title: Crowdfunding

text: There is some hope that crowdfunding has potential as a tool open for use by groups of people traditionally more marginalized. The World Bank published a report titled "Crowdfunding's Potential for the Developing World" which states that "While crowdfunding is still largely a developed world phenomenon, with the support of governments and development organizations it could become a useful tool in the developing world as well. Substantial reservoirs of entrepreneurial talent, activity, and capital lay dormant in many emerging economies ... Crowdfunding and crowdfund investing have several important roles to play in the developing world's entrepreneurial and venture finance ecosystem."


title: Crowdfunding

text: As the popularity of crowdfunding expanded, the SEC, state governments, and Congress responded by enacting and refining many capital-raising exemptions to allow easier access to alternative funding sources. Initially, the Securities Act of 1933 banned companies from soliciting capital from the general public for private offerings. However, "President Obama signed the Jumpstart Our Small Businesses Act ('JOBS Act') into law on April 5, 2012, which removed the ban on general solicitation activities for issuers qualifying under a new exemption called 'Rule 506(c). A company can now broadly solicit and generally advertise an offering and still be compliant with the exemption's requirements if:


title: Crowdfunding

text: Another change was the amendment of SEC Rule 147. Section 3(a)(11) of the Securities Act allows for unlimited capital raising from investors in a single state through an intrastate exemption. However, the SEC created Rule 147 with a number of requirements to ensure compliance. For example, the intrastate solicitation was allowed, but a single out-of-state offer could destroy the exemption. Additionally, the issuer was required to be incorporated and do business in the same state of the intrastate offering. With the expansion of interstate business activities because of the internet, it became difficult for businesses to comply with the exemption. Therefore, on October 26, 2016, the SEC adopted Rule 147(a) which removed many of the restrictions to modernize the Rules. For example, companies would have to do business and have its principal place of business in the state where the offering is sold, and not necessarily where "offered" per the prior rule.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding campaigns provide producers with several benefits, beyond the strict financial gains. The following are the non-financial benefits of crowdfunding.


title: Crowdfunding

text: There are also financial benefits to the creator. For one, crowdfunding allows creators to attain low-cost capital. Traditionally, a creator would need to look at "personal savings, home equity loans, personal credit cards, friends and family members, angel investors, and venture capitalists." With crowdfunding, creators can find funders from around the world, sell both their product and equity, and benefit from increased information flow. Additionally, crowdfunding that supports pre-buying allows creators to obtain early feedback on the product. Another potential positive effect is the propensity of groups to "produce an accurate aggregate prediction" about market outcomes as identified by the author James Surowiecki in his book "The Wisdom of Crowds", thereby placing financial backing behind ventures likely to succeed.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Proponents also identify a potential outcome of crowdfunding as an exponential increase in available venture capital. One report claims that if every American family gave one percent of their investable assets to crowdfunding, $300 billion (a 10X increase) would come into venture capital. Proponents also cite that a benefit for companies receiving crowdfunding support is that they retain control of their operations, as voting rights are not conveyed along with ownership when crowdfunding. As part of his response to the Amanda Palmer Kickstarter controversy, Steve Albini expressed his supportive views of crowdfunding for musicians, explaining: "I've said many times that I think they're part of the new way bands and their audience interact and they can be a fantastic resource, enabling bands to do things essentially in cooperation with their audience." Albini described the concept of crowdfunding as "pretty amazing".


title: Crowdfunding

text: Crowdfunding, while gaining popularity, also comes with a number of potential risks or barriers. For the creator, as well as the investor, studies show that crowdfunding contains "high levels of risk, uncertainty, and information asymmetry."


title: Crowdfunding

text: For crowdfunding of equity stock purchases, there is some research in social psychology that indicates that, like in all investments, people don't always do their due diligence to determine if it is a sound investment before investing, which leads to making investment decisions based on emotion rather than financial logic. By using crowdfunding, creators also forgo potential support and value that a single angel investor or venture capitalist might offer. Likewise, crowdfunding requires that creators manage their investors. This can be time-consuming and financially burdensome as the number of investors in the crowd rises. Crowdfunding draws a crowd: investors and other interested observers who follow the progress, or lack of progress, of a project. Sometimes it proves easier to raise the money for a project than to make the project a success. Managing communications with many possibly disappointed investors and supporters can be a substantial, and potentially diverting, task.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Some of the most popular fundraising drives are for commercial companies that use the process to reach customers and at the same time market their products and services. This favors companies like microbreweries and specialist restaurants – in effect creating a "club" of people who are customers as well as investors. In the US in 2015, new rules from the SEC to regulate equity crowdfunding will mean that larger businesses with more than 500 investors and more than $25 million in assets will have to file reports like a public company. "The Wall Street Journal" commented: "It is all the pain of an IPO without the benefits of the IPO." These two trends may mean crowdfunding is most suited to small consumer-facing companies rather than tech start-ups.


title: Crowdfunding

text: There are several ways in which a well-regulated crowdfunding platform may provide the possibility of attractive returns for investors:


title: Crowdfunding

text: On crowdfunding platforms, the problem of information asymmetry is exacerbated due to the reduced ability of the investor to conduct due diligence. Early-stage investing is typically localized, as the costs of conducting due diligence before making investment decisions and the costs of monitoring after investing both rise with distance. However, this trend is not observed on crowdfunding platforms – these platforms are not geographically constrained and bring in investors from near and far. On non-equity or reward-based platforms, investors try to mitigate this risk by using the amount of capital raised as a signal of performance or quality. On equity-based platforms, crowdfunding syndicates reduce information asymmetry through dual channels – through portfolio diversification and better due diligence as in the case of offline early-stage investing, but also by allowing "lead investors" with more information and better networks to lead "crowds" of backers to make investment decisions.


title: Crowdfunding

text: The rise of crowdfunding for medical expenses is considered, in large part, a symptom of an inadequate and failing healthcare system in countries such as the United States. Healthcare through crowdfunding relies on perceived deservingness and worth, which reproduces unequal outcomes in access.


title: Crowdfunding

text: Rob Solomon, the CEO of GoFundMe, has commented on this: "The system is terrible. It needs to be rethought and retooled. Politicians are failing us. Health care companies are failing us. Those are realities. I don't want to mince words here. We are facing a huge potential tragedy. We provide relief for a lot of people. But there are people who are not getting relief from us or from the institutions that are supposed to be there. We shouldn't be the solution to a complex set of systemic problems."


title: Crowdfunding

text: There are ethical issues in medical crowdfunding. There is a loss of patient privacy, as crowdfunding campaigns that disclose extensive personal information are generally more financially successful. The oversight regarding the veracity of claims is generally limited. For instance, physicians are obliged to uphold the ethics of the medical profession, such as patient confidentiality, but this runs in conflict with dishonest crowdfunding efforts. Medical crowdfunding perpetuates inequalities—associated with variables such as gender, class, and race—in access to healthcare. For example, the most successful campaigns raise funds for patients who are well connected in large social networks and are able to navigate the technological landscape. Finally, the use of medical crowdfunding might reduce the impetus to reform failing infrastructures to healthcare.


title: Randy Gardner sleep deprivation experiment

text: Randy Gardner (born ) is an American man from San Diego, California, who set the record for the longest amount of time a human has gone without sleep. In December 1963/January 1964, 17-year-old Gardner stayed awake for 11 days and 25 minutes (264.4 hours), breaking the previous record of 260 hours held by Tom Rounds.


text: Gardner's record attempt was attended by Stanford sleep researcher Dr. William C. Dement, while his health was monitored by Lt. Cmdr. John J. Ross. A log was kept by two of Gardner's classmates from Point Loma High School, Bruce McAllister and Joe Marciano Jr. Accounts of Gardner's sleep-deprivation experience and medical response became widely known among the sleep research community.


text: It has been claimed that Gardner's experiment demonstrated that extreme sleep deprivation has little effect, other than the mood changes associated with tiredness, primarily due to a report by researcher William Dement, who stated that on the tenth day of the experiment, Gardner had been, among other things, able to beat Dement at pinball. However, Lt. Cmdr. John J. Ross, who monitored his health, reported serious cognitive and behavioral changes. These included moodiness, problems with concentration and short term memory, paranoia, and hallucinations. On the eleventh day, when he was asked to subtract seven repeatedly, starting with 100, he stopped at 65. When asked why he had stopped, he replied that he had forgotten what he was doing.


text: On his final day, Gardner presided over a press conference where he appeared to be in excellent health. "I wanted to prove that bad things didn't happen if you went without sleep," said Gardner. "I thought, 'I can break that record and I don't think it would be a negative experience.'"


text: Gardner's sleep recovery was observed by sleep researchers who noted changes in sleep structure during post-deprivation recovery. After completing his record, Gardner slept for 14 hours and 40 minutes, awoke naturally around 8:40 p.m., and stayed awake until about 7:30 p.m. the next day, when he slept an additional ten and a half hours. Gardner appeared to have fully recovered from his loss of sleep, with follow up sleep recordings taken one, six, and ten weeks after the fact showing no significant differences. However, Gardner later reported experiencing serious insomnia decades after his sleep experiment.


text: According to news reports, Gardner's record has been broken a number of times. Some of these cases are described below for comparison. Gardner's case still stands out, however, because it has been so extensively documented. It is difficult to determine the accuracy of a sleep deprivation period unless the participant is carefully observed to detect short microsleeps, which the participant might not even notice. Also, records for voluntary sleep deprivation are no longer kept by "Guinness World Records" for fear that participants will suffer ill effects.


text: Some sources report that Gardner's record was broken a month later by Toimi Soini, in Hamina, Finland, who stayed awake for days, or 276 hours from February 5–15, 1964. The "Guinness World Records" record was set by Maureen Weston, of Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, UK, in May 2nd, 1977, after presumably staying awake for 449 hours during a rocking-chair marathon. Because of the policy against maintaining this record, recent editions of "Guinness" do not provide any information about sleep deprivation.


