title: Firefighter

text: A firefighter is a first responder and rescuer extensively trained in firefighting, primarily to extinguish hazardous fires that threaten life, property, and the environment as well as to rescue people and in some cases or jurisdictions also animals from dangerous situations. Male firefighters are sometimes referred to as firemen (and, less commonly, a female firefighter as firewoman).


title: Firefighter

text: The fire service, also known in some countries as the fire brigade or fire department, is one of the three main emergency services. From urban areas to aboard ships, firefighters have become ubiquitous around the world.


title: Firefighter

text: The skills required for safe operations are regularly practised during training evaluations throughout a firefighter's career. Initial firefighting skills are normally taught through local, regional or state-approved fire academies or training courses. Depending on the requirements of a department, additional skills and certifications such as technical rescue and pre-hospital medicine may also be acquired at this time.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters work closely with other emergency response agencies such as the police and emergency medical service. A firefighter's role may overlap with both. Fire investigators or fire marshals investigate the cause of a fire. If the fire was caused by arson or negligence, their work will overlap with law enforcement. Firefighters also frequently provide some degree of emergency medical service, including certifying and working as full-time paramedics from engine, truck, and rescue companies in some systems to initiate advanced life support until ambulance transport arrives.


title: Firefighter

text: A fire burns due to the presence of three elements: fuel, oxygen and heat. This is often referred to as the "fire triangle". Sometimes it is known as the "fire tetrahedron" if a fourth element is added: a chemical chain reaction which can help sustain certain types of fire. The aim of firefighting is to deprive the fire of at least one of those elements. Most commonly this is done by dousing the fire with water, though some fires require other methods such as foam or dry agents. Firefighters are equipped with a wide variety of equipment for this purpose that include ladder trucks, pumper trucks, tanker trucks, fire hose, and fire extinguishers.


title: Firefighter

text: While sometimes fires can be limited to small areas of a structure, wider collateral damage due to smoke, water and burning embers is common. Utility shutoff (such as gas and electricity) is typically an early priority for arriving fire crews. In addition, forcible entry may be required in order to gain access into the structure. Specific procedures and equipment are needed at a property where hazardous materials are being used or stored.


title: Firefighter

text: Structure fires may be attacked with either "interior" or "exterior" resources, or both. Interior crews, using the "two in, two out" rule, may extend fire hose lines inside the building, find the fire and cool it with water. Exterior crews may direct water into windows and other openings, or against any nearby fuels exposed to the initial fire. Hose streams directed into the interior through exterior wall apertures may conflict and jeopardize interior fire attack crews.


title: Firefighter

text: Buildings that are made of flammable materials such as wood are different from building materials such as concrete. Generally, a "fire-resistant" building is designed to limit fire to a small area or floor. Other floors can be safe by preventing smoke inhalation and damage. All buildings suspected or on fire must be evacuated, regardless of fire rating.


title: Firefighter

text: Some fire fighting tactics may appear to be destructive, but often serve specific needs. For example, during ventilation, firefighters are forced to either open holes in the roof or floors of a structure (called vertical ventilation), or open windows and walls (called horizontal ventilation) to remove smoke and heated gases from the interior of the structure. Such ventilation methods are also used to improve interior visibility to locate victims more quickly. Ventilation helps to preserve the life of trapped or unconscious individuals as it releases the poisonous gases from inside the structure. Vertical ventilation is vital to firefighter safety in the event of a flashover or backdraft scenario. Releasing the flammable gases through the roof eliminates the possibility of a backdraft, and the removal of heat can reduce the possibility of a flashover. Flashovers, due to their intense heat () and explosive temperaments, are commonly fatal to firefighter personnel. Precautionary methods, such as smashing a window, reveal backdraft situations before the firefighter enters the structure and is met with the circumstance head-on. Firefighter safety is the number one priority.


title: Firefighter

text: Whenever possible during a structure fire, property is moved into the middle of a room and covered with a salvage cover, a heavy cloth-like tarp. Various steps such as retrieving and protecting valuables found during suppression or overhaul, evacuating water, and boarding windows and roofs can divert or prevent post-fire runoff.


title: Firefighter

text: Wildfires (known in Australia as bushfires) require a unique set of strategies and tactics. In many countries such as Australia and the United States, these duties are mostly carried out by local volunteer firefighters. Wildfires have some ecological role in allowing new plants to grow, therefore in some cases they will be left to burn. Priorities in fighting wildfires include preventing the loss of life and property as well as ecological damage.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters rescue people (and animals) from dangerous situations such as crashed vehicles, structural collapses, trench collapses, cave and tunnel emergencies, water and ice emergencies, elevator emergencies, energized electrical line emergencies, and industrial accidents. In less common circumstances, Firefighters rescue victims from hazardous materials emergencies as well as steep cliffs, embankment and high rises - The latter is referred to as High Angle Rescue, or Rope Rescue. Many fire departments, including most in the United Kingdom, refer to themselves as a fire and rescue service for this reason. Large fire departments, such as the New York City Fire Department and London Fire Brigade, have specialist teams for advanced technical rescue. As building fires have been in decline for many years in developed countries such as the United States, rescues other than fires make up an increasing proportion of their firefighters' work.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters frequently provide some degree of emergency medical care. In some jurisdictions first aid is the only medical training that firefighters have, and medical-only calls are the sole responsibility of a separate emergency medical services (EMS) agency. Elsewhere, it is common for firefighters to respond to medical-only calls. The impetus for this is the growing demand for emergency medicine and the decline of fires and traditional firefighting call-outs—though fire departments still have to be able to respond to them—and their existing ability to respond rapidly to emergencies. A rapid response is particularly necessary for cardiac arrests, as these will lead to death if not treated within minutes.


title: Firefighter

text: The dispatch of firefighters to medical emergencies is particularly common in fire departments that run the EMS, including most large cities of the United States. In those departments, firefighters are often jointly trained as emergency medical technicians in order to deliver basic life support, and more rarely as paramedics to deliver advanced life support. In the United Kingdom, where fire services and EMS are run separately, fire service co-responding has been introduced more recently. Another point of variation is whether the firefighters respond in a fire engine or a response car. Either way, separate employees to crew ambulances are still needed, unless the firefighters can work shifts on the ambulances.


title: Firefighter

text: Airports employ specialist firefighters to deal with potential ground emergencies. Due to the mass casualty potential of an aviation emergency, the speed with which emergency response equipment and personnel arrive at the scene of the emergency is of paramount importance. When dealing with an emergency, the airport firefighters are tasked with rapidly securing the aircraft, its crew and its passengers from all hazards, particularly fire. Airport firefighters have advanced training in the application of firefighting foams, dry chemical and clean agents used to extinguish burning aviation fuel.


title: Firefighter

text: Fire departments are usually the primary agency that responds to an emergency involving hazardous materials. Specialized firefighters, known as hazardous materials technicians, have training and certification in chemical identification, leak control, decontamination, and clean-up procedures.


title: Firefighter

text: Fire departments frequently provide advice to the public on how to prevent fires in the home and work-place environments. Fire inspectors or fire marshals will directly inspect businesses to ensure they are up to the current building fire codes, which are enforced so that a building can sufficiently resist fire spread, potential hazards are located, and to ensure that occupants can be safely evacuated, commensurate with the risks involved.


title: Firefighter

text: Fire suppression systems have a proven record for controlling and extinguishing unwanted fires. Many fire officials recommend that every building, including residences, have fire sprinkler systems. Correctly working sprinklers in a residence "greatly" reduce the risk of death from a fire. With the small rooms typical of a residence, one or two sprinklers can cover most rooms. In the United States, the housing industry trade groups have lobbied at the State level to prevent the requirement for Fire Sprinklers in one or two family homes.


title: Firefighter

text: Other methods of fire prevention are by directing efforts to reduce known hazardous conditions or by preventing dangerous acts before tragedy strikes. This is normally accomplished in many innovative ways such as conducting presentations, distributing safety brochures, providing news articles, writing public safety announcements (PSA) or establishing meaningful displays in well-visited areas. Ensuring that each household has working smoke alarms, is educated in the proper techniques of fire safety, has an evacuation route and rendezvous point is of top priority in public education for most fire prevention teams in almost all fire department localities.


title: Firefighter

text: Fire investigators, who are experienced firefighters trained in fire cause determinism, are dispatched to fire scenes, in order to investigate and determine whether the fire was a result of an accident or intentional. Some fire investigators have full law enforcement powers to investigate and arrest suspected arsonists.


title: Firefighter

text: To allow protection from the inherent risks of fighting fires, firefighters wear and carry protective and self-rescue equipment at all times. A self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) delivers air to the firefighter through a full face mask and is worn to protect against smoke inhalation, toxic fumes, and super heated gases. A special device called a Personal Alert Safety System (PASS) is commonly worn independently or as a part of the SCBA to alert others when a firefighter stops moving for a specified period of time or manually operates the device. The PASS device sounds an alarm that can assist another firefighter (firefighter assist and search team (FAST), or rapid intervention team (RIT), in locating the firefighter in distress.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters often carry personal self-rescue ropes. The ropes are generally long and can provide a firefighter (that has enough time to deploy the rope) a partially controlled exit out of an elevated window. Lack of a personal rescue rope is cited in the deaths of two New York City Firefighters, Lt. John Bellew and Lt. Curtis Meyran, who died after they jumped from the fourth floor of a burning apartment building in the Bronx. Of the four firefighters who jumped and survived, only one of them had a self-rescue rope. Since the incident, the Fire Department of New York City has issued self-rescue ropes to their firefighters.


