title: Photolithography

text: According to this equation, minimum feature sizes can be decreased by decreasing the wavelength, and increasing the numerical aperture (to achieve a tighter focused beam and a smaller spot size). However, this design method runs into a competing constraint. In modern systems, the depth of focus is also a concern:


title: Photolithography

text: Here, formula_7 is another process-related coefficient. The depth of focus restricts the thickness of the photoresist and the depth of the topography on the wafer. Chemical mechanical polishing is often used to flatten topography before high-resolution lithographic steps.


title: Photolithography

text: From classical optics, k1=0.61 by the Rayleigh criterion. The image of two points separated by less than 1.22 wavelength/NA will not maintain that separation but will be larger due to the interference between the Airy discs of the two points. It must also be remembered, though, that the distance between two features can also change with defocus.


title: Photolithography

text: Resolution is also nontrivial in a two-dimensional context. For example, a tighter line pitch results in wider gaps (in the perpendicular direction) between the ends of the lines. More fundamentally, straight edges become rounded for shortened rectangular features, where both x and y pitches are near the resolution limit.


title: Photolithography

text: For advanced nodes, blur, rather than wavelength, becomes the key resolution-limiting factor. Minimum pitch is given by blur sigma/0.14. Blur is affected by dose as well as quantum yield, leading to a tradeoff with stochastic defects, in the case of EUV.


title: Photolithography

text: As light consists of photons, at low doses the image quality ultimately depends on the photon number. This affects the use of extreme ultraviolet lithography or EUVL, which is limited to the use of low doses on the order of 20 photons/nm.


title: Photolithography

text: This is due to fewer photons for the same energy dose for a shorter wavelength (higher energy per photon). With fewer photons making up the image, there is noise in the edge placement.


title: Photolithography

text: The stochastic effects would become more complicated with larger pitch patterns with more diffraction orders and using more illumination source points.


title: Photolithography

text: Historically, photolithography has used ultraviolet light from gas-discharge lamps using mercury, sometimes in combination with noble gases such as xenon. These lamps produce light across a broad spectrum with several strong peaks in the ultraviolet range. This spectrum is filtered to select a single spectral line. From the early 1960s through the mid-1980s, Hg lamps had been used in lithography for their spectral lines at 436 nm ("g-line"), 405 nm ("h-line") and 365 nm ("i-line"). However, with the semiconductor industry's need for both higher resolution (to produce denser and faster chips) and higher throughput (for lower costs), lamp-based lithography tools were no longer able to meet the industry's high-end requirements.


title: Photolithography

text: This challenge was overcome in 1982 when excimer laser lithography was proposed and demonstrated at IBM by Kanti Jain. Excimer laser lithography machines (steppers and scanners) became the primary tools in microelectronics production, and has enabled minimum features sizes in chip manufacturing to shrink from 800 nanometers in 1990 to 7 nanometers in 2018. From an even broader scientific and technological perspective, in the 50-year history of the laser since its first demonstration in 1960, the invention and development of excimer laser lithography has been recognized as a major milestone.


title: Photolithography

text: The commonly used deep ultraviolet excimer lasers in lithography systems are the krypton fluoride (KrF) laser at 248 nm wavelength and the argon fluoride laser (ArF) at 193 nm wavelength. The primary manufacturers of excimer laser light sources in the 1980s were Lambda Physik (now part of Coherent, Inc.) and Lumonics. Since the mid-1990s Cymer Inc. has become the dominant supplier of excimer laser sources to the lithography equipment manufacturers, with Gigaphoton Inc. as their closest rival. Generally, an excimer laser is designed to operate with a specific gas mixture; therefore, changing wavelength is not a trivial matter, as the method of generating the new wavelength is completely different, and the absorption characteristics of materials change. For example, air begins to absorb significantly around the 193 nm wavelength; moving to sub-193 nm wavelengths would require installing vacuum pump and purge equipment on the lithography tools (a significant challenge). An inert gas atmosphere can sometimes be used as a substitute for a vacuum, to avoid the need for hard plumbing. Furthermore, insulating materials such as silicon dioxide, when exposed to photons with energy greater than the band gap, release free electrons and holes which subsequently cause adverse charging.


title: Photolithography

text: Optical lithography has been extended to feature sizes below 50 nm using the 193 nm ArF excimer laser and liquid immersion techniques. Also termed immersion lithography, this enables the use of optics with numerical apertures exceeding 1.0. The liquid used is typically ultra-pure, deionised water, which provides for a refractive index above that of the usual air gap between the lens and the wafer surface. The water is continually circulated to eliminate thermally-induced distortions. Water will only allow "NA"'s of up to ~1.4, but fluids with higher refractive indices would allow the effective "NA" to be increased further.


title: Photolithography

text: Experimental tools using the 157 nm wavelength from the F2 excimer laser in a manner similar to current exposure systems have been built. These were once targeted to succeed 193 nm lithography at the 65 nm feature size node but have now all but been eliminated by the introduction of immersion lithography. This was due to persistent technical problems with the 157 nm technology and economic considerations that provided strong incentives for the continued use of 193 nm excimer laser lithography technology. High-index immersion lithography is the newest extension of 193 nm lithography to be considered. In 2006, features less than 30 nm were demonstrated by IBM using this technique.


title: Photolithography

text: UV excimer lasers have been demonstrated to about 126 nm (for Ar*). Mercury arc lamps are designed to maintain a steady DC current of 50 to 150 Volts, however excimer lasers have a higher resolution. Excimer lasers are gas-based light systems that are usually filled with inert and halide gases (Kr, Ar, Xe, F and Cl) that are charged by an electric field. The higher the frequency, the greater the resolution of the image. KrF lasers are able to function at a frequency of 4 kHz . In addition to running at a higher frequency, excimer lasers are compatible with more advanced machines than mercury arc lamps are. They are also able to operate from greater distances (up to 25 meters) and are able to maintain their accuracy with a series of mirrors and antireflective-coated lenses. By setting up multiple lasers and mirrors, the amount of energy loss is minimized, also since the lenses are coated with antireflective material, the light intensity remains relatively the same from when it left the laser to when it hits the wafer.


title: Photolithography

text: Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-coherent extreme UV (EUV) light at 13.5 nm for extreme ultraviolet lithography. The EUV light is not emitted by the laser, but rather by a tin or xenon plasma which is excited by an excimer or laser. Fabrication of feature sizes of 10 nm has been demonstrated in production environments, but not yet at rates needed for commercialization. However, this is expected by 2016. This technique does not require a synchrotron, and EUV sources, as noted, do not produce coherent light. However vacuum systems and a number of novel technologies (including much higher EUV energies than are now produced) are needed to work with UV at the edge of the X-ray spectrum (which begins at 10 nm). As of 2020, EUV is in mass production use by leading edge foundries such as TSMC and Samsung.


title: Photolithography

text: Theoretically, an alternative light source for photolithography, especially if and when wavelengths continue to decrease to extreme UV or X-ray, is the free-electron laser (or one might say xaser for an X-ray device). Free-electron lasers can produce high quality beams at arbitrary wavelengths.


title: Photolithography

text: Visible and infrared femtosecond lasers were also applied for lithography. In that case photochemical reactions are initiated by multiphoton absorption. Usage of these light sources have a lot of benefits, including possibility to manufacture true 3D objects and process non-photosensitized (pure) glass-like materials with superb optical resiliency.


title: Photolithography

text: Photolithography has been defeating predictions of its demise for many years. For instance, by the early 1980s, many in the semiconductor industry had come to believe that features smaller than 1 micron could not be printed optically. Modern techniques using excimer laser lithography already print features with dimensions a fraction of the wavelength of light used – an amazing optical feat. New techniques such as immersion lithography, dual-tone resist and multiple patterning continue to improve the resolution of 193 nm lithography. Meanwhile, current research is exploring alternatives to conventional UV, such as electron beam lithography, X-ray lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography and ion projection lithography. Extreme ultraviolet lithography is in mass production use as of 2020 by Samsung.


title: Photolithography

text: In 2001 NIST publication has reported that photolithography process constituted about 35% of total cost of a wafer processing costs.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Thurston Joseph Moore (born July 25, 1958) is an American musician best known as a member of Sonic Youth. He has also participated in many solo and group collaborations outside Sonic Youth, as well as running the Ecstatic Peace! record label. Moore was ranked 34th in "Rolling Stone"s 2004 edition of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time."


title: Thurston Moore

text: In 2012, Moore started a new band Chelsea Light Moving. Chelsea Light Moving eponymous debut was released on March 5, 2013. Since 2015, Chelsea Light Moving has been disbanded after one studio album release. Moore and the other members of the band continue to make music under his solo project and other bands.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Moore was born July 25, 1958, at Doctors Hospital in Coral Gables, Florida, to George E. Moore, a professor of music, and Eleanor Nann Moore. In 1967, he and his family (including brother Frederick Eugene Moore, born 1953, and sister Susan Dorothy Moore, born 1956) moved to Bethel, Connecticut. Raised Catholic, he attended St. Joseph's School in Danbury, followed by St. Mary's School in Bethel and attended Bethel High School from 1973 to 1976. He enrolled at Western Connecticut State University in fall 1976, but left after one quarter and moved to East 13th Street between Aves A and B in New York City to join the burgeoning post-punk and no wave music scenes. It was there that he was able to watch shows by the likes of Patti Smith and spoken-word performances by William S. Burroughs. At that time, the arrival of new groups changed his view on music and all of his records "got kind of put into the basement. And they were supplanted by [...] the Sex Pistols and Blondie and Talking Heads and Siouxsie and the Banshees. It was a completely new world, a new identity of music that was an option for youth culture." In 1980 he moved in with Kim Gordon to an apartment at 84 Eldridge St. below artist Dan Graham, eventually befriending him, sometimes using records from Graham's collection for mix tapes.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Once in the city, Moore was briefly a member of the hardcore punk band Even Worse, featuring future "The Big Takeover" editor (and future Springhouse drummer) Jack Rabid. After exiting the band, Moore and Lee Ranaldo learned experimental guitar techniques in Glenn Branca's "guitar orchestras". Moore has spoken about influences on his music tastes at this time, including British bands Wire, the Pop Group, the Raincoats, the Slits, and Public Image Ltd ("I used to have these fantasies in the 70s about leaving New York and coming to London to hang out with Public Image").