text: More recently, Tony Wright on May 25, 2007, was reported to have exceeded Randy Gardner's feat in the apparent belief that Gardner's record had not been beaten. He used 24-hour video for documentation.


text: The Australian National Sleep Research Project states the record for sleep deprivation is 18 days, 21 hours, and 40 minutes.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island ( ; ; ; ) is an island and resort area, covering in land area, in the U.S. state of Michigan. The name of the island in Odawa is Michilimackinac and "Mitchimakinak" in Ojibwemowin meaning "Big Turtle". It is located in Lake Huron, at the eastern end of the Straits of Mackinac, between the state's Upper and Lower Peninsulas. The island was long home to an Odawa settlement and previous indigenous cultures before European colonization began in the 17th century. It was a strategic center of the fur trade around the Great Lakes. Based on a former trading post, Fort Mackinac was constructed on the island by the British during the American Revolutionary War. It was the site of two battles during the War of 1812 before the northern border was settled and the US gained this island in its territory.


title: Mackinac Island

text: In the late 19th century, Mackinac Island became a popular tourist attraction and summer colony. Many of the structures on the island have undergone extensive historical preservation and restoration. Because of its historic significance, the entire island is listed as a National Historic Landmark. It is well known for numerous cultural events; a wide variety of architectural styles, including the Victorian Grand Hotel; and its ban on almost all motor vehicles, with exceptions only for city emergency vehicles (ambulance, police cars and fire trucks), city service vehicles and snowmobiles in winter. More than 80 percent of the island is preserved as Mackinac Island State Park.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Like many historic places in the Great Lakes region, Mackinac Island's name derives from a Native American language, in this case Ojibwe language. The Anishinaabe peoples in the Straits of Mackinac region likened the shape of the island to that of a turtle so they named it "Mitchimakinak" () "Big Turtle". Andrew Blackbird, an official interpreter for the U.S. government and son of an Odawa chief, said the island was known locally after a tribe that had lived there. The French transliterated the work and spelled it as Michilimackinac. The British shortened it to the present name: "Mackinac." Michillimackinac is also spelled as Mishinimakinago, Mǐshǐma‛kǐnung, Mi-shi-ne-macki naw-go, Missilimakinak, Teiodondoraghie, and in Ojibwe syllabics: ᒥᔑᒥᑭᓈᒃ.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The Menominee traditionally lived in a large territory of 10 million acres extending from Wisconsin to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Historic references include one by Father Frederic Baraga, a Slovenian missionary priest in Michigan, who in his 1878 dictionary wrote:


title: Mackinac Island

text: "Maehkaenah" is the Menominee word for turtle. In his 1952 book "The Indian Tribes of North America", John Reed Swanton recorded under the "Wisconsin" section: "Menominee," a band named "Misi'nimäk Kimiko Wini'niwuk, 'Michilimackinac People,' near the old fort at Mackinac, Mich."


title: Mackinac Island

text: In an early written history of Mackinac Island (1887) by Andrew Blackbird, the Odawa historian, he describes that a small independent tribe called "Mi-shi-ne-macki naw-go" once occupied Mackinac Island. They became confederated with the Ottawa from Ottawa Island (now Manitoulin Island), situated north of Lake Huron. One winter the Mi-shi-ne-macki naw-go on Mackinac Island were almost entirely annihilated by the Seneca people from western New York, who were one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. Only two of the local natives escaped by hiding in one of the natural caves at the island. To commemorate the losses of this allied tribe, the Ottawa named what is now Mackinac Island, as "Mi-shi-ne-macki-nong." In 1895 John R. Bailey, the doctor at Fort Mackinac, published a history, entitled "Mackinac formerly Michilimackinac," describing some of the earliest French traders on Mackinac. They reportedly arrived in 1654 with a large party of Huron and Ottawa heading to Three Rivers; another visitor was an adventurer making a canoe voyage in 1665.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Archaeologists have excavated prehistoric fishing camps on Mackinac Island and in the surrounding areas. Fishhooks, pottery, and other artifacts establish a Native American presence at least 700 years before European exploration, around AD 900. The island is a sacred place in the tradition of some of its earliest known inhabitants, the Anishinaabe peoples. They consider it to be home of the Gitche Manitou, or the "Great Spirit". According to legend, Mackinac Island was created by the Great Hare, Michabou, and was the first land to appear after the Great Flood receded. The island was a gathering place for the local tribes, who made offerings to Gitche Manitou. It became the burial place of tribal chiefs.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The first European likely to have seen Mackinac Island is Jean Nicolet, a French-Canadian coureur des bois, during his 1634 explorations. The Jesuit priest Claude Dablon founded a mission for the Native Americans on Mackinac Island in 1670, and stayed over the winter of 1670–71. The missionary and explorer Jacques Marquette succeeded him, moving the mission to St. Ignace soon after his arrival in the region in the fall of 1671. With the mission as a focus, the Straits of Mackinac quickly became an important French fur trading location. The British took control of the Straits of Mackinac after the French and Indian War and Major Patrick Sinclair chose the bluffs of the island for Fort Mackinac in 1780.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The "Relations" also indicate the tremendous strategic importance of Michilimackinac/Mackinac Island as


title: Mackinac Island

text: "the central point for all travel on the upper Great Lakes, and for a vast extent of wilderness and half-settled country beyond" to First Nations and Europeans (prior to the arrival of railroads). The tribes who had inhabited Mackinac Island had been driven away by the Iroquois, leaving the island practically deserted until 1670. The Huron people from Lake Superior, in fear of the Sioux, retreated to the shore north of Mackinac Island. Here Marquette continued his missionary labors with them, at the site of the present St. Ignace. The 1688 memoir of Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville, claimed that the French had inhabited the area since 1648. A small French garrison was sent there some time between 1679 and 1683.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The name of Michilimackinac (later abbreviated to Mackinac) was applied generally to the entire vicinity, as well as specifically to the post at St. Ignace. Later it was applied to the fort and mission established on the south side of the Strait of Mackinac.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Although the British built Fort Mackinac to protect their settlement from attack by French-Canadians and native tribes, the fort was never attacked during the American Revolutionary War. The entire Straits area was officially acquired by the United States through the Treaty of Paris (1783). However, Britain kept forces in the Great Lakes area until after 1794, when the Jay Treaty between the nations established U.S. sovereignty over the Northwest Territory.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Freemasonry came to the Great Lakes region in the 1700s, and Mackinac Island was home to St. John's Lodge No. 15 (1782-1813), one of the first three Masonic Lodges originally warranted in 1782 by the Provincial Gland Lodge of Quebec for work in the territory that would later become Michigan. As a Military Lodge associated with the British 84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants) St. John’s #15 meetings were held at the newly constructed Fort Mackinac in one of the rooms in the Officers Stone Quarters and also in the upper part of the West Blockhouse, with a membership of prominent military and community members, such as Dr. David Mitchell, George Meldrum, Josiah Bleakley, Benjamin Lyon, Major Robert Rogers, and Lt. George Clowes.


title: Mackinac Island

text: During the War of 1812, the British captured the fort in the siege of Fort Mackinac, the first battle of the conflict. The Americans were caught by surprise, not knowing that war had been declared. The victorious British attempted to protect their prize by building Fort George on the high ground behind Fort Mackinac. In 1814, the Americans and British fought a second battle on the north side of the island. The American second-in-command, Major Andrew Holmes, was killed and the Americans failed to recapture the island.


title: Mackinac Island

text: By the Treaty of Ghent of 1815, the British returned the island and surrounding mainland to the U.S. The United States reoccupied Fort Mackinac, and renamed Fort George as "Fort Holmes", after Major Holmes. Fort Mackinac remained under the control of the United States government until 1895. It provided volunteers to defend the Union during the American Civil War. The fort was used as a prison for three Confederate States of America sympathizers.


title: Mackinac Island

text: John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company was centered on Mackinac Island after the War of 1812 and exported beaver pelts for thirty years. By the middle of the nineteenth century, commercial fishing for common whitefish and lake trout began to replace the fur trade as the island's primary industry. As sport fishing became more popular in the 1880s, hotels and restaurants accommodated tourists coming by train or lake boat from Detroit.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Between 1795 and 1815, a network of Métis settlements and trading posts was established throughout what is now the U.S states of Michigan and Wisconsin and to a lesser extent in Illinois and Indiana. As late as 1829, the Métis were dominant in the economy of present-day Wisconsin and Northern Michigan. Many Métis families are recorded in the U.S. Census for the historic Métis settlement areas along the Detroit and St. Clair rivers, Mackinac Island and Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, as well as Green Bay in Wisconsin. Many prominent mixed-race families, such as the Mitchell family of Mackinac, were formed in the late 18th- and early 19th-century fur trading era. The Métis have generally not organized as an ethnic or political group in the United States as they have in Canada, where they had armed confrontations in an effort to secure a homeland.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island’s second Masonic Lodge was Mackinac Lodge No. 71 F&AM (1853-1862) Chartered by the Grand Lodge of Michigan in 1855. Mackinac #71 meetings were held in a rented Lodge room with a membership of prominent community members, such as Dr. Joseph H. Bailey, Dr. John R. Bailey, Johnathan P. King, Bela J. Chapman, Reuben Chapman, John Biddle, and Ambrose R. Davenport. The Lodge would become inactive in 1860 as a result of rising pre-American Civil War tensions, and the relocation, illness, or death of several key founding members. There was an attempt to revive Mackinac #71 after the Civil War in 1871, an effort lead by former original Lodge members Dr. John R. Bailey and John Biddle, however this action was unsuccessful.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Following the Civil War, the island became a popular tourist destination for residents of major cities on the Great Lakes. Much of the federal land on Mackinac Island was designated as the second national park spearheaded by the efforts of Dr. John R. Bailey, Mackinac National Park, in 1875, three years after Yellowstone National Park was named as the first national park. This was thanks to U.S. senator Thomas W. Ferry who was born on the Island, and lobbied for the park. To accommodate an influx of tourists in the 1880s, the boat and railroad companies built hotels, including the Grand Hotel. Island residents established souvenir shops to profit from the tourist trade. Many wealthy business magnates built summer "cottages" along the island's bluffs for extended stays.


