friedrich of Hesse, was a haemophiliac and died from bleeding out after a fall out of his mother's bedroom window), five daughters (one of whom died of diphtheria) and 15 grandchildren (two of whom died at a young age). Prince Ludwig succeeded to the Grand Duchy of Hesse as Grand Duke Louis IV of Hesse, and Princess Alice as the Grand Duchess of Hesse, on 13 July 1877.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Alice and Louis's daughter, Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine, married Prince Louis of Battenberg, and was the mother of Princess Alice of Battenberg (1885–1969), who became Alice, Princess Andrew of Greece and Denmark, when she married Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark on 6 October 1903. Princess Alice was the mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, the prince consort of the United Kingdom who was the husband of Queen Elizabeth II. Princess Victoria was also the mother of Queen Louise of Sweden.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria → Princess Alice → Princess Victoria of Hesse → Princess Alice of Battenberg → Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Alice and Louis's second daughter, Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine, married, in 1884, the Russian Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, the fifth son of Tsar Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna, and younger brother of the then reigning Tsar Alexander III. They had no children, but were foster parents to Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna and Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, children to Sergei's youngest brother Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia. Following Sergei's assassination in 1905, she eventually became a nun and was killed by the Bolsheviks on 18 July 1918. She was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia in 1981 and in 1992 by the Moscow Patriarchate.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Prince Ernest Louis became Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, upon his father's death in 1892. He married his first cousin, Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1876-1936) in 1894, and had one daughter, Princess Elisabeth of Hesse who died of typhoid fever, aged eight. The couple were divorced 21 December 1901. The Grand Duke married for a second time to Princess Eleonore of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (1871–1937), and had two sons: Georg Donatus, Hereditary Grand Duke of Hesse who married Princess Cecilie of Greece, a sister of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and had issue, and Prince Louis of Hesse and by Rhine.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Princess Alix of Hesse, the youngest surviving child of the Grand Ducal pair, became the last Empress of All the Russias through her marriage to Nicholas II of Russia in 1894. They had five children: four girls, the Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria, and Anastasia, and one boy, the Tsarevich Alexei, who was a haemophiliac. The Russian Imperial Family was executed on 17 July 1918 by Bolsheviks. The entire family was canonized by the Russian Orthodox church in 2000.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Prince Alfred (1844–1900) married the Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (1853–1920), the only surviving daughter of Tsar Alexander II and his first wife, Empress Marie Alexandrovna, on 23 January 1874 at the Winter Palace in St Petersburg, Russia. They had 2 sons (one stillborn), 4 daughters, 10 grandsons (8 of whom survived their first week of life) and 9 granddaughters. In June 1893, Prince Alfred achieved the Royal Navy rank of Admiral of the Fleet, shortly before succeeding his uncle, Ernest II, as Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in August 1893.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Prince Alfred's daughter (and Queen Victoria's granddaughter) Princess Marie of Edinburgh became Queen of Romania in 1914 after marrying the future King Ferdinand in 1893.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria → Prince Alfred → Princess Marie of Edinburgh (Queen of Romania) → King Carol II → King Michael I


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: <br>Queen Victoria → Prince Alfred → Princess Marie of Edinburgh (Queen of Romania) → Princess Elisabeth of Romania (Queen of the Hellenes)


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: <br>Queen Victoria → Prince Alfred → Princess Marie of Edinburgh (Queen of Romania) → Princess Marie of Romania (Queen of Yugoslavia) → King Peter II


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Princess Helena (1846–1923) married Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1831–1917) in Windsor Castle's private chapel on 5 July 1866. Two sons and two daughters survived childhood; two other sons died within ten days of their birth. Princess Helena and Prince Christian had no legitimate grandchildren and one natural granddaughter who died without having issue of her own. Like other British royal holders of German titles (such as Admiral Louis Battenberg), Princess Helena, Prince Christian, and their two daughters gave up their titles to Schleswig-Holstein in 1917 when the British and German Empires were at war.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Princess Louise (1848–1939), who married John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914) in 1871, was the only one of Victoria's nine children who was childless. She was the first British monarch's child since 1515 to marry a subject rather than someone of royal blood.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Prince Arthur (1850–1942) married Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (1860–1917) on 13 March 1879 at St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle. They had 2 daughters and 1 son.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: In March 1911, the Duke of Connaught's nephew, George V (son of the Duke's recently deceased brother Edward VII) appointed his uncle to represent him as Governor General of Canada. He thus became the first, and so far only, Governor General of Canada to be of the Blood Royal, although he had been preceded in this office from 1878 to 1883 by the Marquess of Lorne, the non-royal husband of his sister Princess Louise (see above). [George V's son, the Duke of Gloucester, was later Governor-General of Australia, and the Duke of Connaught's own son was later Governor-General of South Africa. See above and below.]


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Prince Arthur's elder daughter (and Queen Victoria's granddaughter) Princess Margaret of Connaught became Crown Princess of Sweden in 1907 after marrying the future Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden in 1905 (however, Margaret died before Gustav became king).


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria → Prince Arthur → Princess Margaret of Connaught → Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten → King Carl XVI Gustaf


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: <br>Queen Victoria → Prince Arthur → Princess Margaret of Connaught → Princess Ingrid of Sweden → Danish Queen Margrethe II & Greek Queen Anne-Marie


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Prince Leopold (1853–1884) married Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922) on 27 April 1882 at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. They had 1 daughter and 1 son. He inherited the disease of haemophilia from his mother, Queen Victoria, and spent most of his life as a semi-invalid.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: His daughter, Princess Alice of Albany, married Prince Alexander of Teck, the younger brother of Queen Mary, in 1904 and became Countess of Athlone when her husband was created Earl of Athlone in June 1917. She has so far been the longest-lived Princess of the Blood Royal of Britain and was the last surviving grandchild of Queen Victoria.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Prince Charles Edward, Prince Leopold's posthumous son, succeeded him at birth as 2nd Duke of Albany. In 1900, Charles Edward succeeded his uncle Alfred as Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha but was forced to abdicate his ducal throne during the German Revolution of 1918, later gaining high positions in and through the Nazi movement. Because of his support for Germany in World War I, he lost his English knighthood in the Order of the Garter in 1915 and his British royal titles, peerages and honours in 1919. He is the grandfather of Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden through his elder daughter, Princess Sibylla.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria → Prince Leopold → Prince Charles Edward → Princess Sibylla of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha → Carl XVI Gustaf