title: Thurston Moore

text: Moore met Kim Gordon in 1980 at the final gig of The Coachmen, the band he was in with J.D. King, Daniel Walworth (replaced by Dave Keay), and Bob Pullin. Moore, with Gordon, Anne Demarinis and Dave Keay formed a band, appearing under names like Male Bonding, Red Milk, and the Arcadians, before settling on Moore's choice of Sonic Youth just before June 1981. The band played Noise Fest in June 1981 at New York's White Columns gallery, where Lee Ranaldo was playing as a member of Glenn Branca's electric guitar ensemble as well as in duo with David Linton as Avoidance Behavior. Moore invited Ranaldo, who he had known when The Coachmen shared a CBGB stage with Ranaldo's 1970s band The Flux, to join the band. The new trio played three songs at the festival later in the week without a drummer. Each band member took turns playing the drums, until they met drummer Richard Edson. The band signed to Neutral Records, then to Homestead Records, and then to SST Records.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Moore and Ranaldo make extensive use of unusual guitar tunings, often heavily modifying their instruments to provide unusual timbres and drones. They are known for bringing upwards of fifty guitars to every gig, using some guitars for one song only. In 2004, "Rolling Stone" ranked Moore and Ranaldo the 33rd and 34th "Greatest Guitarists of All Time".


title: Thurston Moore

text: Thurston Moore has explained the band's decision to sign with DGC Records at a time when many were fiercely dedicated to independent record labels like SST, Dischord and Sub Pop:


title: Thurston Moore

text: "We noticed Hüsker Dü's music hadn't changed when they signed to Warner. On the independent labels we dealt with, SST Records, Blast First Records and Neutral Records, if there was accounting, it was always somewhat suspect. With Geffen, we would get an advance that would allow us to be able to pay our rents, get health insurance, have a slightly better lifestyle, and maybe, just maybe, not have to work day jobs. We felt like we could negotiate a contract that would make sense."


title: Thurston Moore

text: When Steve Albini accused corporate labels of ripping off artists Moore wrote in response that a band "getting butt fucked by corporate labels [must] be really "stupid"". He defended the band's decision to sign with DGC Records explaining that they knew what they were getting into and viewed it more as "buying in" than "selling out".


title: Thurston Moore

text: While recording "Goo", Moore played the Nirvana album "Bleach" for Masterdisk audio engineer Howie Weinberg saying that he would be very happy if the record sounded like "Bleach". Weinberg was surprised by the request to emulate a recording as primitive as "Bleach" (which was recorded on a $600 budget). Moore has said that he "really love[s] that record", describing it as "primal" and the songwriting as "completely melodious" but also "punk".


title: Thurston Moore

text: In 2011, Moore and his wife, Sonic Youth bassist Kim Gordon, separated; shortly afterward, Sonic Youth went on indefinite hiatus. Though his marriage was ending Moore never claimed that Sonic Youth was finished.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In addition to his work with Sonic Youth, Moore has also released albums as a solo artist. He and Gordon released a few songs as Mirror/Dash. Moore established Protest Records as an online gesture of activism but the project has since lapsed. Moore has collaborated with scores of musicians, including Maryanne Amacher, Lydia Lunch, Don Dietrich and Jim Sauter of Borbetomagus, DJ Spooky, William Hooker, Daniel Carter, Christian Marclay, Mike Watt, Loren Mazzacane Connors, Dredd Foole, William Winant, The Thing, Nels Cline, Cock E.S.P., John Moloney, Glenn Branca, Yamantaka Eye, Beck, My Cat is an Alien, John Russell, Steve Noble, John Edwards, Haino Keiji, John Zorn, Yoko Ono, Takehisa Kosugi, and others.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In the early 1990s, Moore formed the side band Dim Stars, with Richard Hell, Don Fleming, Steve Shelley with a guest appearance by Robert Quine. Moore performed solo on the side stage of the 1993 Lollapalooza tour. Additionally, Moore also contributed guitar work and backing vocals on "Crush with Eyeliner", which appeared on R.E.M.'s "Monster". He played Fred Cracklin in the "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" episode dedicated to Sonny Sharrock. In 2000 he contributed improvised guitar pieces for a collaborative project with conceptual artist/guitarist Marco Fusinato. Since 2004, he has recorded and performed with the noise collective To Live and Shave in L.A., the lineup of which also features Andrew W.K. He recorded with the band at Sonic Youth's former studio in Manhattan, and later performed with them at the George W. Bush "anti-inaugural" Noise Against Fascism concert in Washington, D.C., which Moore curated, named in reference to Sonic Youth's 1992 song "Youth Against Fascism". Moore curated the "Nightmare Before Christmas" weekend of the All Tomorrow's Parties music festival in December 2006.


title: Thurston Moore

text: On September 18, 2007, Moore's label Ecstatic Peace released a solo album titled "Trees Outside The Academy". The album was recorded at J Mascis' studio in Amherst, Massachusetts. The album features Sonic Youth drummer Steve Shelley and violinist Samara Lubelski. The album also features collaborations between Mascis and Charalambides' Christina Carter, who performs a duet with Moore on the track, "Honest James".


title: Thurston Moore

text: On September 24, 2008, Moore was working on a song with former Be Your Own Pet vocalist Jemina Pearl, a cover of the Ramones song "Sheena Is a Punk Rocker". The song was recorded for the teenage drama "Gossip Girl" and was featured in the episode "There Might Be Blood".


title: Thurston Moore

text: Since 2008, Moore has provided narration for a variety of documentaries on the National Geographic Channel. His work includes "Inside: Straight Edge" and the "Hard Time" series about life in prison.


title: Thurston Moore

text: On September 25, 2012, Moore and Kim Gordon released a collaborative album with Yoko Ono titled "Yokokimthurston".


title: Thurston Moore

text: In 2012 Moore started a new band called Chelsea Light Moving. Their first track, "Burroughs", was released as a free download. Their eponymous debut album was released on March 5, 2013. The release coincided with the 2013 SXSW Festival where they made numerous appearances including a free show at Mellow Johnny's bike shop.


title: Thurston Moore

text: On November 24, 2013, he played guitar on "This Town Ain't Big Enough for Both of Us" alongside Ron and Russell Mael in a Sparks concert at the Union Chapel, Islington, London.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In September 2014, Moore released "The Best Day", a solo album featuring Steve Shelley and My Bloody Valentine's Debbie Googe as rhythm section, and James Sedwards on guitar.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In April 2018, Moore presented at London's Barbican Centre his work 'Galaxies', an experimental 12-string guitar ensemble. Among the twelve person orchestra were Deb Googe, Jonah Falco, Rachel Aggs, Joseph Coward and others.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In 2019, Moore released "Spirit Counsel", an avant-garde rock three-disc box set. The first track, "Alice Moki Jayne", is a 63-minute long song named for the spouses of John Coltrane, Don Cherry, and Ornette Coleman. The 28 minute "8 Spring Street" is named for the former address of Glenn Branca. The 55-minute final track, "Galaxies (Sky)", was inspired by a poem by Sun Ra.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In late 2020, Moore released a solo album entitled "By the Fire" which featured guitarist James Sedwards and bassist Debbie Googe as on the earlier "The Best Days" album.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In 1994, Moore teamed up with Greg Dulli of The Afghan Whigs, Don Fleming of Gumball, Mike Mills of R.E.M., and Dave Grohl of Nirvana/Foo Fighters, to form the Backbeat Band, which recorded the soundtrack album to the movie "Backbeat". In 1998 Moore played on the soundtrack of the film "Velvet Goldmine" as a member of Wylde Ratttz. Moore composed original music for such films as "Heavy" (1995), "Bully" (2001), and "Manic" (2001). In 2007, Moore also appeared with noise/improv group Original Silence, featuring Norwegian drummer Paal Nilssen-Love, guitarist Terrie Ex, Jim O'Rourke, saxophonist Mats Gustafsson and bassist Massimo Pupillo. The group released the live album "The First Original Silence" in 2007, on Oslo (Norway) label SmallTown Superjazz, and a second album "The Second Original Silence" in 2008.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Moore and other Sonic Youth members published the irreverent music zine "Sonic Death". Moore runs the record label Ecstatic Peace! Beginning in 1993, this label jointly released records with rock critic Byron Coley's label, Father Yod, as Ecstatic Yod Records.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Moore reviewed new music in "Arthur" in a column entitled "Bull Tongue" written jointly with Byron Coley. Since the demise of "Arthur", "Bull Tongue" exists as a fanzine edited by Coley and features underground music writing. Moore created, with Chris Habib, the website Protest Records, named for its protest against United States' invasions in the Middle East. Moore was the editor/overseer of the 2005 book "". He published a highly influential list of collectible free jazz records in Grand Royal magazine.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Ecstatic Peace Library is the book publishing company founded by Thurston Moore and visual book editor Eva Prinz in 2010. The company publishes mainly poetry, but also a collection of books about the early Norwegian black metal scene, experimental jazz from the 70s and other niche subjects.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In 2015 Moore was appointed honorary professor at the Rhythmic Music Conservatory (RMC) in Copenhagen, Denmark, where he periodically conducts workshops and master classes.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Moore is anti-capitalist, and since the 1980s, Moore and his bandmates have been described as anarchists, a label Moore has denied. However, in 2013, he would commend the Occupy Wall Street protests by announcing his support for its anarcho-communist elements.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Since the founding of Sonic Youth, Moore and members of the band have been famously critical of the music industry and the supposed monopolization of youth culture, with Moore stating in 1991 during filming of The Year Punk Broke,


title: Thurston Moore

text: "People see rock and roll as youth culture, and when youth culture becomes monopolized by big business, what are the youth to do? I think we should destroy the bogus capitalist process that is destroying youth culture".


title: Thurston Moore

text: Since 2004, Moore has participated in a cultural boycott of Israel, likening the country to an apartheid state and criticizing bands like Dinosaur Jr. and Radiohead for performing in the country.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In June 2016, Moore endorsed the candidacy of Bernie Sanders, releasing a track featuring excerpts from Sanders' speeches to coincide along his endorsement.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In November 2019, along with other public figures, Moore signed a letter supporting Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn describing him as "a beacon of hope in the struggle against emergent far-right nationalism, xenophobia and racism in much of the democratic world" and endorsed him in the 2019 UK general election.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In October 2022, Moore expressed support for former president Lula in the 2022 Brazilian general election.