title: Firefighter

text: Heat injury is a major issue for firefighters as they wear insulated clothing and cannot shed the heat generated from physical exertion. Early detection of heat issues is critical to stop dehydration and heat stress becoming fatal. Early onset of heat stress affects cognitive function which combined with operating in dangerous environment makes heat stress and dehydration a critical issue to monitor. Firefighter physiological status monitoring is showing promise in alerting EMS and commanders to the status of their people on the fire ground. Devices such as PASS device alert 10–20 seconds after a firefighter has stopped moving in a structure. Physiological status monitors measure a firefighter's vital sign status, fatigue and exertion levels and transmit this information over their voice radio. This technology allows a degree of early warning to physiological stress. These devices are similar to technology developed for Future Force Warrior and give a measure of exertion and fatigue. They also tell the people outside a building when they have stopped moving or fallen. This allows a supervisor to call in additional engines before the crew get exhausted and also gives an early warning to firefighters before they run out of air, as they may not be able to make voice calls over their radio. Current OSHA tables exist for heat injury and the allowable amount of work in a given environment based on temperature, humidity and solar loading.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters are also at risk for developing rhabdomyolysis. Rhabdomyolysis is the breakdown of muscle tissue and has many causes including heat exposure, high core body temperature, and prolonged, intense exertion. Routine firefighter tasks, such as carrying extra weight of equipment and working in hot environments, can increase firefighters’ risk for rhabdomyolysis.


title: Firefighter

text: Another leading cause of death during firefighting is structural collapse of a burning building (e.g. a wall, floor, ceiling, roof, or truss system). Structural collapse, which often occurs without warning, may crush or trap firefighters inside the structure. To avoid loss of life, all on-duty firefighters should maintain two-way communication with the incident commander and be equipped with a personal alert safety system device on all fire scenes and maintain radio communication on all incidents(PASS). Francis Brannigan was the founder and greatest contributor to this element of firefighter safety.


title: Firefighter

text: In the United States, 25% of fatalities of firefighters are caused by traffic collisions while responding to or returning from an incident. Other firefighters have been injured or killed by vehicles at the scene of a fire or emergency (Paulison 2005). A common measure fire departments have taken to prevent this is to require firefighters to wear a bright yellow reflective vest over their turnout coats if they have to work on a public road, to make them more visible to passing drivers. In addition to the direct dangers of firefighting, cardiovascular diseases account for approximately 45% of on duty firefighter deaths.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters have sometimes been assaulted by members of the public while responding to calls. These kinds of attacks can cause firefighters to fear for their safety and may cause them to not have full focus on the situation which could result in injury to their selves or the patient.


title: Firefighter

text: Many hazardous substances are commonly found in fire debris. Silica can be found in concrete, roofing tiles, or it may be a naturally occurring element. Occupational exposures to silica dust can cause silicosis, lung cancer, pulmonary tuberculosis, airway diseases, and some additional non-respiratory diseases. Inhalation of asbestos can result in various diseases including asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma. Sources of metals exposure include burnt or melted electronics, cars, refrigerators, stoves, etc. Fire debris cleanup workers may be exposed to these metals or their combustion products in the air or on their skin. These metals may include beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, manganese, nickel, and many more. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), some of which are carcinogenic, come from the incomplete combustion of organic materials and are often found as a result of structural and wildland fires.


title: Firefighter

text: Safety hazards of fire cleanup include the risk of reignition of smoldering debris, electrocution from downed or exposed electrical lines or in instances where water has come into contact with electrical equipment. Structures that have been burned may be unstable and at risk of sudden collapse.


title: Firefighter

text: Standard personal protective equipment for fire cleanup include hard hats, goggles or safety glasses, heavy work gloves, earplugs or other hearing protection, steel-toe boots, and fall protection devices. Hazard controls for electrical injury include assuming all power lines are energized until confirmation they are de-energized, and grounding power lines to guard against electrical feedback, and using appropriate personal protective equipment. Proper respiratory protection can protect against hazardous substances. Proper ventilation of an area is an engineering control that can be used to avoid or minimize exposure to hazardous substances. When ventilation is insufficient or dust cannot be avoided, personal protective equipment such as N95 respirators can be used.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighting has long been associated with poor cardiovascular outcomes. In the United States, the most common cause of on-duty fatalities for firefighters is sudden cardiac death. In addition to personal factors that may predispose an individual to coronary artery disease or other cardiovascular diseases, occupational exposures can significantly increase a firefighter's risk. Historically, the fire service blamed poor firefighter physical condition for being the primary cause of cardiovascular related deaths. However, over the last 20 years, studies and research has indicated the toxic gasses put fire service personnel at significantly higher risk for cardiovascular related conditions and death. For instance, carbon monoxide, present in nearly all fire environments, and hydrogen cyanide, formed during the combustion of paper, cotton, plastics, and other substances containing carbon and nitrogen. The substances inside of materials change during combustion, and their by-products can interfere with the transport of oxygen in the body. Hypoxia can then lead to heart injury. In addition, chronic exposure to particulate matter in smoke is associated with atherosclerosis. Noise exposures may contribute to hypertension and possibly ischemic heart disease. Other factors associated with firefighting, such as stress, heat stress, and heavy physical exertion, also increase the risk of cardiovascular events.


title: Firefighter

text: During fire suppression activities a firefighter can reach peak or near peak heart rates which can act as a trigger for a cardiac event. For example, tachycardia can cause plaque buildup to break loose and lodge itself is a small part of the heart causing myocardial infarction, also known as a heart attack. This along with unhealthy habits and lack of exercise can be very hazardous to firefighter health.


title: Firefighter

text: Cancer risk in the U.S. fire service is a topic of growing concern. Recent studies suggest that due to their exposure on the fireground, firefighters may be at an increased risk for certain types of cancer and other chronic diseases. Additionally, large international studies generally support the finding from U.S. studies that firefighters have elevated rates of cancer, with some variation by cancer site.


title: Firefighter

text: A 2015 retrospective longitudinal study showed that firefighters are at higher risk for certain types of cancer. Firefighters had mesothelioma, which is caused by asbestos exposure, at twice the rate of the non-firefighting working population. Younger firefighters (under age 65) also developed bladder cancer and prostate cancer at higher rates than the general population. The risk of bladder cancer may be present in female firefighters, but research is inconclusive as of 2014. Preliminary research from 2015 on a large cohort of US firefighters showed a direct relationship between the number of hours spent fighting fires and lung cancer and leukemia mortality in firefighters. This link is a topic of continuing research in the medical community, as is cancer mortality in general among firefighters.


title: Firefighter

text: In addition to epidemiological studies, mechanistic studies have used biomarkers to investigate exposures' effects on biological changes that could be related to cancer development. Several of these studies have found evidence of DNA damage, oxidative stress, and epigenetic changes related to firefighters' exposures.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters regularly encounter carcinogenic materials and hazardous contaminants, which is thought to contribute to their excess cancer risk. Dozens of chemicals classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as known or probable carcinogens have been identified on the fireground. Several studies have documented airborne and/or dermal exposures to carcinogenic compounds during firefighting, as well as contamination on turnout gear and other equipment worn by firefighters.  Some of these compounds have been shown to absorb into firefighters’ bodies.


title: Firefighter

text: In addition to chemical exposures, firefighters often work 24-hr shifts or longer, and may respond to emergencies at night. Night shift work has been classified as a probable human carcinogen by IARC. Some firefighters also work with hazardous materials and trained to control and clean up these dangerous materials, such as oil spills and chemical accidents. As firefighters combat a fire and clean up hazardous materials, there is a risk of harmful chemicals coming in contact with their skin if it penetrates their personal protective equipment (PPE). In June 2022, IARC classified occupational exposure as a firefighter as “carcinogenic to humans.”


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters are in addition to carcinogenic chemicals, firefighters can be exposed to radiation (alpha radiation, beta radiation, and gamma radiation).


title: Firefighter

text: There are many types of firefighters. Most research on firefighters’ cancer risk has involved structural or municipal career firefighters. Wildland firefighters are specially trained firefighters tasked with controlling forest fires. They frequently create fire lines, which are swathes of cut-down trees and dug-up grass placed in the path of the fire. This is designed to deprive the fire of fuel. Wildland firefighting is a physically demanding job with many acute hazards. Wildland firefighters may hike several miles while carrying heavy equipment during the wildfire season, which has increased in duration over time, especially in the western United States. Unlike structural firefighters, wildland firefighters typically do not wear respiratory protection, and may inhale particulate and other compounds emitted by the wildfires. They also use prescribed fires to burn potential fire fuel under controlled conditions. To examine cancer risk for wildland firefighters, a risk assessment was conducted using an exposure-response relationship for risk of lung cancer mortality and measured particulate matter exposure from smoke at wildfires. This study concluded that wildland firefighters could have an increased risk of lung cancer mortality. The research on cancer for other subspecialty groups of firefighters is limited, but a recent study of fire instructors in Australia found an exposure-response relationship between training exposures and cancer incidence.


title: Firefighter

text: Due to the lack of central and comprehensive sources of data, research on cancer rates amongst firefighters has been challenging. On July 7, 2018, Congress passed the Firefighter Cancer Registry Act of 2018 requiring the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to create the National Firefighter Registry designed to collect data on cancer rates among U.S. firefighters.