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Princess Beatrice (1857–1944) married Prince Henry of Battenberg (1858–1896) on 23 July 1885 in St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham on the Isle of Wight. They had 3 sons, 1 daughter (the future Queen Victoria Eugenia of Spain), 5 grandsons (1 stillborn) and 3 granddaughters. The present King Felipe VI of Spain, as a great-grandson of Victoria Eugenie, is a great-great-grandson of Princess Beatrice and thus a great-great-great-grandson of Queen Victoria.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Queen Victoria → Princess Beatrice → Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (Queen of Spain) → Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona → King Juan Carlos I → King Felipe VI


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Due to anti-German feeling during the First World War, the members of the Battenberg family who were British citizens relinquished their titles of "Prince and Princess of Battenberg" and the styles of "Highness" and "Serene Highness". Under Royal Warrant, they instead took the surname "Mountbatten", an Anglicised form of Battenberg.


title: Descendants of Queen Victoria

text: Both Prince Henry (the last-born of Victoria's grandchildren) and his youngest son Prince Maurice died on active military service, the father from malaria contracted during the Ashanti War and the son in battle on the Western Front of World War I.


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: Mark Ross Pellegrino (born April 9, 1965) is an American actor of film and television. He is best known for his work as "Lucifer" in "Supernatural", "Paul Bennett" in "Dexter", "Jacob" in "Lost", "James Bishop" in "Being Human", "Executive Assistant Director of the FBI Clayton Haas" in ABC's thriller "Quantico", and "Deputy Bill Standall" in "13 Reasons Why".


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: He grew up in Van Nuys, California. During this time he went to college, got straight A's, worked at a gas station, and then proceeded to drop out after a year. After he dropped out he realized he needed to do something with his life and saw an advertisement for a modeling agency at a place called ""John Roberts Powers"" where he received some free training for a while. During his training there he was picked out for talent by a commercial agent by the name of Bob Hoover. He was set up with an agent and acting coaches. From there he was sent out into the world of acting and discovered the Meisner acting method. He had no dream to become an actor at the time.


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: His biological father's name is Jerry who is of German descent. He had a step-father named Bill Pellegrino who his mother divorced when he was two years old. He went through his whole life thinking Bill was his biological father. To gather more information about his background he did a search on ancestry.com to find out his heritage. He found out through the website he didn't have any Italian blood in his DNA. Before the COVID pandemic he asked fans of TV show "Supernatural" on Twitter if they be interested in finding his real father. Within an hour of posting his father was found along with the knowledge of having 2 sisters and 3 brothers.


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: Some of his earlier appearances are also in "Northern Exposure", "ER", "Without a Trace", "NYPD Blue", "", and "Knight Rider". He starred as Rita's abusive ex-con former husband "Paul Bennett" on Showtime's "Dexter"; and later as Lucifer on "Supernatural" and as the mysterious near-immortal "Jacob" on ABC's "Lost".


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: He played the "Blonde Treehorn Thug #2" who stuffs The Dude's head down the toilet and drops his bowling ball, breaking the floor tile, in the cult film "The Big Lebowski". He was featured in "National Treasure" as the background FBI agent known as "Agent Johnson".


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: Among his numerous cable and network television show roles, he portrayed terrorist bomber "Bobby James" on "The Beast".


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: In 1999 he appeared in season 7, episode 3 of "The X-Files" as a disgruntled fast food joint employee"."


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: In 2006 he played an Albanian Mob Boss by the name of "Sadik Marku" in 2 episodes of "Without a Trace". The first episode was in season 4, episode 22 where he guest starred alongside Mark Sheppard who played "Crowley" in "Supernatural". The second episode was in season 5, episode 5 where he guest starred alongside Rachel Miner who played "Meg Masters" also which is a role in "Supernatural".


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: In March 2009 he was cast on the ABC series "Lost" for an appearance in the final 2 episodes of Season 5, to play the role of the mysterious "Jacob". Although the press release for the episode refers to his character simply as "Man No. 1", the episode revealed that he portrayed "Jacob", a mysterious character pivotal to the show's plot.


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: On June 26, 2009, it was also announced that he was cast in a recurring role as "Lucifer" in season 5 of the CW series "Supernatural." He played a recurring role as "Lucifer" in season 7, and a main role as his character in seasons 12 and 13. He played a main role in season 14 as "Nick", Lucifer's vessel, and was a special guest in season 15.


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: In 2011 he portrayed the leader of a vampire clan based in Boston, MA. His character went by the name of "James Bishop" for the SyFy horror series "Being Human" in the first season, and also reprised his role in seasons 2-4 as a recurring guest.


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: In 2011 he and Curtis Armstrong, who played "Metatron" on Supernatural, guest starred alongside each other as well as their characters being enemy lawyers in season 7 of "The Closer".


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: In 2012 he played a man that took a hit out on his wife, who also took one out on him, "Daniel Drake" in season 2, episode 8 of "Person of Interest".


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: In 2015 he joined the ABC thriller series "Quantico" playing the recurring role of "FBI Deputy Director Clayton Haas".


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: In 2018 he voiced and motion captured his first video game role as an antagonist named "Jacob Seed" in one of Ubisoft's hit franchise games called "Far Cry 5".


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: In 2021 he played "Virgil Poe" in Showtime's "American Rust" series, a show based on the novel of the same name written by Philipp Meyer.