title: Thurston Moore

text: On June 9, 1984, Moore married Sonic Youth bassist/vocalist Kim Gordon. They have a daughter: Coco Hayley Gordon Moore (born July 1, 1994). On October 14, 2011, the couple announced that they were separating due to an extramarital affair Moore engaged in with art book editor Eva Prinz, who was also married at the time. Moore and Gordon divorced in 2013. Moore was residing in Stoke Newington, London, with Prinz.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Moore uses a large selection of Fender guitars during Sonic Youth gigs, most frequently a Jazzmaster. His primary stage amp has been the Peavey Roadmaster paired with a Marshall cabinet. He has used the ProCo Rat, Big Muff, and MXR Blue Box pedals in various combinations to achieve his unique distorted and feedback-laden guitar sound.


title: Thurston Moore

text: Moore is a key figure in the popularization and resurrection of the Fender Jazzmaster. In 2009, Fender introduced a Lee Ranaldo signature edition of a Sapphire Blue Transparent version featuring two Fender Wide Range humbucking pickups and a Forest Green transparent finish for Moore, equipped with a pair of Seymour Duncan Antiquity II Jazzmaster single-coil pickups.


title: Thurston Moore

text: In 2016 Yuri Landman made a special 10-string drone guitar for Moore at the request of Premier Guitar.


title: Chelation

text: Chelation is a type of bonding of ions and molecules to metal ions. It involves the formation or presence of two or more separate coordinate bonds between a polydentate (multiple bonded) ligand and a single central metal atom. These ligands are called chelants, chelators, chelating agents, or sequestering agents. They are usually organic compounds, but this is not a necessity, as in the case of zinc and its use as a maintenance therapy to prevent the absorption of copper in people with Wilson's disease.


title: Chelation

text: Chelation is useful in applications such as providing nutritional supplements, in chelation therapy to remove toxic metals from the body, as contrast agents in MRI scanning, in manufacturing using homogeneous catalysts, in chemical water treatment to assist in the removal of metals, and in fertilizers.


title: Chelation

text: The chelate effect is the greater affinity of chelating ligands for a metal ion than that of similar nonchelating (monodentate) ligands for the same metal.


title: Chelation

text: The thermodynamic principles underpinning the chelate effect are illustrated by the contrasting affinities of copper(II) for ethylenediamine (en) vs. methylamine.


title: Chelation

text: In () the ethylenediamine forms a chelate complex with the copper ion. Chelation results in the formation of a five-membered CuCN ring. In () the bidentate ligand is replaced by two monodentate methylamine ligands of approximately the same donor power, indicating that the Cu–N bonds are approximately the same in the two reactions.


title: Chelation

text: The thermodynamic approach to describing the chelate effect considers the equilibrium constant for the reaction: the larger the equilibrium constant, the higher the concentration of the complex.


title: Chelation

text: Electrical charges have been omitted for simplicity of notation. The square brackets indicate concentration, and the subscripts to the stability constants, β, indicate the stoichiometry of the complex. When the analytical concentration of methylamine is twice that of ethylenediamine and the concentration of copper is the same in both reactions, the concentration [Cu(en)] is much higher than the concentration [Cu(MeNH)] because β ≫ β.


title: Chelation

text: where "R" is the gas constant and "T" is the temperature in kelvins. is the standard enthalpy change of the reaction and is the standard entropy change.


title: Chelation

text: Since the enthalpy should be approximately the same for the two reactions, the difference between the two stability constants is due to the effects of entropy. In equation () there are two particles on the left and one on the right, whereas in equation () there are three particles on the left and one on the right. This difference means that less entropy of disorder is lost when the chelate complex is formed with bidentate ligand than when the complex with monodentate ligands is formed. This is one of the factors contributing to the entropy difference. Other factors include solvation changes and ring formation. Some experimental data to illustrate the effect are shown in the following table.


title: Chelation

text: These data confirm that the enthalpy changes are approximately equal for the two reactions and that the main reason for the greater stability of the chelate complex is the entropy term, which is much less unfavorable. In general it is difficult to account precisely for thermodynamic values in terms of changes in solution at the molecular level, but it is clear that the chelate effect is predominantly an effect of entropy.


title: Chelation

text: Other explanations, including that of Schwarzenbach, are discussed in Greenwood and Earnshaw ("loc.cit").


title: Chelation

text: Numerous biomolecules exhibit the ability to dissolve certain metal cations. Thus, proteins, polysaccharides, and polynucleic acids are excellent polydentate ligands for many metal ions. Organic compounds such as the amino acids glutamic acid and histidine, organic diacids such as malate, and polypeptides such as phytochelatin are also typical chelators. In addition to these adventitious chelators, several biomolecules are specifically produced to bind certain metals (see next section).


title: Chelation

text: Virtually all metalloenzymes feature metals that are chelated, usually to peptides or cofactors and prosthetic groups. Such chelating agents include the porphyrin rings in hemoglobin and chlorophyll. Many microbial species produce water-soluble pigments that serve as chelating agents, termed siderophores. For example, species of "Pseudomonas" are known to secrete pyochelin and pyoverdine that bind iron. Enterobactin, produced by "E. coli", is the strongest chelating agent known. The marine mussels use metal chelation esp. Fe chelation with the Dopa residues in mussel foot protein-1 to improve the strength of the threads that they use to secure themselves to surfaces.


title: Chelation

text: In earth science, chemical weathering is attributed to organic chelating agents (e.g., peptides and sugars) that extract metal ions from minerals and rocks. Most metal complexes in the environment and in nature are bound in some form of chelate ring (e.g., with a humic acid or a protein). Thus, metal chelates are relevant to the mobilization of metals in the soil, the uptake and the accumulation of metals into plants and microorganisms. Selective chelation of heavy metals is relevant to bioremediation (e.g., removal of Cs from radioactive waste).


title: Chelation

text: In the 1960s, scientists developed the concept of chelating a metal ion prior to feeding the element to the animal. They believed that this would create a neutral compound, protecting the mineral from being complexed with insoluble salts within the stomach, which would render the metal unavailable for absorption. Amino acids, being effective metal binders, were chosen as the prospective ligands, and research was conducted on the metal–amino acid combinations. The research supported that the metal–amino acid chelates were able to enhance mineral absorption.


title: Chelation

text: During this period, synthetic chelates such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) were being developed. These applied the same concept of chelation and did create chelated compounds; but these synthetics were too stable and not nutritionally viable. If the mineral was taken from the EDTA ligand, the ligand could not be used by the body and would be expelled. During the expulsion process the EDTA ligand randomly chelated and stripped another mineral from the body.


title: Chelation

text: According to the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO), a metal–amino acid chelate is defined as the product resulting from the reaction of metal ions from a soluble metal salt with amino acids, with a mole ratio in the range of 1–3 (preferably 2) moles of amino acids for one mole of metal. The average weight of the hydrolyzed amino acids must be approximately 150 and the resulting molecular weight of the chelate must not exceed 800 Da.


title: Chelation

text: Since the early development of these compounds, much more research has been conducted, and has been applied to human nutrition products in a similar manner to the animal nutrition experiments that pioneered the technology. Ferrous bis-glycinate is an example of one of these compounds that has been developed for human nutrition.


title: Chelation

text: Dentin adhesives were first designed and produced in the 1950s based on a co-monomer chelate with calcium on the surface of the tooth and generated very weak water-resistant chemical bonding (2–3 MPa).


title: Chelation

text: Chelation therapy is an antidote for poisoning by mercury, arsenic, and lead. Chelating agents convert these metal ions into a chemically and biochemically inert form that can be excreted. Chelation using calcium disodium EDTA has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for serious cases of lead poisoning. It is not approved for treating "heavy metal toxicity".


title: Chelation

text: Although beneficial in cases of serious lead poisoning, use of disodium EDTA (edetate disodium) instead of calcium disodium EDTA has resulted in fatalities due to hypocalcemia. Disodium EDTA is not approved by the FDA for any use, and all FDA-approved chelation therapy products require a prescription.


title: Chelation

text: Chelate complexes of gadolinium are often used as contrast agents in MRI scans, although iron particle and manganese chelate complexes have also been explored. Bifunctional chelate complexes of zirconium, gallium, fluorine, copper, yttrium, bromine, or iodine are often used for conjugation to monoclonal antibodies for use in antibody-based PET imaging. These chelate complexes often employ the usage of hexadentate ligands such as desferrioxamine B (DFO), according to Meijs "et al.", and the gadolinium complexes often employ the usage of octadentate ligands such as DTPA, according to Desreux "et al". Auranofin, a chelate complex of gold, is used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and penicillamine, which forms chelate complexes of copper, is used in the treatment of Wilson's disease and cystinuria, as well as refractory rheumatoid arthritis.


title: Chelation

text: Chelation in the intestinal tract is a cause of numerous interactions between drugs and metal ions (also known as "minerals" in nutrition). As examples, antibiotic drugs of the tetracycline and quinolone families are chelators of Fe, Ca, and Mg ions.


title: Chelation

text: EDTA, which binds to calcium, is used to alleviate the hypercalcemia that often results from band keratopathy. The calcium may then be removed from the cornea, allowing for some increase in clarity of vision for the patient.


title: Chelation

text: Homogeneous catalysts are often chelated complexes. A representative example is the use of BINAP (a bidentate phosphine) in Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation and asymmetric isomerization. The latter has the practical use of manufacture of synthetic (–)-menthol.


title: Chelation

text: Citric acid is used to soften water in soaps and laundry detergents. A common synthetic chelator is EDTA. Phosphonates are also well-known chelating agents. Chelators are used in water treatment programs and specifically in steam engineering, "e.g.", boiler water treatment system: "Chelant Water Treatment system." Although the treatment is often referred to as "softening," chelation has little effect on the water's mineral content, other than to make it soluble and lower the water's pH level.