title: Firefighter

text: As with other emergency workers, firefighters may witness traumatic scenes during their careers. They are thus more vulnerable than most people to certain mental health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Among women in the US, the occupations with the highest suicide rates are police and firefighters, with a rate of 14.1 per 100 000, according to the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, CDC. Chronic stress over time attributes to symptoms that affect first responders, such as anxiousness, irritability, nervousness, memory and concentration problems can occur overtime which can lead to anxiety and depression. Mental stress can have long lasting affects on the brain. A 2014 report from the National Fallen Firefighters Foundation found that a fire department is three times more likely to experience a suicide in a given year than a line-of-duty death. Mental stress of the job can lead to substance abuse and alcohol abuse as ways of coping with the stress. The mental stress of fire fighting has many different causes. There are those they see on duty and also what they miss by being on duty. Firefighters schedules fluctuate by district. There are stations where fire fighters work 48 hours on and 48 hours off, whereas some allow 24 hours on and 72 hours off. The mental impact of missing a child's first steps or a ballet recital can take a heavy impact on first responders. There is also the stress of being on opposite shifts as a spouse or being away from family.


title: Firefighter

text: When not on the scene of an emergency, firefighters remain on call at fire stations, where they eat, sleep, and perform other duties during their shifts. Hence, sleep disruption is another occupational hazard that they may encounter at their job.


title: Firefighter

text: Another long-term risk factor from firefighting is exposure to high levels of sound, which can cause noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and tinnitus. NIHL affects sound frequencies between 3,000 and 6,000 Hertz first, then with more frequent exposure, will spread to more frequencies. Many consonants will be more difficult to hear or inaudible with NIHL because of the higher frequencies effected, which results in poorer communication. NIHL is caused by exposure to sound levels at or above 85dBA according to NIOSH and at or above 90dBA according to OSHA. dBA represents A-weighted decibels. dBA is used for measuring sound levels relating to occupational sound exposure since it attempts to mimic the sensitivity of the human ear to different frequencies of sound. OSHA uses a 5-dBA exchange rate, which means that for every 5dBA increase in sound from 90dBA, the acceptable exposure time before a risk of permanent hearing loss occurs decreases by half (starting with 8 hours acceptable exposure time at 90dBA). NIOSH uses a 3-dBA exchange rate starting at 8 hours acceptable exposure time at 85dBA.


title: Firefighter

text: The time of exposure required to potentially cause damage depends on the level of sound exposed to. The most common causes of excessive sound exposure are sirens, transportation to and from fires, fire alarms, and work tools. Traveling in an emergency vehicle has shown to expose a person to between 103 and 114dBA of sound. According to OSHA, exposure at this level is acceptable for between 17 and 78 minutes and according to NIOSH is acceptable for between 35 seconds and 7.5 minutes over a 24-hour day before permanent hearing loss can occur. This time period considers that no other high level sound exposure occurs in that 24-hour time frame. Sirens often output about 120 dBA, which according to OSHA, 7.5 minutes of exposure is needed and according to NIOSH, 9 seconds of exposure is needed in a 24-hour time period before permanent hearing loss can occur. In addition to high sound levels, another risk factor for hearing disorders is the co-exposure to chemicals that are ototoxic.


title: Firefighter

text: The average day of work for a firefighter can often be under the sound exposure limit for both OSHA and NIOSH. While the average day of sound exposure as a firefighter is often under the limit, firefighters can be exposed to impulse noise, which has a very low acceptable time exposure before permanent hearing damage can occur due to the high intensity and short duration.


title: Firefighter

text: There are also high rates of hearing loss, often NIHL, in firefighters, which increases with age and number of years working as a firefighter. Hearing loss prevention programs have been implemented in multiple stations and have shown to help lower the rate of firefighters with NIHL. Other attempts have been made to lower sound exposures for firefighters, such as enclosing the cabs of the firetrucks to lower the siren exposure while driving. NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) is responsible for occupational health programs and standards in firefighters which discusses what hearing sensitivity is required to work as a firefighter, but also enforces baseline (initial) and annual hearing tests (based on OSHA hearing maintenance regulations). While NIHL can be a risk that occurs from working as a firefighter, NIHL can also be a safety concern for communicating while doing the job as communicating with coworkers and victims is essential for safety. Hearing protection devices have been used by firefighters in the United States. Earmuffs are the most commonly used hearing protection device (HPD) as they are the most easy to put on correctly in a quick manner. Multiple fire departments have used HPDs that have communication devices built in, allowing firefighters to speak with each other at safe, but audible sound levels, while lowering the hazardous sound levels around them.


title: Firefighter

text: In a country with a comprehensive fire service, fire departments must be able to send firefighters to emergencies at any hour of day or night, to arrive on the scene within minutes. In urban areas, this means that full-time paid firefighters usually have shift work, with some providing cover each night. On the other hand, it may not be practical to employ full-time firefighters in villages and isolated small towns, where their services may not be required for days at a time. For this reason, many fire departments have firefighters who spend long periods on call to respond to infrequent emergencies; they may have regular jobs outside of firefighting.


title: Firefighter

text: Whether they are paid or not varies by country. In the United States and Germany, volunteer fire departments provide most of the cover in rural areas. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, by contrast, actual volunteers are rare. Instead, "retained firefighters" are paid for responding to incidents, along with a small salary for spending long periods of time on call. The combined fire services of the United Kingdom retain around 18,000 retained firefighters alongside their wholetime colleagues. In both the UK and Ireland retained firefighters make up the majority of active firefighting personnel. Their training, qualifications, and range of possible deployments, are all comparable to wholetime firefighters. Retained firefighters are required to live or work within a set radius of their assigned fire station - in the United Kingdom this is usually , and in Ireland .


title: Firefighter

text: A key difference between many countries' fire services is what the balance is between full-time and volunteer (or on-call) firefighters. In the United States and United Kingdom, large metropolitan fire departments are almost entirely made up of full-time firefighters. On the other hand, in Germany and Austria, volunteers play a substantial role even in the largest fire departments, including Berlin's, which serves a population of 3.6 million. Regardless of how this balance works, a common feature is that smaller urban areas have a mix of full-time and volunteer/on-call firefighters. This is known in the United States as a combination fire department. In Chile and Peru, all firefighters are volunteers.


title: Firefighter

text: Another point of variation is how the fire services are organized. Some countries like the Czech Republic, Israel and New Zealand have a single national fire service. Others like Australia, the United Kingdom and France organize fire services based on regions or sub-national states. In the United States, Austria, Germany and Canada, fire departments are run at a municipal level.


title: Firefighter

text: Atypically, Singapore and many parts of Switzerland have fire service conscription. In Germany, conscription can also be used if a village does not have a functioning fire service. Other unusual arrangements are seen in Denmark, where most fire services are run by private companies, and in France, where two of the country's fire services (the Paris Fire Brigade and the Marseille Naval Fire Battalion) are part of the armed forces; similarly, the national fire service of Monaco is part of the Military of Monaco and maintains an armoury of sidearms for use by firefighters during civil defence operations.


title: Firefighter

text: Another way in which a firefighter's work varies around the world is the nature of firefighting equipment and tactics. For example, American fire departments make heavier use of aerial appliances, and are often split between engine and ladder companies. In Europe, where the size and usefulness of aerial appliances are often limited by narrow streets, they are only used for rescues, and firefighters can rotate between working on an engine and an aerial appliance.


title: Firefighter

text: The expedient and accurate handling of fire alarms or calls are significant factors in the successful outcome of any incident. Fire department communications play a critical role in that successful outcome. Fire department communications include the methods by which the public can notify the communications center of an emergency, the methods by which the center can notify the proper fire fighting forces, and the methods by which information is exchanged at the scene. One method is to use a megaphone to communicate.


title: Firefighter

text: A telecommunicator (often referred to as a 000 Operator in Australia) has a role different from but just as important as other emergency personnel. The telecommunicator must process calls from unknown and unseen individuals, usually calling under stressful conditions. He/she must be able to obtain complete, reliable information from the caller and prioritize requests for assistance. It is the dispatcher's responsibility to bring order to chaos.


title: Firefighter

text: While some fire departments are large enough to utilize their own telecommunication dispatcher, most rural and small areas rely on a central dispatcher to provide handling of fire, rescue, and police services.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters are trained to use communications equipment to receive alarms, give and receive commands, request assistance, and report on conditions. Since firefighters from different agencies routinely provide mutual aid to each other, and routinely operate at incidents where other emergency services are present, it is essential to have structures in place to establish a unified chain of command, and share information between agencies. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has established a National Incident Management System. One component of this system is the Incident Command System.


title: Firefighter

text: All radio communication in the United States is under authorization from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC); as such, fire departments that operate radio equipment must have radio licenses from the FCC.


title: Firefighter

text: Ten codes were popular in the early days of radio equipment because of poor transmission and reception. Advances in modern radio technology have reduced the need for ten-codes and many departments have converted to simple English (clear text).


title: Firefighter

text: Many firefighters are sworn members with command structures similar to the military or police. They do not usually have general police powers (although some firefighters in the United States have limited police powers, like fire police departments), though certain fire safety officials (such as fire marshals or fire safety inspectors) do possess extensive police powers in connection with their work of enforcement and control in regulatory and emergency situations. In some countries fire fighters carry, or have access to, firearms, including some US fire marshals, and the Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers of Monaco which is a military unit providing civilian fire cover.