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: He is married to Tracy Pellegrino. He sometimes teaches at "Playhouse Paris", which is a Meisner training school his wife owns and runs in Paris, France.


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: He is a follower of Objectivism, a philosophy created by Russian-American writer Ayn Rand. Before that he used to be an environmentalist and a registered Democrat. He was exposed to the works of Rand in his acting class by a guy from Long Island, New York. He and the guy would hang out at the 24-hour Russian café known as "Gorky's" in Los Angeles to talk about politics and philosophy. He would always lose against the other when it came to politics. In order to win a book exchange was suggested where they gave each other up to 5 books to prove their points. "Atlas Shrugged" and "The Fountainhead" were the ones he received. From there they've changed his life. One of the ways he spreads Rand's views is through a YouTube platform called the "Ayn Rand Centre UK."


title: Mark Pellegrino

text: He is a co-founder of "The American Capitalist Party," which is a refuge for those who want a party away from the main three party system in the United States. Not to be confused with pro-anarchy libertarians, and finds them to be amoral. His party believes that free markets are the only social, economical, and political system for rational people, and that it can only exist with objective rights and property protections by delegating retaliatory force to the government.


title: Max Martini

text: Maximilian Carlo Martini (born December 11, 1969) is an American actor, writer, and director known for his roles as Corporal Fred Henderson in "Saving Private Ryan", Wiley in "Level 9", First Sergeant Sid Wojo in "The Great Raid", and as Master Sergeant Mack Gerhardt in the military drama television series "The Unit". He also starred in the film "".


title: Max Martini

text: Martini's father, Raffaele Martini Pandozy, a sculptor and reformist artist, was born in Rome. Martini's mother, Patricia (née Dunne) Martini Margolin, was a private investigator and parole officer. He has two siblings: actor/producer Christopher Martini and costume designer Michelle Martini. His stepfather, Stuart Margolin, was a director and actor. Martini attended St. Michaels University School in Victoria, Canada.


title: Max Martini

text: Martini moved to New York City and studied acting, first at the Neighborhood Playhouse, and then at Michael Howard Studios. He subsequently attended the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan, and received a B.F.A. in painting and sculpture.


title: Max Martini

text: After college, Martini found steady work in film and television projects. His film roles include co-starring opposite Jodie Foster in Robert Zemeckis's "Contact" as Willie, a fellow scientist with an affinity for brightly colored shirts, and sharing the screen with Tom Hanks and Matt Damon in "Saving Private Ryan" as Corporal Henderson, ranking NCO of Pfc. James Ryan's unit, who helped Cpt. John H. Miller and his men in the brutal final shootout of the film. Martini later co-starred in John Dahl's "The Great Raid" as 1st Sgt. Sid Wojo.


title: Max Martini

text: He appeared in smaller independent films, working with Calista Flockhart in "Jane Doe", Chris Penn and Jeffrey Wright in "Cement" and in the 2000 Sundance Film Festival fave "Backroads". In 1999, Martini wrote, co-directed and starred in "Desert Son". His younger brother, Christopher, co-directed the film with him, and his sister, Michelle, served as costume designer. He had a recurring role in the ABC drama "Castle". In 2011, the Noor Iranian Film Festival in Los Angeles invited him to participate as an official festival judge. In 2013, he played the role of the U.S. Navy SEAL commander in Paul Greengrass's Academy Award-nominated film "Captain Phillips".


title: Max Martini

text: In 2013, Guillermo del Toro cast Martini and Rob Kazinsky as the Australian father-son pilot duo in "Pacific Rim". In 2014, Martini was cast in Legendary Pictures' supernatural thriller "Spectral". Martini played Christian Grey's bodyguard in the film "Fifty Shades of Grey" (2015), and its two sequels. In 2016, Martini portrayed Mark "Oz" Geist in Michael Bay's "".


title: Max Martini

text: Martini made his directorial debut in 2019 with a military drama. "Sgt. Will Gardner", in which he also starred as Sgt. Will Gardner.


title: Max Martini

text: Martini's television credits include a lead role in the Sci-fi Channel's Emmy nominated mini-series "Taken" and appearances as Agent Steve Goodrich on the second season of "24". He was also cast in "X-Files" creator Chris Carter's "Harsh Realm", and had a recurring role in the Canadian series "Da Vinci's Inquest". He also appeared in "Lie to Me".


title: Max Martini

text: After memorable guest-star turns in popular series, including "Numb3rs", "Walker Texas Ranger", "" and "", Martini landed a lead role in "The Unit", a series about a tier-1 US Army special operations team created by David Mamet and produced by Shawn Ryan of "The Shield". Martini remains active in the theater, having co-founded the Theatre North Collaborative in New York City, a company of American and Canadian actors dedicated solely to producing new works from both sides of the border. In 2011, he appeared in an episode of "Criminal Minds", in which he played a Navy SEAL named Luke Dolan.


title: Max Martini

text: In 2015, Martini starred as the title character in Amazon Studios' Western series "Edge", written and directed by Shane Black.


title: Max Martini

text: In August 2022, Martini joined the cast in the second season of the Amazon Freevee "Bosch" spin-off series "" as Detective Don Ellis, a hardened vice cop in the LAPD.


title: Dentistry

text: Dentistry, also known as dental medicine and oral medicine, is the branch of medicine focused on the teeth, gums, and mouth. It consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the mouth, most commonly focused on dentition (the development and arrangement of teeth) as well as the oral mucosa. Dentistry may also encompass other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temporomandibular joint. The practitioner is called a dentist.


title: Dentistry

text: The history of dentistry is almost as ancient as the history of humanity and civilization with the earliest evidence dating from 7000 BC to 5500 BC. Dentistry is thought to have been the first specialization in medicine which have gone on to develop its own accredited degree with its own specializations. Dentistry is often also understood to subsume the now largely defunct medical specialty of stomatology (the study of the mouth and its disorders and diseases) for which reason the two terms are used interchangeably in certain regions. However, some specialties such as oral and maxillofacial surgery (facial reconstruction) may require both medical and dental degrees to accomplish. In European history, dentistry is considered to have stemmed from the trade of barber surgeons.


