title: Kaffir (racial term)

text: The phrase "the K-word" is now often used to avoid using the word itself, similar to "the N-word", used to represent "nigger".


title: Kaffir (racial term)

text: In 2012, a woman was jailed overnight and fined after pleading guilty to crimen injuria for using the word as a racial slur at a gym.


title: Kaffir (racial term)

text: In July 2014, the Supreme Court of Appeal upheld a 2012 conviction for offences of crimen injuria and assault relating to an argument about parking in which a man used the word. The judgement states:


title: Kaffir (racial term)

text: In March 2018, Vicki Momberg became the first woman to be convicted of racist language for using the term over 40 times at two South African police officers.


title: Kaffir (racial term)

text: "Kaffir lime" is one of the names of a citrus fruit native to tropical countries in South and South East Asia. Its etymology is uncertain, but most likely was originally used by Muslims as a reference to the location the plant grew, which was in countries populated by non-Muslims (Hindus and Buddhists). Under this interpretation, the plant name shares an origin with the South African term, both ultimately derived from "kafir", the Arabic word for "non-believer". The fruit name as such never had any offensive connotations, but due to the present negative connotations of "Kaffir" "The Oxford Companion to Food" recommends that the alternative term "makrut lime" be favored when speaking of this fruit.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Poetic Justice is a 1993 American romantic drama film written and directed by John Singleton and starring Janet Jackson and Tupac Shakur with Regina King and Joe Torry in supporting roles. "Poetic Justice" follows Justice (Jackson), a poet mourning the loss of her boyfriend from gun violence, who goes on a road trip from South Central L.A. to Oakland on a mail truck along with her friend (King) and a postal worker (Shakur) who she initially cannot stand but soon helps Justice deal with her depression.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Following the success of his debut film, "Boyz n the Hood", Singleton wanted to make a film that would give a voice to young African-American women. Jada Pinkett, Lisa Bonet, Monica Calhoun and many other popular actresses auditioned for the role of Justice, though Singleton knew from the script's draft that the role was solely intended for Janet Jackson. Filming took place from April 14 to July 4, 1992.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: "Poetic Justice" was released in the United States on July 23, 1993. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the screenplay though praised Jackson and Shakur's performances and chemistry. It reached No. 1 in the box office its opening weekend, grossing $11,728,455. It eventually grossed a total of $27,515,786. Jackson received Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Original Song for "Again", which also reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The film has developed a cult following, especially for the chemistry between Jackson and Shakur.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Justice is a young African American woman living in South Central, Los Angeles, named by her late mother who gave birth to her while attending law school. After the fatal shooting of her boyfriend Markell, Justice becomes deeply depressed, spending most of her time with her cat named Whiteboy in the house that she inherited from her grandmother, and only going out to her job at a local hair salon. A talented poet, Justice reads many of her poems throughout the film, both to other characters and in voice-over.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: While she is working at the salon one day, a young postal clerk named Lucky arrives and begins flirting with her. She and her female boss Jessie rebuff his advances, pretending to be lesbians and mocking Lucky with their "relationship".


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Lucky has also suffered tragedy in his life: his main focus is caring for his young daughter Keisha, whom he had to forcibly remove from the care of her crack-addicted mother (nicknamed "Angel"), who was using drugs and having sex with her drug dealer while leaving the child unattended in the apartment. Lucky dreams of a professional career in music and shows considerable promise, but insists that his cousin is the true talent.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Justice's friend Iesha manages to talk Justice into taking a road trip to Oakland with Iesha's boyfriend, Chicago, Lucky's co-worker at the post office. Justice warily accepts, mainly because she has to go to Oakland for a hair show and her car had stopped working at the last minute. Unbeknownst to Justice, Lucky is also on the trip, and she will now be sharing a postal van with him and their two mutual friends. Initially, they argue, but they soften towards each other as they gradually discover their similarities.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: The quartet makes a couple of detours: the first is a family reunion barbecue they see signs for on the road, where it becomes apparent (although there were ample hints earlier) that Iesha and Chicago's relationship is troubled. Iesha openly flirts with another man at the barbecue, while Chicago broods watching her behavior. Iesha and Chicago argue in the mail truck until Justice talks to Iesha about her behavior with alcohol. Iesha throws up and tearfully apologizes to her.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: At the next stop, a carnival, Lucky and Justice grow closer while discussing their lives. After leaving the reunion, they stop at a beach where each of the four contemplates their separate situations in internal monologues. Afterward, the friction between Chicago and Iesha explodes when Iesha informs Chicago that she has been seeing someone on the side, and he physically attacks her. Lucky initially decides to abstain until Justice defends Iesha by kicking Chicago in the groin, who retaliates by physically and brutally attacks her. Lucky knocks Chicago out, and he, Justice and a bleeding and shaken Iesha leave him behind and continue on their journey.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Lucky stops the postal van at a beach, and Justice goes to see what's wrong. She begins opening up to him about her life, and Lucky becomes sympathetic. They share a kiss, and Justice walks away apparently unsure of her feelings for Lucky. She goes back to him, and they kiss again.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: When the now-trio arrive in Oakland, they receive news that Lucky's cousin, with whom he had been working on recording music, has been killed. Blaming himself for not being in Oakland sooner and believing he could have prevented the shooting had he been in town, Lucky angrily blames Justice for distracting him while they were on the road. Jessie advises Justice and Iesha about men before the hair show. Lucky's uncle and aunt give him his cousin's recording equipment. Lucky decides to give up work and take care of Keisha.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Months later, Lucky meets up with Justice again back at the hair salon, bringing Keisha. Remorseful over his conduct in Oakland and his cruel words towards Justice there, he apologizes. She smiles at him coyly and they passionately kiss. She then turns her attention to Keisha, fussing over her hair. Justice and Lucky's eyes meet over Keisha's head and they smile, as strongly connected as ever.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: On July 23, 2013, John Singleton spoke with writer Lathleen Ade-Brown for "Essence" magazine and discussed the 20th anniversary of the film. The interview mentioned that in 1993, black female leads were rare and he wanted to give a voice to young African American women. He also revealed whose idea it was for Janet Jackson to wear the now iconic box braids: "That was a collaboration between myself, Janet, [dance choreographer] Fatima Robinson and dancer named Jossie Harris. Jossie had the braids in Michael Jackson’s "Remember the Time" video. I brought her and Fatima and a couple of other dancers over to hang out with Janet and they all became friends. I said, "Why don't we try and do Janet's hair like Jossie's hair?" We got the hairstyle from Harlem and just put it in a West Coast movie.".


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Jada Pinkett, Lisa Bonet, Monica Calhoun and many other popular actresses auditioned for the role of Justice, though Singleton knew from the script's draft that the role was solely intended for Janet Jackson. Rapper and actor Ice Cube was offered the lead role of Lucky, but turned it down, stating that he was not in a point in his career that he would play in romantic movies. Filming began on April 14th, 1992 and ended on July 4th, 1992.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: The film opened July 23, 1993 in the United States. Cineplex Odeon initially decided not to release the film at its Universal CityWalk Hollywood theater due to fear of violence. Rita Walters called Cineplex Odeon's decision racist and they agreed to delay the release until July 28. Around the country, five violent incidents occurred around theaters during the film's opening weekend, including a killing outside a Las Vegas theater.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: "Poetic Justice" made $27,515,786 in the domestic box office, against a production budget of $14 million. For its opening weekend it opened at number one at the US box office with over $11,700,000 in ticket sales. It ranked 20th for the year of 1993 openings and 21st for highest R-rated movies of 1993.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Upon its release, "Poetic Justice" received mostly negative reviews with most critics comparing it unfavorably to Singleton's debut film "Boyz n the Hood." Much of the acclaim was directed to the performances by both Jackson and Shakur, with criticism stemming from the writing and story line. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a 34% rating based on 32 reviews. The site's consensus states; ""Poetic Justice" is commendably ambitious and boasts a pair of appealing stars, but they're undermined by writer-director John Singleton's frustrating lack of discipline." On Metacritic the film has a score of 51% based on reviews from 21 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B+" on scale of A to F.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Roger Ebert: "..."Boyz n the Hood" was one of the most powerful and influential films of its time, in 1991. "Poetic Justice" is not its equal, but does not aspire to be; it is a softer, gentler film, more of a romance than a commentary on social conditions." He also stated, "..."Poetic Justice" unwinds like a road picture from the early 1970s, in which the characters are introduced and then set off on a trip that becomes a journey of discovery. By the end of the film, Justice will have learned to trust and love again, and Shakur will have learned how to listen to a woman. And all of the characters - who in one way or another lack families - will begin to get a feeling for the larger African/American family to which they belong. The scene where that takes place is one of the best in the film." Leonard Klady of "Variety" stated: "Though aiming to create a feel for the locale, Singleton periodically loses sight of audiences unfamiliar with the colorful lingo. "Poetic Justice" has a lot to commend, but discipline is not high on the list. That flaw will be a major stumbling block toward wide appeal, and overseas prospects seem particularly remote." Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called the film "a disappointement" but praised Singleton for his skills and suggested "A filmmaker who is adept at saying what’s on his mind, he will do better when he finds something he truly wants to say." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone criticized the film for "wrong turns and right-minded preachiness" but praised the young director saying: "If Singleton, 25, stumbles, it is over ambition and not the complacency of a new Hollywood hotshot riding a trend." Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote: "Although its aspirations are high, the film works only fitfully when Mr. Singleton exercises his gift for vernacular speech, for finding the comic undertow in otherwise tragic situations, and even for parody." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave it a C- grade. Richard Schickel of Time panned the film "What must be said is that the new movie is simply awful: poorly structured, vulgarly written, insipidly directed, monotonously performed."