title: Chelation

text: Metal chelate compounds are common components of fertilizers to provide micronutrients. These micronutrients (manganese, iron, zinc, copper) are required for the health of the plants. Most fertilizers contain phosphate salts that, in the absence of chelating agents, typically convert these metal ions into insoluble solids that are of no nutritional value to the plants. EDTA is the typical chelating agent that keeps these metal ions in a soluble form.


title: Chelation

text: Dechelation (or de-chelation) is a reverse process of the chelation in which the chelating agent is recovered by acidifying solution with a mineral acid to form a precipitate.


title: Chelation

text: The word chelation is derived from Greek χηλή, "chēlē", meaning "claw"; the ligands lie around the central atom like the claws of a lobster. The term "chelate" was first applied in 1920 by Sir Gilbert T. Morgan and H. D. K. Drew, who stated: "The adjective chelate, derived from the great claw or "chele" (Greek) of the lobster or other crustaceans, is suggested for the caliperlike groups which function as two associating units and fasten to the central atom so as to produce heterocyclic rings."


title: Moxie (film)

text: Moxie, stylized as MOXiE! is a 2021 American comedy-drama film directed by Amy Poehler. Tamara Chestna and Dylan Meyer adapted the screenplay from the 2017 novel of the same name by Jennifer Mathieu. It stars Hadley Robinson, Alycia Pascual-Peña, Lauren Tsai, Patrick Schwarzenegger, Nico Hiraga, and Poehler. The film focuses on 16-year-old Vivian (played by Hadley Robinson), who starts a feminist zine to empower the young women in her high school, as they contend with bullying, sexual harassment, and rape. The film was released on March 3, 2021 by Netflix and received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Moxie (film)

text: Vivian is 16, lives with her mother, Lisa, and attends Rockport High School. One day she joins her best friend Claudia at a class taught by Mr. Davies. Vivian notices a classmate, Seth, who has gotten more attractive over the summer. Earlier he used to be called Seth "The Shrimp". Mr. Davies introduces a new student, Lucy, then begins a discussion of "The Great Gatsby", a novel about a mysterious millionaire. Lucy criticizes it as another tale of a rich white guy expressing sorrow over not having the woman he wants. The star jock Mitchell interrupts Lucy's opinion and defends the Jay Gatsby character.


title: Moxie (film)

text: Later, Vivian sees Mitchell taking the soda Lucy was trying to buy and spitting in it. Lucy reports Mitchell to Principal Shelly, who doesn't want to penalize Mitchell and tries to avoid getting involved.


title: Moxie (film)

text: At home, Vivian goes through Lisa's stuff and finds her old feminist zines and gets inspired. Next day at school, the students discover a list of young women made by a group of jocks being sent to everyone's phone. Many girls are embarrassed by the list, in which the jocks express many sexist and perverse opinions, which makes the girls self-conscious. When Mitchell calls Lucy a foul word, Vivian becomes inspired by her feminist mother and starts "Moxie", a zine aimed at calling out the unfair treatment of girls at the school, and empowering them to raise their concerns.


title: Moxie (film)

text: Vivian befriends Lucy, as well as a group of other girls who have been put down, but her best friend Claudia is reluctant to get behind the movement and it causes a rift between them. Vivian also begins a relationship with Seth, who knows she started "Moxie" and supports her.


title: Moxie (film)

text: After Mitchell wins an athletic award over the girls' favorite candidate, Kiera, Vivian walks home feeling depressed, drinking a bottle of champagne along the way. She comes home to find Lisa with her boyfriend, John, and is annoyed that her mother kept this relationship a secret from her. Vivian then throws up.


title: Moxie (film)

text: Later, the "Moxie" girls respond to Mitchell winning the award by putting crude stickers all over the school. Principal Shelly, who was called out by "Moxie" for not supporting the girls, attempts to shut down the group. Claudia, who eventually joined the group, takes the fall for the stickers.


title: Moxie (film)

text: Vivian then hits a low point when Claudia criticizes her for not coming forward (she knew Vivian started "Moxie"), while also having a rough patch with Seth. She also faces challenges with her mother after she yells at Lisa and John during dinner.


title: Moxie (film)

text: Vivian finds a note from an anonymous girl who claimed to have been raped the previous year. Vivian gets "Moxie" supporters to stage a walkout in support of the girl. The majority of students walk out, and Vivian reveals that she started "Moxie".


title: Moxie (film)

text: Head cheerleader Emma comes forward as the girl who wrote the note, stating that Mitchell, her ex-boyfriend, was her rapist. She stands up and reveals to everyone that Mitchell raped her the previous year when they were dating, and called her "Most Bangable", which left her mortified. All the students are horrified and lend their support. Principal Shelly overhears and plans to punish Mitchell at last.


title: Moxie (film)

text: Vivian reconciles with her mom, Claudia, and Seth, and "Moxie" gains more followers. Lisa expresses pride in her daughter and the girls throw a party in celebration of "Moxie".


title: Moxie (film)

text: In February 2019, it was announced Amy Poehler would direct the film, from a screenplay by Tamara Chestna, and serve as a producer under her Paper Kite Productions banner, with Netflix distributing. In October 2019, Hadley Robinson, Lauren Tsai, Patrick Schwarzenegger, and Ike Barinholtz joined the cast of the film. In November 2019, Josephine Langford, Marcia Gay Harden, and Clark Gregg joined the cast of the film.


title: Moxie (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 70% based on 114 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The website's critics consensus reads, ""Moxie" comes up a little short on its titular ingredient when it comes to fully addressing its story's timely themes, but this sweet coming-of-age story is still easy to like." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 54 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Moxie (film)

text: Rasha Jameel, writing in "The Daily Star", accused the film of tokenism. Criticizing its "careless" insertion of the "white savior" trope, Jameel wrote, "the film adds characters of colour and a white character with disability, but instead of allowing these characters to speak or act on their behalf, the narrative is told primarily through the all-too-common perspective of a privileged white American."


title: Turku

text: Turku ( ; ; , ) is a city and former capital on the southwest coast of Finland at the mouth of the Aura River, in the region of Finland Proper ("Varsinais-Suomi") and the former Turku and Pori Province ("Turun ja Porin lääni"; 1634–1997). The region was originally called Suomi (Finland), which later became the name for the whole country. As of 31 March 2021, the population of Turku was 194,244 making it the sixth largest city in Finland after Helsinki, Espoo, Tampere, Vantaa and Oulu. There were 281,108 inhabitants living in the Turku Central Locality, ranking it as the third largest urban area in Finland after the Capital Region area and Tampere Central Locality. The city is officially bilingual as percent of its population identify Swedish as a mother-tongue.


title: Turku

text: It is unknown when Turku gained city rights. The Pope Gregory IX first mentioned the town "Aboa" in his "Bulla" in 1229 and the year is now used as the foundation year of Turku. Turku is the oldest city in Finland, and served as the most important city of the eastern part of the Kingdom of Sweden (modern-day Finland). After the Finnish war, Finland became an autonomous grand duchy of the Russian Empire in 1809, and Turku was made the capital of the grand duchy. However, Turku lost its status as capital only after three years in 1812, when Tsar Alexander I of Russia decided to move the capital to Helsinki. It was only after the last great fire in 1827 that most governmental institutions were moved to Helsinki along with the Royal Academy of Turku ("Turun Akatemia") founded in 1640, which then became the University of Helsinki, thus consolidating Helsinki's position as the new capital. Turku continued to be the most populous city in Finland until the end of the 1840s, and it remains the regional capital and an important business and cultural center and port.


title: Turku

text: Because of its long history, it has been the site of many important events, and has extensively influenced Finnish history as the former capital city. Along with Tallinn, the capital city of Estonia, Turku was designated the European Capital of Culture for 2011. In 1996, it was declared the "Christmas City" of Finland. Also, Turku has been officially declared the Food Capital of Finland, because it holds a number of Finland's oldest, highest quality restaurants alongside a historically famous fish market, held twice a year. Turku's canteen and café culture has often been compared to French food culture, which is why Turku has also been perceived as "Paris of Finland"; this is also the reason for the Swedish saying: ""Varför Paris, vi har ju Åbo!"" ("Why Paris, we have Turku!")


title: Turku

text: Due to its location, Turku is a notable commercial and passenger seaport with over three million passengers traveling through the Port of Turku each year to Stockholm and Mariehamn.


title: Turku

text: The Finnish name "Turku" originates from an Old East Slavic word, "tǔrgǔ", meaning "market place". The word "turku" still means "market place" in some Finnish dialects.


title: Turku

text: The Swedish name "Åbo" may be a simple combination of "å" ("river; creek; large stream") and "bo" ("dwelling"). There is however an old legal term called "" (meaning roughly "right to live at"), which gave citizens (called "åbo") the inheritable right to live at land owned by the crown ("å" meant "at" or "on" in old Swedish, now "på").


title: Turku

text: In Finnish, the genitive of "Turku" is Turun, meaning "of Turku". The Finnish names of organizations and institutes of Turku often begin with this word, as in "Turun yliopisto" for the University of Turku.


title: Turku

text: Turku has a long history as Finland's largest city and occasionally as the administrative center of the country, but for the last two hundred years has been surpassed by Helsinki. The city's identity stems from its status as the oldest city in Finland and the country's first capital. Originally, the word "Finland" referred only to the area around Turku (hence the title, "Finland Proper" for the region).


title: Turku

text: Archaeological findings in the area date back to the Stone Age and the area was densely populated in the Iron Age. The oldest known road, Hämeen härkätie, connected to region and the Old Castle of Lieto to Tavastia in the 9th Century at the latest. Early literary sources such as Al-Idrisi's world map from 1154 mentions Turku. Turku Cathedral was consecrated in 1300.


title: Turku

text: During the Middle Ages, Turku was the seat of the Bishop of Turku (a title later upgraded to Archbishop of Turku), covering then the eastern half of the Kingdom of Sweden (most of the present-day Finland) until the 17th century. Even if Turku had no official capital status, both the short-lived institutions of Dukes and Governors-General of Finland usually had their Finnish residences there. In the aftermath of the War against Sigismund, the town was the site of the Åbo Bloodbath. In 1640, the first university in Finland, the Royal Academy of Turku, was founded in Turku. Turku was also the meeting place for the States of Finland in 1676.