title: Dentistry

text: Dental treatments are carried out by a dental team, which often consists of a dentist and dental auxiliaries (dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, as well as dental therapists). Most dentists either work in private practices (primary care), dental hospitals or (secondary care) institutions (prisons, armed forces bases, etc.).


title: Dentistry

text: The modern movement of evidence-based dentistry calls for the use of high-quality scientific research and evidence to guide decision-making such as in manual tooth conservation, use of fluoride water treatment and fluoride toothpaste, dealing with oral diseases such as tooth decay and periodontitis, as well as systematic diseases such as osteoporosis, diabetes, celiac disease, cancer, HIV/AIDS which could also affect the oral cavity. Other practices relevant to evidence-based dentistry include radiology of the mouth to inspect teeth deformity or oral malaises, haematology (study of blood) to avoid bleeding complications during dental surgery, cardiology (due to various severe complications arising from dental surgery with patients with heart disease), etc.


title: Dentistry

text: The term dentistry comes from "dentist", which comes from French "dentiste", which comes from the French and Latin words for tooth. The term for the associated scientific study of teeth is odontology (from ) – the study of the structure, development, and abnormalities of the teeth.


title: Dentistry

text: Dentistry usually encompasses practices related to the oral cavity. According to the World Health Organization, oral diseases are major public health problems due to their high incidence and prevalence across the globe, with the disadvantaged affected more than other socio-economic groups.


title: Dentistry

text: The majority of dental treatments are carried out to prevent or treat the two most common oral diseases which are dental caries (tooth decay) and periodontal disease (gum disease or pyorrhea). Common treatments involve the restoration of teeth, extraction or surgical removal of teeth, scaling and root planing, endodontic root canal treatment, and cosmetic dentistry


title: Dentistry

text: By nature of their general training, dentists, without specialization can carry out the majority of dental treatments such as restorative (fillings, crowns, bridges), prosthetic (dentures), endodontic (root canal) therapy, periodontal (gum) therapy, and extraction of teeth, as well as performing examinations, radiographs (x-rays), and diagnosis. Dentists can also prescribe medications such as antibiotics, sedatives, and any other drugs used in patient management. Depending on their licensing boards, general dentists may be required to complete additional training to perform sedation, dental implants, etc.


title: Dentistry

text: Dentists also encourage prevention of oral diseases through proper hygiene and regular, twice or more yearly, checkups for professional cleaning and evaluation. Oral infections and inflammations may affect overall health and conditions in the oral cavity may be indicative of systemic diseases, such as osteoporosis, diabetes, celiac disease or cancer. Many studies have also shown that gum disease is associated with an increased risk of diabetes, heart disease, and preterm birth. The concept that oral health can affect systemic health and disease is referred to as "oral-systemic health".


title: Dentistry

text: John M. Harris started the world's first dental school in Bainbridge, Ohio, and helped to establish dentistry as a health profession. It opened on 21 February 1828, and today is a dental museum. The first dental college, Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, opened in Baltimore, Maryland, US in 1840. The second in the United States was the Ohio College of Dental Surgery, established in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1845. The Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery followed in 1852. In 1907, Temple University accepted a bid to incorporate the school.


title: Dentistry

text: Studies show that dentists that graduated from different countries, or even from different dental schools in one country, may make different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition. For example, dentists that graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend the removal of asymptomatic impacted third molar (wisdom teeth) more often than dentists that graduated from Latin American or Eastern European dental schools.


title: Dentistry

text: In the United Kingdom, the first dental schools, the London School of Dental Surgery and the Metropolitan School of Dental Science, both in London, opened in 1859. The British Dentists Act of 1878 and the 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners. However, others could legally describe themselves as "dental experts" or "dental consultants". The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practising dentistry. The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practising illegally. Dentists in the United Kingdom are now regulated by the General Dental Council.


title: Dentistry

text: In many countries, dentists usually complete between five and eight years of post-secondary education before practising. Though not mandatory, many dentists choose to complete an internship or residency focusing on specific aspects of dental care after they have received their dental degree. In a few countries, to become a qualified dentist one must usually complete at least four years of postgraduate study; Dental degrees awarded around the world include the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) and Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) in North America (US and Canada), and the Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Baccalaureus Dentalis Chirurgiae (BDS, BDent, BChD, BDSc) in the UK and current and former British Commonwealth countries.


title: Dentistry

text: All dentists in the United States undergo at least three years of undergraduate studies, but nearly all complete a bachelor's degree. This schooling is followed by four years of dental school to qualify as a "Doctor of Dental Surgery" (DDS) or "Doctor of Dental Medicine" (DMD). Specialization in dentistry is available in the fields of Anesthesiology, Dental Public Health, Endodontics, Oral Radiology, Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, Oral Medicine, Orofacial Pain, Pathology, Orthodontics, Pediatric Dentistry, Periodontics, and Prosthodontics.


title: Dentistry

text: Some dentists undertake further training after their initial degree in order to specialize. Exactly which subjects are recognized by dental registration bodies varies according to location. Examples include:


title: Dentistry

text: Tooth decay was low in pre-agricultural societies, but the advent of farming society about 10,000 years ago correlated with an increase in tooth decay (cavities). An infected tooth from Italy partially cleaned with flint tools, between 13,820 and 14,160 years old, represents the oldest known dentistry, although a 2017 study suggests that 130,000 years ago the Neanderthals already used rudimentary dentistry tools. The Indus valley has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC, during the Stone Age. The Neolithic site of Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan's south western province of Balochistan) indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead-crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective. The earliest dental filling, made of beeswax, was discovered in Slovenia and dates from 6500 years ago. Dentistry was practised in prehistoric Malta, as evidenced by a skull which had a dental abscess lanced from the root of a tooth dating back to around 2500 BC.