title: Firefighter

text: The nomenclature of firefighting varies from country to country. The basic unit of firefighters is known as a "company" in many countries, including the United States, with its members typically working on the same engine. A "crew" or "platoon" is a subdivision of a company who work on the same shift. In British and Commonwealth fire services the firefighters of each station are more typically organised around a "watch" pattern, with several watches (usually four) working on a shift basis, as a separate "crew" for each engine or specialist appliance at that station.


title: Firefighter

text: Although people have fought fires since there have been valuable things to burn, the first instance of organized professionals combating structural fires occurred in


title: Firefighter

text: ancient Egypt. Likewise, fire fighters of the Roman Republic existed solely as privately organized and funded groups that operated more similarly to a business than a public service; however, during the Principate period, Augustus revolutionized firefighting by calling for the creation of a fire guard that was trained, paid, and equipped by the state, thereby commissioning the first truly public and professional firefighting service. Known as the Vigiles, they were organised into cohorts, serving as a night watch and city police force.


title: Firefighter

text: The earliest American fire departments were volunteers, including the volunteer fire company in New Amsterdam, now known as New York. Fire companies were composed of citizens who volunteered their time to help protect the community. As time progressed and new towns were established throughout the region, there was a sharp increase in the number of volunteer departments.


title: Firefighter

text: In 1853, the first career fire department in the United States was established in Cincinnati, Ohio, followed four years later by St. Louis Fire Department. Large cities began establishing paid, full-time staff in order to try to facilitate greater call volume.


title: Firefighter

text: City fire departments draw their funding directly from city taxes and share the same budget as other public works like the police department and trash services. The primary difference between municipality departments and city departments is the funding source. Municipal fire departments do not share their budget with any other service and are considered to be private entities within a jurisdiction. This means that they have their own taxes that feed into their budgeting needs. City fire departments report to the mayor, whereas municipal departments are accountable to elected board officials who help maintain and run the department along with the chief officer staff.


title: Firefighter

text: Funds for firefighting equipment may be raised by the firefighters themselves, especially in the case of volunteer organizations. Events such as pancake breakfasts and chili feeds are common in the United States. Social events are used to raise money include dances, fairs, and car washes.


title: John Savage (actor)

text: John Savage (born John Smeallie Youngs; August 25, 1949) is an American actor best known for his roles in the films "The Deer Hunter" (1978), "The Onion Field" (1979), "Hair" (1979) and "Salvador" (1986). He is also known for his role as Donald Lydecker in the TV series "Dark Angel".


title: John Savage (actor)

text: Savage was born in Old Bethpage, New York, to Muriel (née Smeallie), a housewife, and Floyd-Jones Youngs, an insurance salesman who served on Guadalcanal during World War II with the Marine Corps. His sisters are Boston-based radio and television personality Robin Young and actress Gail Youngs (who was once married to Robert Duvall). His brother is actor Jim Youngs.


title: John Savage (actor)

text: Savage has appeared in more than 200 feature films, short films, recurring roles in television series and guest appearances in episodes of television series. One of Savage's first notable roles is as Claude Bukowski in the 1979 film "Hair". His first major film role was as Steven Pushkov in the multiple Oscar-winning 1978 film "The Deer Hunter". He also had a lead role in the 1979 film "The Onion Field".


title: John Savage (actor)

text: In 1991, he starred in Italian director Lucio Fulci's final film "Door to Silence". He then had a brief role in the 1998 war film "The Thin Red Line," portrayed Captain Ransom in the two part episode "Equinox" of the television series "" in 1999, and appeared in the recurring role of Donald Lydecker in the first and second seasons of the 2000 television series "Dark Angel."


title: John Savage (actor)

text: Savage appeared in the recurring role of Henry Scudder in the HBO television series "Carnivàle" between 2003 and 2005. He appeared in unrelated roles in two of the series in the "Law & Order" franchise: the 2004 "" episode "" as a man who put his wife in a permanent coma, and the 2005 "" episode "" as a child molester on death row for murdering one of his victims.


title: John Savage (actor)

text: Savage starred in the 2015 horror film "Tales of Halloween," the 2017 film "In Dubious Battle," and on the 2017 continuation of the television show "Twin Peaks."


title: John Savage (actor)

text: In 2017, Savage spoke at a tribute honoring director Richard Donner, held by The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.


title: John Savage (actor)

text: In 2018, he appeared on the television show "Goliath". In the same year, Savage lent his voice to a monologue on the title track of the album "This Town" by Steve Smith of Dirty Vegas.


title: John Savage (actor)

text: In 2019 Savage played the role of The Narrator in fantasy crime drama "Karma" from award-winning filmmaker Bizhan Tong, having collaborated with him earlier that year. They would once again collaborate on the international pandemic thriller "Lockdown".


title: Fuerteventura

text: Fuerteventura () is one of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, part of the North Africa region, and politically part of Spain. It is located away from the northwestern coast of Africa. The island was declared a biosphere reserve by UNESCO in 2009.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Fuerteventura belongs to Province of Las Palmas, one of the two provinces that form the autonomous community of the Canary Islands. The island's capital is Puerto del Rosario, where the Insule Council is found, the government of the island. Fuerteventura has 119,732 inhabitants (), the fourth largest population of the Canary Islands and the third of the Province. At , it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife. From a geological point of view, Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the archipelago.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island's name is a compound word formed by the Spanish words for "strong" (fuerte) and "fortune" (ventura). Traditionally, Fuerteventura's name has been regarded as a reference to the strong winds around the island and the resulting danger to nautical adventurers. However, it might have referred instead (or also) to wealth, luck or destiny.


title: Fuerteventura

text: In 1339 the Mallorcan navigator Angelino Dulcert, in the "Planisferio de Angelino Dulcert", referred to the island as "Forte Ventura".


title: Fuerteventura

text: Another theory is that the island's name derives from "Fortunatae Insulae" (Fortunate Islands), the name by which the Romans knew the Canary Islands.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The indigenous name of the island, before its conquest in the 15th century, was Erbania, divided into two regions (Jandía and Maxorata), from which the name majorero (originally majo or maxo) derives. However, it has been suggested that, at some point, Maxorata (which meant "the children of the country") was the aboriginal toponym of the entire island.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The first settlers of Fuerteventura are believed to have come from North Africa. The word "Mahorero" ("Majorero") or "Maho" is still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and is derived from the ancient word 'mahos', a type of goatskin shoe worn by these original inhabitants. They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, some of which have been excavated, revealing remnants of early tools and pottery. In antiquity, the island was originally known as "Planaria", in reference to the flatness of most of its terrain.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the islands were organized around 1340, followed by Moors and European slave traders. At the end of the Iberian conquest, the island was divided into two Guanches kingdoms, one adhering to King Guize and the other to King Ayoze. The territories of these kingdoms were called Maxorata (in the North) and Jandía (in the South) respectively. They were separated by a wall, which traversed the La Pared isthmus. Some remains have been preserved. The ancient name for the island, Erbania, is derived from this wall's name.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island's conquest began in earnest in 1402, commanded by French knights and crusaders Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle. They arrived with only 63 sailors out of the original 283, as many had deserted along the way. After arriving and settling in Lanzarote, the invaders made some first excursions to the neighboring islands. In 1404, Bethencourt and Gadifer founded Betancuria, on the West coast, the first settlement on the island. After numerous difficulties, Gadifer took charge of the invasion, while Bethencourt returned to Spain to seek the recognition and support of the Castilian king.


title: Fuerteventura

text: In 1405, de Béthencourt completed his conquest of the island, establishing its capital in Betancuria (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835).


title: Fuerteventura

text: In 1424 Pope Martin V, through the Betancuria Brief, edicted the establishment of the Bishopric of Fuerteventura, which encompassed all the Canary Islands save for the island of Lanzarote. The origin of this bishopric is directly related to the events that occurred after the Great Schism (1378–1417), in that the bishop of San Marcial del Rubicón of Lanzarote (at the time, the only diocese in the Canary Islands) did not recognize the papacy of Martin V, and instead adhered to anti-Pope Benedict XIII. The "Bishopric of Fuerteventura" was based in the "Parish of Santa María de Betancuria", bestowing upon the latter the status of Grant Cathedral. After the reabsorbtion of the "Diocese of San Marcial del Rubicón" by the papacy of Pope Martin V, the Bishopric of Fuerteventura was abolished in 1431, only seven years after it was created.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The first census recorded a population of some 1,200 inhabitants. The population increased gradually thereafter. In 1476 the territory became the "Señorío Territorial de Fuerteventura", subjected to the Catholic Monarchs. In later years, the island was invaded by the Spanish, French and the English.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Over time, the island endured numerous raids. A Berber-led expedition invaded in 1593, sweeping as far inland as the capital. Various castles were built along the coastline, to protect against these type of attacks. The population was moved inland as a second protective measure. Because of the raids, a first "Captain General" was dispatched to Fuerteventura, accompanied by a number of "Sergeant Majors", to defend the island in the name of the Crown. At that time Betancuria became the religious capital of the island.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Two major attacks took place in 1740, within a month of each other. Two separate bands of English privateers attempted to loot the town of Tuineje. These attacks were however successfully averted by the local population and the island's militia. This successful repelling of the invaders is celebrated at a re-enactment that takes place in Gran Tarajal every year in October.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island's garrison was officially instated in 1708. Its colonel assumed the title of "Governor at Arms", a hereditary, lifelong appointment which has remained in the Sánchez-Dumpiérrez family. In time, this family increasingly garnered power over the other islands through alliances with the family of Arias de Saavedra and the Lady of Fuerteventura. During the same year the "Assistant Parish of La Oliva and Pájara" was created, to become operational in 1711. On 17 December 1790 the "Assistant Parish of Tuineje" was created, which became a new parish division on 23 June 1792 under the bishop Tavira, with lands including part of the Jandía peninsular, and with a population of 1,670 inhabitants. 1780 saw the start of a barrilla plantation industry.