title: Mackinac Island

text: When the federal government left the island in 1895, it transferred all of the federal land, including Fort Mackinac, to the state of Michigan; this area was designated as Michigan's first state park. The Mackinac Island State Park Commission, appointed to oversee the island, has restricted private development in the park. In addition it requires leaseholders to maintain the island's distinctive Victorian architecture.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Motor vehicles were restricted at the end of the nineteenth century because of concerns for the health and safety of the island's residents and horses after local carriage drivers complained that automobiles startled their horses. This ban continues to the present, with exceptions only for city emergency vehicles (ambulance, police cars and fire trucks), city service vehicles and snowmobiles in winter. Some controversy ensued in 2019 when Vice President Mike Pence was permitted to bring a motorcade to the island.


title: Mackinac Island

text: According to the 2020 United States Census, the island has a year-round population of 583. The population grows considerably during the summer from tourists and seasonal workers. Hotels, restaurants, bars and retail shops hire hundreds of short-term employees to accommodate as many as 16,500 visitors per day.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island is about in circumference and in total area. The highest point of the island is the historic Fort Holmes (originally called Fort George by the British before 1815), which is above lake level and above sea level.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island was formed as the glaciers of the last ice age began to melt around 13,000 BC. The bedrock strata that underlie the island are much older, dating to Late Silurian and Early Devonian time, about 400 to years ago. Subsurface deposits of halite (rock salt) dissolved, allowing the collapse of overlying limestones; these once-broken but now solidified rocks comprise the Mackinac Breccia. The melting glaciers formed the Great Lakes, and the receding lakewaters eroded the limestone bedrock, forming the island's steep cliffs and rock formations. At least three previous lake levels are known, two of them higher than the present shore: Algonquin-level lakeshores date to about 13,000 years ago, and the Nipissing-level shorelines formed 4,000 to 6,000 years ago. During an intermediate period of low water between these two high-water stages, the Straits of Mackinac shrank to a narrow gorge which discharged its water over Mackinac Falls, located just east of the island (beyond Arch Rock), into Lake Huron.


title: Mackinac Island

text: As the Great Lakes assumed their present levels, the waterfall was inundated and Mackinac Island took on its current size. The steep cliffs were one of the primary reasons for the British army's choice of the island for a fortification; their decision differed from that of the French army, which had built Fort Michilimackinac about 1715 near present-day Mackinaw City. The limestone formations are still part of the island's appeal. One of the most popular geologic formations is Arch Rock, a natural limestone arch, 146 feet (45 m) above the ground. Other popular geologic formations include Devil's Kitchen, Skull Cave, and Sugar Loaf.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island contains a wide variety of terrain, including fields, marshes, bogs, coastline, boreal forest, and limestone formations. The environment is legally preserved on the island by the State Historic Park designation. About half of the shoreline and adjacent waters off Mackinac Island, including the harbor (Haldimand Bay) and the southern and western shore from Mission Point to Pointe aux Pins, is protected as part of the Straits of Mackinac Shipwreck Preserve, a state marine park.


title: Mackinac Island

text: As it is separated from the mainland by 3 miles (4.8 km) of water, few large mammals inhabit the island, except those that traverse the ice during the winter months. Rabbits, fox, raccoons, otters, mink, gray and red squirrels, and chipmunks are all common, as are the occasional beaver and coyote. Bats are abundant on the island, as it has numerous caves that serve as dwellings for them and a large insect population for the bats to prey on.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The island is frequented by migratory birds on their trips between their summer and winter habitats, as it lies on a major migration route. Eagles and hawks are abundant in April and May, while smaller birds such as yellow warblers, American redstart, and indigo bunting are more common in early summer. Near the shoreline, gulls, herons, geese, and loons are common. Owls, including snowy owls and great grey owls, come to the island from the Arctic to hunt in the warmer climate. Other birds, such as chickadees, cardinals, blue jays, and woodpeckers, live on the island year-round. Toads have also been found.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island contains over 600 species of vascular plants. Flowering plants and wildflowers are abundant, including trillium, lady slippers, forget-me-nots, violets, trout lily, spring beauty, hepatica, buttercups, and hawkweeds in the forests and orchids, fringed gentian, butter-and-eggs, and jack-in-the-pulpit along the shoreline. The island's forests are home to many varieties of trees, such as maple, birch, elm, cedar, pine, and spruce.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The island's newspaper is the "Mackinac Island Town Crier". It has been owned and operated by Wesley H. Maurer Sr. and his family since 1957 as training for journalism. It is published weekly from May through September and monthly during the rest of the year.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The island can be reached by private boat, by ferry, by small aircraft and, in the winter, by snowmobile over an ice bridge. The airport has a paved runway, and daily charter air service from the mainland is available. In the summer tourist season, ferry service is available from Shepler's Ferry and Star Line Ferry to shuttle visitors to the island from St. Ignace and Mackinaw City.


title: Mackinac Island

text: with the exception of city emergency vehicles (ambulance, police cars and fire trucks), city service vehicles and snowmobiles during winter. Travel on the island is either by foot, bicycle, horse or horse-drawn carriage. Roller skates and roller blades are also allowed, except in the downtown area. Bicycles, roller skates/roller blades, carriages, and saddle horses are available for rent.


title: Mackinac Island

text: An road follows the island's perimeter, and numerous roads, trails and paths cover the interior. M-185, the United States' only state highway without motorized vehicles, makes a circular loop around the island, closely hugging the shoreline.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island State Park covers approximately 80 percent of the area of the island and includes Fort Mackinac, as well as portions of the island's historic downtown and harbor. No camping is allowed on the island, but numerous hotels and bed and breakfasts are available.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Most of the buildings on Mackinac Island are built of wood, a few are of stone, and most have clapboard siding. The architectural styles on the island span 300 years, from the earliest Native American structures to the European-American styles of the 19th century.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The earliest structures were built by the Anishinaabe and Ojibwe (also called Chippewa in the United States) tribes before European exploration. At least two buildings still exist from the original French settlement of the late 18th century. Mackinac Island has the only example of northern French rustic architecture in the United States, and one of few survivors in North America.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island also contains examples of Federalist, Colonial, and Greek Revival styles. Given its rise as a tourist destination in the late nineteenth century, many of the island's structures were built in the later style of the Victorian era, which includes Gothic Revival, Stick style, Italianate, Second Empire, Richardson Romanesque and Queen Anne styles. The most recent architectural styles date from the late 19th century to the 1930s and include the Colonial and Tudor revival.


title: Mackinac Island

text: All of Mackinac Island was listed as a National Historic Landmark in October 1960. In addition, because of the island's long history and preservation efforts starting in the 1890s, eight separate locations on the island, and a ninth site on adjacent Round Island, are listed in the United States National Register of Historic Places.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island is home to many cultural events, including an annual show of American art from the Masco collection of 19th-century works at the Grand Hotel. Five art galleries operate on the island.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Since 1949, the island's residents have been celebrating the island's native lilacs with an annual spring 10-day festival. It culminates in a parade of horse-drawn vehicles, which has been recognized as a local legacy event by the Library of Congress.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The July 20, 2019, running of the Port Huron to Mackinac Boat Race was the 95th such annual event, with 202 sailboats registered in the 204-nautical mile-race from Port Huron to the island. The race was reported to have continued over the years in spite of wars and economic depressions. A similar sailboat race from Chicago to the island, most recently held on July 20 to 23, 2019, was the 111th event in the Chicago Yacht Club Race to Mackinac, with 266 sailboats competing.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The island is a destination for many regionally and nationally proclaimed conferences, including the Mackinac Policy Conference.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Another special event that Mackinac island is known for is the Mackinac Island Fudge Festival that takes place in August. Phil Porter wrote a book called "Fudge: Mackinac's Sweet Souvenir" which explains how fudge became such a popular treat in Mackinac. After the fur trade, this island became a summer vacationing spot. The visitors began to associate sweets with the island. It originally started when Native Americans began collecting maple sugar but in the 1800s the Murdick family created the first real candy store. The world faced sugar rations in the first half of the 20th century due to the Great Depression and wars that were taking place. The fudge shops in the island had very little business, but the Murdick family did not give up hope! They would use fans to send the scent of their fudge out into the community to draw in customers. In later years, major interstates were created and made Mackinac Island well known to many. Mackinac Island’s visitors became known as "fudgies" because their main reason to travel to the island was for their famous fudge. Although fudge was not invented on the island, it is a very popular treat that people would travel from all over to devour.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Epona, the Gallo-Roman Horse Goddess, is celebrated each June on Mackinac Island with stable tours, a blessing of the animals and the Epona and Barkus Parade. Mackinac Island does not permit personal automobiles; the primary source of transportation remains the horse, so celebrating Epona has special significance on this island. The "Feast of Epona" involves the blessing of horses and other animals by a local churchman.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Every summer, Mackinac Island accommodates several Michigan Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts and their leaders over alternate weeks. These scouts serve the state park as the Mackinac Island Governor's Honor Guard. The program began in 1929, when the State Park Commission invited eight Eagle Scouts, including Gerald Ford, later President of the United States, to the island.


title: Mackinac Island

text: In 1974, the program was expanded by Governor William Milliken to include Girl Scouts. The program is popular, selective, and a long-standing tradition. Scouts raise and lower twenty-seven flags on the island, serve as guides, and complete volunteer service projects during their stay. These Scouts live in the Scout Barracks behind Fort Mackinac.