title: Dentistry

text: An ancient Sumerian text describes a "tooth worm" as the cause of dental caries. Evidence of this belief has also been found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China. The legend of the worm is also found in the "Homeric Hymns", and as late as the 14th century AD the surgeon Guy de Chauliac still promoted the belief that worms cause tooth decay.


title: Dentistry

text: Recipes for the treatment of toothache, infections and loose teeth are spread throughout the Ebers Papyrus, Kahun Papyri, Brugsch Papyrus, and Hearst papyrus of Ancient Egypt. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC but which may reflect previous manuscripts from as early as 3000 BC, discusses the treatment of dislocated or fractured jaws. In the 18th century BC, the Code of Hammurabi referenced dental extraction twice as it related to punishment. Examination of the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveals early attempts at dental prosthetics. However, it is possible the prosthetics were prepared after death for aesthetic reasons.


title: Dentistry

text: Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and Aristotle wrote about dentistry, including the eruption pattern of teeth, treating decayed teeth and gum disease, extracting teeth with forceps, and using wires to stabilize loose teeth and fractured jaws. Some say the first use of dental appliances or bridges comes from the Etruscans from as early as 700 BC. In ancient Egypt, Hesy-Ra is the first named "dentist" (greatest of the teeth). The Egyptians bound replacement teeth together with gold wire. Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents. The earliest dental amalgams were first documented in a Tang Dynasty medical text written by the Chinese physician Su Kung in 659, and appeared in Germany in 1528.


title: Dentistry

text: During the Islamic Golden Age Dentistry was discussed in several famous books of medicine such as The Canon in medicine written by Avicenna and Al-Tasreef by Al-Zahrawi who is considered the greatest surgeon of the Middle ages, Avicenna said that jaw fracture should be reduced according to the occlusal guidance of the teeth; this principle is still valid in modern times. Al-Zahrawi invented over 200 surgical tools that resemble the modern kind.


title: Dentistry

text: Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth which alleviated pain and associated chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac most probably invented the dental pelican (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used to perform dental extractions up until the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 19th century.


title: Dentistry

text: The first book focused solely on dentistry was the "Artzney Buchlein" in 1530, and the first dental textbook written in English was called "Operator for the Teeth" by Charles Allen in 1685.


title: Dentistry

text: In the United Kingdom, there was no formal qualification for the providers of dental treatment until 1859 and it was only in 1921 that the practice of dentistry was limited to those who were professionally qualified. The Royal Commission on the National Health Service in 1979 reported that there were then more than twice as many registered dentists per 10,000 population in the UK than there were in 1921.


title: Dentistry

text: It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed. The English physician Thomas Browne in his "A Letter to a Friend" ( pub. 1690) made an early dental observation with characteristic humour:


title: Dentistry

text: The French surgeon Pierre Fauchard became known as the "father of modern dentistry". Despite the limitations of the primitive surgical instruments during the late 17th and early 18th century, Fauchard was a highly skilled surgeon who made remarkable improvisations of dental instruments, often adapting tools from watchmakers, jewelers and even barbers, that he thought could be used in dentistry. He introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities. He asserted that sugar-derived acids like tartaric acid were responsible for dental decay, and also suggested that tumors surrounding the teeth and in the gums could appear in the later stages of tooth decay.


title: Dentistry

text: Fauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he invented many methods to replace lost teeth. He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone. He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would follow the pattern of the wires. Waxed linen or silk threads were usually employed to fasten the braces. His contributions to the world of dental science consist primarily of his 1728 publication Le chirurgien dentiste or The Surgeon Dentist. The French text included "basic oral anatomy and function, dental construction, and various operative and restorative techniques, and effectively separated dentistry from the wider category of surgery".


title: Dentistry

text: After Fauchard, the study of dentistry rapidly expanded. Two important books, "Natural History of Human Teeth" (1771) and "Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Teeth" (1778), were published by British surgeon John Hunter. In 1763 he entered into a period of collaboration with the London-based dentist James Spence. He began to theorise about the possibility of tooth transplants from one person to another. He realised that the chances of a successful tooth transplant (initially, at least) would be improved if the donor tooth was as fresh as possible and was matched for size with the recipient. These principles are still used in the transplantation of internal organs. Hunter conducted a series of pioneering operations, in which he attempted a tooth transplant. Although the donated teeth never properly bonded with the recipients' gums, one of Hunter's patients stated that he had three which lasted for six years, a remarkable achievement for the period.


title: Dentistry

text: Major advances in science were made in the 19th century, and dentistry evolved from a trade to a profession. The profession came under government regulation by the end of the 19th century. In the UK the Dentist Act was passed in 1878 and the British Dental Association formed in 1879. In the same year, Francis Brodie Imlach was the first ever dentist to be elected President of the Royal College of Surgeons (Edinburgh), raising dentistry onto a par with clinical surgery for the first time.


title: Dentistry

text: Long term occupational noise exposure can contribute to permanent hearing loss, which is referred to as noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and tinnitus. Noise exposure can cause excessive stimulation of the hearing mechanism, which damages the delicate structures of the inner ear. NIHL can occur when an individual is exposed to sound levels above 90 dBA according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Regulations state that the permissible noise exposure levels for individuals is 90 dBA. For the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), exposure limits are set to 85 dBA. Exposures below 85 dBA are not considered to be hazardous. Time limits are placed on how long an individual can stay in an environment above 85 dBA before it causes hearing loss. OSHA places that limitation at 8 hours for 85 dBA. The exposure time becomes shorter as the dBA level increases.


title: Dentistry

text: Within the field of dentistry, a variety of cleaning tools are used including piezoelectric and sonic scalers, and ultrasonic scalers and cleaners. While a majority of the tools do not exceed 75 dBA, prolonged exposure over many years can lead to hearing loss or complaints of tinnitus. Few dentists have reported using personal hearing protective devices, which could offset any potential hearing loss or tinnitus.