title: Fuerteventura

text: In 1852, a free trade zone was extended by Isabella II to the Canary Islands. Military island rule, which began in 1708, was finally dissolved in 1859, and Puerto de Cabras (now Puerto del Rosario) became the new capital.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The Canary Islands obtained self-governance in 1912. In 1927, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote became part of the province of Gran Canaria. The seat of the island's government ("cabildo insular") is located in Puerto del Rosario. A total of 118,574 people lived on the island in 2018.


title: Fuerteventura

text: By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west of Puerto del Rosario on the road to Tindaya, still visible today). Mass tourism began to arrive in the mid-1960s, facilitated by the construction of Fuerteventura Airport at El Matorral and the first tourist hotels.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island's proximity (a mere 100 km) to the West African coast and the fact that it is part of the Schengen territory make it a prime target destination for undocumented immigrants. However, many have perished while attempting the crossing.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The flag of Fuerteventura is in proportions 1:2, divided vertically, green to the hoist and white to the fly end, with the coat of arms of the island in the centre.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The coat of arms of Fuerteventura was prescribed by a Decree adopted on 15 October 1998 by the Government of the Canary Islands and published on 11 November 1998 in the official gazette of the Canary Islands, No. 142, pp. 13,432–13,433. It was adopted on 24 April 1998 by the Island Council and validated on 18 September 1998 by the Heraldry Commission of the Canary Islands.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The heraldic description is "per pale and per fess. First, gules, a castle or, masoned sable, its gate and windows azure.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Second, argent, lion gules, crowned, armed and langued or. Third, silver, three fesses chequy gules and or, in four rows, each one charged with a fess or.


title: Fuerteventura

text: According to José Manuel Erbez (Banderas y escudos de Canarias, 2007), the coat of arms is based on the arms of the island's provincial militia.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The upper quarters represent Castile (symbolized by a castle) and León (symbolized by a lion). The lower quarter alludes to the Saavedra family; various members of this family were lords of Fuerteventura.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The elongated island has an area of . The island is long and wide. It is part of the province of Las Palmas. It is divided into six municipalities:


title: Fuerteventura

text: 100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. A nearby islet, Islote de Lobos, is part of the municipality of La Oliva.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Located just off the coast of North Africa, it is the second biggest of the islands, after Tenerife, and has the longest white sand beaches in the archipelago. The island is a destination for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. It lies at the same latitude as Florida and Mexico and temperatures rarely fall below or rise above . It counts 152 separate beaches along its seaboard — of white sand and of black volcanic shingle.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The highest point in Fuerteventura is Pico de la Zarza (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island. Geographical features include Istmo de la Pared which is wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura. The island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which is Maxorata and the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The climate on Fuerteventura is mild, but mostly windy, throughout the year. The island is hence referred to as "the island of eternal spring". The sea regulates air temperature, diverting hot Sahara winds away from the island. The island's name in English translates as "strong fortune" or "strong wind", the Spanish word for wind being "viento". During the winter months, temperatures average a high of and a low of around , whereas during the summer a mean high of and a low of can be expected. Precipitation is about per year, most of which falls in autumn and winter. December is the month with highest rainfall.


title: Fuerteventura

text: A sandstorm known as the Calima (similar to the Sirocco wind, which blows to the North of the Sahara, to Europe) may blow from the Sahara Desert to the Northwest, and can cause high temperatures, low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomenon rise temporarily by approximately 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine red dust, The fine white sand is not blown in from Sahara, It is made up of dead coral reef and local seabed upheaval. visibility can drop to between or even lower, and together with very warm temperatures, it can even bring African locusts to the island.


title: Fuerteventura

text: In the winter months, up to 80% of the rainwater flows unused into the ocean, as there is no vegetation to capture the water (also due to overgrazing by free-ranging goats near the coast).


title: Fuerteventura

text: Instead, there are many desalination plants (running on electricity) which produce the required amount of freshwater on the island. The tourists on the island use about double the amount of water as the native inhabitants of Fuerteventura. Causes are the filling of swimming pools, watering hotel gardens and washing towels, ...


title: Fuerteventura

text: Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back 20 million years to a volcanic eruption from the Canary hotspot. The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then has been eroded by wind and precipitation. On the seabed off the West coast of the island rests an enormous slab of bedrock long and wide, which appears to have slid off the island largely intact at some point in prehistory, similar to the predicted future collapse of Cumbre Vieja, a geological fault on another Canary Island, La Palma. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura occurred between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Fuerteventura was chosen among 500 European destinations by the Quality Coast International Certification Program of the European Coastal and Marine Union as one of the most attractive tourist destinations for visitors interested in cultural heritage, environment and sustainability. The best beaches to visit are Playa de Cofete, Playas de Jandia, Playas de Corralejo, Playa de Ajuy, and Playas de El Cotillo.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island is home to one of the two surviving populations of the threatened Canarian Egyptian vulture. It is also inhabited by many wild dogs and cats. On the barren, rocky land there are Barbary ground squirrels and geckos. Fuerteventura also hosts several migratory and nesting birds. The island has significant populations of the collared dove, common swifts and several finch species especially in the vicinity of holiday developments.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Despite its arid climate, the island is also home to a surprisingly large insect fauna. Butterflies which commonly occur on the island include the clouded yellow ("Colias hyale") and the bath white ("Pontia daplidice") which feeds on xerophytic cruciferae. The island is also home to the monarch butterfly ("Danaus plexippus") and its close African relative "Danaus chrysippus". Around holiday developments such as Caleta de Fuste, water is relatively abundant, and dragonfly species including the blue emperor ("Anax imperator") and the scarlet darter ("Crocothemis erythraea") can be found. The island's sand dunes and shoreline are home to a number of bee and wasp species including the large eumenid caterpillar hunting wasp, "Delta dimidiatipenne" and the blue banded bee ("Amegilla canifrons").


title: Fuerteventura

text: Hawkmoths also occur on the island. One of the more notable species is "Hyles tithymali" which feeds on endemic spurges such as "Euphorbia regis-jubae". "Acherontia atropos", the deaths-head hawkmoth also occurs on the island presumably feeding on members of the Solanaceae, for example, "Datura innoxia" and "Nicotiana glauca" which are common weeds in the vicinity of human habitation.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The official natural symbols associated with Fuerteventura are "Chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae" (hubara or houbara) and "Euphorbia handiensis" (Cardón de Jandía).


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island has a population of 116,886. Throughout its long history, Fuerteventura has suffered from a population decline due to the economic situation and the climate, which have made it into a desert island. However, the development of tourism during the 1980s has caused the population to grow year on year since then, doubling it in a little less than a decade.


title: Fuerteventura

text: In 2005, with 86,642 registered inhabitants, the Fuerteventura population was formed by the following:


title: Fuerteventura

text: Comparing this data with the 2001 census shows that the number of permanent residents born on the island has increased by just 3,000. The number who have moved in from abroad has increased by 22,910, making this the biggest contributor to population growth in recent years.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island has 116 schools, with a total of 14,337 pupils. Of these, 45 are primary schools, ten are secondary schools, six are for Baccalaureate students and four are vocational colleges.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Fuerteventura also has a centre linked with the National University of Distance Education, offering courses in many subjects including economics, business studies, law, history and tourism.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Fuerteventura is governed by the Island Department of the Government of Spain, which holds the rank of a Government Subdepartment. The government building is located in the centre of the capital city.


title: Fuerteventura

text: This institution is charged with representing the Government of Spain on the island, and managing all the functions that are not under control of the Canarian Government. This includes the following public services:


title: Fuerteventura

text: The councils, formed as part of the Councils Act of 1912, administer the Canary Islands and have two principal functions. On one hand, they perform services for the Autonomous Community, and on the other, they are the local government centre for the island. In the 2003 elections, Mario Cabrera González was elected as president representing the Canarian Coalition, with 31.02% of the votes, followed by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party with 27.53%, represented by the Vice President Domingo Fuentes Curbelo.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island is divided into six municipalities with their respective city councils which form part of the FECAM (Federation of Canarian Municipalities). They are governed by the basic legislation of the local regime and their respective organic rules. The populations of the municipalities are as follows:


title: Fuerteventura

text: In turn, these municipalities are organised into two associations: the "Mancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Norte de Fuerteventura" formed from La Oliva and Puerto del Rosario, and the remaining municipalities make up the "Mancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Sur de Fuerteventura".


title: Fuerteventura

text: Both Fuerteventura and Lanzarote would be the main exporters of wheat and cereals to the central islands of the archipelago during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries; Tenerife and Gran Canaria. Although, this trade almost never reverted to the inhabitants of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (because the landowners of these islands profited from this activity), producing periods of famine, so some of the population of these islands had to move to Tenerife and Gran Canaria to try to improve their luck. Therefore, the island of Tenerife constituted as the main focus of attraction for "majoreros" and "lanzaroteños", hence the feeling of union that has always existed amongst these islands.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The economy of Fuerteventura is mainly based on tourism. Primary tourist areas are located around the existing towns of Corralejo in the north and Morro Jable in Jandia, plus the purely tourist development of Caleta de Fuste, south of Puerto del Rosario. Other main industries are fishing and agriculture (cereals and vegetables). The famous Majorero cheese is locally made from the milk of the indigenous majorera goat.