title: Turku

text: After the Finnish War, which ended when Sweden ceded Finland to Imperial Russia at the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, Turku became briefly the official capital, but soon lost the status to Helsinki, as Emperor Alexander I felt that Turku was too far from Russia and too aligned with Sweden to serve as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Finland. The change officially took place in 1812. The government offices that remained in Turku were finally moved to the new capital after the Great Fire of Turku, which destroyed a large portion of the city in 1827. After the fire, a new and safer city plan was drawn up by German architect Carl Ludvig Engel, who had also designed the new capital, Helsinki. Turku remained the largest city in Finland for another twenty years.


title: Turku

text: In 1918, a new university, the Åbo Akademi – the only Swedish-language university in Finland – was founded in Turku. Two years later, the Finnish-language University of Turku was founded alongside it. These two universities are the second and third to be founded in Finland, both by private donations.


title: Turku

text: In the 20th century, Turku was called "Finland's gateway to the West" by historians such as . The city enjoyed good connections with other Western European countries and cities, especially since the 1940s with Stockholm across the Gulf of Bothnia. In the 1960s, Turku became the first Western city to sign a twinning agreement with Leningrad in the Soviet Union, leading to greater inter-cultural exchange and providing a new meaning to the city's 'gateway' function. After the fall of communism in Russia, many prominent Soviets came to Turku to study Western business practices, among them Vladimir Putin, then Leningrad's deputy mayor.


title: Turku

text: As for architecture in the city, both the body of architectural styles as well as the prevalent way of living have experienced significant changes in the 20th century. While having survived relatively intact throughout the years of war 1939–1945, the city faced increasing changes in the 1950s and 1960s due to rising demands for apartments, the eagerness to rebuild, and most of all the new development of infrastructure (especially increased automobile traffic). The wooden one- to two-story houses that were the dominant mode of building in the city were mostly demolished in the 1950s and 1960s to both enable more efficient building and to ease vehicle traffic. This resulted in the destruction of buildings that were, in later decades, seen as beautiful and worth saving. Some individual buildings remain controversial to this day when it comes to their demolition in the decades after the war. For example, the building of that stood on corner of the Market Square was torn down to make way for a large, multistory apartment building in 1959. The building was significant both for its location and history: having stood on one of the most valuable lots in the city center since 1878, the building had, for example, served as the first main building of the University of Turku. Other buildings whose demolition was seen as scandalous, either already at the time of action or proved to be so in later years, include (subject of the very first photograph ever taken in Finland) and the building of Old Hotel Börs which was built in jugendstil in 1909 by .


title: Turku

text: Located at the mouth of the Aura river in the southwestern corner of Finland, Turku covers an area of of land, spread over both banks of the river. The eastern side, where the Turku Cathedral is located, is popularly referred to as "täl pual jokke" ("this side of the river"), while the western side is referred to as "tois pual jokke" ("the other side of the river"). The city center is located close to the river mouth, on both sides of the river, though development has recently been expanding westward.


title: Turku

text: There are ten bridges over the Aura river in Turku. The oldest of the current bridges is , which was constructed in 1904. The newest bridge is ('library bridge'), a pedestrian-only bridge built in 2013. The "Föri", a small ferry that transports pedestrians and bicycles across the river without payment, is a well known feature of the city.


title: Turku

text: With a population of approximately 200,000, the Turku Region (LAU 1) is the third largest urban region in Finland, after Greater Helsinki and the area around Tampere. The region includes, in addition to the city itself the following municipalities: Askainen, Kaarina, Lemu, Lieto, Masku, Merimasku, Mynämäki, Naantali, Nousiainen, Paimio, Piikkiö, Raisio, Rusko, Rymättylä, Sauvo, Vahto, and Velkua.


title: Turku

text: A more exclusive definition for the urban area is the city region of Turku with a population around 235,000 consisting of four major municipalities Kaarina, Raisio, Naantali, and Turku.


title: Turku

text: The city is divided into 78 districts and nine wards that do not function as local government units. There are, however, some projects that are based on the district divisions, particularly in the eastern part of the city, where unemployment is high in certain areas. The largest populated districts are Varissuo and Runosmäki. By area, however, Kakskerta and Paattinen, formed from former municipalities that were annexed to the city proper in the mid-20th century, constitute the largest districts.


title: Turku

text: As many of the small neighbouring municipalities from the north and south of the city were annexed during the mid-20th century, Turku is today shaped like an elongated pear. The city centre and most of the suburban areas lie in the middle, separated from the less densely populated northern rural areas by the Turku bypass, that forms part of European route E18. Islands such as Ruissalo, Hirvensalo and Kakskerta, forming the southern part of the city, are also sparsely populated and mostly contain summer residences, with the exception of some districts in Hirvensalo which are currently growing into upper-middle-class suburbs.


title: Turku

text: Situated by the Baltic Sea and sheltered by the islands of the Archipelago Sea, Turku has a humid continental climate (Köppen "Dfb"). Like much of southern Finland, the city experiences warm summers, with temperatures ranging up to 30 °C (86 °F), and relatively cold winters with frequent snowfall. The warmest month of the year is July, with an average temperature of , whereas the coldest month is February. The average year-round temperature is . Winter usually starts in early December, and spring in late March.


title: Turku

text: Precipitation in Turku averages a year. The rainiest month of the year is August, when the city receives on average of rainfall. In April, the driest month of the year, the figure is only . The average air pressure at sea level is , with little variance throughout the year.


title: Turku

text: Operational since 1955, the city's weather station is located at an altitude of at Turku Airport. The weather in the city itself is affected by the proximity of the sea, so the wintertime temperatures are often milder than those measured at the airport. The moderating impact of the sea helps oak maple and ash trees, which are quite rare elsewhere in Finland, to thrive by the areas along the shoreline and in the archipelago.


title: Turku

text: At the end of 2021, the Turku region (including the economic districts of Turku and Åboland) had a population of 337,588, out of which 195,137 people lived in the city of Turku. This makes the Turku region Finland's third largest, after Helsinki and Tampere, being home to 6% of Finland's population. The city's population density is 794.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The median age in the city is 42.1, lower than the national average of 43.6.


title: Turku

text: 13.2% of Turku's population has a foreign-background. The largest groups are from Russia, Iraq and former Yugoslavia.


title: Turku

text: The business district in the city's economy is centred on the Port of Turku and other service-oriented industries. The city is also a renowned high tech centre – the Turku Science Park area in Kupittaa hosts over 300 companies from the fields of biotechnology and information technology, as well as several institutions of higher learning that work closely with the business sector. This cooperative element is seen as a particularly important factor with regards to the city's expected future economic development, as outlined in the "Turku Strategy" that is published annually by the city council.


title: Turku

text: At least the following major Finnish companies have their corporate headquarters in Turku: HKScan and Hesburger. Other major companies which have operations in Turku include Bayer, Fläkt Woods, Meyer Werft, Orion Corporation and Wärtsilä.


title: Turku

text: , over 280,000 people were registered as being without employment in Finland. This put June's numbers at 10.0 percent of the population, 0.8 percentage points higher than June 2014. Men's unemployment rate was 10.5 percent and women's 9.4 percent.


title: Turku

text: Cultural venues in Turku include several theatres, cinemas, and art galleries, and a city philharmonic orchestra. The city's cultural centre organises a number of regular events, most notably the Medieval Market in July each year. Turku is also the official Christmas city of Finland, and 'Christmas Peace' in Finland is declared on every 24 December from the Brinkkala Hall balcony. The Turku music festival and the rock festival Ruisrock (held on the island of Ruissalo) are among the oldest of its kind in the Nordic countries. The city also hosts another rock festival, Down by the Laituri, and one of the largest electronic music festivals in Northern Europe, UMF (Uuden Musiikin Festivaali, "New Music Festival"), in addition to a vibrant nightlife, centred on the Market Square.


title: Turku

text: There are also numerous museums, such as the and the Wäinö Aaltonen Museum of Art. The Åbo Akademi University maintains the Sibelius Museum, which is the only museum in Finland specialising in the field of music. Apart from these, there are also several historical museums that display the city's medieval period, such as the Turku Castle, which has been a functional historical museum since 1881, and the "Aboa Vetus" museum, built in the late 1990s over the 14th century archaeological site; countless excavations have been carried out in the city each year in order to gain more clarity on the city's birth history. The "Luostarinmäki" handicrafts museum, converted from residential buildings that survived the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, was the first Scandinavian venue to receive the "Golden Apple" tourism award.


title: Turku

text: Considered to be the most important religious building in Finland, the Turku Cathedral has borne witness to many important events in the nation's history and has become one of the city's most recognizable symbols with the Turku Castle. The cathedral is situated in the heart of Turku next to the Old Great Square, by the Aura River. Its presence extends beyond the local precinct by having the sound of its bells chiming at noon broadcast on national radio. It is also central to Finland's annual Christmas celebrations. It is also known as resting place for many remarkable bishops and captains of war as well as one Queen of Sweden, Catherine Månsdotter.


title: Turku

text: Turku was the European Capital of Culture in 2011, and the city council has approved numerous projects to boost the city's image in preparation for that status.


title: Turku

text: The Declaration of Christmas Peace has been a tradition in Finland from the Middle Ages every year, except in 1939 due to the Winter War. The declaration takes place on the Old Great Square of Turku, Finland's official 'Christmas City', at noon on Christmas Eve. The declaration ceremony begins with the hymn "Jumala ompi linnamme" (Martin Luther's "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott") and continues with the Declaration of Christmas Peace read from a parchment roll in Finnish and Swedish.


title: Turku

text: Turku ostensibly has a long-standing mutual feud with the city of Tampere, the capital of Pirkanmaa and the third largest city of Finland, and they tend to compete for the title of being the "second grand city of Finland" after Helsinki. This hostility is largely expressed in jokes in one city about the other; prominent targets are the traditional Tampere food, "mustamakkara", the state of the Aura River in Turku, and the regional accents. Like Turku, Tampere is well known as a food destination because of its food culture. Since 1997, students at Tampere have made annual excursions to Turku to jump on the market square, doing their part to undo the post-glacial rebound and push the city back into the Baltic Sea.


title: Turku

text: The city has two football teams playing at the top national level, the "Veikkausliiga": FC Inter and TPS. TPS is one of the oldest football clubs in Finland. Both teams play their home matches at Veritas Stadion in the district of Kupittaa.