title: Dentistry

text: There is a movement in modern dentistry to place a greater emphasis on high-quality scientific evidence in decision-making. Evidence-based dentistry (EBD) uses current scientific evidence to guide decisions. It is an approach to oral health that requires the application and examination of relevant scientific data related to the patient's oral and medical health. Along with the dentist's professional skill and expertise, EBD allows dentists to stay up to date on the latest procedures and patients to receive improved treatment. A new paradigm for medical education designed to incorporate current research into education and practice was developed to help practitioners provide the best care for their patients. It was first introduced by Gordon Guyatt and the Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group at McMaster University in Ontario, Canada in the 1990s. It is part of the larger movement toward evidence-based medicine and other evidence-based practices, especially since a major part of dentistry involves dealing with oral and systemic diseases. Other issues relevant to the dental field in terms of evidence-based research and evidence-based practice include population oral health, dental clinical practice, tooth morphology etc.


title: Dentistry

text: Dentistry is unique in that it requires dental students to have competence-based clinical skills that can only be acquired through supervised specialized laboratory training and direct patient care. This necessitates the need for a scientific and professional basis of care with a foundation of extensive research-based education. According to some experts, the accreditation of dental schools can enhance the quality and professionalism of dental education.


title: Chris Squire

text: Christopher Russell Edward Squire (4March 1948 – 27June 2015) was an English musician, singer and songwriter best known as the bassist and backing vocalist of the progressive rock band Yes. He was the longest-serving original member, having remained in the band until his death and appearing on every studio album released from 1969 to 2014. In 2017, he was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Yes.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire was widely regarded as the dominant bassist among the English progressive rock bands, influencing peers and later generations of bassists with his incisive sound and elaborately contoured, melodic bass lines. His name was associated with his trademark instrument, the Rickenbacker 4001. From 1991 to 2000, Rickenbacker produced a limited edition signature model bass in his name, the 4001CS.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire was born on 4 March 1948 in the north west London suburb of Kingsbury, to Peter and Joanne Squire. He grew up there and in the nearby Queensbury and Wembley areas. His father was a cab driver and his mother a secretary for an estate agent. As a youngster Squire took a liking to Lena Horne and Ella Fitzgerald records belonging to his father, though his main interest was church music. At age six, he joined the church choir at St Andrew's in Kingsbury as a treble with Andrew Pryce Jackman, a friend of his who lived nearby. The choir got to perform at St. Paul's Cathedral. Their choirmaster Barry Rose was an early influence on Squire. "He made me realise that working at it was the way to become best at something". Squire also sang in the choir at his next school, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, then located in Hampstead. He played the harmonica on his way home from school.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire did not consider a music career until the age of sixteen when the emergence of The Beatles and the Beat music boom in the early 1960s inspired him to "be in a group that don't use music stands". A school friend recommended that Squire take up the bass after pointing out his tall frame and large hands, thinking they were ideal for playing the instrument. Squire then purchased his first bass, a Futurama, which he described as "very cheap, but good enough to learn on." In 1964, on the last day before the summer holidays, Squire's headmaster suspended him and a friend for having their hair too long and they were given two shillings and sixpence to have it cut. Instead, they went home and never returned. After his mother took him to a recruitment agency and enquired for work related to music, Squire landed work selling guitars at a Boosey & Hawkes shop in Regent Street. He used the staff discount offer to purchase a new bass, a Rickenbacker 4001, in 1965.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire's first band was the Selfs, a rock and rhythm and blues band that featured Jackman on keyboards and Martin Adelman on drums. Their first public performance took place at The Graveyard, a youth club in the hall of St. Andrew's. In 1965, following several personnel changes, Squire, Jackman and Adelman teamed with singer Steve Nardelli, guitarist John Painter, and drummer Gunnar Jökull Hákonarson to form a new group, the Syn. The group performed Tamla Motown covers before they changed direction towards psychedelic rock. After several months, Painter was replaced by guitarist Peter Banks. The new line-up gained a following large enough to secure a weekly residency at the Marquee Club in Soho, which was followed by a recording contract with Deram Records. The band once opened for The Jimi Hendrix Experience at the venue, "So I saw what was possible, and I just had this innate faith that I was going to make it." Together they released two singles before they disbanded.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire was fond of using LSD in the 1960s; a visit to the UFO Club on the drug on Friday which lasted through Saturday, and recovery on Sunday, became a regular event until a 1967 incident where he had a bad trip on a friend's home made LSD. When the police asked him to reveal who gave it to him, Squire pretended to be disoriented and made up a story that involved an unknown Australian he met at a Wimpy restaurant beforehand. He recalled, "It was the last time I ever took it, having ended up in hospital in Fulham for a couple of days not knowing who I was, or what I was, or who anybody else was." After his discharge from hospital, Squire spent several months in his girlfriend's apartment, afraid to leave, only managing to visit the corner shop. He spent each day practising his bass playing which resulted in his distinct style, citing bassists John Entwistle, Jack Bruce, Larry Graham, and Bill Wyman as early influences.


title: Chris Squire

text: In September 1967, Squire joined Mabel Greer's Toyshop, a psychedelic group that included Peter Banks, singer Clive Bayley and drummer Bob Hagger. They played at the Marquee club where Jack Barrie, owner of the La Chasse drinking club a few doors down, saw them perform. "The musicianship ... was very good but it was obvious they weren't going anywhere", he recalled. One evening at La Chasse, Barrie introduced Squire to Jon Anderson, a worker at the bar who had not found success as the lead singer of The Gun or as a solo artist. The two found they shared common musical interests including Simon & Garfunkel, The Association and vocal harmonies. In the following days they developed "Sweetness", a track later recorded for the first Yes album.