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island is the destination for two sailing races. The island has a sailing club, the Mackinac Island Yacht Club. It serves as the finish line for both the Port Huron to Mackinac Race and the Chicago Yacht Club Race to Mackinac. The races are run a week apart, in July. They are both among the longest freshwater sailing races in the world and attract over 500 boats and 3,500 sailors combined. Both races are historical events, having been run every year since the 1920s.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The swimming pool at the Grand Hotel is named for Esther Williams, who starred in the 1947 film "This Time for Keeps." This featured many scenes filmed on Mackinac Island.


title: Mackinac Island

text: The majority of the 1980 film "Somewhere in Time" was filmed at Mission Point on Mackinac Island. Several landmarks are visible in the film, including the Grand Hotel and the lighthouse on nearby Round Island. The film's director said he needed to "find a place that looked like it hadn't changed in eighty years."


title: Mackinac Island

text: Mackinac Island was featured on two episodes of the mid-2000s TV series "Dirty Jobs." Host Mike Rowe interviewed a Mackinac Bridge maintenance worker, and a horse manure and garbage removal/composting collector.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Strained yogurt, Greek yogurt, yogurt cheese, sack yogurt, or kerned yogurt is yogurt that has been strained to remove most of its whey, resulting in a thicker consistency than normal unstrained yogurt, while still preserving the distinctive sour taste of yogurt. Like many types, strained yogurt is often made from milk enriched by boiling off some water content, or by adding extra butterfat and powdered milk. In Europe and North America, it is often made from low-fat or fat-free cow's milk. In Iceland, a similar product named skyr is made.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Strained yogurt is generally marketed in North America as "Greek yogurt" and in the UK as "Greek-style yogurt", though strained yogurt is also widely eaten in Levantine, Eastern Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, Central Asian and South Asian cuisines, where it is often used in cooking, as it curdles less readily when cooked. It is used in a variety of dishes, cooked or raw, savory or sweet. Straining makes even nonfat varieties thicker, richer, and creamier than unstrained. Since straining removes the whey, more milk is required to make strained yogurt, increasing the production cost. Thickeners such as pectin, locust bean gum, starches or guar gum may also be used to thicken yogurts. In western Europe and the US, strained yogurt has increased in popularity compared to unstrained yogurt. Since the straining process removes some of the lactose, strained yogurt is lower in sugar than unstrained yogurt.


title: Strained yogurt

text: It was reported in 2012 that most of the growth in the $4.1 billion American yogurt industry came from the strained yogurt sub-segment, typically marketed as "Greek yogurt". In the US, there is no legal or standard definition of Greek yogurt, and yogurt thickened with thickening agents may also be sold as "Greek yogurt".


title: Strained yogurt

text: In its places of origin, strained yogurt has two kinds of names: those which explicitly mention how it is made, meaning literally "strained" from Turkish Language or "hung" or "bag" yogurt; and those with a special name.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In English, strained yogurt only became well known outside of immigrant communities in the 1980s, when it was imported into the United Kingdom by the Greek company Fage, under the brand name "Total". Starting in the 1980s, essentially all yogurt in the UK called "Greek yogurt" was strained yogurt made in Greece. Since then, "Greek yogurt" has meant "strained yogurt" in English.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In the cuisines of many Iranian, Baloch, and Turkic people (e.g. in Azerbaijani, Afghan, Tatar, Tajik, Uzbek, and other Central Asian cuisines), a type of strained yogurt called "chak(k)a"


title: Strained yogurt

text: or "suzma" is consumed. It is obtained by draining qatiq, a local yogurt variety. By further drying it, one obtains qurut, a kind of dry fresh cheese. Strained yogurt in Balochistan is called "sheelanch" and is used for making dips served with dates, or served as a side dish.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Strained yogurt is known as "labneh" ("labna", "labni", "lebni", or "labani"; Arabic: لبنة) in the Levant, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula. Besides being used fresh, labneh is also dried then formed into balls, sometimes covered with herbs or spices, and stored under olive oil. Labneh is a popular mezze dish and sandwich ingredient. A common sandwich in the Middle East is one of labneh, mint, thyme, and olive on pita bread. The flavor depends largely on the sort of milk used: labneh from cow's milk has a rather mild flavor. Also the quality of olive oil topping influences the taste of labneh. Milk from camels and other animals is used in labneh production in Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Labneh is made by straining the liquid out of yogurt until it takes on a consistency similar to a soft cheese. It tastes like tart sour cream or heavy strained yogurt and is a common breakfast dip. It is usually eaten in a fashion similar to hummus, spread on a plate and drizzled with olive oil and often, dried mint. It is also often paired as a dip with the mixed herb blend za'atar.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Bedouin also produce a dry, hard labneh ("labaneh malboudeh", similar to Central Asian qurut) that can be stored. Strained labneh is pressed in cheese cloth between two heavy stones and later sun dried. This dry labneh is often eaten with khubz (Arabic bread), in which both khubz and labneh are mixed with water, animal fat, and salt, and rolled into balls.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Labneh is the main ingredient in jameed, which is in turn used in mansaf, the national dish of Jordan.


title: Strained yogurt

text: "Labaneh bil zayit", "labaneh in oil", consists of small balls of dry labneh kept under oil, where it can be preserved for over a year. As it ages it turns more sour.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In Egypt, it is eaten with savory accompaniments such as olives and oil, and also with a sweetener such as honey, as a snack or breakfast food. Areesh cheese (or arish, ) is a type of cheese that originated in Egypt. Shanklish, a fermented cheese, is made from areesh cheese. Arish cheese is made from yogurt heated slowly until it curdles and separates, then placed in cheesecloth to drain. It is similar in taste to ricotta.


title: Strained yogurt

text: As in Greece, strained yogurt is widely used in Cypriot cuisine both as an ingredient in recipes as well as on its own or as a supplement to a dish. In Cyprus, strained yogurt is usually made from sheep's milk.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Strained yogurt in Iran is called "mâst chekide" and is usually used for making dips, or served as a side dish.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In Northern Iran, "mâst chekide" is a variety of kefir with a distinct sour taste. It is usually mixed with fresh herbs in a pesto-like purée called delal.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Yogurt is a side dish to all Iranian meals. Strained yogurt is used as dips and various appetizers with multitudes of ingredients: cucumbers, onions, shallots, fresh herbs (dill, spearmint, parsley, cilantro), spinach, walnuts, zereshk, garlic, etc. The most popular appetizers are spinach or eggplant borani, ‘'Mâst-o-Khiâr'’ with cucumber, spring onions and herbs, or ‘'Mâst-Musir'’ with wild shallots.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In Turkey, strained yogurt is known as "süzme yoğurt" ("strained yogurt") or "kese yoğurdu" ("bag yogurt"). Water is sometimes added to it in the preparation of cacık, when this is not eaten as a meze but consumed as a beverage. Strained yogurt is used in Turkish mezzes and dips such as haydari.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In Turkish markets, labne is also a popular dairy product but it is different from strained yogurt; it is yogurt-based creamy cheese without salt, and is used like mascarpone.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In Armenia, strained yogurt is called "kamats matzoon". Traditionally, it was produced for long-term preservation by draining matzoon in cloth sacks.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In the Indian subcontinent, regular unstrained yogurt ("curd"), made from cow or water buffalo milk, is often sold in disposable clay bowls called kulhar. Kept for a couple of hours in its clay pot, some of the water evaporates through the unglazed clay's pores. It also cools the curd due to evaporation.


title: Strained yogurt

text: But true strained yogurt, "chakka", is made by draining the yogurt in a (preferably muslin) cloth. Shrikhand is a dish made with chakka, sugar, saffron, cardamom, pureed or diced fruit and nuts mixed in; it is often eaten with poori. It is particularly popular in the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra, where dairy producers market shrikhand in containers.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Strained yogurt () is used in Greek food mostly as the base for tzatziki dip and as a dessert, with honey, sour cherry syrup, or spoon sweets often served on top. A few savory Greek dishes also use strained yogurt. In Greece, strained yogurt, like yogurt in general, is traditionally made from sheep milk. Fage International S.A. began straining cow milk yogurt for industrial production in Greece in 1975, which is when it launched its brand "Total".


title: Strained yogurt

text: In Albania, strained yogurt is called "salcë kosi" ("yogurt sauce"). Yogurt is drained in a cloth sack from few hours to overnight. The water released from this process is called "hirrë" and can be used to preserve cheese or as a drink. The strained yogurt itself is used in dishes in Albanian cuisine and is eaten either plain or with added elements such as dill, garlic, cucumber, nuts or olive oil.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In Bulgaria, where yogurt is considered to be an integral part of the national cuisine, strained yogurt is called "tsedeno kiselo mlyako" (), and is used in a variety of salads and dressings. Another similar product is "katak" (), which is often made from sheep or goat milk.


title: Strained yogurt

text: A variety of strained yogurt called "basa" is a traditional variety of cheese from the region of Lika in Croatia. In Serbia and North Macedonia, it is also known as kiselo mleko (кисело млеко). In southern Serbia, fermented with peppers, it is known as vurda.


title: Strained yogurt

text: A type of strained yogurt named ymer is available in Denmark. In contrast to the Greek and Turkish variety, only a minor amount of whey is drained off in the production process. Ymer is traditionally consumed with the addition of "ymerdrys" (lit.: ymer-sprinkle), a mixture of roasted bread crumbs of "rugbrød" rye bread mixed with brown sugar. Like other types of soured dairy products, ymer is often consumed at breakfast. Strained yogurt topped with muesli and maple syrup is often served at brunch in cafés in Denmark.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Strained yogurt is known as "hangop", literally meaning 'hang up' in the Netherlands. It is a traditional dessert. "Hangop" may also be made using buttermilk.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In March 2020, it was reported that strained yogurt makes up 28% of the value of the "natural yogurt" category in the UK. In the UK, strained yogurt can only be marketed as "Greek" if made in Greece. Strained cow-milk yogurt not made in Greece is typically sold as "Greek style" or "Greek recipe" for marketing reasons, typically at lower prices than yogurt made in Greece. Among "Greek style" yogurts, there is no distinction between those thickened by straining and those thickened through additives.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In September 2012, Chobani UK began to sell yogurt made in the United States as "Greek yogurt". FAGE, a company that manufactures yogurt in Greece and sells it in the UK, filed a passing-off claim against Chobani in the UK High Court, claiming that UK consumers understood "Greek" to refer to the country of origin (similar to "Belgian beer"); Chobani's position was that consumers understood "Greek" to refer to a preparation (similar to "French toast"). Both companies relied on surveys to prove their point; FAGE also relied on the previous industry practice of UK yogurt makers not to label their yogurt as "Greek yogurt". Ultimately Mr Justice Briggs found in favor of FAGE and granted an injunction preventing Chobani from using the name "Greek yogurt". In February 2014, this decision was upheld on appeal. Greece may now seek to protect the marketing term, "Greek yogurt", across the entire EU under protected designation of origin rules.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In May 2020, British dairy company Yeo Valley entered the market with an organic product called "Super Thick Kerned Yogurt. The "kerned yogurt" label was the first of its kind, coined in reference to an archaic Somerset term meaning "thickened", which is predominantly used in relation to dairy products.