title: Fuerteventura

text: In 2009, Fuerteventura recorded the highest EU regional unemployment rate at a NUTS3 level, at 29.2 percent.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The first tourist hotel was built in 1965 followed by the construction of Fuerteventura Airport at El Matorral, heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination.


title: Fuerteventura

text: While having fully developed tourist facilities, the island has not experienced the overdevelopment found on some other islands. Nonetheless, it remains a destination for predominantly but not exclusively European tourists.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The summer Trade Winds and winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise, with more exposed areas on the north and west shores such as Corralejo and El Cotillo proving most popular. Wind surfing takes places at locations around the island. Sailors, scuba divers and big-game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights. With many hills present throughout the Island, hikers are also attracted to this Island.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Excellent sandy beaches are found in many locations. Western beaches, such as those around El Cotillo, can experience strong surf. The beaches adjoining the extensive sand dunes east of Corralejo are popular, as are the more protected extensive sandy shores of the Playa de Sotavento de Jandia on the southeastern coast between Costa Calma and the Morro Jable. Naked sun bathing and swimming are the norm almost on all beaches.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas, although there are organised tours and vehicular access across them.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Like the rest of the Canaries, Carnival is traditionally one of the biggest festivals celebrated on the island. It is celebrated in different ways in all the towns during February and March. These festivities have a different theme each year. They include activities such as parades and galas to choose the carnival king.


title: Fuerteventura

text: There are many concerts and festivals held in the auditoriums, such as the Festival of Canarian Music. They are also held in smaller venues across the island, featuring bands such as Estopa, Van Gogh's Ear, and King Afrhica.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Festival Internacional de Cometas/International Kite Festival is held on the second week of November each year centering on the Corralejo Beaches. It attracts kitefliers and kite surfers from all over Europe. It is popular because the winds are warm and constant and the beaches become filled with hundreds of colourful kites of all shapes and sizes.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Fuerteventura has three auditoriums. These are used for all types of performing art. They are also used for non-artistic purposes, such as conferences, charity galas and political meetings.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The Central Library of the Island is located in Antigua's city centre, in the public university. In addition to providing the traditional library services, it has a 180-seat multipurpose room, air conditioning, a wifi zone, and a multimedia room used for seminars, presentations, film festivals etc.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island has several museums with different themes and plenty of exhibition spaces, both public and private. These include:


title: Fuerteventura

text: In addition to the museums, the capital Puerto del Rosario has an open-air sculpture park consisting of around 100 sculptures by different artists scattered across the city. Most of them were created for the International Symposium of Sculpture celebrated annually since 2001. During the festival, artists come from all over the world to erect their sculptures in the open air, in full view of passers by.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Sites of interest include Corralejo and El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sand dunes whilst the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing onto the beaches provide a paradise for windsurfing. Surfing is common on the west and north coasts where there are large waves. Windsurfing is common around Corralejo and Playas de Sotavento and wave sailing (windsurfing on the waves) on the coast along the northern half of the island. El Cotillo is a small fishing village in the north-west of the Island famous for a very long beach to the south of the village and few very calm beaches to the north. The northern beaches frequented by snorkeling enthusiasts and sun worshippers alike are referred to as lakes by the locals.


title: Fuerteventura

text: At Cofete on the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house – Villa Winter – looks out to sea across wide beaches. It was reputedly built by a Mr Winter on land given by Generalisimo Franco.


title: Fuerteventura

text: For a time, the beaches were home to a popular accidental attraction. On 18 January 1994 the United States Lines ocean liner SS "American Star" (former "America", USS "West Point", "Australis") was beached in Playa de Garcey during a severe storm. Within a year, she broke in two and later lost her stern. By 2007 the rest of the severely deteriorated ship had collapsed onto her port side, gradually keeling over further and almost completely submerged. By 2008–2012, most of the remains finally slipped below the surface.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The cuisine is fairly basic due to the customs and climate conditions. They share this simplicity with the other Canary islands, and similarly to them, they use a large quantity of fish. They also use whatever they can grow in the near-barren land. This includes papas arrugadas, a dish of wrinkled potatoes usually served with mojo, which is a hot pepper sauce or with puchero canario, a meat stew.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Seafood is prepared in many ways traditionally, such as pejines (salted fish), jareas, or sancocho (a type of stew) made from fish, generally the grouper, corvina or sama, boiled after salting, and served with mojo, potatoes, or gofio (a type of grain). People are also very keen on the mussels and limpets collected on the island's coasts.


title: Fuerteventura

text: They also use meat such as beef and pork to make different dishes or simply to for braising, but their main meat is goat, both from the kids and from the older animals. They eat the goat roasted or stewed. Goats are not only useful for their meat – the Fuerteventurans also use the milk to make the cheese majorero, which has won many prizes. The majorero is mostly made of goats milk, and occasionally it is up to 15% ewes milk. It is cured in pimento oil or gofio meal. Majorero and palmero cheese are the only two Canarian cheeses with protected denomination of origin.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The airport is the main access point to the island. It is situated in El Matorral, southwest of the capital city Puerto del Rosario. The airport has flight connections to over 80 destinations worldwide, and over 5.6 million passengers passed through it in 2016. In 1994, the new airport terminal was constructed. In December 2009, the new facilities of the arrivals terminal of Fuerteventura Airport were inaugurated, tripling the space available in the old facilities. Up to 4000 passengers per hour can be served concurrently thanks to the new facilities.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Notably, Binter Canarias serves the airport as the regional airline connecting passengers across Canary Islands.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Maritime communications are made from four ports: Puerto del Rosario, Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. Cargo operations are the main activity of the island's main port in Puerto del Rosario, although its facilities allow the docking of tourist cruises including a ferry from Gran Canaria. Passenger traffic is mainly channeled through Corralejo, Gran Tarajal and Morro Jable. The port of Corralejo connects the island with Lanzarote. The port of Gran Tarajal connects the island with Gran Canaria and Morro Jable connects the island with Gran Canaria and Tenerife.


title: Fuerteventura

text: There are two highways on the island: FV-1 and FV-2. The FV-1, together with the FV-2, is part of the major construction project of the north-south motorway on Fuerteventura.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The FV-1 begins in the north, in the town of Corralejo and ends in the island's capital Puerto del Rosario. FV-1 is part dual carriageway and part single carriageway. In the past, the FV-1 also ran through the Corralejo Dune Nature Reserve. In order to direct through traffic out of the nature reserve, the dual carriageway bypass around the nature reserve was opened in 2017 as the first section of the motorway after three years of construction, plus five years of construction delay. The road through nature reserve was renamed FV-104.


title: Fuerteventura

text: FV-2 connects Morro Jable and Puerto del Rosario. Between La Lajita and Morro Jable, FV-2 is a dual carriageway highway. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar, Hertz, Sixt and TopCar.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Many sports are commonly played in Fuerteventura, both in the open air and in sports centres across the island.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The wrestling takes place in a ring of sand called the "terrero". Inside it, the two contestants try to knock each other over. Fuerteventura has 14 terreros distributed through all the towns except Betancuria.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island also has a school wrestling league organized by the council and a programme to promote this sport in clubs. Twelve wrestling schools participate in this, based in Antigua, Costa Calma, El Matorral, La Lajita, Lajares, Las Playitas, Morro Jable, Puerto del Rosario, Tefía, Tetir, Unión Sur and Villaverde.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Juego del Palo is a Canarian martial art which literally translates as "game of the stick". It is played by two players both armed with sticks. They aim to defeat each other without making contact with their opponent's body. The origin of this game is unclear. All we know is that it is based on a method of combat used by the precolonial Canarian people.


title: Fuerteventura

text: This is a similar game to the French Pétanque which is actually played very little on the island, although there are a few teams and courts. Basically the game consists of scoring points by throwing a ball to get it as near as possible to an object called a "mingue" or "boliche". It is played on a rectangular sand or earth pitch which is long and wide.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Many types of surfing are popular on the island, including traditional surfing, windsurfing (where the board is propelled by a sail) and most recently kitesurfing. The island has many schools and courses dedicated to teaching these sports.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The sports where Fuerteventura has the most impact internationally are windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly due to the International Windsurfing and Kiteboarding Championship. This has run since 1985 and is held at Playas de Sotavento in Pájara municipality. Many important wind and kitesurfing figures compete in this championship, such as the several-times world windsurfing champion Björn Dunkerbeck and Gisela Pulido, the very young kiteboarding champion from Tarifa.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Many Canarian windsurfers are on the Canarian Waveriders circuit, which has been based in Corralejo since 2005.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Diving schools are just as frequent as surfing ones, all around the coast of Fuerteventura. Unlike the other islands of the archipelago, Fuerteventura has a shelf which at some points goes up to , making it an ideal place to practice this sport.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Two of the most useful points for diving are the coast off Playa del Matorral in the South, and the zone between Lobos Island and Corralejo in the north. It is here in Corralejo that the International Sea and Submarine Photography Festival takes places, known as Fimarsub Corralejo – Lobos. During the festival there are beginners' lessons, professional dives, lessons in underwater photography, screenings and other events related to the sport.