title: Chris Squire

text: As the band developed, Anderson and Squire brought in drummer Bill Bruford, keyboardist Tony Kaye and Banks for rehearsals. The five agreed to drop the name Mabel Greer's Toyshop; they settled on the name Yes, originally Banks's idea. The band played their first show as Yes at a youth camp in East Mersea, Essex on 4 August 1968. Squire spoke about the band's formation: "I couldn't get session work because most musicians hated my style. They wanted me to play something a lot more basic. We started Yes as a vehicle to develop everyone's individual styles." Squire developed a bass solo named "A Bass Odyssey".


title: Chris Squire

text: In August 1969, Yes released their self-titled debut album. Martyn Adelman, who had played drums with Squire's first group, did the album photos. Squire received writing credits on four of the album's eight tracks—"Beyond & Before", "Looking Around", "Harold Land", and "Sweetness".


title: Chris Squire

text: After Bruford left the band and was replaced by Alan White in July 1972, Squire altered his playing to suit the change in the band's rhythm section. He felt he was "playing too much, though I was never really sure. With Bill, the things that I did felt right ... With Alan, I found that I was able to play a bit less than before and still get my playing across".


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire described his playing on "The Remembering (High the Memory)" from "Tales from Topographic Oceans" (1973) as "one of the nicest things I think I've ever played".


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire was the only member to play on each of their 21 studio albums released from 1969 to 2014. He was seen as one of the main forces behind the band's music, as well as being "perhaps the most enigmatic" group member. "Heaven & Earth" was his final studio album.


title: Chris Squire

text: While most of the band's lyrics were written by Anderson, Squire co-wrote much of their music with guitarist Steve Howe (with Anderson occasionally contributing). In addition, Squire and Howe would supply backing vocals in harmony with Anderson on songs such as "South Side of the Sky" and "Close to the Edge".


title: Chris Squire

text: During the band's formative years Squire was frequently known for his lateness, a habit that Bruford often complained about. Because of this, Squire would frequently drive at unsafe speeds to get to gigs on time, once causing an accident on the way to a gig in West Germany after he fell asleep at the wheel, although nobody was injured. A posthumous commemorative brown plaque was titled in such a way as to make reference to his habitual lateness, namely " 'The Late' Chris Squire ".


title: Chris Squire

text: As Squire, along with Alan White and Steve Howe, co-owned the "Yes" name at the time, the 1989 ABWH line-up without him (which contained Anderson, Bruford, Wakeman and Howe) could not record under that name.


title: Chris Squire

text: Following Squire's death on 27 June 2015, the band's show on 7 August of the same year marked the first Yes concert ever performed without him. Former member Billy Sherwood replaced Squire during their 2015 North American tour with Toto from August to September 2015, as well as their performances in November 2015, as announced when the band first revealed Squire's disease in May 2015.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire concentrated overwhelmingly on Yes' music over the years, producing little solo work. His first solo record was 1975's "Fish Out of Water", featuring Yes alumni Bill Bruford on drums and Patrick Moraz on keyboards and The Syn/The Selfs alumnus Andrew Jackman also on keyboards.


title: Chris Squire

text: In 1981, Squire was a member of the short lived XYZ, short for eX-Yes/Zeppelin (Squire claimed his father had come up with the name) together with White and guitarist Jimmy Page. XYZ recorded several demo tracks, but never produced anything formal, though two of the demos provided the basis for two later Yes tracks, "Mind Drive" and "Can You Imagine?" Led Zeppelin singer Robert Plant was not ready, despite Page's promises, to get involved with the band so soon after the death of Zeppelin drummer John Bonham. According to Squire, Zeppelin manager Peter Grant objected to the name as the "Y" appeared before the "Z" in the name. The group then "fizzled out".


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire also played a role in bringing Trevor Rabin into the Cinema band project, which became the "90125" line-up of Yes.


title: Chris Squire

text: In later years, Squire would join with Yes guitarist Billy Sherwood in a side project called Conspiracy. This band's self-titled debut album in 2000 contained the nuclei of several songs that had appeared on Yes' recent albums. Conspiracy's second album, "The Unknown", was released in 2003.


title: Chris Squire

text: In late 2004, Squire joined a reunion of The Syn. The reformed band released the album "Syndestructible" in 2005 before breaking up again.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire also worked on two solo projects with other former Syn collaborators Gerard Johnson, Jeremy Stacey and Paul Stacey. A Christmas album, "Chris Squire's Swiss Choir", was released in 2007 (with Johnson, J. Stacey and Steve Hackett). Squire collaborated again with Hackett, formerly of the band Genesis, to make the Squackett album "A Life Within a Day", released in 2012.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire's unique tone was very clear and distinct, and his playing was noted for being aggressive, dynamic and melodic.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire played primarily with a plectrum (usually a grey Herco "heavy") held with the tip very close to his own fingertips, meaning that his thumb would also strike the strings right after the pick, causing subtle harmonics.


title: Chris Squire

text: He made frequent use of hammer-ons, pull-offs as well as alternate and tremolo picking. Aside from his use of distortion, Squire occasionally used other effects, most notably chorus, flanger and wah-wah pedals, which until then had mostly been used by guitarists.