title: Turku

text: HC TPS of Turku is one of the most successful teams in Finnish ice hockey history. It plays in the Finnish top league, SM-liiga. HC TPS has won the national championship 11 times, the latest being from season 2009–2010. Gatorade Center, formerly named "HK Arena", located in the Artukainen district, is used as the venue for HC TPS games.


title: Turku

text: The "Paavo Nurmi Marathon" is an annual sporting event in Turku, named after the world-famous runner Paavo Nurmi, who was born and raised in the city.


title: Turku

text: Finland's most successful tennis player, Jarkko Nieminen, was born and lives in the neighbouring county of Masku


title: Turku

text: Turku is also home to the Eagles Rugby Football Club (turkurugby.fi) who are part of the championship division of Suomen Rugbyliitto (SRL). They play games and train at Impivaara Jalkapallonhalli and Kuppitaanpuisto.


title: Turku

text: Turku Titans is a lacrosse club based in Turku with a relevantly successful history with three silver medals and one gold medal in the national lacrosse league in Finland. The Titans women's team has also had a successful history. The FIL U19 2012 World Lacrosse Championships were also held in the city.


title: Turku

text: Being both a regional and provincial capital, Turku is an important administrative centre, hosting the seat of the Archbishop of Finland and a Court of Appeal. Minna Arve has been the mayor of Turku since 2017. Since August 2021 her role as the mayor has been an elected office instead of a hired position.


title: Turku

text: The city council of Turku has 67 seats. Following the 2021 municipal election, the council seats are allocated in the following way: National Coalition Party 16 seats, Social Democrats 13, Left Alliance 11, Green League 10, True Finns 9, Centre Party 3, Swedish People's Party 3, Movement Now 1, and Christian Democrats 1. The current chair of the city board is Sini Ruohonen from National Coalition Party.


title: Turku

text: For a city of its size, Turku has a moderate public transport network of bus routes, which is comparable to the bus network of similar-sized Tampere. The bus network is managed and supervised by the "Turku City Region's Public Transport Committee" (FÖLI) (, ), and is operated mainly by private companies. Bus traffic to and in the neighbouring municipalities of Kaarina, Lieto, Naantali, Raisio and Rusko are also handled by FÖLI. The bus rates are the same when traveling within these municipalities.


title: Turku

text: Rail traffic to and from Turku is handled by the Finnish national carrier, VR. The number of services has fallen and only the railways towards Tampere and Helsinki are now in use. The railway stations currently used for passenger traffic are the Turku Central railway station in Pohjola, and two smaller stations in Kupittaa and the Port of Turku.


title: Turku

text: There is no local rail traffic at the moment, as the city's popular tram services were discontinued in 1972, and the various local railway lines to neighbouring towns and municipalities were all abolished during the late 20th century. However, there are plans for a light rail system in the Turku region in the near future. This system would more ably serve major suburbs of the city such as Varissuo and Runosmäki, as well as the neighbouring cities.


title: Turku

text: The State of Finland has announced plans to support Espoo with 30% of full expenses on a new metro rail, the Regional Council of Southwest Finland is going to use this as a test case for a new light rail network in Turku.


title: Turku

text: The Turku Bus Station and the Turku Central railway station are currently located in different places. The City of Turku is planning to combine these two in a new greater station complex in the near future. This new travel center will consist of a hotel and several shopping estates. This center will connect all public transportation from commuter trains to long-distance buses.


title: Turku

text: Turku's most significant highways for traffic are Highway 1 leading to Helsinki; Highway 10 leading to Hämeenlinna; Highway 9 leading to Tampere, Jyväskylä, Kuopio and Joensuu; Highway 8 leading to Pori, Vaasa and Oulu; and the Turku Ring Road, which protrudes circumferentially from Turku.


title: Turku

text: Turku Airport is located to the north of the city centre, partly in the neighbouring municipality of Rusko. The airport is served by six passenger airlines, including airBaltic and SAS Scandinavian, and one cargo airline.


title: Turku

text: There are also daily ferry services from the Port of Turku to Sweden and Åland, operated by Silja Line and Viking Line. These are something of a Finnish cultural tradition (see ruotsinlaiva), and people often travel long distances across Finland to Turku just to take a cruise across the Gulf of Bothnia.


title: Turku

text: The Archipelago Sea boat traffic is handled by, among others, SS Ukkopekka, an old steamship that cruises on the route Turku-Naantali-Turku.


title: Turku

text: Turku is the only city in Finland to have three long-distance railway stations: Turku Central, Port of Turku, and Kupittaa.


title: Turku

text: Turku has a longer educational history than any other Finnish city – the first school in the city, the Cathedral School, was founded along with Turku Cathedral in the late 13th century. The first university in Finland, the Royal Academy of Turku (now University of Helsinki), was established in the city in 1640. In 1820, the first school in Finland conforming to the Bell-Lancaster method was founded in Turku with the aim of making primary education more inclusive to the lower classes.


title: Turku

text: Turku is home to about 35,000 higher education students. There are two universities and several "polytechnics" in the town.


title: Turku

text: The Finnish University of Turku is the second largest university in Finland (18,000 students), as measured by student enrollment, and one of the oldest as well, having been founded in 1920. Åbo Akademi, founded 1918 as the second university of Finland, is one of Finland's two Swedish-language universities. Turku School of Economics merged with The University of Turku in 2010, and Åbo handelshögskola, its Swedish counterpart, with Åbo Akademi 1980. The central hospital of Turku, Turku University Hospital, is affiliated with the University and it is used as a teaching hospital.


title: Turku

text: Turku University of Applied Sciences is the second largest polytechnic in Finland after Metropolia University of Applied Sciences. Also Novia University of Applied Sciences and Diaconia University of Applied Sciences have campuses in the town.


title: Turku

text: Turku is one of only two cities in Finland to have an established international school (the other city being Helsinki). Turku International School, located in the eastern district of Varissuo, has been operating since 2003. By an agreement signed between the city of Turku and the University of Turku, Turun normaalikoulu takes care of the teaching in the international school.


title: Turku

text: The most widely read newspaper of Turku, and the area around it, is the daily regional morning newspaper "Turun Sanomat", with a readership of over 70% of the population every day. "Åbo Underrättelser", a Swedish language newspaper published in Turku, is the oldest newspaper in Finland, having been published since 1824. The free-of-charge "Turkulainen" newspaper is also among the most popular newspapers, together with the local edition of "Metro International" and the national evening tabloid "Ilta-Sanomat". There are also a number of local newspapers such as "Kulmakunta" (for the eastern suburbs of Turku, including Varissuo and Lauste), and "Rannikkoseutu" (for the area around the neighbouring cities of Raisio and Naantali).


title: Turku

text: The first Finnish newspaper "Tidningar Utgifne Af et Sällskap i Åbo", in Swedish, was started in Turku in 1771, as well as the first Finnish-language newspaper "Suomenkieliset Tieto-Sanomat" which was started in 1775.


title: Turku

text: The newspaper "Turun Sanomat" also operates a regional television station, called "Turku TV". The Finnish national broadcaster "Yleisradio" screens local news, daily from Monday to Friday, for the Southwest Finland (including the regions of Southwest Finland and Satakunta) residents. All Finnish national TV channels are viewable and national radio channels audible in the Turku area. In addition, a number of local radio stations, e.g. "Auran Aallot", "Radio Sata" and "Radio Robin Hood" are operational. Local public service radio stations are "Yle Turun Radio" in Finnish language (the regional version of Yle Radio Suomi) and "Yle Vega Åboland" in Swedish language (the regional version of Yle Vega).


title: Turku

text: In March 2022, Turku suspended the agreement with Saint Petersburg, Russia (twinning since 1953) due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: Xiaolongbao () refers to a type of small Chinese steamed bun ("baozi") traditionally prepared in a "xiaolong", a small bamboo steaming basket, hence the name. "Xiaolongbao" are often referred to as a kind of "dumpling", but should not be confused with Chinese "jiaozi" or "wonton". In some parts of China and overseas, xiaolongbao may specifically refer to a kind of soup dumpling, the tangbao (Chinese 汤包) of Jiangnan cuisine, which are strongly associated with Shanghai and Wuxi. In Shanghainese, these are also known as or "xiaolong"-style mantous, as Wu Chinese-speaking peoples use the traditional definition of "mantou", which refers to both filled and unfilled buns. Shengjianbao are very similar to tangbao but are pan-fried instead of steamed.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: "Xiaolongbao" originated in Changzhou, Jiangsu province, by Wan Hua Tea House in the years of Daoguang Emperor (1820 to 1850). Xiaolongbao evolved from the guantangbao (soup-filled dumplings/buns) from Kaifeng, Henan province, the capital city of Northern Song Dynasty (AD 960–1127).


title: Xiaolongbao

text: There are numerous styles of xiaolongbao in Jiangsu cuisine. Shanghai-style "xiaolongbao" originated in Nanxiang, which was a neighboring village of Shanghai in Jiangsu that eventually ended up becoming an outer suburb of Shanghai's Jiading District. The inventor of "xiaolongbao" sold them in his first store in Nanxiang next to the town's notable park, Guyi Garden. From there the "xiaolongbao" expanded into downtown Shanghai and outward. The Suzhou and Wuxi styles are larger (sometimes twice as large as a Nanxiang-style soup dumpling) and have sweeter fillings. The Nanjing style is smaller with an almost translucent skin and less meat.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: Two specialist "xiaolongbao" restaurants have a particularly long history. One is "Nanxiang Mantou Dian" (Nanxiang Bun Shop), which derives from the original store in Nanxiang but is now located in the Yu Garden area. It is famed for its crab-meat-filled buns. The other is Gulong Restaurant, at the original site next to Guyi Garden in Nanxiang.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: Chinese buns, in general, may be divided into two types, depending on the degree of leavening of the flour skin. Buns can be made with leavened or unleavened dough. Those made with unleavened dough use clear water for mixing, the skin is thin and the fillings large. It is frequently made in Nanxiang but is imitated elsewhere, calling it Xiang-style. Steamed buns made with raised flour are seen throughout China and are what is usually referred to as "mantou". Steamed xiaolongbao made with partially raised flour are more commonly seen in the south. This means that their skin is tender, smoother, and somewhat translucent, rather than being white and fluffy. As is traditional for buns of various sizes in the Jiangnan region, "xiaolongbao" is pinched at the top prior to steaming, so the skin has a circular cascade of ripples around the crown.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: "Xiaolongbao" are traditionally filled with pork. More modern innovations include other meats, seafood, shrimp, crab meat, and vegetarian fillings.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: Soup dumplings are created by wrapping solid meat aspic inside the skin alongside the meat filling. Heat from steaming then melts the gelatin-gelled aspic into soup. In modern times, refrigeration has made the process of making "tangbao" during hot weather easier, since making gelled aspic is much more difficult at room temperature.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: Xiaolongbao are traditionally eaten for breakfast. The buns are served hot in the bamboo baskets in which they were steamed, usually on a bed of dried leaves or paper mat, although some restaurants now use napa cabbage instead. The buns are usually dipped in Zhenjiang vinegar with chili crisp.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: Traditionally, "tangbao" soup dumplings are a kind of "dim sum" (à la carte item) or ""xiaochi"" (snack). The buns are usually dipped in Zhenjiang vinegar with ginger slivers. They are traditionally served with a clear soup on the side. Around Shanghai, "tangbao" may be eaten throughout the day, although usually not for breakfast. They form part of a traditional Jiangnan-style morning tea (). In Guangdong and the West, it is sometimes served as a dish during Cantonese tea time. Frozen "tangbao" are now mass-produced and a popular frozen food sold worldwide.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: The modern form of Xiaolongbao originated from Qing Dynasty. A place named YingGui Teahouse is where people in ChangZhou go to have Xiaolongbao. Xiaolongbao in Changzhou is known for its thin wraps, great taste of its ingredients, and the soup that spills out when taken a bite. Among the types, crab filled Xiaolongbao is the most well known type in Changzhou that are served after the mid autumn festival.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: Nanxiang Xiaolongbao in Shanghai have around a hundred year of history. They are known for their unique technique of making the wrappers as well as secret ingredients of the fillings.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: Goubuli Xiaolongbao is the most famous Xiaolongbao in the northern China. Goubuli is founded in 1858 by a young man named Gouzi, who named his xiaolongbao after himself as Goubuli later. Goubuli Xiaolongbao has strictly 18 wrinkles on each dumpling due to its creator's unique method of making it. Goubuli Xiaolongbao were served to one of the famous queen's mother in Chinese history as a famous dish from Tianjin.


title: Xiaolongbao

text: Kaifeng Xiaolongbao, created in Song Dynasty, is also known as soup filled Xiaolongbao. Many famous cooks created their own ways of making soup filled dumplings in Kaifeng and improved the techniques throughout history. Kaifeng Xiaolongbao looks like "a lantern" when you lift the dumpling and "a flower" when it sits in the steaming basket.


title: Wilson Bethel

text: Stephen Wilson Bethel (born February 24, 1984) is an American actor and producer. He is known for his roles as Wade Kinsella on "Hart of Dixie", as Ryder Callahan on the CBS daytime soap opera "The Young and the Restless", Deputy district attorney Mark Callan on the legal drama "All Rise", and as Agent Benjamin “Dex” Poindexter on the Netflix original series "Daredevil". He is also the star and creator of the web series "Stupid Hype" on the CW's online platform CWD (CW Digital Studio).


title: Wilson Bethel

text: Bethel was born on February 24, 1984, in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He is the son of artist Steve Bethel and author Joyce Maynard. He married Liesl Martinez-Balaguer on November 28, 2020. Bethel is Jewish.


title: Wilson Bethel

text: Bethel made his on-screen debut as Brad in the teen drama series "The O.C.", in the episode "The Telenovela". He had guest roles in "JAG", "Cold Case", and "NCIS", and portrayed Corporal Evan "Q-Tip" Stafford in the Emmy-nominated mini-series "Generation Kill", starring Alexander Skarsgård. Bethel made his film debut in the 2008 Vietnam War film, "1968 Tunnel Rats" where he played the Army Special Ops soldier, Corporal Green. In 2009, he landed a recurring role as Ryder Callahan on the CBS daytime soap opera "The Young and the Restless".


title: Wilson Bethel

text: In The CW's comedy-drama series "Hart of Dixie", Bethel played Wade Kinsella, "bad-boy" neighbor to the series' central character, Zoe Hart. Production for the show began in early 2011 and it premiered on September 26, 2011. The series concluded on May 7, 2015, after four seasons. BuddyTV ranked him #14 on its list of "TV's Sexiest Men of 2011"; in 2012 he was ranked #2 on the same list. He appeared in four episodes of ABC's legal thriller series "How to Get Away with Murder" as Charles Mahoney.


title: Wilson Bethel

text: In 2017, he joined the Roundabout Theatre Company's production of "The Last Match", which was set in the world of professional tennis. In 2018, he joined the cast of "Daredevil" as Benjamin "Dex" Poindexter, a composite character of Bullseye and Nuke. In 2019, Bethel landed a main role on the CBS legal drama series "All Rise" as Deputy District Attorney Mark Callan.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: New York City is a large and ethnically diverse metropolis. It is the largest city in the United States with a long history of international immigration. New York City was home to over 8.3 million people in 2019, accounting for over 40% of the population of New York State and a slightly lower percentage of the New York metropolitan area, home to approximately 23.6 million. Over the last decade the city has been growing faster than the region. The New York region continues to be by far the leading metropolitan gateway for legal immigrants admitted into the United States.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: Throughout its history, New York City has been a major point of entry for immigrants; the term "melting pot" was coined to describe densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the Lower East Side. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. English remains the most widely spoken language, although there are areas in the outer boroughs in which up to 25% of people speak English as an alternate language, and/or have limited or no English language fluency. English is least spoken in neighborhoods such as Flushing, Sunset Park, and Corona.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: New York City is the most populous city in the United States, with an estimated 8,804,190 people living in the city, according to the 2020 U.S. Census (up from 8,175,133 in 2010; 8.0 million in 2000; and 7.3 million in 1990). This amounts to about 44% of New York State's population and a similar percentage of the metropolitan regional population. New York's two key demographic features are its population density and cultural diversity. The city's population density of 29,091.3 people per square mile (11,232/km), makes it the densest of any American municipality with a population above 100,000. Manhattan's population density is 74,781 people per square mile (28,872/km), highest of any county in the United States.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: New York City is multicultural. About 36% of the city's population is foreign-born, one of the highest among US cities. The eleven nations constituting the largest sources of modern immigration to New York City are the Dominican Republic, China, Jamaica, Guyana, Mexico, Ecuador, Brazil, Haiti, Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, Russia and El Salvador.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: The New York City metropolitan area is home to the largest Jewish community outside Israel. It is also home to nearly a quarter of the nation's Indian Americans and 15% of all Korean Americans; the largest African American community of any city in the country; and including 6 Chinatowns in the city proper, comprised as of 2008 a population of 659,596 overseas Chinese, the largest outside of Asia. New York City alone, according to the 2010 Census, has now become home to more than one million Asian Americans, greater than the combined totals of San Francisco and Los Angeles. New York contains the highest total Asian population of any U.S. city proper. 6.0% of New York City is of Chinese ethnicity, with about forty percent of them living in the borough of Queens alone. Koreans make up 1.2% of the city's population, and Japanese at 0.3%. Filipinos are the largest southeast Asian ethnic group at 0.8%, followed by Vietnamese who make up only 0.2% of New York City's population. Indians are the largest South Asian group, comprising 2.4% of the city's population, with Pakistanis at 0.4% and Bangladeshis at 0.8%, respectively.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: New York City is also one of the main entry points for newly arrived Brazilian immigrants in the United States. West 46th Street between the Fifth and Sixth avenues in Manhattan was designated "Little Brazil" due to its popularity as a financial center for Brazilians who live in or visit New York.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: The largest ethnic groups as of the 2005 census estimates are: African American, African or Caribbean, Puerto Ricans, Italians, West Indians, Dominicans, Chinese, Irish, Russian, and German. The Puerto Rican population of New York City is the largest outside Puerto Rico. The New York City metropolitan area is also home to the largest Italian population in North America and the third largest Italian population outside of Italy. Italians emigrated to the city in large numbers in the early 20th century, establishing several "Little Italies". The Irish also have a notable presence, along with Germans.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: New York City has a high degree of income variation. In 2005 the median household income in the highest census tract was reported to be $188,697, while in the lowest it was $9,320. The variance is driven by wage growth in high income brackets, while wages have stagnated for middle and lower income brackets. In 2006 the average weekly wage in Manhattan was $1,453, the highest and fastest growing among the largest counties in the United States. The borough is also experiencing a "baby boom" among the wealthy that is unique among U.S. cities. Since 2000, the number of children under age 5 living in Manhattan has grown by more than 32%.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: In 2000, about 3 out of every 10 New York City housing units were owner-occupied, compared to about 2 owner-occupied units out of every 3 units in the U.S. as a whole. Rental vacancy is usually between 3% and 4.5%, well below the 5% threshold defined to be a housing emergency, justifying the continuation of rent control and rent stabilization. About 33% of rental units fall under rent stabilization, according to which increases are adjudicated periodically by city agencies. Rent control covers only a very small number of rental units. Some critics point to New York City's strict zoning and other regulations as partial causes for the housing shortage, but during the city's decline in population from the 1960s through the 1980s, a large number of apartment buildings suffered suspected arson fires or were abandoned by their owners. Once the population trend was reversed, with rising prospects for rentals and sales, new construction has resumed, but generally for purchasers in higher income brackets.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: New York is the largest city in the United States, with the city proper's population more than double the next largest city, Los Angeles (or roughly equivalent to the combined populations of Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston, the United States' second, third, and fourth most populous cities respectively). In 2006, demographers estimated New York's population would reach 9.1 million by 2030.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: In 2000 the reported life expectancy of New Yorkers was above the national average. Life expectancy for females born in 2009 in New York City is 80.2 years and for males is 74.5 years.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: New York's two key demographic features are its density and diversity. The city has an extremely high population density of 26,403 people per square mile (10,194/km), about 10,000 more people per square mile than the next densest large American city, San Francisco. Manhattan's population density is 66,940 people per square mile (25,846/km).


title: Demographics of New York City

text: The city has a long tradition of attracting international immigration and Americans seeking careers in certain sectors. As of 2006, New York City has ranked number one for seven consecutive years as the city most U.S. residents would most like to live in or near.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: Throughout its history New York City has been a principal entry point for immigration to the United States. These immigrants often form ethnic enclaves, neighborhoods dominated by one ethnicity. The city experienced major immigration from Europe in the 19th century and another major wave in the early 20th century, being admitted into the United States of America primarily through Ellis Island. Since the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, and particularly since the 1980s, New York City has seen renewed rates of high immigration. Newer immigrants are from Latin America, the Caribbean, Asia, Eastern Europe and Africa. 36% of the city's population is foreign-born. Among U.S. cities, this proportion is higher only in Los Angeles and Miami. In New York no single country or region of origin dominates. The eleven largest countries of origin are the Dominican Republic, China, Jamaica, Guyana, Mexico, Ecuador, Haiti, Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, Russia and El Salvador. Between 1990 and 2000 the city admitted 1,224,524 immigrants. Demographers and city officials have observed that immigration to New York City has been slowing since 1997. This is mostly due to more and more immigrants choosing directly to locate to the city's suburbs and then commute to the city or work in many of its booming edge cities such as Fort Lee, NJ, Hempstead, NY, Morristown, NJ, Stamford, CT, White Plains, NY and others. Despite the slowdown in immigration the city's overall immigrant population has continued to increase and in 2006 it numbered 3.038 million (37.0%) up from 2.871 million (35.9%) in 2000. By 2013, the population of foreign-born individuals living in New York City had increased to 3.07 million, and as a percentage of total population, was the highest it had been in the past 100 years.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: Immigrant Africans, Caribbeans, and African Americans make up 25.1% of New York City's population. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there were 2,086,566 black people residing in New York City. Percentage wise, approximately two out of every five black residents of New York City resides in Brooklyn (primarily in the Central, Northern, and Eastern sections of the borough), one out of every five resides in Bronx (mainly in the borough's Northeastern, Southeastern and Southern sections) one out of every five resides in Queens (mainly in the borough's Southeastern area), with the remaining black residents residing in Manhattan (primarily in Harlem) and Staten Island (mainly the North Shore of the borough).


title: Demographics of New York City

text: Native Americans make up 0.4% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 29,569 Native Americans residing in New York City. Of 29,569 Native Americans, 2,075 were of the Cherokee tribal grouping. In addition, 213 were of the Navajo tribal grouping. Also, 42 people identified themselves as Chippewa, and 47 people identified themselves as Sioux. There is a number of Mohawks indigenous to the New York city area and/or Upstate New York, and many Mohawks arrived in the 1930s to work in the skyscraper building construction industry. And a few Lenape Indians indigenous to the New York city area still remain in the city, migrated from other rural parts to Manhattan.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: Asian Americans make up 11.8% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 976,807 Asian Americans residing in New York City. Of 976,807 Asian Americans, 445,145 were of Chinese descent, representing 5.4% of the city's population. In addition, there were 226,888 Indian Americans residing in the city, representing 2.7% of the population. Approximately 103,660 people identified themselves as "Other Asian", a category that includes people of Cambodian, Laotian, Hmong, and Pakistani descent. Individuals in this category represent 1.2% of the city's population. There were 88,162 Korean Americans residing in the city, representing 1.1% of the population. Other Asian American groups include those of Filipino (68,826, 0.8%), Japanese (26,096, 0.3%), and Vietnamese (18,030, 0.2%) descent.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: Pacific Islander Americans make up 0.1% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 4,941 Pacific Islander Americans residing in New York City. Of 4,941 Pacific Islander Americans, 1,992 were Native Hawaiian. Approximately 904 were of Samoan descent, and 504 were of Guamanian descent. In addition, 1,541 were of other Pacific Islander ancestries.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: Multiracial Americans make up 2.1% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 177,643 multiracial Americans residing in New York City. People of black and white ancestry numbered at 37,124, making up 0.4% of the population. People of white and Asian ancestry numbered at 22,242, making up 0.3% of the population. People of white/Native American ancestry (10,762) and black/Native American ancestry (10,221) each made up 0.1% of the city's population. The term "Multiracial American", however, can be very misleading. For example, many people of Latin American background may have various racial ancestries. Furthermore, there are many Americans who have multiple racial ancestries who are not aware of it. Therefore, the actual numbers are likely much higher.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: Hispanics and Latinos make up 27.5% of New York City's population. According to the American Community Survey, there were 2,287,905 Hispanic or Latino Americans residing in New York City. The Hispanic/Latino population is categorized with four groups, "Puerto Rican" (785,618 or 9.4%), "Mexican" (297,581 or 3.6%), "Cuban" (42,377 or 0.5%), and "Other Hispanic or Latino" (1,165,576 or 14.0%). While most Hispanics in New York City do not select a race in addition to their ethnicity in the American Community Survey, among those foreign-born, 33% also self-identify as white, and 9% as black.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: White Americans make up 44.6% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 3,704,243 White Americans residing in New York City. White Americans of non-Hispanic origin make up 35.1% of the city's population. There are 2,918,976 non-Hispanic whites residing in the city. Much of New York City's European American population consists of individuals of Italian, Irish, German, Russian, Polish, English, and Greek ancestry.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: There is a considerable Bulgarian population in New York. Bulgarians migrated in New York in the 1900s.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: According to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, the top ten White, European ancestries were the following:


title: Demographics of New York City

text: According to a 2001 study by Claritas, four of the city's five boroughs ranked among the nation's twenty most diverse counties. Queens ranked 1st, Brooklyn 3rd, Manhattan 7th, and The Bronx 17th. In addition, Hudson County and Essex County, New Jersey, both of which are part of the New York Metropolitan Area, ranked 6th and 15th, respectively.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: The city has several demographically unique characteristics. Queens is the only large county in the United States where the median income among black households, about $52,000 a year, has surpassed that of whites.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: The New York City metropolitan area is home to the largest Jewish community outside Israel. It is also home to nearly a quarter of the nation's Indian American population, and the largest African American community of any city in the country. New York City, with about 800,000 Puerto Rican residents, has the largest Puerto Rican population outside of Puerto Rico. Another historically significant ethnic group are Italians, who emigrated to the city in large numbers during the late 19th century. New York City is home to the largest Italian American population in the United States. The Irish and Germans also have a notable presence.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: As according to the New York City Department of City Planning, there were a total of 8,804,190 residents. There were almost equivalent populations of 2,719,856 White residents at 30.9% and 2,490,350 Hispanic residents at 28.3%, meanwhile there were 1,776,891 Black residents at 20.2% and 1,373,502 Asian residents at 15.6%. There were even much smaller numbers of 143,632 other race residents at 1.6% and 299,959 Two or More races residents at 3.4%. Although the Asian population is still below the Black population in ranking, they are slowly catching up to being close to the Black population ranking. From 2010 to 2020, the growing Asian population outpaced the growing Hispanic population despite that the Hispanic population is still much larger than the Asian population. The Asian population rose from 1,028,119 residents (12.6% in 2010) to 1,373,502 Asian residents (15.6% in 2020) increasing by 345,383 residents or 33.6% by 2020. The Hispanic population increased marginally from 2,336,076 residents (28.6% in 2010) to 2,490,350 residents (28.3% in 2020) increasing by 154,274 residents or 6.6% by 2020, though their percentage portion from the total NYC population dropped as other populations grew. Meanwhile, the White and Black populations experienced declines from 2010 to 2020. Of all racial populations, the Black population experienced the biggest decline in NYC from being 1,861,295 residents (22.8% in 2010) to 1,776,891 residents (20.2% in 2020) decreasing by -84,404 residents or -4.5% by 2020. The White population declined from 2,722,904 residents (33.3% in 2010) to 2,719,856 residents (30.9% in 2020) decreasing by -3,048 -0.1 by 2020. The White population declined mainly in these NYC Boroughs through these following rankings, Queens, The Bronx, and then Staten Island, though the White population increased marginally in Brooklyn and then Manhattan. The Black population experienced declines by these following rankings in these NYC Boroughs, Brooklyn, Queens, and then Manhattan, though the Black population increased marginally in The Bronx and then Staten Island. The Hispanic population increased in these NYC Boroughs by these following rankings, The Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, and then Staten Island, but experienced decline in Manhattan. The Asian population increased in these NYC Boroughs by these following rankings, Queens, Brooklyn, Manhattan, The Bronx, and then Staten Island.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: According to the 2019-20 demographic data from Mayor's Office of Immigrant Affairs, there were 3,030,397 foreign born residents in the city. Each the foreign born White and Black populations made up 19% of the foreign born residents, Hispanics made up 31% of the foreign born residents, and the Asians made 28% of the foreign born residents. For a long time since the mid to late 20th century, the Hispanic residents made up the vast majority of the foreign born population in the city, but since the 2010s, the growing foreign born Asian residents have been catching up and now starting to challenge the Hispanic residents as the largest foreign born population.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: The 2000 census counted 2,021,588 households with a median income of $38,293. 30% of households had children under the age of 18, and 37% were married couples living together. 19% had a single female householder, and 39% were non-families. 32% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10% were single residents 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 persons, and the average family size was 3.32.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: The median age in New York City in 2000 was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86 males.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: During the 2000s, Manhattan experienced a "baby boom" unique among U.S. cities. Between 2000 and 2007, the number of children under age 5 living in Manhattan grew by more than 32%. The increase is driven mostly by affluent white families with median household incomes over $300,000.


title: Demographics of New York City

text: Overall, nominal household income in New York City is characterized by large variations. This phenomenon is especially true of Manhattan, which in 2005 was home to the highest incomes U.S. census tract, with a household income of $188,697, as well as the lowest, where household income was $9,320. The disparity is driven in part by wage growth in high income brackets. In 2006 the average weekly wage in Manhattan was $1,453, the highest among the largest counties in the United States. Wages in Manhattan were the fastest growing among the nation's 10 largest counties. Among young adults in New York who work full-time, women now earn more money than men — approximately $5,000 more in 2005.