title: Fuerteventura

text: There are many swimming pools on the island but the most obvious place to swim is in the open sea. There is an annual swim from Lobos Island to Fuerteventura, held every year since 1999. The event attracts amateur swimmers from all over the Canaries and Spain, and also swimming professionals such as David Meca and Maarten van der Weijden, the paralympist Jesús Collado Alarcón who won gold medals for 100m backstroke and butterfly in Athens 2004, and Xavi Torres Ramis, the paralympic champion in Barcelona 1992, Sydney and Atlanta.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island holds competitions involving different types of boat, such as the lateen and the Optimist. An interesting event is the Tour of Fuerteventura by Kayak, which is organised as a series of stages rather than a competition, and is an easy way to explore the island.


title: Fuerteventura

text: Since 2004 the Marcha Ciclotourista has been held in La Oliva and the Criterium Ciclista has been held in Corralejo (also part of the La Oliva municipality) since 2005. Participants include , T-Mobile and a team from Orbea. These competitions have contributed to local interest in the sport and the first professional local team, the Fuerteventura-Canarias, was formed, initially run by Óscar Guerrero, director of Kaiku, although they have not competed for the past few seasons.


title: Fuerteventura

text: There are various motocross circuits on the island, including "Los Alares" in Antigua and "Isla de Fuerteventura" in Puerto del Rosario municipality. They hold regular trials, some of which form part of the Canarian Regional Motocross Championship. Throughout the year there are gravel rally races. Two are part of the Canarian Dirt Rally Championship. These are the Antiguan Rally and the La Oliva Rally.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The island's main football clubs are CD Union Puerto and CD Cotillo, who play in Group XII of the Spanish Tercera División RFEF.


title: Fuerteventura

text: The resort Playitas on the south coast is since around 2008 equipped with a swimming pool and has become a destination for triathlon training camps for Europeans. An annual race called Challenge Fuerteventura is held there on the half ironman distance.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The BMW E31 is the first generation of the BMW 8 Series. It is a grand tourer built by BMW from 1990 to 1999 as a 2-door coupé, powered by either a V8 or V12 engine. Whilst it did supplant the original E24 based 6 Series in 1990, it was not a direct successor, but a new model class with a substantially higher price and performance than the 6 Series.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: Development of the 8 Series began in July 1981, with both the final design phase reaching completion in 1986, although the launch was delayed due to still-strong 6 Series sales. The 8 Series debuted at the Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA) in early September 1989. The 8 Series was designed to move beyond the market of the original 6 Series. The 8 Series had substantially improved performance, as well as a far higher purchase price.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: Over 1.5 billion Deutsche Marks were spent on total development (2019 USD nearly $900 million). BMW used CAD tools, still unusual at the time, to design the car's all-new body. Combined with wind tunnel testing, the resulting car had a drag coefficient of , a major improvement from the previous BMW M6/635CSi's 0.39.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The 8 Series offered the first V12 engine mated to a 6-speed manual transmission on a road car. It was one of the first vehicles to be fitted with an electronic drive-by-wire throttle. The 8 Series was one of BMW's first cars, together with the Z1, to use a multi-link rear axle.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: CAD modelling allowed the 8 Series unibody to be 3 kg (8 lb) lighter than that of the preceding 6 Series (E24). However the production 8 Series was significantly heavier when completed due to the large engine and added luxury items—a source of criticism from those who wanted BMW to concentrate on the driving experience. Some of the car's weight may have been due to its pillar-less "hardtop" body style which lacked a "B" pillar.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: Sales of the 8 Series were affected by the global recession of the early 1990s, the Persian Gulf War, and energy price spikes. As a result, plans for the high performance M8 variant were dropped in 1991.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: BMW pulled the 8 Series from the North American market in 1997, having sold 6,920 cars. BMW continued production for other markets until 1999 having sold 30,609 in all markets. The base price for an entry-level 8 series in the early 1990s started in the US$70,000 range, which is US$ in .


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The 840Ci was offered with two different engines. The first used the 4.0-litre M60B40 V8 engine having a power output of and was produced from mid-1993 to late 1995. From mid-1995, production phased in the newer 4.4-litre M62B44 V8 engine, which had better fuel economy and more torque, though power output remained unchanged.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The 840Ci was available with a 5-speed automatic transmission, though European cars were given the option of a 6-speed manual transmission. The only external features distinguishing the V8 model from the V12 models were the quad round exhausts, which were square in the V12 models. The 840Ci stayed in production until May 1999.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The 850i was the first model of the 8 Series launched in 1990 with the 5.0-litre M70B50 V12 engine having a power output of . It was available with either a 4-speed automatic or a 6-speed manual gearbox.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: There is some confusion over why and when the 850i became the 850Ci. The change happened around the introduction of the 840Ci in Autumn 1993. The confusion started when BMW installed the new M73B54 V12 engine in the car from October 1994, the new engine being from the newly launched E38 750i. This was not an immediate changeover, and both the M70 and M73-engined cars rolled off the production lines, both named 850Ci with those built before 10/94 using the older E32 type 5.0 M70.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: As the displacement of the M73 increased to 5.4-litres and the compression ratio went up, the power output increased to .


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: As a top-of-the-range variant of the 8 Series, the 850CSi took over from the prototype M8 variant. The 850CSi used the same engine as the 850i, which was tuned so significantly that BMW assigned it a new engine code: S70B56. The modifications included Bosch Motronic 1.7 fuel injection, a capacity increase to and power increase to at 5,300 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm. "Road & Track" recorded a 0-60 mph (0–97 km/h) time for the 850CSi of 5.9 seconds.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The 850CSi's modified suspension included stiffer springs and dampers that reduced the car's ride height. The recirculating ball steering ratio was dropped 15% over the standard E31 setup. The model also sported staggered throwing star wheels. The front and rear bumpers were reshaped for improved aerodynamic performance. Four round stainless steel exhaust tips replaced the square tips found on other models. The 6-speed manual gearbox was the only transmission option. In Europe, all 850CSi's came with four-wheel steering (AHK - Aktive Hinterachs-Kinematik, Active rear axle Kinematics), upgraded and ventilated brakes with floating front discs, rear differential oil cooler, engine oil cooler, two-tone interior, sports seats, and reshaped mirrors. In the United States, the cars instead received "BMW Motorsport" writing on the doorhandles.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: Production ended in late 1996 because the S70 engine could not be modified to comply with new emission regulations without substantial re-engineering.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: Alpina produced two 8 Series variants, the B12 5.0 and the B12 5.7. There have also been aftermarket conversions to change it to a drop-top convertible.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: 2017 United States Environmental Protection Agency estimates for cars equipped with automatic transmission:


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The 840Ci (4.0/4.4 L V8) models were equipped with a 5-speed automatic transmission or a 6-speed manual transmission. The 850i/850Ci (V12) models each use either a 4-speed automatic transmission or a 6-speed manual transmission, a 5-speed automatic transmission was fitted from mid-1994. The high performance 850CSi model only came with a 6-speed manual transmission.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The 830i was a prototype that did not reach production. As the potential entry-level model, the 830i was to use the 3-litre V8 with from the 530i and 730i, known internally as the M60B30. Eighteen cars were produced, thirteen of which had an automatic gearbox fitted. The model was dropped in favour of the 840Ci and almost all of the 18 cars were dismantled; one car is in a BMW museum.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The 8 Series had been planned from the start with a convertible version in mind. Although the 850i Cabrio was developed to production readiness, it never went into production. At a relatively late date it was decided that this model was unlikely to recover its development cost. A prototype in red resides in the BMW Museum in Munich.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The M8 was originally envisioned as a Ferrari competitor equipped with a special version of the S70 engine, with modifications including a displacement increase to just over 6 litres, dual overhead camshafts for each cylinder bank, individual throttle bodies with roller valves, four valves per cylinder, carbon fibre intake manifolds and continuously variable valve timing. As a result, it was estimated the M8 would achieve a top speed of 198 mph, power output is and its torque is . A common misconception is that this engine powered the McLaren F1. The S70/2 used in the McLaren F1 was not based directly on the prototype 4-valve V12 used in the M8, and was a completely new design.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The car was given two intakes by its rear arches for engine and differential oil cooling. It was also given a wider track via a wider drive axle as well as uprated front brakes. The interior was completely stripped, with bucket seats and additional gauges for oil pressure, oil temperature, and water temperature. The M8 was given a B-pillar to retain structural rigidity as well as having its pop up headlights deleted from the car.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: Other modifications include bodywork modifications such as a new front bumper, new wing mirrors, more flared wheel arches and a vent in the bonnet. The car's kerb weight was reduced to less than 1450 kilograms by making elements of the car glass reinforced plastic (such as the bonnet, doors and boot lid), using carbon fibre wheels and removing the rear seats from the car. The windows were made of Lexan. The oil reservoir was moved to the trunk of the car; oil pipes went through the roof of the car.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The project was eventually scrapped because BMW decided that there was no market for a high performance variant of the 8 Series primarily because of the on-going economic recession of the 1990s. The only prototype ever produced (one that was reportedly not even safe for normal road usage) was locked away by BMW in the company's "Giftschrank" (poison storage). BMW and the M Division had strongly denied that the car was even a possibility since the initial stages of its development. A world exclusive feature in the February 2010 issue of BMW Car Magazine, however, revealed that the M8 prototype still exists in its entirety. The car was unveiled to journalists for the first time on July 2, 2010, at the BMW Museum in Munich. The only public showing of the car happened on August 17, 2012, during 'The Legends of the Autobahn' car show held in Carmel, California. The car was specially shipped from Germany for the appearance.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: Although the M8 was never produced, the 850CSi was also tuned by BMW's M division. Aside from sporting an M-tuned engine (as identified by the S prefix instead of the M prefix that a non-M tuned engine would bear), the car's VIN identifies the car as being built by BMW Motorsport (a "WBS" prefix) instead of BMW AG ("WBA" prefix). Per BMW's own protocol, the 850CSi as marketed was essentially a de-tuned version of the putative M8.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The B12 5.0 was built from 1990 to 1994 based on the BMW E31 850i with an Alpina-modified BMW M70 V12 (shared with the E32 B12 5.0) producing and mated to an automatic transmission.