title: Chris Squire

text: In a 1973 interview for "Guitar Player" magazine, Squire recalled how he had obtained his distinctive tone at the time by rewiring his RM1999 into stereo and sending the bass and treble pick-ups each into a separate amplifier. By splitting the signal from his bass into dual high and low frequency outputs and then sending the low frequency output to a conventional bass amplifier and the high-frequency output to a separate lead guitar amplifier, Squire produced a tonal "sandwich" that added a growling, overdrive edge to the sound while retaining the Rickenbacker's powerful bass response. This gave his bass sound bright, growling higher frequencies and clean, solid bass frequencies. This technique allowed Squire to use harmonic distortion on his bass while avoiding the flat, fuzzy sound, loss of power and poor bass response that typically occurs when bass guitars are overdriven through an amplifier or put through a fuzz box. Squire also made notable use of fret buzz, a normally undesirable condition caused by low string action, to create a further, growling edge to his playing.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire claimed to have rewired his bass to stereo, even before Rickenbacker introduced the Rick-O-Sound feature, so he could send the output of the bass (neck) pick-up through a fuzz box, while keeping the treble (bridge) pick-up clean, because the last sounded "horribly nasal" when used with the fuzz effect. He also played with a pick which contributed to the sharp attack as well as using fresh Rotosound Swing Bass strings for every show. Squire's intricate and complex bass playing style has influenced subsequent bassists such as Billy Sheehan, Geddy Lee of Rush, Steve Di Giorgio of Death and Sadus, Pat Badger of Extreme, Jon Camp of Renaissance, Steve Harris of Iron Maiden, Les Claypool of Primus, John Myung of Dream Theater and Robert DeLeo of Stone Temple Pilots. John Deacon of Queen was also inspired by Squire, and told Guitar Magazine that Squire was his favourite bass player.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire's main instrument was a 1964 Rickenbacker bass which he bought and began playing in 1965. Although generally referred to as having been a 4001 model, it was actually from the RM1999 series, a British export version of the 4001 (Squire's had the serial number DC127). Squire mentioned in a 1979 interview with "Circus Weekly" that he acquired this bass while working at the Boosey & Hawkes music store in London. Before acquiring its final distinctive cream-coloured lacquer, the bass had twice been customised with a paper finish (firstly with flowery wallpaper and subsequently with silver reflective paper) and on each occasion had had to be sanded down when the paper was removed, reducing its mass and altering its resonance. A faulty bridge pickup with lower output and “tinny sound,” was another part of the instrument's sonic character, with Squire incorporating the existing fault by using it as backup and support to the other, fully-working pickup (adding to the overall harmonic output). The instrument, with its warmth, was a significant part of Squire's unique sound. Due to its distinctive tone, which has been compared to that of a guitar, it allowed the bass to take on a more "lead" role, which created a dynamic sound, and suited Squire perfectly.


title: Chris Squire

text: Although he was almost exclusively associated with the Rickenbacker, Squire did in fact play many different models of bass guitar throughout his career, selecting each instrument according to the demands of the song and the approach of the time. In addition to four-string bass, he was an early pioneer of eight-string bass, occasionally played fretless bass, and had an interest in integrating technology into his instruments.


title: Chris Squire

text: In the early years of Yes, Squire played a Fender Telecaster bass almost as frequently as he played his Rickenbacker RM1999. During the mid-1970s, he played a Fender Jazz bass on specific tracks such as 'The Gates of Delerium' and a Gibson Thunderbird on tracks including "Release, Release". In 1980, Squire obtained an MPC Electra 4-string with built-in effects units (heard to best effect on "Drama"'s "Tempus Fugit". Yes' 1983 comeback single "Owner of a Lonely Heart" featured a custom green four-string designed by Jim Mouradian, while during the late 1980s Squire played a variety of Tobias four and five-string basses (using these almost exclusively on 1987's "Big Generator" album). Later in his life, Squire added to his armoury of four-string basses with models by Lakland and Yamaha.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire began playing eight-string bass in the early 1970s. His initial choice was a prototype Rickenbacker eight-string, but from the mid-1970s onwards this was superseded by a custom instrument made by Ranney (on "Fortune Seller" from Yes' 1998 album "Open Your Eyes", he played his bandmate Billy Sherwood's unique Spector 8-string). While his playing of fretless bass was infrequent, he would use a fretless Guild model on those occasions.


title: Chris Squire

text: Apart from his Rickenbacker, Squire played another iconic bass guitar - a custom triple-neck made by Wal and originally constructed for Roger Newell of the Rick Wakeman band, and which Wakeman subsequently gifted to Squire. This instrument was used for live performances of the Yes song "Awaken", for stage impact and to avoid the necessity for rapid changes between instruments for different parts (as had been the case in the studio version). It was adapted for Squire's purposes, with the top neck being a six-string bass with doubled A, D, and G strings, the middle neck being a standard fretted four-string, and the bottom neck being a fretless four-string.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire was an enthusiastic user of bass pedals, initially playing Moog Taurus pedals but later replacing them with samples triggered from an E-Mu ESI2000 sampler via a pedal array.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire's choice of effects pedals included Maestro Fuzz-Tone, TC Electronic Stereo Chorus Flanger, TC Nova Reverb, Boss OC-3 Super Octave, Mu-Tron III, and custom-made tremolo pedals. Throughout his career, Squire used a Marshall 100-watt amp and 4x12 cabinet, but over time also used Sunn amps and cabinets, Ampeg SVT-2 PROs, Ampeg 8x10 cabs, and a pair of Clair Brothers custom 6x12 cabinets with directional speakers.


title: Chris Squire

text: In addition to bass guitar and bass pedals, Squire also occasionally played harmonica, piano and six or twelve-string guitar.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire met his first wife Nikki in 1970 at a club in London. They married in 1972. She sang on the 1981 Christmas single "Run with the Fox" and also the track "Hold Out Your Hand" from "Fish Out of Water" (1975). In 1983, she formed Esquire, on whose first album Chris, Alan White, and Trevor Horn assisted. They had three daughters: Carmen, Chandrika, and Camille Squire. The couple divorced after fifteen years of marriage.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire married actress Melissa Morgan on 8 May 1993. She gave birth to their son Cameron in 2000. She played Brittany Norman on "The Young and the Restless" and later returned to the daytime drama as Agnes Sorensen. The pair divorced in 2008.


title: Chris Squire

text: His third and final marriage was to Scotland Squire who gave birth to their daughter Xilan in 2008. In 2014, they were living in Phoenix, Arizona, having previously resided in Chelsea.


title: Chris Squire

text: Squire was a vegetarian in the 1970s. In 1973, he toured with the Eagles and was introduced to cocaine. At some point in his life, Squire also suffered a heart attack.