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Despite the mixed reviews from contemporary film critics, the film has come to be considered one of Singleton's most enduring films.


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: The soundtrack album was released on June 29, 1993 through Epic Soundtrax, and consisted of a blend of hip hop and R&B music. It peaked at number 23 on the "Billboard" 200 chart in the United States and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on August 25, 1993. Three charting singles were released from the album: "Indo Smoke" by Mista Grimm, "Get It Up" by TLC, and "Call Me a Mack" by Usher Raymond. Recorded at Unique Recording Studios, New York City


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: The soundtrack also has the Stevie Wonder song "Never Dreamed You'd Leave in Summer", a track that was originally on his 1970 album "Where I'm Coming From". The song "Definition of a Thug Nigga", recorded by Tupac Shakur for the film, later appeared on his 1997 posthumous album "R U Still Down? (Remember Me)".


title: Poetic Justice (film)

text: Due to the film's casting of two major music stars of the time, there was a lot of hype surrounding the release of the movie. Many were excited to see how the dynamic between Janet Jackson and Tupac Shakur would manifest itself in the film both visually and musically. On the soundtrack, each artist was given a single song. "Definition of a Thug Nigga" could be seen as an example of braggadocious, violent rap music, but it could also be viewed as a cultural exposition on a lifestyle that Shakur felt to be systemic and inherent in the lives of his peers.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: In anthropology, high-context culture and low-context culture are ends of a continuum of how explicit the messages exchanged in a culture are and how important the context is in communication. The continuum pictures how people communicate with others through their range of communication abilities: utilizing gestures, relations, body language, verbal messages, or non-verbal messages. "High-" and "low-" context cultures typically refer to language groups, nationalities, or regional communities. However, the concept may also apply to corporations, professions and other cultural groups, as well as to settings such as online and offline communication. High-context cultures often exhibit less-direct verbal and nonverbal communication, utilizing small communication gestures and reading more meaning into these less-direct messages. Low-context cultures do the opposite; direct verbal communication is needed to properly understand a message being communicated and relies heavily on explicit verbal skills. The model of high-context and low-context cultures offers a popular framework in intercultural-communication studies, but has been criticized as lacking empirical validation.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: These concepts were first introduced by the anthropologist Edward T. Hall in his 1959 book "The Silent Language". Cultures and communication in which the context of the message is of great importance to structuring actions are referred to as high context. High-context defines cultures that are usually relational and collectivist, and which most highlight interpersonal relationships. Hall identifies high-context cultures as those in which harmony and the well-being of the group is preferred over individual achievement. In low context, communication members' communication must be more explicit, direct, and elaborate because individuals are not expected to have knowledge of each other's histories or background, and communication is not necessarily shaped by long-standing relationships between speakers. Because low-context communication concerns more direct messages, the meaning of these messages is more dependent on the words being spoken rather than on the interpretation of more subtle or unspoken cues.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: High-context cultures are related to connotation. People within high-context cultures tend to be more aware and observant of facial expressions, body language, changes in tone, and other aspects of communication that are not directly spoken. Denotation tends to be attributed to low-context culture People in low-context cultures communicate in a more direct way, with explicitly speaking what they want to communicate.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Individualism and collectivism are related to low-context and high-context cultures, respectively. Within high-context cultures, people rely on their networks of friends and family, viewing their relationships as part of one large community. In low-context cultures, relationships are not viewed as important figures to identity. People within low-context cultures see their relationships much looser and the lines between networks of people are more flexibly drawn.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Cultural contexts are not absolutely "high" or "low". Instead, a comparison between cultures may find communication differences to a greater or lesser degree. Typically a high-context culture will be relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. They place a high value on interpersonal relationships and group members are a very close-knit community. Typically a low-context culture will be less close-knit, and so individuals communicating will have fewer relational cues when interpreting messages. Therefore, it is necessary for more explicit information to be included in the message so it is not misinterpreted. Not all individuals in a culture can be defined by cultural stereotypes, and there will be variations within a national culture in different settings. For example, Hall describes how Japanese culture has both low- and high-context situations. However, understanding the broad tendencies of predominant cultures can help inform and educate individuals on how to better facilitate communication between individuals of differing cultural backgrounds.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Although the concept of high- and low-context cultures is usually applied in the field of analyzing national cultures, it can also be used to describe scientific or corporate cultures, or specific settings such as airports or law courts. A simplified example mentioned by Hall is that scientists working in "hard science" fields (like chemistry and physics) tend to have lower-context cultures: because their knowledge and models have fewer variables, they will typically include less context for each event they describe. In contrast, scientists working with living systems need to include more context because there can be significant variables which impact the research outcomes.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Croucher's study examines the assertion that culture influences communication style (high/low-context) preference. Data was gathered in India, Ireland, Thailand, and the United States where the results confirm that "high-context nations (India and Thailand) prefer the avoiding and obliging conflict styles more than low-context nations (Ireland and the United States), whereas low-context nations prefer the uncompromising and dominating communication style more than high-context nations."


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: In addition, Hall identified countries such as Japan, Arabic countries and some Latin American Countries to practice high-context culture; "High context communication carries most of its information within physical acts and features such as avoiding eye contact or even the shrug of a shoulder." On the other hand, he identified countries such as Germany, the United States and Scandinavia as low-context cultures. These countries are quite explicit and elaborate without having prior knowledge to each member's history or background.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Cultures and languages are defined as higher or lower context on a spectrum. For example, it could be argued that the Canadian French language is higher context than Canadian English, but lower context than Spanish or French French. An individual from Texas (a higher-context culture) may communicate with a few words or use of a prolonged silence characteristic of Texan English, where a New Yorker would be very explicit (as typical of New York City English), although both speak the same language (American English) and are part of a nation (the United States of America) which is lower-context relative to other nations. Hall notes a similar difference between Navajo-speakers and English-speakers in a United States school.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Hall and Hall proposed a "spectrum" of national cultures from "High-Context cultures" to "Low-Context Cultures. This has been expanded to further countries by Sheposh & Shaista.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Cultural context can also shift and evolve. For instance, a study has argued that both Japan and Finland (high-context cultures) are becoming lower-context with the increased influence of Western European and United States culture.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: This study, done by Kim Dunghoon, was to test the major aspects the high versus low-context culture concepts. Three samples were gathered from the US, China, and Korea, three different cultures. From each culture, 96 business managers were surveyed for the American and Chinese sample and 50 managers were surveyed from Korea. According to Hall's theory, Chinese and Korean samples represented higher-context cultures while the American sample represents lower context. 16 items were tested in this study. Each of them covers different aspects of the high-versus low-context concept including "social orientation, responsibility, confrontation, communication, commitment, and dealing with new situations". "The results show that American, Chinese, and Korean samples were significantly different on 15 of the 16 items. Out of the 15 items, 11 are significant at the .01 level, 1 at the .05 level, and 3 at the .10 level. The composite score also shows a significant difference among the three samples at the .01 level". The American sample scored the lowest compared to the two "Oriental samples" which is consistent with Hall's concept. Overall, this study offers more evidence supporting the high versus low-context culture concepts with Chinese, Korean, and American test participants. The results show that in high-context cultures, such as China and Korea, people appear to be "more socially oriented, less confrontational, and more complacent with existing ways of living" compared to people from low-context cultures, like America.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: A case study was done on 30 Romanian and 30 Russian employees, to compare high- and low-context cultures, and results strongly suggested that Russia and Romania are both high-context cultures. The table shows the major differences and similarities between individual queries.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: This study is a result of a cross-cultural examination between students from the United States, a low-context culture, and Mexico, a high-context culture, to study the reasons people communicate in each culture. There were 225 Mexican participants from three different undergraduate universities in Mexico City and 447 participants from Kent State University in the U.S. The case study looked into culture shock experienced by Mexicans studying in the U.S. The hypotheses tested indicated the high-context culture in Mexico would provide different motives for communication when compared with the low-context culture of the U.S.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: The results found that U.S. participants used communication for pleasure more often than Mexican participants. Pleasure, affection and inclusion were the highest motives for communication in both cultures, and control was the lowest for both cultures.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: The categories of context cultures are not totally separate. Both often take many aspects of the other's cultural communication abilities and strengths into account. The terms high- and low-context cultures are not classified with strict individual characteristics or boundaries. Instead, many cultures tend to have a mixture or at least some concepts that are shared between them, overlapping the two context cultures.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Ramos suggests that "in low context culture, communication members' communication must be more explicit. As such, what is said is what is meant, and further analysis of the message is usually unnecessary." This implies that communication is quite direct and detailed because members of the culture are not expected to have knowledge of each other's histories, past experience or background. Because low-context communication concerns more direct messages, the meaning of these messages is more dependent on the words being spoken rather than on the interpretation of more subtle or unspoken cues.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: The Encyclopedia of Diversity and Social Justice states that, "high context defines cultures that are relational and collectivist, and which most highlight interpersonal relationships. Cultures and communication in which context is of great importance to structuring actions is referred to as high context." In such cultures, people are highly perceptive of actions. Furthermore, cultural aspects such as tradition, ceremony, and history are also highly valued. Because of this, many features of cultural behavior in high-context cultures, such as individual roles and expectations, do not need much detailed or thought-out explanation.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: According to Watson, "the influence of cultural variables interplays with other key factors – for example, social identities, those of age, gender, social class and ethnicity; this may include a stronger or weaker influence." A similarity that the two communication styles share is its influence on social characteristics such as age, gender, social class and ethnicity. For example, for someone who is older and more experienced within a society, the need for social cues may be higher or lower depending on the communication style. The same applies for the other characteristics in varied countries.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: On the other hand, certain intercultural communication skills are unique for each culture and it is significant to note that these overlaps in communication techniques are represented subgroups within social interactions or family settings. Many singular cultures that are large have subcultures inside of them, making communication and defining them more complicated than the low-context and high-context culture scale. The diversity within a main culture shows how the high and low scale differs depending on social settings such as school, work, home, and in other countries; variation is what allows the scale to fluctuate even if a large culture is categorized as primarily one or the other.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Punctuation marks and emojis are more often used by high-context users than low-context users. The tools are used to establish context by adding additional information as personal and social cues are not as presentable as they are in face-to-face negotiations.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Between each type of culture context, there will be forms of miscommunication because of the difference in gestures, social cues, and intercultural adjustments; however, it is important to recognize these differences and learn how to avoid miscommunication to benefit certain situations. Since all sets of cultures differ, especially from a global standpoint where language also creates a barrier for communication, social interactions specific to a culture normally require a range of appropriate communication abilities that an opposing culture may not understand or know about. This significance follows into many situations such as the workplace, which can be prone to diversified cultures and opportunities for collaboration and working together. Awareness of miscommunication between high- and low-context cultures within the workplace or intercultural communication settings advocates for collected unification within a group through the flexibility and ability to understand one another.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Families, subcultures and in-groups typically favour higher-context communication. Groups that are able to rely on a common background may not need to use words as explicitly to understand each other. Settings and cultures where people come together from a wider diversity of backgrounds such as international airports, large cities, or multi-national firms, tend to use lower-context communication forms.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Hall links language to culture through the work of Sapir-Whorf on linguistic relativity. A trade language will typically need to explicitly explain more of the context than a dialect which can assume a high level of shared context. Because a low-context setting cannot rely on shared understanding of potentially ambiguous messages, low-context cultures tend to give more information, or to be precise in their language. In contrast, a high-context language like Japanese or Chinese can use a high number of homophones but still be understood by a listener who knows the context.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: The concept of elaborated and restricted codes was introduced by sociologist Basil Bernstein in his book "Class, Codes and Control". The use of an elaborated code indicates that speaker and listener do not share significant amounts of common knowledge, and hence they may need to "spell out" their ideas more fully: elaborated codes tend to be more context-independent. In contrast, the use of restricted codes indicates that speakers and listeners do share a great deal of common background and perspectives, and hence much more can be taken for granted, and thus expressed implicitly or through nuance: restricted codes tend to be more context-dependent.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Restricted codes are commonly used in high-context culture groups, where group members share the same cultural background and can easily understand the implicit meanings "between the lines" without further elaboration. Conversely, in cultural groups with low context, where people share less common knowledge or 'value individuality above group identification', elaborated codes are necessary to avoid misunderstanding.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: The concepts of collectivism and individualism have been applied to high- and low-context cultures by Dutch psychologist Geert Hofstede in his Cultural Dimensions Theory. Collectivist societies prioritize the group over the individual, and vice versa for individualist ones. In high-context cultures, language may be used to assist and maintain relationship-building and to focus on process. India and Japan are typically high-context, highly collectivistic cultures, where business is done by building relationships and maintaining respectful communication.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Individualistic cultures promote the development of individual values and independent social groups. Individualism may lead to communicating to all people in a group in the same way, rather than offering hierarchical respect to certain members. Because individualistic cultures may value cultural diversity, a more explicit way of communicating is often required to avoid misunderstanding. Language may be used to achieve goals or exchange information. The USA and Australia are typically low-context, highly individualistic cultures, where transparency and competition in business are prized.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: High-context cultures tend to be more stable, as their communication is more economical, fast, efficient and satisfying; but these are gained at a price of devoting time into preprogramming cultural background, and their high stability might come with a price of a high barrier for development. By contrast, low-context cultures tend to change more rapidly and drastically, allowing extension to happen at faster rates. This also means that low-context communication may fail due to the overload of information, which makes culture lose its screening function.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Therefore, higher-context cultures tend to correlate with cultures that also have a strong sense of tradition and history, and change little over time. For example, Native Americans in the United States have higher-context cultures with a strong sense of tradition and history, compared to general American culture. Focusing on tradition creates opportunities for higher-context messages between individuals of each new generation, and the high-context culture feeds back to the stability hence allows the tradition to be maintained. This is in contrast to lower-context cultures in which the shared experiences upon which communication is built can change drastically from one generation to the next, creating communication gaps between parents and children, as in the United States.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Culture also affects how individuals interpret other people's facial expressions. An experiment performed by the University of Glasgow shows that different cultures have different understanding of the facial expression signals of the six basic emotions, which are the so-called "universal language of emotion"—happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger and sadness. In high-context cultures, facial expressions and gestures take on greater importance in conveying and understanding a message, and the receiver may require more cultural context to understand "basic" displays of emotions.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Cultural differences in advertising and marketing may also be explained through high- and low-context cultures. One study on McDonald's online advertising compared Japan, China, Korea, Hong Kong, Pakistan, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and the United States, and found that in high-context countries, the advertising used more colors, movements, and sounds to give context, while in low-context cultures the advertising focused more on verbal information and linear processes.


title: High-context and low-context cultures

text: Website design among cross-cultural barriers include factoring in decisions about culture-sensitive color meanings, layout preferences, animation and sounds. In a case study conducted by the IT University of Copenhagen, it was found that websites catering to high-context cultures tended to have more detailed and advanced designs, including various images and animations. Low-context websites had less animation and more stagnant images, with more details on information. The images found on the websites used in the study promoted individualistic and collectivist characteristics within the low-context and high-context websites, respectively. The low-context websites had multiple images of individuals, while the high-context websites contained images and animations of groups and communities.


title: Owain Yeoman

text: Owain Sebastian Yeoman is a Welsh actor. His credits include "The Nine", "Kitchen Confidential", AMC's "" (as Benedict Arnold) and the HBO series "Generation Kill". Additionally, he portrayed CBI Agent Wayne Rigsby in "The Mentalist" and portrayed Benny Gallagher in "Emergence".


title: Owain Yeoman

text: Yeoman was born and raised in Chepstow, Monmouthshire, Wales, where his parents, Michael and Hilary, still live. He attended Wantage CofE Primary School before attending school at Wyedean School in Sedbury, Gloucestershire, where he showed a keen interest in English language, English literature and was involved in the school's amateur dramatics productions.


title: Owain Yeoman

text: He studied English literature at Oxford University as a member of Brasenose College, and graduated BA, which matured into an MA. In those years he was a member of the OUDS and Oxford Revue. He had planned to continue doctoral studies but was not able to secure a grant. Instead he worked for a time at a bank in Canary Wharf, London before enrolling at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art to study acting.


title: Owain Yeoman

text: Yeoman made his film debut as Lysander in the Oscar nominated film "Troy". He also had a small part in Broken Lizard's film, "Beerfest", and made a guest appearance on an episode of "Midsomer Murders" entitled “Dead in the Water”. He played Sgt. Eric Kocher in the HBO miniseries, "Generation Kill" (2008). He played the major villain, a T-888 model cyborg Terminator named "Cromartie", in the pilot episode of "". The role was taken by Garret Dillahunt in the series of the same name.


title: Owain Yeoman

text: Yeoman played Wayne Rigsby in "The Mentalist". He starred in every episode to the sixth season, alongside Simon Baker, Robin Tunney, Amanda Righetti and Tim Kang. He also starred in "". In 2013 it was confirmed that Yeoman and Righetti were leaving "The Mentalist" after the sixth season. He guest starred in two episodes (10 & 11) of "Extant" in 2014.


title: Owain Yeoman

text: Yeoman also had a small role in the American drama "American Sniper", his first major breakthrough on the big screen. From 2015 to 2017, he portrayed General Benedict Arnold in seasons 2-4 of the TV series "". Yeoman portrayed Vartox on the pilot of DC Comics TV series "Supergirl".


title: Owain Yeoman

text: Yeoman was married to actress Lucy Davis from December 2006 to October 2011. His first marriage took place at St Paul's Cathedral, London. Davis and Yeoman were permitted to marry there as her father Robert (better known by his stage name Jasper Carrott) had been awarded an OBE in the New Year's Honours in 2002. On 7 September 2013, Yeoman married jewellery designer Gigi Yallouz at a private estate in Malibu, California. They have one daughter named Ever Belle.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The National University of Singapore (NUS) is a national public research university in Singapore. Founded in 1905 as the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States Government Medical School, NUS is the oldest autonomous university in the country. It offers degree programmes in a wide range of disciplines at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, including in the sciences, medicine and dentistry, design and environment, law, arts and social sciences, engineering, business, computing, and music.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS is one of the most highly-ranked academic institutions in the world. It has consistently featured in the top 30 of the Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) World University Rankings and the Times Higher Education (THE) World University Rankings, and in the top 100 of the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU). As of 2022-2023, NUS is 11th worldwide according to QS and 19th worldwide according to THE.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS's main campus is located in the southwestern part of Singapore, adjacent to the Kent Ridge subzone of Queenstown, accommodating an area of . The Duke–NUS Medical School, a postgraduate medical school jointly established with Duke University, is located at the Outram campus; and its Bukit Timah campus houses the Faculty of Law and Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. The Yale-NUS College, a joint liberal arts college between NUS and Yale University, is located next to the NUS University Town on the main campus.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS includes one Nobel laureate, one Tang Prize laureate and one Vautrin Lud Laureate among its affiliated faculty members and researchers.


title: National University of Singapore

text: In September 1904, Tan Jiak Kim led a group of representatives of the Chinese and other non-European communities to petition the Governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir John Anderson, to establish a medical school in Singapore. It was noted by Anderson that there were other petitions prior which were not successful due to concerns over having a sufficient number of students and support from the local community. Tan, who was the first president of the Straits Chinese British Association, managed to raise 87,077 Straits dollars from the community, including a personal donation of $12,000. On 3 July 1905, the medical school was founded and was known as the "Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States Government Medical School". At Anderson's directions, the school was hosted temporarily at a recently emptied block at a Government-run asylum in Pasir Panjang while providing the staff required to run the school.


title: National University of Singapore

text: In 1912, the medical school received an endowment of $120,000 from King Edward VII Memorial Fund, started by physician Lim Boon Keng. Subsequently, on 18 November 1913, the name of the school was changed to "King Edward VII Medical School". In 1921, it was again changed to "King Edward VII College of Medicine" to reflect its academic status.


title: National University of Singapore

text: In 1928, Raffles College, a separate institution from the medical school, was established to promote education in arts and social sciences.


title: National University of Singapore

text: On 8 October 1949, Raffles College was merged with King Edward VII College of Medicine to form the University of Malaya. The two institutions were merged to provide for the higher education needs of the Federation of Malaya.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The growth of University of Malaya was very rapid during the first decade of its establishment and resulted in the setting up of two autonomous divisions in 1959, one located in Singapore and the other in Kuala Lumpur.


title: National University of Singapore

text: In 1955, Nanyang University (abbreviated Nan-tah, 南大) was established on the backdrop of the Chinese community in Singapore.


title: National University of Singapore

text: In 1960, the governments of then Federation of Malaya and Singapore indicated their desire to change the status of the divisions into that of a national university. Legislation was passed in 1961, establishing the former Kuala Lumpur division as the University of Malaya, while the Singapore division was renamed the University of Singapore on 1 January 1962.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The National University of Singapore (NUS) was formed with the merger of the University of Singapore and Nanyang University on 6 August 1980. This was done in part due to the government's desire to pool the two institutions' resources into a single, stronger entity and promote English as Singapore's main language of education. The original crest of Nanyang University with three intertwined rings was incorporated into the new coat-of-arms of NUS.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS began its entrepreneurial education endeavours in the 1980s, with the setting up of the Centre for Management of Innovation and Technopreneurship in 1988. In 2001, this was renamed the NUS Entrepreneurship Centre (NEC), and became a division of NUS Enterprise. NEC is currently headed by Wong Poh Kam and its activities are organised into four areas, including a business incubator, experiential education, entrepreneurship development and entrepreneurship research.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS has 17 faculties and schools across three campus locations in Singapore – Kent Ridge, Bukit Timah and Outram.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS has a semester-based modular system for conducting undergraduate courses. It adopts features of the British system, such as small group teaching (tutorials) on top of regular two-hour lectures, and the American system (course credits). NUS has 17 faculties and schools across three campuses, including a music conservatory.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) World University Rankings 2022 ranked NUS 11th in the world (1st in Asia).


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Times Higher Education (THE) World University Rankings 2023 placed NUS at 19th worldwide. NUS was also placed at 19th worldwide in the THE reputation rankings 2022.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The U.S. News & World Report (USNWR) 2022-2023 Best Global Universities Rankings placed NUS at 26th worldwide.


title: National University of Singapore

text: In 2020, NUS is ranked 29th among the universities around the world by SCImago Institutions Rankings. NUS placed 28th for 2019-2020 and 32nd for 2020-2021 globally in the Informatics Institute/METU University Ranking by Academic Performance. NUS was ranked first in Singapore and Asia Pacific, and 22nd in the world according to the 2018 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, and first in Asia Pacific and 11th in the world according to the 2018 QS World University Rankings. In 2021, NUS was named the world's eighth most international university by the Times Higher Education.


title: National University of Singapore

text: According to the QS World University Rankings by Subject 2022, NUS has been placed in the top 10 globally in sixteen subjects. In total, thirty-seven NUS programmes were ranked among world's top 50, making NUS the joint top university in Asia alongside The University of Tokyo:


title: National University of Singapore

text: According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings by Subjects (2023) which ranked universities in 11 different subjects, NUS was among the world's top 10 in three subjects (computer science, law, and engineering) and top 20 in four subjects (business and economics, physical sciences, clinical & health, and social sciences):


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS graduates ranked 8th worldwide in the Times Higher Education's Global University Employability Ranking 2022, and 17th worldwide in the QS Graduate Employability Rankings 2022.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The NUS Business School was founded as the Department of Business Administration in 1965. The NUS Master of Business Administration currently ranks 18th globally according to the Financial Times Global Rankings 2018. NUS also offers MBA degrees in collaboration with overseas universities such as Peking University, UCLA, and Korea University.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The School of Computing established in 1998, has two departments – Computer Science; and Information Systems and Analytics.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Faculty of Dentistry had its early beginnings in 1929 as a Department of Dentistry within the King Edward VII College of Medicine. The faculty conducts a four-year dental course leading to the Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) degree.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The interdisciplinary College of Design and Engineering (CDE) was launched in 2021, bringing together two pre-existing faculties, the School of Design and Environment (SDE) and the Faculty of Engineering (FoE).


title: National University of Singapore

text: The School of Design and Environment has three departments: Department of Architecture, Department of the Built Environment, and the Division of Industrial Design.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Faculty of Engineering was launched in 1968. It is the largest faculty in the university and consists of several departments spanning diverse engineering fields.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The NUS Faculty of Engineering was ranked sixth in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities for Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences. It has also been ranked seventh in the world in the subject category of Engineering and Technology by the 2017 QS World University Subject Rankings and 2016-2017 Times Higher Education World University Subject Rankings.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Duke–NUS Medical School (Duke–NUS) is a graduate medical school in Singapore. The school was set up in April 2005 as the Duke–NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore's second medical school, after the Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, and before the Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine. The Duke–NUS Medical School is a collaboration between Duke University in North Carolina, United States and the National University of Singapore.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The interdisciplinary College of Humanities and Sciences (CHS) was launched in 2020, merging the two largest faculties, the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences and the Faculty of Science.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Faculty of Science comprises multiple departments, spanning natural and applied science. The first female Dean of the Faculty of Science was Gloria Lim, who was appointed in 1973. She served a four-year term and was reappointed in 1979, but resigned after one year to allow Koh Lip Lin to continue his post. In 1980, University of Singapore merged with Nanyang University to form NUS, resulting in overlapping posts.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering (NGS) was established in 2003. The principal purpose of NGS is "to promote integrative PhD research encompassing both laboratory work and coursework programmes which not only transcend traditional subject boundaries but also provides students with a depth of experience about science and the way it is carried out".


title: National University of Singapore

text: The NUS Faculty of Law was first established as a Department of Law in the then University of Malaya in 1956. The first law students were admitted to the Bukit Timah campus of the university the following year. In 1980, the faculty shifted to the Kent Ridge campus, but in 2006 it relocated back to the Bukit Timah site.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The faculty offers LLB, JD, LLM, and PhD programmes, alongside continuing education and graduate certificate programmes.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine at NUS was first established as the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States Government Medical School in 1905. The School uses the British undergraduate medical system, offering a full-time undergraduate programme leading to the Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery MBBS. For Nursing, the Bachelor of Science (Nursing) conducted by the Alice Lee Centre for Nursing Studies is offered. The department also offers postgraduate programmes in nursing, medicine, and medical science.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Yong Siew Toh Conservatory of Music (YSTCM) is a collaboration between NUS and the Peabody Institute of Johns Hopkins University. Singapore's first conservatory of music, YSTCM was founded as the Singapore Conservatory of Music in 2001. The School was renamed Yong Siew Toh Conservatory of Music after a gift was made by the family of the late Dr Yong Loo Lin in memory of his daughter.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health is Singapore's first and only tertiary education institution for public health. It traces its beginnings to the University of Malaya's Department of Social Medicine and Public Health, formed in 1948.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy was established in 2004 as an autonomous graduate school of NUS. Although the School was formally launched in 2004, it inherited NUS's Public Policy Programme, which was established in 1992 in partnership with Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The University Scholars Programme (USP) was an undergraduate academic programme established in 2001 in NUS, which comprised a compulsory general education programme. USP admitted 240 undergraduates annually. USP students resided in Cinnamon College at the NUS University Town.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The Yale-NUS College is a liberal arts college in Singapore which opened in August 2013 as a joint project of Yale University and the National University of Singapore. It is an autonomous college within NUS, allowing it greater freedom to develop its own policies while tapping on the existing facilities and resources of the main university. Students who graduate receive a degree awarded by NUS. Pericles Lewis, a former professor at Yale, was appointed as the founding president in 2012.


title: National University of Singapore

text: In August 2021, NUS announced that it was going to merge Yale-NUS College with the University Scholars Programme to form a new honours college, NUS College, by 2025 The merger marks the dissolution of NUS's partnership with Yale University. The last class of Yale-NUS College students were those admitted in 2021, following which Yale-NUS would operate for several years until all of its students have graduated.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS High School of Mathematics and Science is a school specialising in mathematics and science, and provides secondary and pre-tertiary education to students with inclinations to these fields.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The major research focuses at NUS are biomedical science, physical science, engineering, nanoscience, material science, information technology, humanities, social sciences, and defence.


title: National University of Singapore

text: One of several niche research areas of strategic importance to Singapore being undertaken at NUS is bioengineering. Initiatives in this area include bioimaging, tissue engineering and tissue modulation.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The university has received a number of grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for research into areas including vaccine development, water treatment, mobile devices in healthcare, iris recognition, synthetic antibodies, tuberculosis, and government response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Asia.


title: National University of Singapore

text: Currently, NUS hosts 21 university-level research institutes and centres (RICs) in various fields. Four of these RICs have been designated Research Centres of Excellence by the Singapore government — the Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, Centre for Quantum Technologies, Mechanobiology Institute, and Institute for Functional Intelligent Materials.


title: National University of Singapore

text: Besides university-level RICs, NUS also affiliates with other universities to establish research centres and institutes. The Logistics Institute – Asia Pacific is a collaborative effort between NUS and the Georgia Institute of Technology for research and education in logistics. The Next Age Institute, a partnership with Washington University in St. Louis, is the most recent cross-university centre involving NUS, established in February 2015.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS began its entrepreneurial education endeavours in the 1980s, establishing the Centre for Management of Innovation and Technopreneurship in 1988. In 2001, this was renamed the NUS Entrepreneurship Centre (NEC), and became a division of NUS Enterprise, the entrepreneurial arm of NUS. Its activities include entrepreneurial education and outreach, technology commercialisation, and a business incubator.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The NUS Overseas Colleges (NOC) programme was started in 2001, giving students the opportunity to experience, live, work and study in an entrepreneurial hub. Participants of the programme either spend 6 months or a year overseas, taking courses at partner universities and working in start-ups.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The NUS Industry Liaison Office (ILO) is another department that is involved in the creation of deep tech start-ups. It manages the university's technology transfer and promotes research collaborations with industry and partners. ILO manages NUS intellectual property, commercialises its intellectual assets and facilitates the spinning off of technologies into start-up companies.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS hosts NUSNET, an intranet, which is used in research, teaching, learning and administration. In 2004, a campus-wide grid computing network was deployed, connecting at least 1,000 computers. At the time, it was one of the largest of such virtual supercomputing facilities in the region.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The NUS Libraries comprises 8 libraries: the Central Library, Chinese Library, CJ Koh Law Library, Hon Sui Sen Memorial Library, the Medical Library, Music Library, Science Library and East Asian Institute Library. As of June 2017, there are 2,354,741 unique titles, and 26,074 microform resources in the collection.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The NUS University Town (UTown) opened in August 2011. Located at the Kent Ridge campus, it was built on the site of a former golf course. UTown hosts the four residential colleges of NUS and also contains a graduate residence.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The university has a free Internal Shuttle Bus system that operates across the Bukit Timah and Kent Ridge campuses.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS has three types of student accommodation: halls of residence, student residences, and residential colleges. There are about 6,000 residential places distributed between halls of residence and student residences on campus, in addition to around 4,100 students who live in the residential colleges and graduate residences.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS has 7 Halls of Residence with about 3,000 residential places. A points system, based on co-currciular activities and leadership roles, is used to allocate residential places to students. Halls have their own interest groups and student productions in addition to university-wide student co-curricular activities. Halls compete with each other in the Inter-Hall Games.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS has two student residences — Prince George's Park Residences and UTown Residences — for undergraduate and graduate students. The residences are arranged in clusters of 11 to 15 single rooms, with shared kitchen and bathroom facilities. The UTown Residences also has apartments for students.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS also houses residential colleges, which are modeled after the college systems of universities. Like halls, residential colleges have unique co-curricular activities. Residential colleges also have their own academic programmes, with general education requirements differing from each other and the rest of the university. The academic programmes in residential colleges take place in seminars.


title: National University of Singapore

text: Cinnamon College housed the University Scholars Programme (USP) until the 2021 intake. Together with the current Yale-NUS College Campus (which has been renamed the "West Wing"), the college will house the NUS College from the 2022 intake onwards. USP students and faculty are accommodated in 600 rooms.


title: National University of Singapore

text: Tembusu College was the second residential colleges in NUS University Town. Tembusu houses mainly first and second-year undergraduates, in addition to resident faculty, visiting scholars and graduate fellows. The former founding Rector of Tembusu College is Singapore's Ambassador-at-Large and former United Nations Ambassador Tommy Koh, who is also the former Dean of the NUS Faculty of Law.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The College of Alice & Peter Tan (CAPT) is a Residential College for all NUS undergraduates which emphasizes active citizenship and community engagement. It provides a two-year academic programme.


title: National University of Singapore

text: Ridge View Residential College (RVRC) was formally established in April 2014, housed in the former Ridge View Residences. It is the only residential college that is situated outside University Town. The site was the former location for Kent Ridge Hall until November 2002. In November 2015, an annex building to RVRC was constructed. It was completed in February 2017.


title: National University of Singapore

text: The following table is a list of the principal officers of the National University of Singapore's predecessors. Note that the office of the President of Raffles College was renamed Principal of Raffles College from 1938.


title: National University of Singapore

text: Since its inception in 1905, NUS has had many distinguished alumni from Singapore and Malaysia, including 4 Singaporean prime ministers and presidents, 2 Malaysian prime ministers, politicians, judiciaries, business executives, educators and local celebrities. It counts among its graduates heads of states Abdul Razak Hussein, Benjamin Sheares, Goh Chok Tong, Mahathir Mohamad and S. R. Nathan. The first prime minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, attended Raffles College briefly before the Second World War.


title: National University of Singapore

text: A number of its graduates are also notable politicians such as Rais Yatim, Malaysia's former minister for information, communications and culture, Ng Eng Hen, Singapore's minister of defence, and S. Jayakumar, Singapore's former deputy prime minister, United Nations representative, and minister for law, home affairs, labour, and foreign affairs.


title: National University of Singapore

text: Many of Singapore's business leaders come from NUS, including as former chairman of the Singapore Exchange and Singapore Tourism Board Chew Choon Seng, CEO of the Hyflux Group Olivia Lum, CEO of the Temasek Holdings Ho Ching, chairman of SPRING Singapore Philip Yeo and CEO of Razer Inc Min-Liang Tan.


title: National University of Singapore

text: In international politics, NUS counts among its graduates former director-general of the World Health Organization Margaret Chan, former president of United Nations Security Council Kishore Mahbubani, and vice-president of the International Olympic Committee Ng Ser Miang.


title: National University of Singapore

text: NUS served as Singapore's only law school for half a century, until the Singapore Management University was set up in 2007. Many of Singapore's judges and lawyers come from the school. This includes Singapore's minister for law and for home affairs K. Shanmugam, the fourth Chief Justice of Singapore Sundaresh Menon and the third Chief Justice of Singapore Chan Sek Keong.


title: National University of Singapore

text: In academia, NUS faculty include former vice-president of finance for the University of Virginia and Cornell University Yoke San Reynolds, and former vice-chancellor of the University of Hong Kong Wang Gungwu.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride (BZK, BKC, BAK, BAC), also known as alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC) and by the trade name Zephiran, is a type of cationic surfactant. It is an organic salt classified as a quaternary ammonium compound. ADBACs have three main categories of use: as a biocide, a cationic surfactant, and a phase transfer agent. ADBACs are a mixture of alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chlorides, in which the alkyl group has various even-numbered alkyl chain lengths.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Depending on purity, benzalkonium chloride ranges from colourless to a pale yellow (impure). Benzalkonium chloride is readily soluble in ethanol and acetone. Dissolution in water is ready, upon agitation. Aqueous solutions should be neutral to slightly alkaline. Solutions foam when shaken. Concentrated solutions have a bitter taste and a faint almond-like odour.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Standard concentrates are manufactured as 50% and 80% w/w solutions, and sold under trade names such as BC50, BC80, BAC50, BAC80, etc. The 50% solution is purely aqueous, while more concentrated solutions require incorporation of rheology modifiers (alcohols, polyethylene glycols, etc.) to prevent increases in viscosity or gel formation under low temperature conditions.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride also possesses surfactant properties, dissolving the lipid phase of the tear film and increasing drug penetration, making it a useful excipient, but at the risk of causing damage to the surface of the eye.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride is a mainstay of phase-transfer catalysis, an important technology in the synthesis of organic compounds, including drugs.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Especially for its antimicrobial activity, benzalkonium chloride is an active ingredient in many consumer products:


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride is also used in many non-consumer processes and products, including as an active ingredient in surgical disinfection. A comprehensive list of uses includes industrial applications. An advantage of benzalkonium chloride, not shared by ethanol-based antiseptics or hydrogen peroxide antiseptic, is that it does not cause a burning sensation when applied to broken skin. However, prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause dermatitis.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: During the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, from time to time there have been shortages of hand cleaner containing ethanol or isopropanol as active ingredients. The FDA has stated that benzalkonium chloride is eligible as an alternative for use in the formulation of healthcare personnel hand rubs. However, in reference to the FDA rule, the CDC states that it does not have a recommended alternative to ethanol or isopropanol as active ingredients, and adds that "available evidence indicates benzalkonium chloride has less reliable activity against certain bacteria and viruses than either of the alcohols." In November 2020 The Journal of Hospital Infection published a study on benzalkonium chloride formulations; it was found that laboratory and commercial disinfectants with as little as 0.13% benzalkonium chloride inactivated the SARS-CoV-2 virus within 15 seconds of contact, even in the presence of a soil or hard water. This resulted in a growing consensus that BZK sanitizers are just as effective as alcohol-based sanitizers despite the CDC guidelines. As a hand sanitizer, use of BZK may be advantageous over ethanol in some situations because it has significantly more residual antibacterial action on the skin after initial application. Benzalkonium chloride has demonstrated persistent antimicrobial activity for up to four hours after contact whereas ethanol-based sanitizer demonstrate skin protection for only 10 minutes post-application.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride is a frequently used preservative in eye drops; typical concentrations range from 0.004% to 0.01%. Stronger concentrations can be caustic and cause irreversible damage to the corneal endothelium.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Avoiding the use of benzalkonium chloride solutions while contact lenses are in place is discussed in the literature.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Due to its antimicrobial activity when applied to skin, some topical medications for acne vulgaris have benzalkonium chloride added to increase the products’ efficiency or shelf-life.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium Chloride is scientifically proven to be a successful spermicide. In Russia and China, benzalkonium chloride is used as a contraceptive. Tablets are inserted vaginally, or a gel is applied, resulting in local spermicidal contraception. It is not a wholly reliable method, and can cause irritation.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Although historically benzalkonium chloride has been ubiquitous as a preservative in ophthalmic preparations, its ocular toxicity and irritant properties, in conjunction with consumer demand, have led pharmaceutical companies to increase production of preservative-free preparations, or to replace benzalkonium chloride with preservatives which are less harmful.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Many mass-marketed inhaler and nasal spray formulations contain benzalkonium chloride as a preservative, despite substantial evidence that it can adversely affect ciliary motion, mucociliary clearance, nasal mucosal histology, human neutrophil function, and leukocyte response to local inflammation. Although some studies have found no correlation between use of benzalkonium chloride in concentrations at or below 0.1% in nasal sprays and drug-induced rhinitis, others have recommended that benzalkonium chloride in nasal sprays be avoided. In the United States, nasal steroid preparations that are free of benzalkonium chloride include budesonide, triamcinolone acetonide, dexamethasone, and Beconase and Vancenase aerosol inhalers.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride is an irritant to middle ear tissues at typically-used concentrations. Inner ear toxicity has been demonstrated.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Occupational exposure to benzalkonium chloride has been linked to the development of asthma. In 2011, a large clinical trial designed to evaluate the efficacy of hand sanitizers based on different active ingredients in preventing virus transmission amongst schoolchildren was re-designed to exclude sanitizers based on benzalkonium chloride due to safety concerns.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride has been in common use as a pharmaceutical preservative and antimicrobial since the 1940s. While early studies confirmed the corrosive and irritant properties of benzalkonium chloride, investigations into the adverse effects of, and disease states linked to, benzalkonium chloride have only surfaced during the past 30 years.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride is a human skin and severe eye irritant. It is a respiratory toxicant, immunotoxicant, gastrointestinal toxicant, and neurotoxicant.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride formulations for consumer use are dilute solutions. Concentrated solutions are toxic to humans, causing corrosion/irritation to the skin and mucosa, and death if taken internally in sufficient volumes. 0.1% is the maximum concentration of benzalkonium chloride that does not produce primary irritation on intact skin or act as a sensitizer.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Poisoning by benzalkonium chloride is recognised in the literature. A 2014 case study detailing the fatal ingestion of up to 8.1 oz (240 ml) of 10% benzalkonium chloride in a 78-year-old male also includes a summary of the currently published case reports of benzalkonium chloride ingestion. While the majority of cases were caused by confusion about the contents of containers, one case cites incorrect pharmacy dilution of benzalkonium chloride as the cause of poisoning of two infants. In 2018 a Japanese nurse was arrested and admitted to having murdered approximately 20 patients at a hospital in Yokohama by injecting benzalkonium chloride into their intravenous drip bags.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride poisoning of domestic pets has been recognised as a result of direct contact with surfaces cleaned with disinfectants using benzalkonium chloride as an active ingredient.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: The greatest biocidal activity is associated with the C12 dodecyl and C14 myristyl alkyl derivatives. The mechanism of bactericidal/microbicidal action is thought to be due to disruption of intermolecular interactions. This can cause dissociation of cellular membrane lipid bilayers, which compromises cellular permeability controls and induces leakage of cellular contents. Other biomolecular complexes within the bacterial cell can also undergo dissociation. Enzymes, which finely control a wide range of respiratory and metabolic cellular activities, are particularly susceptible to deactivation. Critical intermolecular interactions and tertiary structures in such highly specific biochemical systems can be readily disrupted by cationic surfactants.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride solutions are fast-acting biocidal agents with a moderately long duration of action. They are active against bacteria and some viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Bacterial spores are considered to be resistant. Solutions are bacteriostatic or bactericidal according to their concentration. Gram-positive bacteria are generally more susceptible than gram-negative bacteria. Its activity depends on the surfactant concentration and also on the bacterial concentration (inoculum) at the moment of the treatment. Activity is not greatly affected by pH, but increases substantially at higher temperatures and prolonged exposure times.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: In a 1998 study using the FDA protocol, a non-alcohol sanitizer with benzalkonium chloride as the active ingredient met the FDA performance standards, while Purell, a popular alcohol-based sanitizer, did not. The study, which was undertaken and reported by a leading US developer, manufacturer and marketer of topical antimicrobial pharmaceuticals based on quaternary ammonium compounds, found that their own benzalkonium chloride-based sanitizer performed better than alcohol-based hand sanitizer after repeated use.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Newer formulations using benzalkonium blended with various quaternary ammonium derivatives can be used to extend the biocidal spectrum and enhance the efficacy of benzalkonium based disinfection products. Formulation techniques have been used to great effect in enhancing the virucidal activity of quaternary ammonium-based disinfectants such as Virucide 100 to typical healthcare infection hazards such as hepatitis and HIV. The use of appropriate excipients can also greatly enhance the spectrum, performance and detergency, and prevent deactivation under use conditions. Formulation can also help minimise deactivation of benzalkonium solutions in the presence of organic and inorganic contamination.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride degradation follows consecutive debenzylation, dealkylation, and demethylation steps producing benzyl chloride, an alkyl dimethyl amine, dimethylamine, a long chain alkane, and ammonia. The intermediates, major, and minor products can then be broken down into CO, HO, NH, and Cl. The first step to the biodegradation of BAC is the fission or splitting of the alkyl chain from the quaternary nitrogen as shown in the diagram. This is done by abstracting the hydrogen from the alkyl chain by using a hydroxyl radical leading to a carbon centered radical. This results in dimethylbenzylamine as the first intermediate and dodecanal as the major product.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: From here, dimethylbenzylamine can be oxidized to benzoic acid using the Fenton process. The trimethyl amine group in dimethylbenzylamine can be cleaved to form a benzyl that can be further oxidized to benzoic acid. Benzoic acid uses hydroxylation (adding a hydroxyl group) to form p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Dimethylbenzylamine can then be converted into ammonia by performing demethylation twice, which removes both methyl groups, followed by debenzylation, removing the benzyl group using hydrogenation. The diagram represents suggested pathways of the biodegradation of BAC for both the hydrophobic and the hydrophilic regions of the surfactant. Since stearalkonium chloride is a type of BAC, the biodegradation process should happen in the same manner.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride is classed as a Category III antiseptic active ingredient by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Ingredients are categorized as Category III when "available data are insufficient to classify as safe and effective, and further testing is required”.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: In September 2016, the FDA announced a ban on nineteen ingredients in consumer antibacterial soaps citing a lack of evidence for safety and effectiveness. A ban on three additional ingredients, including benzalkonium chloride, was deferred to allow ongoing studies to be completed.


title: Benzalkonium chloride

text: Benzalkonium chloride was deferred from further rulemaking in the 2019 FDA Final Rule on safety and effectiveness of consumer hand sanitizers, "to allow for the ongoing study and submission of additional safety and effectiveness data necessary to make a determination" on whether it met these criteria for use in OTC hand sanitizers, but the agency indicated it did not intend to take action to remove benzalkonium chloride-based hand sanitizers from the market. There is acknowledgement that more data are required on its safety, efficacy, and effectiveness, especially with relation to:


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: Tanmay Bhat (born 23 June 1987) is an Indian YouTuber, comedian, scriptwriter, Actor, performer and producer. He was the co-founder and former CEO of the creative agency "All India Bakchod" (AIB) along with Gursimranjet Singh Khamba. In 2018, he was a judge on Season 1 of "Comicstaan", a stand-up comedy competition broadcast on Amazon Prime.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: In mid-2019 he started the YouTube channel "Tanmay Bhat", where he posts vlogs, comedy sketches, reaction videos and video essays and streams games such as "PUBG Mobile,"Among Us etc.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: He has performed at many stand-up comedy shows and was also part of 'Weirdass Comedy' founded by comedian Vir Das.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: Tanmay Bhat had his debut with UTV Bindass' flagship show, "Hass Ley India". He wrote for MTV India's "Wassup" and "Nachle Ve with Saroj Khan". He ventured into story, screenplay and dialogue writing for Disney India's daily comedies "Kya Mast Hai Life" and NDTV Imagine's "Oye! It's Friday!" with Farhan Akhtar.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: He was the writer and producer for "India's More Talent", a subsidiary comedy show spawning from "Not true", and has scripted TV award shows, including the Filmfare Awards, Star Parivaar Awards, Balaji Awards, Big TV Awards and Stardust Awards.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: All India Bakchod was co-founded as a YouTube channel in 2013 by Tanmay Bhat, Gursimran Khamba, Rohan Joshi and Ashish Shakya. They filmed sketches, performed stand-up comedy, and co-wrote shows as a comedy company. By early 2015, the comedy group became a creative agency, making branded content for corporate clients. AIB's first foray into YouTube consisted of short spoofs and mimicry-based sketches. Song parodies continued to feature stereotypical situations and play on heavy nostalgia in their work. They popularized a satirical trope, "Honest Indian...", which they applied to various situations. Their podcast guests and work collaborators included Bollywood celebrities, global and Indian comedians and filmmakers.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: In May 2016 Bhat uploaded a Snapchat video mimicking Sachin Tendulkar and Lata Mangeshkar, arguing about who is a better player. The video generated heated controversy over their portrayal, which some deemed offensive and appalling, while others found it hilarious and witty. Following this, an FIR was registered by the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena against him and Mumbai police wrote to Google and YouTube requesting the video be deleted.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: In 2017 the comedian was booked and an FIR was filed against him for posting a meme of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Snapchat.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: In October 2018, writer and comedian Mahima Kukreja accused the YouTuber Utsav Chakraborty, who worked as a freelancer with All India Bakchod, of sending her and other women lewd messages and photos via social messaging apps. At the time, Bhat was the CEO of AIB. Several comedians within Chakraborty's circle, including Tanmay Bhat, knew about the allegations of harassment but opted to keep quiet and work with him. On 8 October 2018, AIB announced that Bhat would immediately "be stepping away from his association with AIB" for the time being. Amazon Video removed Bhat from the panel of judges for the second season of "Comicstaan" due to the allegations.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: In May 2019, AIB announced that Bhat was no longer suspended but removed from the CEO post. A few weeks later, Bhat stated in videos posted to Instagram that he suffered from clinical depression, drawing criticism from Mahima Kukreja and fellow comedian Aditi Mittal, both of whom accused Bhat of using depression as a good and characterised his claims as insincere.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: Bhat returned to YouTube in November 2019, streaming . He also launched a second channel, 'Honestly by Tanmay Bhat', where he hosts 'learning streams' and videos featuring experts in various topics.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: Bhat teamed up with YouTuber Saiman Says in January 2020 and brought in several comedians, including Sorabh Pant, Ajey Nagar, Kaneez Surka and Zakir Khan, for the "TreeMathon 2020" live stream. The stream was an 8-hour live session with people playing the game Getting Over It to support Mission Green Mumbai and raise funds to plant as many trees as possible in response to the deforestation drive at Aarey Milk Colony.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: In early April 2020, Bhat and Kaneez Surka hosted an 8-hour live stream for two days, raising over Rs 1.7 million for charities fighting the COVID-19 pandemic. Bhat moderated multiplayer online games with fellow comedians Rohan Joshi, Kaneez Surka, Bhuvan Bam, Anuvab Pal, Varun Grover and Kusha Kapila.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: In 2020, Netflix India started a series with Bhat reacting to various movies & TV shows on Netflix, called "Tanmay Reacts". Tanmay also reacts on the memes and videos on his own channel.


title: Tanmay Bhat

text: In 2020-2021 Bhat co-wrote the scripts of several advertisements for the financial services company Cred, which featured actors and other celebrities including Shah Rukh Khan, Madhuri Dixit, Bappi Lahiri, Ravi Shastri, Anil Kapoor, Rahul Dravid, Kapil Dev and Neeraj Chopra.


title: Celeste O'Connor

text: Celeste O'Connor (born December 2, 1998) is a Kenyan-born American actor. They are known for playing Paloma Davis in the Amazon original film, "Selah and the Spades".


title: Celeste O'Connor

text: Celeste O'Connor was born on December 2, 1998, in Nairobi, Kenya. O'Connor and their younger brother were raised in Baltimore, Maryland by their parents. They attended Notre Dame Preparatory School and studied the violin and singing at Peabody Preparatory. O'Connor attends Johns Hopkins University and is majoring in public health and pre-medicine. They have also taken courses in Islamic studies. O'Connor is interested in the social determinants of health including food security, housing insecurity, and education.


title: Celeste O'Connor

text: O'Connor played the younger version of Gugu Mbatha-Raw's character in the 2018 Netflix film, "Irreplaceable You". They appeared in the 2019 film, "Wetlands". In 2019, O'Connor played Paloma Davis in the film, "Selah and the Spades". Reporter Anagha Komaragiri of "The Daily Californian" praised O'Connor's "subtle" and "pensive presence" until the "tense finale." O'Connor was cast in July 2019 for the 2021 film, "". O'Connor is non-binary.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: The concept of an invasion of the United States relates to military theory and doctrine which address the feasibility and practicality of a foreign power attacking and successfully invading the United States. The country has been physically invaded on several occasions—once during the War of 1812, once during the Mexican–American War, several times during the Mexican Border War, and three times during World War II, two of which were air attacks on American soil. During the Cold War, most of the US military strategy was geared towards repelling an attack by the Warsaw Pact against NATO allies in Europe.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: The military history of the United States began with a foreign power on US soil: the British Army during the American Revolutionary War. After American independence, the next attack on American soil was during the War of 1812, also with Britain, the first and only time since the end of the Revolutionary War in which a foreign power occupied the American capital (the capital city of Philadelphia was also captured by the British during the Revolution).


title: Invasion of the United States

text: On April 25, 1846, Mexican forces invaded Brownsville, Texas, which they had long claimed as Mexican territory, and attacked US troops patrolling the Rio Grande in an incident known as the Thornton Affair, which sparked the Mexican–American War. The Texas Campaign remained the only campaign on American soil, and the rest of the action in that conflict occurred in California and New Mexico, which were then part of Mexico, and in other parts of Mexico.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: The American Civil War may be seen as an invasion of home territory to some extent since both the Confederate and the Union Armies made forays into the other's home territory. After the Civil War, the threat of an invasion from a foreign power was small, and it was not until the 20th century that any real military strategy was developed to address the possibility of an attack on America.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: During the Mexican Revolution in the summer of 1915, Mexican and Tejano rebels covertly supported by the Mexican Government of Venustiano Carranza, attempted to execute the Plan of San Diego by reconquering Arizona, New Mexico, California, and Texas and creating a racial utopia for Native Americans, Mexican Americans, Asian Americans, and African Americans. The plan also called for ethnic cleansing in the reconquered territories and the summary execution of all white males over the age of sixteen. In order to implement the Plan, the rebels set off the Bandit War and conducted violent raids into Texas from across the Mexican border. Under pressure from his advisors to appease Carranza, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson recognized the latter as leader of Mexico in return for Carranza's "help" in suppressing the Texas border raids.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: On March 9, 1916, Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa and his "Villistas" retaliated for the Wilson Administration's support of Carranza by invading Columbus, New Mexico in the Border War's Battle of Columbus, triggering the Pancho Villa Expedition in response, led by Major General John J. Pershing.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: When it was captured and leaked to the American press by British Intelligence, the Imperial German Foreign Office's offer in the Zimmermann Telegram to support Carranza's expansionist aims, as laid out in the Plan of San Diego, in return for a potential wartime alliance against the United States, led the U.S. to declare war on Imperial Germany and enter World War I on the Allied side.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: Until the early 20th century, the greatest potential threat to attack the United States was seen as the British Empire. Seacoast defense in the United States was organized on that basis, and military strategy was developed to forestall a British attack and attack and occupy Canada. War Plan Red was specifically designed to deal with a British attack on the United States and a subsequent invasion of Canada. Similar plans existed for a 20th-century war with Mexico, although the ability of the Mexican Army to attack and occupy American soil was considered negligible.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: Within the British Empire, Canadian Army Lieutenant Colonel James "Buster" Sutherland Brown drafted the Canadian counterpart of War Plan Red, Defence Scheme No. 1, in 1921. According to the plan, Canada would invade the United States as quickly as possible in the event of war or American invasion. The Canadians would gain a foothold in the Northern US to allow time for Canada to prepare its war effort and receive aid from Britain. According to the plan, Canadian flying columns stationed in Pacific Command would immediately be sent to seize Seattle, Spokane, and Portland. Troops stationed in Prairie Command would attack Fargo and Great Falls and then advance towards Minneapolis. Troops from Quebec would be sent to seize Albany in a surprise counterattack while troops from the Maritime Provinces would invade Maine. When American resistance grew, the Canadian soldiers would retreat to their own borders, destroying bridges and railways to delay US military pursuit. The plan had detractors, who saw it as unrealistic, but it also had supporters who believed that it could conceivably have worked. On the opposite side of the Atlantic, the British Armed Forces generally believed that if war with the United States did occur, they could transport troops to Canada if asked, but nonetheless saw it as impossible to defend Canada against the much larger and powerful United States. They did not plan to render any real aid and felt that sacrificing Canada to divert troops and buy time would be in the best military interests of the British Empire. A full invasion of the United States was considered unrealistic and a naval blockade was seen as too slow. The Royal Navy also could not afford a defensive strategy because Great Britain was extremely vulnerable to a supply blockade and if the United States Navy approached the British Isles, the United Kingdom would be forced to immediately surrender. The British High Command planned instead for a decisive naval battle against the United States Navy by Royal Navy ships based in the Western Hemisphere, likely Bermuda. Meanwhile, other ships based in Canada and the British West Indies would attack American merchant shipping and protect British and Commonwealth shipping convoys. The British would also attack U.S. coastal bases with bombing, shelling, and amphibious assaults. Soldiers from British India and Australia would provide assistance with an attack on Manila to prevent United States Asiatic Fleet attacks against British merchant ships in the Far East and to preempt a potential assault against the Colony of Hong Kong. The British Government hoped that these policies would make the war unpopular enough among Americans to force the U.S. government to agree to a negotiated peace.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: Meanwhile, Imperial German plans for the invasion of the United States were drafted, like most war plans, as military logistical exercises between 1897 and 1906. Early versions planned to engage the United States Atlantic Fleet in a naval battle off Norfolk, Virginia, followed by shore bombardment of cities on the Eastern Seaboard. Later versions envisioned amphibious landings to seize control of both New York City and Boston. These plans, however, were never seriously considered, because the German Empire had insufficient soldiers and military resources to carry them out successfully. In reality, the foreign policy of Kaiser Wilhelm II sought to maintain good relations and avoid unnecessarily antagonizing the United States, while also limiting US ability to intervene in Europe. This policy continued, however, until the U.S. entered World War I in 1917, but with one alteration.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: From August 1914 until April 6, 1917, when the US ended its neutrality, German military intelligence officers and spies under diplomatic cover worked covertly to both delay and destroy military supplies being built by American munitions corporations and shipped to the Allied Powers. These efforts culminated in sabotage operations like the Black Tom explosion (July 30, 1916) and the Kingsland explosion (January 11, 1917).


title: Invasion of the United States

text: During World War II, the defense of Hawaii and the contiguous United States was part of the Pacific theater and American theater respectively. The American Campaign Medal was awarded to military personnel who served in the continental United States in official duties, while those serving in Hawaii were awarded the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: When Germany declared war on the U.S. in 1941, the German High Command immediately recognized that current German military strength would be unable to attack or invade the United States directly. Military strategy instead focused on submarine warfare, with U-boats striking American shipping in an expanded Battle of the Atlantic, particularly an all-out assault on US merchant shipping during Operation Drumbeat.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: Adolf Hitler dismissed the threat of America, stating that the country had no racial purity and thus no fighting strength, and further stated that "the American public is made up of Jews and Negroes." German military and economic leaders held far more realistic views, with some such as Albert Speer recognizing the enormous productive capacity of America's factories as well as the rich food supplies which could be harvested from the American heartland.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: In 1942, German military leaders did briefly investigate and consider the possibility of a cross Atlantic attack against the US, most cogently expressed with the RLM's "Amerika Bomber" trans-Atlantic range bomber design competition, first issued in the spring of 1942, proceeded forward with only five airworthy prototype aircraft created between two of the competitors, but this plan had to be abandoned due to both the lack of staging bases in the Western Hemisphere, and Germany's own rapidly decreasing capacity to produce such aircraft as the war continued. Thereafter, Germany's greatest hope of an attack on America was to wait and see the result its war with Japan. By 1944, with U-boat losses soaring and with the occupation of Greenland and Iceland, it was clear to German military leaders that their dwindling armed forces had no further hope to attack the US directly. In the end, German military strategy was in fact geared toward "surrendering" to America, with many of the Western Front battles fought solely for the purpose of escaping the advance of the Red Army and surrendering instead to the Western Allies, whom German leaders believed would offer more favorable terms.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: One of the only officially recognized landings of German soldiers on American soil was during Operation Pastorius, in which eight German sabotage agents were landed in the United States (one team landed in New York, the other in Florida) via U-boats. The team was quickly captured and put on trial as spies, rather than prisoners of war, due to the nature of their assignment. After the court found them guilty of espionage, six German agents were executed by electric chair at the Washington, DC jail; the other two escaped the death penalty and instead received prison terms because they chose to defect to the US and inform the FBI of the mission plans. In 1948, the two were freed and returned to then Allied-occupied Germany, later to be divided between West and East Germany.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: The Luftwaffe began planning for possible trans-Atlantic strategic bombing missions early in World War II, with Albert Speer stating in his own post-war book, "", that Adolf Hitler was fascinated with the idea of New York City in flames. Before his "Machtergreifung" in January 1933, Hitler had already indicated his belief that the United States would be the next serious foe the future Third Reich would need to confront, after the Soviet Union. The proposal by the RLM to Germany's military aviation firms for the Amerika Bomber project was issued to "Reichsmarschall" Hermann Göring in the late spring of 1942, about six months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, for the competition to produce such a strategic bomber design, with only Junkers and Messerschmitt each building a few airworthy prototype airframes before the war's end.


title: Invasion of the United States

text: The feasibility of a full-scale invasion of Hawaii and the contiguous United States by Imperial Japan was considered negligible, with Japan possessing neither the manpower nor logistical ability to do so. Minoru Genda of the Imperial Japanese Navy advocated invading Hawaii after attacking Oahu on December 7, 1941, believing that Japan could use Hawaii as a base to threaten the contiguous United States, and perhaps as a negotiating tool for ending the war. The American public in the first months after the attack on Pearl Harbor feared a Japanese landing on the West Coast of the United States, eventually reacting with alarm to a rumored raid in the Battle of Los Angeles. Although the invasion of Hawaii was never considered by the Japanese military after Pearl Harbor, they did carry out Operation K, a mission on March 4, 1942, involving two Japanese aircraft dropping bombs on Honolulu to disrupt repair and salvage operations following the attack on Pearl Harbor three months earlier, which only caused minor damage.