title: Strained yogurt

text: A product called "Lindahls Kvarg" was launched by Nestlé in 2018, and described as "Sweden’s No. 1 Quark". Quark is a type of high-protein strained curd cheese widely used in Swedish cooking. The company Bio-tiful launched its kefir-quark blend, containing live cultures and protein.


title: Strained yogurt

text: In Mexico, the thick yogurt "jocoque seco" was popularized by local producers of Lebanese origin and is widely available.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Strained yogurt typically marketed as "Greek yogurt" has become popular in the United States and Canada, where it is often used as a lower-calorie substitute for sour cream or crème fraîche. Celebrity chef Graham Kerr became an early adopter of strained yogurt as an ingredient, frequently featuring it (and demonstrating how to strain plain yogurt through a coffee filter) on his eponymous 1990 cooking show, as frequently as he had featured clarified butter on "The Galloping Gourmet" in the late 1960s. In 2015, food market research firm Packaged Facts reported that Greek yogurt has a 50 percent share of the yogurt market in the United States.


title: Strained yogurt

text: There are numerous "Greek yogurt" brands in North America. FAGE began importing its Greek products in 1998 and opened a domestic production plant in Johnstown, New York, in 2008. Chobani, based in New Berlin, New York, began marketing its Greek-style yogurt in 2007. The Voskos brand entered the US market in 2009 with imported Greek yogurt products at 10%, 2%, and 0% milkfat. Stonyfield Farms, owned by Groupe Danone, introduced Oikos Organic Greek Yogurt in 2007; Danone began marketing a non-organic Dannon Oikos Greek Yogurt in 2011 and also produced a now discontinued blended Greek-style yogurt under the Activia Selects brand; Dannon Light & Fit Greek nonfat yogurt was introduced in 2012, and Activia Greek yogurt was re-introduced in 2013. General Mills introduced a Greek-style yogurt under the Yoplait brand name in early 2010, which was discontinued and replaced by Yoplait Greek 100 in August 2012. Activia Greek yogurt was re-introduced in 2013, and in July 2012 took over US distribution and sales of Canadian Liberté's Greek brands. In Canada, Yoplait was launched in January 2013, and is packaged with toppings.


title: Strained yogurt

text: The characteristic thick texture and high protein content are achieved through either or both of two processing steps. The milk may be concentrated by ultrafiltration to remove a portion of the water before addition of yogurt cultures. Alternatively, after culturing, the yogurt may be centrifuged or membrane-filtered to remove whey, in a process analogous to the traditional straining step. Brands described as "strained" yogurt, including Activia Greek, Chobani, Dannon Light & Fit Greek, Dannon Oikos, FAGE, Stonyfield Organic Oikos, Trader Joe's, and Yoplait have undergone the second process. Process details are highly guarded trade secrets. Other brands of Greek-style yogurt, including Yoplait and some store brands, are made by adding milk protein concentrate and thickeners to standard yogurt to boost the protein content and modify the texture.


title: Strained yogurt

text: The liquid resulting from straining yogurt is called "acid whey" and is composed of water, yogurt cultures, protein, a slight amount of lactose, and lactic acid. It is costly to dispose of. Farmers have used the whey to mix with animal feed and fertilizer. Using anaerobic digesters, it can be a source of methane that can be used to produce electricity.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Strained yogurt is a good source of protein, calcium, iodine, and vitamin B12. Strained yogurt includes additional steps compared to conventional yogurt, where fermented milk is strained after coagulation to remove liquid whey and lactose, yielding higher protein content. Strained yogurt is required to have at least 5.6% protein content, relative to the 2.7% for unstrained yogurt. Strained yogurt has less sugar content than other yogurts.


title: Strained yogurt

text: Yogurt is a rich source of dietary minerals, with calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, and zinc higher in content than in milk. One negative aspect of strained yogurt is that there is greater vitamin loss through the straining process than typical yogurt; in particular, the water-soluble vitamins: vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid, and vitamin B12 as well as vitamin A in its beta-carotene form can be lost through the straining of liquid whey from yogurt.


title: Strained yogurt

text: There are no standard regulations in the market to monitor or control the composition of concentrated yogurts. Carbohydrate, fat and protein contents in strained yogurts varied from 1–12, 0–20, and 3.3–11 grams per 100 grams, respectively. Concentrated yogurts contain higher final total solid content than regular yogurts, possibly prolonging shelf life compared to regular yogurts.


title: Miasma theory

text: The miasma theory (also called the miasmatic theory) is an obsolete medical theory that held that diseases—such as cholera, chlamydia, or the Black Death—were caused by a "miasma" (, Ancient Greek for 'pollution'), a noxious form of "bad air", also known as night air. The theory held that epidemics were caused by miasma, emanating from rotting organic matter. Though


title: Miasma theory

text: miasma theory is typically associated with the spread of contagious diseases, some academics in the early nineteenth century suggested that the theory extended to


title: Miasma theory

text: The miasma theory was advanced by Hippocrates in the fourth century B.C. and accepted from ancient times in Europe and China. The theory was eventually abandoned by scientists and physicians after 1880, replaced by the germ theory of disease: specific germs, not miasma, caused specific diseases. However, cultural beliefs about getting rid of odor made the clean-up of waste a high priority for cities.


title: Miasma theory

text: Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that caused illnesses. The miasmatic position was that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infection was not passed between individuals but would affect individuals within the locale that gave rise to such vapors. It was identifiable by its foul smell. It was also initially believed that miasmas were propagated through worms from ulcers within those affected by a plague.


title: Miasma theory

text: In the fifth or fourth century BC, Hippocrates wrote about the effects of the environs over the human diseases:


title: Miasma theory

text: In the 1st century BC, the Roman architectural writer Vitruvius described the potential effects of miasma (Latin "nebula") from fetid swamplands when visiting a city:


title: Miasma theory

text: The miasmatic theory of disease remained popular in the Middle Ages and a sense of "effluvia" contributed to Robert Boyle's "Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air".


title: Miasma theory

text: In the 1850s, miasma was used to explain the spread of cholera in London and in Paris, partly justifying Haussmann's later renovation of the French capital. The disease was said to be preventable by cleansing and scouring of the body and items. Dr. William Farr, the assistant commissioner for the 1851 London census, was an important supporter of the miasma theory. He believed that cholera was transmitted by air, and that there was a deadly concentration of "miasmata" near the River Thames' banks. Such a belief was in part accepted because of the general lack of air quality in urbanized areas. The wide acceptance of miasma theory during the cholera outbreaks overshadowed the partially correct theory brought forth by John Snow that cholera was spread through water. This slowed the response to the major outbreaks in the Soho district of London and other areas. The Crimean War nurse Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) was a proponent of the theory and worked to make hospitals sanitary and fresh-smelling. It was stated in 'Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes' (1860) that Nightingale would "keep the air [the patient] breathes as pure as the external air."


title: Miasma theory

text: Fear of miasma registered in many early nineteenth-century warnings concerning what was termed "unhealthy fog". The presence of fog was thought to strongly indicate the presence of miasma. The miasmas were thought to behave like smoke or mist, blown with air currents, wafted by winds. It was thought that miasma didn't simply travel on air but changed the air through which it propagated; the atmosphere was infected by miasma, as diseased people were.


title: Miasma theory

text: In China, miasma (; alternative names , ) is an old concept of illness, used extensively by ancient Chinese local chronicles and works of literature. Miasma has different names in Chinese culture. Most of the explanations of miasma refer to it as a kind of sickness, or poison gas.


title: Miasma theory

text: The ancient Chinese thought that miasma was related to the environment of parts of Southern China. The miasma was thought to be caused by the heat, moisture and the dead air in the Southern Chinese mountains. They thought that insects' waste polluted the air, the fog, and the water, and the virgin forest harbored a great environment for miasma to occur.


title: Miasma theory

text: In descriptions by ancient travelers, soldiers, or local officials (most of them are men of letters) of the phenomenon of miasma, fog, haze, dust, gas, or poison geological gassing were always mentioned. The miasma was thought to have caused a lot of diseases such as the cold, influenza, heat strokes, malaria, or dysentery. In the medical history of China, malaria had been referred to by different names in different dynasty periods. Poisoning and psittacosis were also called miasma in ancient China because they did not accurately understand the cause of disease.


title: Miasma theory

text: In the Sui dynasty, doctor Chao Yuanfang mentioned miasma in his book "On Pathogen and Syndromes" (). He thought that miasma in Southern China was similar to typhoid fever in Northern China. However, in his opinion, miasma was different from malaria and dysentery. In his book, he discussed dysentery in another chapter, and malaria in a single chapter. He also claimed that miasma caused various diseases, so he suggested that one should find apt and specific ways to resolve problems.


title: Miasma theory

text: The concept of miasma developed in several stages. First, before the Western Jin dynasty, the concept of miasma was gradually forming; at least, in the Eastern Han dynasty, there was no description of miasma. During the Eastern Jin, large numbers of northern people moved south, and miasma was then recognized by men of letters and nobility. After the Sui and the Tang dynasty, scholars-bureaucrats sent to be the local officials recorded and investigated miasma. As a result, the government became concerned about the severe cases and the causes of miasma by sending doctors to the areas of epidemic to research the disease and heal the patients. In the Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty, versions of local chronicles record different miasma in different places.


title: Miasma theory

text: However, Southern China was highly developed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The environment changed rapidly, and after the 19th century, western science and medical knowledge were introduced into China, and people knew how to distinguish and deal with the disease. The concept of miasma therefore faded out due to the progress of medicine in China.


title: Miasma theory

text: The terrifying miasma diseases in the southern regions of China made it the primary location for relegating officials and sending criminals to exile since the Qin-Han Dynasty. Poet Han Yu () of the Tang dynasty, for example, wrote to his nephew who came to see him off after his banishment to the Chao Prefecture in his poem, "En Route" (左遷至藍關示姪孫湘):


title: Miasma theory

text: The prevalent belief and predominant fear of the southern region with its "poisonous air and gases" is evident in historical documents.


title: Miasma theory

text: Similar topics and feelings toward the miasma-infected south are often reflected in early Chinese poetry and records. Most scholars of the time agreed that the geological environments in the south had a direct impact on the population composition and growth. Many historical records reflect that females were less prone to miasma infection, and mortality rates were much higher in the south, especially for the men. This directly influenced agriculture cultivation and the southern economy, as men were the engine of agriculture production. Zhou Qufei (), a local magistrate from the Southern Song Dynasty described in his treatise, "Representative Answers from the South": "... The men are short and tan, while the women were plump and seldom came down with illness," and exclaimed at the populous female population in the Guangxi region.


title: Miasma theory

text: This inherent environmental threat also prevented immigration from other regions. Hence, development in the damp and sultry south was much slower than in the north, where the dynasties' political power resided for much of early Chinese history.


title: Miasma theory

text: In India, there was also a miasma theory and the Indians take credit for being the first to put this miasma theory into clinical practice. The Indians invented "paan", a gambir paste, that was believed to help prevent miasma; it was considered the first antimiasmatic application. This gambir tree is found in Southern India and Sri Lanka.


title: Miasma theory

text: Based on zymotic theory, people believed vapors called "miasmata" (singular: "miasma") rose from the soil and spread diseases. Miasmata were believed to come from rotting vegetation and foul water—especially in swamps and urban ghettos.


title: Miasma theory

text: Many people, especially the weak or infirm, avoided breathing night air by going indoors and keeping windows and doors shut. In addition to ideas associated with zymotic theory, there was also a general fear that cold or cool air spread disease. The fear of night air gradually disappeared as understanding about disease increased as well as with improvements in home heating and ventilation. Particularly important was the understanding that the agent spreading malaria was the mosquito (active at night) rather than miasmata.


title: Miasma theory

text: Prior to the late 19th century, night air was considered dangerous in most Western cultures. Throughout the 19th century, the medical community was divided on the explanation for disease proliferation. On one side were the contagionists, believing disease was passed through physical contact, while others believed disease was present in the air in the form of miasma, and thus could proliferate without physical contact. Two members of the latter group were Dr. Thomas S. Smith and Florence Nightingale.


title: Miasma theory

text: The current germ theory accounts for disease proliferation by both direct and indirect physical contact.


title: Miasma theory

text: In the early 19th century, the living conditions in industrialized cities in Britain were increasingly unsanitary. The population was growing at a much faster rate than the infrastructure could support. For example, the population of Manchester doubled within a single decade, leading to overcrowding and a significant increase in waste accumulation. The miasma theory of disease made sense to the sanitary reformers of the mid-19th century. Miasmas explained why cholera and other diseases were epidemic in places where the water was stagnant and foul-smelling. A leading sanitary reformer, London's Edwin Chadwick, asserted that "all smell is disease", and maintained that a fundamental change in the structure of sanitation systems was needed to combat increasing urban mortality rates.


title: Miasma theory

text: Chadwick saw the problem of cholera and typhoid epidemics as being directly related to urbanization, and he proposed that new, independent sewerage systems should be connected to homes. Chadwick supported his proposal with reports from the London Statistical Society which showed dramatic increases in both morbidity and mortality rates since the beginning of urbanization in the early 19th century. Though Chadwick proposed reform on the basis of the miasma theory, his proposals did contribute to improvements in sanitation, such as preventing the reflux of noxious air from sewers back into houses by using separate drainage systems in the design of sanitation. That led, incidentally, to decreased outbreaks of cholera and thus helped to support the theory.


title: Miasma theory

text: The miasma theory was consistent with the observation that disease was associated with poor sanitation, and hence foul odours, and that sanitary improvements reduced disease. However, it was inconsistent with the findings arising from microbiology and bacteriology in the later 19th century, which eventually led to the adoption of the germ theory of disease, although consensus was not reached immediately. Concerns over sewer gas, which was a major component of the miasma theory developed by Galen, and brought to prominence by the "Great Stink" in London in the summer of 1858, led proponents of the theory to observe that sewers enclosed the refuse of the human bowel, which medical science had discovered could teem with typhoid, cholera, and other microbes.


title: Miasma theory

text: In 1846, the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act was passed to identify whether the transmission of cholera was by air or by water. The act was used to encourage owners to clean their dwellings and connect them to sewers.


title: Miasma theory

text: Even though eventually disproved by the understanding of bacteria and the discovery of viruses, the miasma theory helped establish the connection between poor sanitation and disease. That encouraged cleanliness and spurred public health reforms which, in Britain, led to the Public Health Acts of 1848 and 1858, and the Local Government Act of 1858. The latter of those enabled the instituting of investigations into the health and sanitary regulations of any town or place, upon the petition of residents or as a result of death rates exceeding the norm. Early medical and sanitary engineering reformers included Henry Austin, Joseph Bazalgette, Edwin Chadwick, Frank Forster, Thomas Hawksley, William Haywood, Henry Letheby, Robert Rawlinson, John Simon, John Snow and Thomas Wicksteed. Their efforts, and associated British regulatory improvements, were reported in the United States as early as 1865.


title: Miasma theory

text: Particularly notable in 19th century sanitation reform is the work of Joseph Bazalgette, chief engineer to London's Metropolitan Board of Works. Encouraged by the Great Stink, Parliament sanctioned Bazalgette to design and construct a comprehensive system of sewers, which intercepted London's sewage and diverted it away from its water supply. The system helped purify London's water and saved the city from epidemics. In 1866, the last of the three great British cholera


title: Miasma theory

text: epidemics took hold in a small area of Whitechapel. However, the area was not yet connected to Bazalgette's system, and the confined area of the epidemic acted as testament to the efficiency of the system's design.


title: Miasma theory

text: The miasma theory did contribute to containing disease in urban settlements, but did not allow the adoption of a suitable approach to the reuse of excreta in agriculture. It was a major factor in the practice of collecting human excreta from urban settlements and reusing them in the surrounding farmland. That type of resource recovery scheme was common in major cities in the 19th century before the introduction of sewer-based sanitation systems. Nowadays, the reuse of excreta, when done in a hygienic manner, is known as ecological sanitation, and is promoted as a way of "closing the loop".


title: Miasma theory

text: Throughout the 19th century, concern about public health and sanitation, along with the influence of the miasma theory, were reasons for the advocacy of the then-controversial practice of cremation. If infectious diseases were spread by noxious gases emitted from decaying organic matter, that included decaying corpses. The public health argument for cremation faded with the eclipsing of the miasma theory of disease.


title: Miasma theory

text: Although the connection between germ and disease was proposed quite early, it was not until the late 1800s that the germ theory was generally accepted. The miasmatic theory was challenged by John Snow, suggesting that there was some means by which the disease was spread via a poison or morbid material (orig: ) in the water. He suggested this before and in response to a cholera epidemic on Broad Street in central London in 1854. Because of the miasmatic theory's predominance among Italian scientists, the discovery in the same year by Filippo Pacini of the bacillus that caused the disease was completely ignored. It was not until 1876 that Robert Koch proved that the bacterium "Bacillus anthracis" caused anthrax, which brought a definitive end to miasma theory.


title: Miasma theory

text: The work of John Snow is notable for helping to make the connection between cholera and typhoid epidemics and contaminated water sources, which contributed to the eventual demise of miasma theory. During the cholera epidemic of 1854, Snow traced high mortality rates among the citizens of Soho to a water pump in Broad Street. Snow convinced the local government to remove the pump handle, which resulted in a marked decrease in cases of cholera in the area. In 1857, Snow submitted a paper to the British Medical Journal which attributed high numbers of cholera cases to water sources that were contaminated with human waste. Snow used statistical data to show that citizens who received their water from upstream sources were considerably less likely to develop cholera than those who received their water from downstream sources. Though his research supported his hypothesis that contaminated water, not foul air, was the source of cholera


title: Miasma theory

text: epidemics, a review committee concluded that Snow's findings were not significant enough to warrant change, and they were summarily dismissed. Additionally, other interests intervened in the process of reform. Many water companies and civic authorities pumped water directly from contaminated sources such as the Thames to public wells, and the idea of changing sources or implementing filtration techniques was an unattractive economic prospect. In the face of such economic interests, reform was slow to be adopted.


title: Miasma theory

text: In 1855, John Snow made a testimony against the Amendment to the "Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act" that regularized air pollution of some industries. He claimed that:


title: Miasma theory

text: In the same year, William Farr, who was then the major supporter of the miasma theory, issued a report to criticize the germ theory. Farr and the Committee wrote that:


title: Miasma theory

text: The more formal experiments on the relationship between germ and disease were conducted by Louis Pasteur between 1860 and 1864. He discovered the pathology of the puerperal fever and the pyogenic vibrio in the blood, and suggested using boric acid to kill these microorganisms before and after confinement.


title: Miasma theory

text: By 1866, eight years after the death of John Snow, William Farr publicly acknowledged that the miasma theory on the transmission of cholera was wrong, by his statistical justification on the death rate.


title: Miasma theory

text: Robert Koch is widely known for his work with anthrax, discovering the causative agent of the fatal disease to be "Bacillus anthracis". He published the discovery in a booklet as ("The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis") in 1876 while working in Wöllstein. His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacterium marked the first photography of a bacterium. He discovered the formation of spores in anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions. However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease. To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through a microscope. His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea of spontaneous generation and supporting the germ theory of disease.


title: 2022 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election

text: Legislative Assembly elections were held in Uttarakhand on 14 February 2022 to elect 70 members of the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly. The votes were counted and the results were declared on 10 March 2022.


text: The tenure of Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly is scheduled to end on 23 March 2022. The previous assembly elections were held in February 2017. After the election, Bharatiya Janata Party formed the state government, with Trivendra Singh Rawat becoming Chief Minister.


text: Amidst the internal turmoil in the BJP Uttarakhand unit and the mounting pressure of BJP MLAs against himself, Chief Minister Trivendra Singh Rawat resigned on 9 March 2021. Tirath Singh Rawat was sworn in as the new Chief Minister of the state on 10 March 2021.


text: On 2 July 2021, Tirath Singh Rawat resigned from the Chief Minister's post to avoid constitutional crisis in the state. On 3 July 2021, Pushkar Singh Dhami was sworn-in as the 10th Chief Minister of Uttarakhand, assuming office on 4 July 2021.


text: In January 2021, Arvind Kejriwal announced that Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) would be contesting in six state elections in 2022 including Uttarakhand. On 17 August 2021, AAP declared Ajay Kothiyal as their Chief Ministerial candidate for the assembly election.


text: AAP asked the residents of Uttarakhand for suggestions for manifesto and received 71,249 replies. In addition to a main manifesto, the party will be releasing separate manifesto for each constituency.


text: On 6 February, AAP national convener Arvind Kejriwal announced his party's 10-point manifesto for Uttarakhand if the AAP wins the election and forms the government.


text: INC released its manifesto on 2 February 2022 titled 'Uttarakhand Swabhiman Pratigya Patra'. Earlier on 24 January 2022 the party launched its campaign for Uttarakhand with the tagline “Char Dham, Char Kaam”. The four ""kaam" (promises)" made in the manifesto are


text: Samyukt Kisan Morcha (SKM), the umbrella body of farmers, campaigned against the ruling BJP by organizing public meetings and rallies asking farmers to not vote for BJP. SKM had organised the 2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest against the controversial three farm acts which were passed by the BJP-led Union Government in the BJP controlled Parliament of India in September 2020. These laws were eventually withdrawn by the Union government.


text: On 31 January 2022, the farmer leaders observed ""Vishwasghat Diwas"" (treachery day) across India after the Union government failed to fulfill promises that were made to the farmers during the withdrawal of agitation against three farm laws. SKM leaders have warned that the farm laws may be re-introduced if BJP wins the elections.


text: SKM leaders launched "Mission UP and Uttarakhand" and appealed to the voters to not vote for BJP calling them "anti-farmer". The appeal did not suggest to vote for any political party. SKM's appeal was supported by 57 farmer organisations. The campaign rallies were banned due to Covid-19, so pandemic leaflets with the appeal were handed to the villagers.


text: BJP's Union Agriculture Minister Narendra Singh Tomar in December 2021, had said that BJP brought the 3 agriculture amendment laws (repealed in 2021). "But the government is not disappointed. We moved a step back and we will move forward again because farmers are India’s backbone."


text: The INC and AAP are against the farm laws and had supported the farmers' unions during their year-long protest against the farm laws.


text: The Election Commission banned the media from publishing exit polls between 7 AM on 10 February 2022 and 6:30 PM on 7 March 2022. Violation of the directive would be punishable with two years of imprisonment. Accordingly the exit polls below were published in the evening of 7 March.


title: Faroese language

text: Faroese ( ; "føroyskt mál" ) is a North Germanic language spoken as a first language by about 72,000 Faroe Islanders, around 53,000 of whom reside on the Faroe Islands and 23,000 in other areas, mainly Denmark.


title: Faroese language

text: It is one of five languages descended from Old West Norse spoken in the Middle Ages, the others being Norwegian, Icelandic, and the extinct Norn and Greenlandic Norse. Faroese and Icelandic, its closest extant relative, are not mutually intelligible in speech, but the written languages resemble each other quite closely, largely owing to Faroese's etymological orthography.


title: Faroese language

text: Around 900 AD, the language spoken in the Faroes was Old Norse, which Norse settlers had brought with them during the time of the settlement of Faroe Islands () that began in 825. However, many of the settlers were not from Scandinavia, but descendants of Norse settlers in the Irish Sea region. In addition, women from Norse Ireland, Orkney, or Shetland often married native Scandinavian men before settling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland. As a result, the Irish language has had some influence on both Faroese and Icelandic.


title: Faroese language

text: There is speculation about Irish language place names in the Faroes: for example, the names of Mykines, Stóra Dímun, Lítla Dímun and Argir have been hypothesized to contain Celtic roots. Other examples of early-introduced words of Celtic origin are: / (buttermilk), cf. Middle Irish ; (tail-piece of an animal), cf. Middle Irish ; (head, headhair), cf. Middle Irish ; (hand, paw), cf. Middle Irish ; (bull), cf. Middle Irish ; and (pasture in the outfield), cf. Middle Irish .


title: Faroese language

text: Between the 9th and the 15th centuries, a distinct Faroese language evolved, although it was probably still mutually intelligible with Old West Norse, and remained similar to the Norn language of Orkney and Shetland during Norn's earlier phase.


title: Faroese language

text: Faroese ceased to be a written language after the union of Norway with Denmark in 1380, with Danish replacing Faroese as the language of administration and education. The islanders continued to use the language in ballads, folktales, and everyday life. This maintained a rich spoken tradition, but for 300 years the language was not used in written form.


title: Faroese language

text: In 1823, the Danish Bible Society published a diglot of the Gospel of Matthew, with Faroese on the left and Danish on the right.


title: Faroese language

text: Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb and the Icelandic grammarian and politician Jón Sigurðsson published a written standard for Modern Faroese in 1854, which still exists. They set a standard for the orthography of the language, based on its Old Norse roots and similar to that of Icelandic. The main purpose of this was for the spelling to represent the diverse dialects of Faroese in equal measure. Additionally, it had the advantages of being etymologically clear and keeping the kinship with the Icelandic written language. The actual pronunciation, however, often differs considerably from the written rendering. The letter "ð", for example, has no specific phoneme attached to it.


title: Faroese language

text: Jakob Jakobsen devised a rival system of orthography, based on his wish for a phonetic spelling, but this system was never taken up by the speakers.


title: Faroese language

text: In 1937, Faroese replaced Danish as the official school language, in 1938, as the church language, and in 1948, as the national language by the Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands. Today, Danish is considered a foreign language, , and it is taught in school from the first grade.


title: Faroese language

text: In 2017, the tourist board Visit Faroe Islands launched a website entitled Faroe Islands Translate, featuring recorded translations of submitted phrases available in 13 languages, including English, Chinese, Russian, Japanese, and Portuguese.


title: Faroese language

text: Old Faroese (, ca. mid-14th to mid-16th centuries) is a form of Old Norse spoken in medieval times in the Faroe Islands. The most crucial aspects of the development of Faroese are diphthongisation and palatalisation.


title: Faroese language

text: There is not enough data available to establish an accurate chronology of Faroese, but a rough one may be developed through comparison to the chronologies of Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian. In the 12th/13th centuries, "á" and "ǫ́" merged as ; later on at the beginning of the 14th century, delabialization took place: "y", "øy", "au" > ; "í" and "ý" merged in addition to "i" and "y", but in the case of "í" and "ý", it appears that labialisation took place instead as is documented by later development to . Further, the language underwent a palatalisation of "k", "g" and "sk" before Old Norse "e", "i", "y", "ø", "au" > > > . Before the palatalisation "é" and "ǽ" merged as and approximately in the same period epenthetic "u" is inserted into word-final and clusters.


title: Faroese language

text: A massive quantity shift also operated in Middle Faroese. In the case of "skerping", it took place after delabialization but before loss of post-vocalic "ð" and "g" . The shift of "hv" to , the deletion of in (remaining) word-initial –sonorant clusters ("hr", "hl", "hn" > "r", "l", "n"), and the dissolution of "þ" ("þ" > "t"; "þ" > "h" in demonstrative pronouns and adverbs) appeared before the end of the 13th century. Another undated change is the merger of "ǫ", "ø" and "ǿ" into ; pre-nasal "ǫ", "ǫ́" > "o", "ó". "enk", "eng" probably became , in the 14th century; the development of "a" to before "ng", "nk" appeared after the palatalisation of "k", "g", and "sk" had been completed, such a change is quite a recent development, as well as change "Cve" > "Cvø".


title: Faroese language

text: As with most other Germanic languages, Faroese has a large number of vowels, with 26 in total. Vowel distribution is similar to other North Germanic languages in that short vowels appear in closed syllables (those ending in consonant clusters or long consonants) and long vowels appearing in open syllables.


title: Faroese language

text: Faroese shares with Icelandic and Danish the feature of maintaining a contrast between stops based exclusively on aspiration, not voicing. Geminated stops may be pre-aspirated in intervocalic and word-final position. Intervocalically the aspirated consonants become pre-aspirated unless followed by a closed vowel. In clusters, the preaspiration merges with a preceding nasal or apical approximant, rendering them voiceless.


title: Faroese language

text: Faroese grammar is related and very similar to that of modern Icelandic and Old Norse. Faroese is an inflected language with three grammatical genders and four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and genitive.


title: Sara Haines

text: Sara Hilary Haines (born September 18, 1977) is an American television host and journalist. She is known as a co-host of the ABC daytime talk shows "The View" and "Strahan, Sara and Keke" and game show "The Chase". She has also worked as a correspondent on "Today", "ABC News", and "Good Morning America".


title: Sara Haines

text: Haines was born in Newton, Iowa, and raised there with her three siblings. She attended Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, where she received a Bachelor of Arts degree in government in 2000. At Smith, Haines played basketball and volleyball.


title: Sara Haines

text: Haines began her career in the NBC Page Program. After nine months in the program, she became the production coordinator for NBC's "Today" at Rockefeller Center in 2002. In 2009, Haines became the show's fourth-hour's contributing correspondent until departing in 2013.


title: Sara Haines

text: In 2013, Haines became an ABC News correspondent as well as the pop news anchor for the weekend editions of "Good Morning America". After multiple appearances as a guest co-host, Haines joined "The View" as a permanent co-host in the show's 20th season, which premiered on September 6, 2016. On July 23, 2018, ABC announced that she would not return to "The View" for season 22 and that she would co-host "GMA Day", later renamed "Strahan and Sara", with Michael Strahan. Haines made her final appearance as a co-host during the 21st season's penultimate episode on August 2.


title: Sara Haines

text: Haines's debuted as co-host of "GMA Day" during the series premiere on September 10, 2018. In August 2019, the program was renamed "GMA3: Strahan, Sara and Keke", with the addition of Keke Palmer as a third co-host. Haines returned to "The View" as a frequent guest co-host in 2020. Following the reformatting of "GMA3" that same year, Haines permanently returned to "The View" for its 24th season. In November 2020, it was reported that Haines would host a revival of "The Chase" on ABC. The series premiered in January 2021. She made an appearance as herself in the second episode of the Disney+ superhero series "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier", interviewing the character John Walker about his role as the new Captain America.


title: Sara Haines

text: On her birthday in 2022, in appreciation of her accomplishments as a journalist and TV host, Newton's mayor Mike Hanson proclaimed September 18 as "Sara Haines Day" in Newton, Iowa.


title: Sara Haines

text: Haines married attorney Max Shifrin in November 2014. The couple resides in New Jersey. Their first child, Alec Richard, was born in March 2016, followed by their second, Sandra Grace, in December 2017, and their third, Caleb Joseph, in June 2019.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: Puddle of Mudd is an American rock band formed in Kansas City, Missouri in 1992. To date, the band has sold over seven million albums and has had a string of No. 1 mainstream rock singles in the United States. Their major-label debut "Come Clean" has sold over five million copies. They have released an extended play, an independent album and five studio albums, with their latest being "Welcome to Galvania" in September 2019.. Vocalist and guitarist Wes Scantlin remains the only consistent member throughout the band's history.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: Puddle of Mudd was formed in 1992 in Kansas City by Wes Scantlin (lead vocals/rhythm guitar), Jimmy Allen (lead guitar), Sean Sammon (bass), and Kenny Burkitt (drums). According to Scantlin, the band name was inspired by practicing next to the Missouri river levee, which always inundated the band's practice space, but never ruined their equipment since they were on the second floor. In order to get to their practice space, the band "had to walk through a pile of shit."


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: In August 1994, the band played at the Missouri State Fair. The group's first release, "Stuck", a seven-song EP, was released in 1994 on V&R Records. It was produced by the band and E.J. Rose, and was recorded at Red House Studio in Lawrence, Kansas. It spawned two radio singles (the first was "You Don't Know", the second "Drift and Die").


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: Minus Jimmy Allen, the group released their eleven-song debut album, "Abrasive", in 1997 on Madison, Wisconsin-based record label Hardknocks Records. Three of the songs from "Abrasive" were later re-recorded for the band's major-label debut "Come Clean". Differences of opinion and other factors led to the break-up of the original Puddle of Mudd by early 1999, leaving Scantlin as the only original member.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: Scantlin's big break in the music business came after a copy of his demo tape was delivered to Fred Durst. Durst contacted Scantlin, and after hearing that his band had broken up, decided to bring him to California to attempt to put a new band together. At a 2001 Flawless Records showcase, Durst noted that he originally disliked the band's material and told Scantlin to fire everyone else in the band and rebuild it from scratch.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: One of the first people Scantlin met upon arriving in California was Doug Ardito, an intern at Interscope Records. When Scantlin found out about Ardito's bass playing, they decided to work together. They were still in need of a guitarist and drummer. Fred Durst decided to contact a guitarist he knew from his hometown of Jacksonville, Florida, Paul Phillips, who had formerly played in a local band there called Happy Hour. After getting the call from Durst, Paul decided to try out for Puddle of Mudd and was accepted, choosing to leave college in order to join. The band held auditions for a new drummer and selected Greg Upchurch, who was an ex-member of Eleven and had also toured with Chris Cornell.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: Puddle of Mudd entered the studio in 2000 and released its major-label debut album "Come Clean" on August 28, 2001. The lead single from the album, "Control" was successful. It was also the theme song for WWE's "Survivor Series 2001," which was critically acclaimed. The second single off the album, "Blurry", co-written with Jimmy Allen and Doug Ardito, turned out to be Puddle of Mudd's most successful single, reaching No. 5 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and No. 8 in the UK Singles Chart, and also winning an ASCAP song of the year award for Ardito, Allen and Scantlin. The song was also used in the game "Ace Combat 5", published by Namco. "Drift & Die" co-written by Jimmy Allen was also released as a single spending six weeks at the No. 1 on the Mainstream Rock Chart. The fourth single, "She Hates Me" co-written by Jimmy Allen was released in late 2002, and reached the No. 1 spot on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, as well as No. 13 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Allen and Scantlin won the ASCAP award for most played rock song of the year.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: The group then embarked on a European and American tour as the opening act for Godsmack and Deftones, and were also a part of the Family Values 2001 tour, alongside Linkin Park, Stone Temple Pilots, and Staind.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: The album was certified triple platinum in the U.S. by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on January 31, 2003, and as of late 2006, total sales worldwide were in excess of five million copies.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: Puddle of Mudd's follow up, "Life on Display", spawned three singles "Away From Me", "Heel Over Head", and "Spin You Around". The album sold below expectations. Although shortly after its release, the record was certified gold and to date, has sold over 706,000 copies. Some suggested this was the primary cause of drummer Greg Upchurch's leaving the band to join 3 Doors Down. Marisa Miller appeared in the music video for "Spin You Around". "Away From Me" was featured in "The O.C." in 2004. The song "Nothing Left to Lose" was the official theme song of WWE's 2004 Royal Rumble.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: On October 9, 2007, the band released their third major label record, "Famous". The first single, "Famous", was leaked through the band's Myspace page and radio in July before the CD was released. It was a #1 single. Another track, "Merry Go Round", was released through iTunes before the official release. The following single, "Psycho", topped both the Mainstream Rock Tracks and Hot Modern Rock Tracks charts for nine weeks. "Livin' on Borrowed Time" and "We Don't Have To Look Back Now" were the final singles released.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: In the spring of 2007, the band went on tour supporting Hinder and Papa Roach on the Door to Dorm tour.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: Their song "Famous" was the WWE One Night Stand 2007 official theme song and was also featured in the video game "WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2008", as well as "UFC 2009 Undisputed".


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: In 2009, former guitarist Paul Phillips rejoined the band after replacement Christian Stone was let go on good terms. Around this time the band recruited "Famous" producer Brian Howes to begin recording a new record in Vancouver. Prior to the new album's release, band members said the album's name would be called 'Jacket on the Rack'. However, it was changed to "." Released on December 8, it has gone on to sell around 100,000 copies. The first single, "Spaceship", was released in October 2009.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: On February 10, 2010, a new song, "Shook Up the World", was released. The song was written for Team USA for use in the 2010 Winter Olympics. All proceeds from the song went to Team USA. Although intended for release during the Olympics, the deadline was missed. Later in the year bassist Doug Ardito left the band and was replaced by Jacksonville Burn Season frontman, Damien Starkey. They played at the Download Festival, and released their first best of collection, titled "Icon", featuring the singles from their first four albums.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: The band released a cover album titled "" on August 30, 2011. The release featured covers of songs originally by The Rolling Stones, Bad Company, Led Zeppelin, AC/DC and others. According to original bassist Sean Sammon, it was confirmed that the band's first two albums, "Stuck" and "Abrasive", would be re-released sometime in late 2011. Ardito rejoined the band in 2011 and proceeded to tour with them. Ryan Yerdon was also replaced by Shannon Boone. The band posted several online updates during 2012 suggesting that they were writing and recording a new album. Wes Scantlin was interviewed about his latest arrest for vandalism in July 2013, where he was quoted as saying "We have tons and tons of new hit songs. I write every single night, and we record all the time. We're getting ready to go in and do the record, tour a little bit for the summer, and then do the full production and get back on the scene."


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: Puddle of Mudd toured during 2014 featuring Wes Scantlin with an entirely different line-up. A non-album single, "Piece of the Action", was released in September 2014.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: The band started recording a new album with Cameron Webb at Grandmaster Studios in 2015. The following year they took part in the Make America Rock Again super tour with other artists who had success throughout the 2000s including Trapt, Saving Abel, Alien Ant Farm, Crazy Town, 12 Stones, Tantric, Drowning Pool, P.O.D. and Fuel.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: In July 2019, a new single, "Uh Oh", was released, with the full album "Welcome to Galvania" following in September.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: In November 2019, the band performed an acoustic session for SiriusXM's Octane channel. The session went largely unnoticed until April 2020, when the Instagram music meme account @catatonicyouths posted edited clips of the band's cover of Nirvana's "About a Girl". The cover was also given a reaction video by YouTubers Jared Dines and Steve Terreberry. The cover has been widely criticised and ridiculed, with most of the focus being placed upon Scantlin's strained, uncomfortable, and off-key vocals. The original video, which has now received over one million views and has since gone unlisted, currently sits at 24,000 dislikes against 9,800 likes.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: In 2022, Scantlin stated a new album was in the works, and was 'basically pretty much done'. No release date has been announced, but Scantlin later noted he plans on releasing it by the end of 2022.


title: Puddle of Mudd

text: On April 16, 2014, Scantlin had an on-stage meltdown during a show at Trees Dallas, in which he threw a microphone and beer into the audience, as well as appearing to threaten and attempt to physically attack members of the audience. He also received criticism as he appeared to be lip-syncing during the performance.