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The B12 5.7 was available from 1992, based on the BMW 850CSi with the BMW S70B56 V12 engine bored out to 5.7 litres along with a modified intake, crankshaft, camshafts and a stainless steel exhaust system as well as a 6-speed manual gearbox. The modified engine produced . The carbon-fibre bonnet had cooling vents and a NACA duct for improved engine cooling. Performance figures included a acceleration time of 5.8 seconds and a top speed of .


title: BMW 8 Series (E31)

text: The 8 Series is a very rare car to see in any form of motorsport. One of the most successful examples was built by Wagenstetter Motorsport however, and, until recently, was raced in the VLN Nürburgring endurance championship. It is based on an 840i, but now has an E39 M5 5.0-litre V8, which has and torque, and a six-speed gearbox from the same car.


title: Jaimee Foxworth

text: Jaimee Monae Foxworth (born December 17, 1979) is an American actress, model, and former pornographic actress. She is best known for her role of Judy Winslow, the youngest daughter of Carl and Harriette Winslow on the ABC sitcom "Family Matters", during the show's first four seasons.


title: Jaimee Foxworth

text: Foxworth began modeling at the age of five, soon appeared in national television advertisements, and ultimately landed the role of Judy Winslow, the youngest of the Winslow family's three children, on the long-running sitcom "Family Matters."


title: Jaimee Foxworth

text: After the introduction of Steve Urkel (Jaleel White), Foxworth's scenes were reduced significantly. The combination of the character having little to do on the show and budget cuts caused producers to eliminate her off the series after its fourth season. The character disappeared without explanation, with the Winslows acknowledging only two children: Eddie (Darius McCrary) and Laura (Kellie Shanygne Williams). Jo Marie Payton, who played matriarch Hariette Winslow, was particularly upset with Foxworth's dismissal, stating that producers had decided "nobody would notice" Judy was gone.


title: Jaimee Foxworth

text: With very little acting work coming in the years after "Family Matters", Foxworth formed an R&B musical group, S.H.E., with her two sisters (Tyren Perry, Jania Perry). They then released their debut album "3's a Charm" on July 1, 1997, through Shaquille O'Neal's T.W.IsM./Interscope Records. From 2000-2002, she worked in the adult industry, making pornographic films under the pseudonym Crave.


title: Jaimee Foxworth

text: Foxworth battled substance abuse and depression. It was rumored that this was prompted in part by a judge's ruling that her trust fund of more than $500,000 be used to save her family from bankruptcy, but she denied this in a 2009 interview, stating, "I think [that came] from the "National Enquirer". We never filed for bankruptcy. We were almost to the point where we were just completely flat broke but we never filed for bankruptcy."


title: Jaimee Foxworth

text: In December 2008, "People" magazine reported that Foxworth was pregnant. She and longtime boyfriend Michael Shaw were expecting a child in early 2009. On May 29, 2009, "People" reported that Foxworth and Shaw's baby was born, a boy named Michael Douglas Shaw, Jr. He was 10 days overdue, and Foxworth shared the news of his birth while still in the delivery room via text message.


title: Jaimee Foxworth

text: In Fall 2009, the TV One series "Life After" chronicled Foxworth's story, dealing with her departure from "Family Matters", and her subsequent marijuana use, which she claimed to have stopped smoking. During the show, her newborn son was shown.


title: Selah Marley

text: Selah Louise Marley (born November 12, 1998) is an American fashion model and singer. Marley is a daughter of singer-songwriter and rapper Lauryn Hill and football player Rohan Marley, as well as a granddaughter of reggae musician Bob Marley. Marley has walked the runway for Chanel, and has starred in campaigns for Dior, Calvin Klein, Telfar and Michael Kors. She has also made appearances in American "Vogue", and has been featured on the covers of "Wonderland", "Flaunt", "UK Sunday Times", and "L'Uomo Vogue". In 2017, she was placed on the "Maxim" Hot 100 list.


title: Selah Marley

text: Marley was born to American singer Lauryn Hill and Jamaican entrepreneur Rohan Marley, who never married but had a long-term partnership for 15 years. She is the granddaughter of reggae icon Bob Marley. The name Selah is Hebrew, meaning "meditational pause". Marley has numerous siblings and half-siblings between her parents. The most recent addition is through her father's marriage to Brazilian model Barbara Fialho. Marley contends that her childhood was complex and traumatic at times. Marley is a student of New York University's Gallatin School of Individualized Study, concentrating on science, comparative religion, and philosophy.


title: Selah Marley

text: Marley started modeling in 2011, when she was featured in "Teen Vogue", additionally she has appeared in "Vogue", "CR Fashion Book", "Dazed", "Elle", "Harper's Bazaar", "L'Officiel", "Love", "Vanity Fair", "V", and "Vogue Arabia" among others. Marley has walked the runway for Chanel, Calvin Klein, Telfar, Pyer Moss, and Kanye West's Adidas Yeezy line. In 2016, "The New York Times" named her one of 'Fashion's New 'it' Kids'. In 2017, she was featured a campaign alongside Rowan Blanchard, for Converse; and was also featured in a campaign for Michael Kors. In 2018, Marley fronted the Chanel campaign for their "Chance" fragrance. That same year she was featured in a campaign for Telfar, and Beyoncé's Ivy Park line. Marley also acted as a muse for Dior Beauty.


title: Selah Marley

text: Marley has been featured on the covers of "Wonderland", "Flaunt", "UK Sunday Times", and "L'Uomo Vogue". In 2016, Marley was Placed on Dazed's 'Dazed 100' list. In 2017, she was placed on the "Maxim" Hot 100 list.


title: Selah Marley

text: On October 3, 2022, Marley received backlash on social media after participating in Kanye West's Yeezy SZN 9 fashion show in Paris, during which she modeled a shirt with the slogan "WHITE LIVES MATTER". Marley defended her decision to wear the apparel, claiming people are in a "hive mind mentality" and that she did not do so without intention or prior thought.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to as the Late Glacial Maximum, was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period that ice sheets were at their greatest extent.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: Ice sheets covered much of Northern North America, Northern Europe, and Asia and profoundly affected Earth's climate by causing drought, desertification, and a large drop in sea levels.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: Based on changes in position of ice sheet margins dated via terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides and radiocarbon dating, growth of ice sheets commenced 33,000 years ago and maximum coverage was between 26,500 years and 19–20,000 years ago, when deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere, causing an abrupt rise in sea level. Decline of the West Antarctica ice sheet occurred between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, consistent with evidence for another abrupt rise in the sea level about 14,500 years ago. Glacier fluctuations around the Strait of Magellan suggest the peak in glacial surface area was constrained to between 25,200 and 23,100 years ago.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: The LGM is referred to in Britain as the Dimlington Stadial, dated to between 31,000 and 16,000 years.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: In the archaeology of Paleolithic Europe, the LGM spans the Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, Magdalenian and Périgordian cultures.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: The average global temperature around 19,000 BC (about 21,000 years ago) was about 6 °C (11 °F) colder than today.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), permanent summer ice covered about 8% of Earth's surface and 25% of the land area during the last glacial maximum. The USGS also states that sea level was about lower than in present times (2012).


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: When comparing to the present, the average global temperature was for the 2013–2017 period. Currently (as of 2012), about 3.1% of Earth's surface and 10.7% of the land area is covered in year-round ice.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: The formation of an ice sheet or ice cap requires both prolonged cold and precipitation (snow). Hence, despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe, East Asia remained unglaciated except at higher elevations. This difference was because the ice sheets in Europe produced extensive anticyclones above them. These anticyclones generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that precipitation sufficient for the formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where these westerly winds lifted moisture from the Sea of Japan). The relative warmth of the Pacific Ocean due to the shutting down of the Oyashio Current and the presence of large east-west mountain ranges were secondary factors preventing continental glaciation in Asia.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: All over the world, climates at the Last Glacial Maximum were cooler and almost everywhere drier. In extreme cases, such as South Australia and the Sahel, rainfall could have been diminished by up to 90% compared to the present, with flora diminished to almost the same degree as in glaciated areas of Europe and North America. Even in less affected regions, rainforest cover was greatly diminished, especially in West Africa where a few refugia were surrounded by tropical grasslands.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna, and the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia probably were similarly affected, with deciduous forests expanding in their place except on the east and west extremities of the Sundaland shelf. Only in Central America and the Chocó region of Colombia did tropical rainforests remain substantially intact – probably due to the extraordinarily heavy rainfall of these regions.


title: Last Glacial Maximum

text: Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is now the western United States, where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed, the best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah. This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran, where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir.