title: The Library of Babel

text: The full possible set of protein sequences (protein sequence space) has been compared to the Library of Babel. In the "Library of Babel", finding any book that made sense was almost impossible due to the sheer number and lack of order. The same would be true of protein sequences if it were not for natural selection, which has picked out only protein sequences that make sense. Additionally, each protein sequence is surrounded by a set of neighbors (point mutants) that are likely to have at least some function. Daniel Dennett's 1995 book "Darwin's Dangerous Idea" includes an elaboration of the Library of Babel concept to imagine the set of all possible genetic sequences, which he calls the Library of Mendel, in order to illustrate the mathematics of genetic variation. Dennett uses this concept again later in the book to imagine all possible algorithms that can be included in his Toshiba computer, which he calls the Library of Toshiba. He describes the Library of Mendel and the Library of Toshiba as subsets within the Library of Babel.


title: Judas Priest discography

text: English heavy metal band Judas Priest have released 18 studio albums, 6 live albums, 14 compilation albums, 29 singles, 10 video albums, and 21 music videos. The band currently consists of bassist Ian Hill, drummer Scott Travis, singer Rob Halford, and guitarists Glenn Tipton and Richie Faulkner. After guitarist K. K. Downing's retirement from the band in 2011, bassist Ian Hill is the only remaining founding member. Judas Priest have sold over 50 million albums worldwide, with 12 million copies in the United States.


title: Judas Priest discography

text: This section includes physical UK and US singles only, and additional charted songs in these markets.


title: Jurchen people

text: Jurchen (Manchu: "Jušen", ; , "Nǚzhēn", ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They lived in the northeast of China, later known as Manchuria, before the 18th century. The Jurchens were renamed Manchus in 1635 by Hong Taiji. Different Jurchen groups lived as hunter-gatherers, pastoralist semi-nomads, or sedentary agriculturists. Generally lacking a central authority, and having little communication with each other, many Jurchen groups fell under the influence of neighbouring dynasties, their chiefs paying tribute and holding nominal posts as effectively hereditary commanders of border guards.


title: Jurchen people

text: Chinese officials of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) classified them into three groups, reflecting relative proximity to China:


title: Jurchen people

text: Many "Yeren Jurchens", like the Nivkh (speaking a language isolate), Negidai, Nanai, Oroqen and many Evenks, are today considered distinct ethnic groups.


title: Jurchen people

text: The Jurchens are chiefly known for producing the Jin (1115–1234) and Qing (1616/1636-1912) conquest dynasties on the Chinese territory. The latter dynasty, originally calling itself the Later Jin, was founded by a Jianzhou commander, Nurhaci (r. 1616–26), who unified most Jurchen tribes, incorporated their entire population into hereditary military regiments known as the Eight Banners, and patronized the creation of an alphabet for their language based on the Mongolian script. The term Manchu, already in official use by the Later Jin at that time, was in 1635 decreed to be the sole acceptable name for that people.


title: Jurchen people

text: The initial Khitan form of the name was said to be "Lüzhen". The variant "Nrjo-tsyin" (now Nüzhen, whence English Nurchen) appeared in the 10th century under the Liao dynasty. The Jurchens were also interchangeably known as the "Nrjo-drik" (now Nüzhi). This is traditionally explained as an effect of the Chinese naming taboo, with the character being removed after the 1031 enthronement of Zhigu, Emperor Xingzong of Liao, because it appeared in the sinified form of his personal name. Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun, however, argues that this was a later folk etymology and the original reason was uncertainty among dialects regarding the name's final "-n".


title: Jurchen people

text: The form "Niuche" was introduced to the West by Martino Martini in his 1654 work "De bello tartarico historia", and it soon appeared, e.g., on the 1660 world map by Nicolas Sanson.


title: Jurchen people

text: "Jurchen" is an anglicization of Jurčen, an attempted reconstruction of this unattested original form of the native name, which has been transcribed into Middle Chinese as "Trjuwk-li-tsyin" () and into Khitan small script as "Julisen". The ethnonyms "Sushen" and "Jizhen" (, recorded in geographical works like the "Classic of Mountains and Seas" and the "Book of Wei" are possibly cognates. It was the source of Fra Mauro's ' and Marco Polo's ', reflecting the Persian form of their name. Vajda considers that the Jurchens' name probably derives from the Tungusic words for "reindeer people" and is cognate with the names of the Orochs of Khabarovsk Province and the Oroks of Sakhalin. ("Horse Tungus" and "Reindeer Tungus" are still the primary divisions among the Tungusic cultures.)


title: Jurchen people

text: Janhunen argues that these records already reflect the Classical Mongolian plural form of the name, recorded in the "Secret History" as "J̌ürčät", and further reconstructed as *"Jörcid", The modern Mongolian form is "Зүрчид" (Zürčid) whose medial does not appear in the later Jurchen "Jucen" or "Jušen" (Jurchen:) or Manchu "Jushen". In Manchu, this word was more often used to describe the serfs—though not slaves—of the free Manchu people, who were themselves mostly the former Jurchens. To describe the historical people who founded the Jin dynasty, they reborrowed the Mongolian name as "Jurcit".


title: Jurchen people

text: Sin Chung-il, a Korean emissary who in 1595 had visited the Jurchen living north-west of the Yalu River, notes that during his visit to Fe Ala all those who served Nurhaci were uniform in their dress and hairstyle. They all shaved a portion of their scalp and kept the remaining hair in a long plaited braid. All men wore leather boots, breeches, and tunics.


title: Jurchen people

text: When the Jurchens first entered Chinese records in 748, they inhabited the forests and river valleys of the land which is now divided between China's Heilongjiang Province and Russia's Primorsky Krai province. In earlier records, this area was known as the home of the Sushen ( BC), the Yilou (around AD 200), the Wuji (), and the Mohe (). Scholarship since the Qing period traces the origin of the Jurchens to the "Wanyen tribe of the Mohos" around Mt Xiaobai, or to the Heishui or Blackwater Mohe, and some sources stress the continuity between these earlier peoples with the Jurchen but this remains conjectural.


title: Jurchen people

text: The tentative ancestors of the Jurchens, the Tungusic Mohe tribes, were people of the multi-ethnic kingdom of Balhae. The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary. They used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat, millet, and rice in addition to hunting. Like all Tungus people, the Mohe practiced slavery. Horses were rare in the region they inhabited until the 10th century under the domination of the Khitans. The Mohe rode reindeer.


title: Jurchen people

text: The Qing dynasty emperor of the Aisin Gioro clan, Hongtaiji claimed that their progenitor, Bukūri Yongšon (布庫里雍順), was conceived from a virgin birth. According to the legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen (恩古倫), Jenggulen (正古倫) and Fekulen (佛庫倫), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near the Changbai Mountains. A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji's version on location, claiming that it was in Heilongjiang province close to the Amur river at Bukuri mountain where Bulhuri lake was located where the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in the Jiu Manzhou Dang and is much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to the Changbai mountains. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and the Heje (Hezhen) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before the 14th-15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south.


title: Jurchen people

text: By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitan rulers of the Liao dynasty. The Jurchens in the Yalu River region had been tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Geon, who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens opportunistically switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times. They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and the desire for material benefits.


title: Jurchen people

text: In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada, the Japanese governor was killed. In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food. Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships. The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down.


title: Jurchen people

text: One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens. The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution - giving female companions, food and shelter to guests - was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix.


title: Jurchen people

text: Wanyan Aguda, chief of the Wanyan tribe, unified the various Jurchen tribes in 1115 and declared himself emperor. In 1120 he seized Shangjing, also known as Linhuang Prefecture (), the northern capital of the Liao dynasty. During the Jin–Song Wars, the Jurchens invaded the Northern Song dynasty and overran most of northern China. The Jurchens initially created the puppet regimes of Da Qi and Da Chu but later adopted a dynastic name and became known as "Jin" 金, which means "gold", not to be confused with the earlier Jin 晋 dynasties named after the region around Shanxi and Henan provinces. The name of the Jurchen dynasty in Chinese — meaning "gold"—is derived from the "Gold River" (Jurchen: "antʃu-un"; Manchu: "Aisin") in their ancestral homeland. The Jurchens who settled into urban communities eventually intermarried with other ethnicities in China. The Jin rulers themselves came to follow Confucian norms. The Jin dynasty captured the Northern Song dynasty's capital, Bianjing, in 1127. Their armies pushed the Song all the way south to the Yangtze River and eventually settled on a border with the Southern Song dynasty along the Huai River.


title: Jurchen people

text: Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The Wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. The History of Jin (Jinshi) says that Emperor Shizong of Jin took note and attempted to halt these things in 1181.


title: Jurchen people

text: After 1189, the Jin dynasty became increasingly involved in conflicts with the Mongols. By 1215, after losing much territory to the Mongols, the Jurchens moved their capital south from Zhongdu to Kaifeng. The Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu. After a siege lasting about a year, Kaifeng fell to the Mongols in 1233. Emperor Aizong fled to Caizhou for shelter, but Caizhou also fell to the Mongols in 1234, marking the end of the Jin dynasty.


title: Jurchen people

text: Chinese chroniclers of the Ming dynasty distinguished three different groups of Jurchens: the Wild Jurchens () of Outer Manchuria, the Haixi Jurchens () of modern Heilongjiang Province and the Jianzhou Jurchens of modern Jilin Province. They led a pastoral-agrarian lifestyle, hunting, fishing, and engaging in limited agriculture. In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor dispatched a mission to establish contact with the Odoli, Huligai and T'owen tribes.


title: Jurchen people

text: The issue of controlling the Jurchens was a point of contention between Joseon Korea and the early Ming.


title: Jurchen people

text: The Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) found allies among the various Jurchen tribes against the Mongols. He bestowed titles and surnames to various Jurchen chiefs and expected them to send periodic tribute. One of the Yongle Emperor's consorts was a Jurchen princess, which resulted in some of the eunuchs serving him being of Jurchen origin.


title: Jurchen people

text: Chinese commanderies were established over tribal military units under their own hereditary tribal leaders. In the Yongle period, 178 commanderies were set up in Manchuria. Later on, horse markets were established in the northern border towns of Liaodong. Increased contact with the Chinese gave Jurchens the more complex and sophisticated organizational structures.


title: Jurchen people

text: The Koreans dealt with the Jurchen military through appeals to material benefits and launching punitive expeditions. To appease them the Joseon court handed out titles and degrees, trading with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. These measures were unsuccessful and fighting continued between the Jurchen and the Koreans. This relationship between the Jurchens and Koreans was ended by the Ming which envisioned the Jurchens as a form of protective border to the north. In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor. Soon after, Mentemu, chieftain of Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens, defected from paying tribute to Korea, becoming a tributary to China instead. Yi Seong-gye, the first ruler of Joseon, asked the Ming dynasty to send Mentemu back but was refused. The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead. The Koreans tried to persuade Mentemu to reject the Ming dynasty's overtures but were unsuccessful. The Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming dynasty in succession. They were divided in 384 guards by the Ming dynasty and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming emperors. The name given to the Jurchen land by the Ming dynasty was Nurgan. Later, a Korean army led by Yi-Il and Yi Sun-sin would expel them from Korea.


title: Jurchen people

text: In 1409, the Ming government created the Nurgan Command Post () at Telin (present-day Tyr, Russia, about 100 km upstream from Nikolayevsk-on-Amur in the Russian Far East) in the vicinity of Heilongjiang. The Jurchens came under the nominal administration of the Nurgan Command Post which lasted only 25 years and was abolished in 1434. Leaders of the Haixi and Jianzhou tribes did, however, accept the Ming titles.


title: Jurchen people

text: From 1411 to 1433, the Ming eunuch Yishiha (who himself was a Haixi Jurchen) led ten large missions to win over the allegiance of the Jurchen tribes along the Songhua River and Amur River. His fleet sailed down the Songhua into the Amur, and set up the Nurgan Command at Telin near the mouth of the Amur River. These missions are not well recorded in the Ming histories, but there exist two stone steles erected by Yishiha at the site of the Yongning Temple, a Guanyin temple commissioned by him at Telin. The inscriptions on the steles are in four languages: Chinese, Jurchen, Mongol, and Tibetan. There is probably quite a lot of propaganda in the inscriptions, but they give a detailed record of the Ming court's efforts to assert suzerainty over the Jurchen. When Yishiha visited Nurgan for the 3rd time in 1413, he built a temple called Yongning Temple at Telin and erected the Yongning Temple Stele in front of it. Yishiha paid his 10th visit to Nurgan in 1432, during which he rebuilt the Yongning Temple and re-erected a stele in front of it. The stele bore the heading "Record of Re-building Yongning Temple". The setting up of the Nurgan Command Post and the repeated declarations to offer blessings to this region by Yishiha and others were all recorded in this and the first steles.


title: Jurchen people

text: In the ninth year of the Ming Xuande emperor the Jurchens in Manchuria under Ming rule suffered from famine forcing them to sell their daughters into slavery and moving to Liaodong to beg for help and relief from the Ming dynasty government.


title: Jurchen people

text: Over a period of 30 years from 1586, Nurhaci, a chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens, united the Jurchen tribes. In 1635, his son and successor, Hong Taiji, renamed his people the Manchus as a clear break from their past as Chinese vassals. During the Ming dynasty, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the rivers Yalu and Tumen as part of the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, when composing the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship. The Veritable Records of Ming were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this. The Yongzheng Emperor attempted to rewrite the historical record and claim that the Aisin Gioro were never subjects of past dynasties and empires trying to cast Nurhaci's acceptance of Ming titles like Dragon Tiger General (longhu jiangjun 龍虎將軍) by claiming he accepted to "please Heaven".


title: Jurchen people

text: During the Qing dynasty, the two original editions of the books of the ""Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu"" and the ""Manzhou Shilu Tu"" (Taizu Shilu Tu) were kept in the palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty.


title: Jurchen people

text: Jurchen culture shared many similarities with the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of Siberian-Manchurian tundra and coastal peoples. Like the Khitan people and Mongols, they took pride in feats of strength, horsemanship, archery, and hunting. Both Mongols and Jurchens used the title "Khan" for the leaders of a political entity, whether "emperor" or "chief". A particularly powerful chief was called "beile" ("prince, nobleman"), corresponding with the Mongolian "beki" and Turkic "baig" or "bey". Also like the Mongols and the Turks, the Jurchens did not observe primogeniture. According to tradition, any capable son or nephew could be chosen to become leader.


title: Jurchen people

text: Unlike the Mongols, the Jurchens were a sedentary and agrarian society. They farmed grain and millet as their primary cereal crops, grew flax and raised oxen, pigs, sheep, and horses. "At the most", the Jurchen could only be described as "semi-nomadic" while the majority of them were sedentary.


title: Jurchen people

text: Jurchen similarities and differences with the Mongols were emphasized to various degrees by Nurhaci out of political expediency. Nurhaci once said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus ("Jušen") and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later, Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based on any real shared culture, but rather on pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism". He said to the Mongols, "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages".


title: Jurchen people

text: During the Ming dynasty, the Jurchens lived in sub-clans ("mukun" or "hala mukun") of ancient clans ("hala"). Not all clan members were blood related, and division and integration of different clans was common. Jurchen households ("boo") lived as families ("booigon") consisting of five to seven blood-related family members and a number of slaves. Households formed squads ("tatan") to engage in tasks related to hunting and food gathering and formed companies ("niru") for larger activities, such as war.


title: Jurchen people

text: The Haixi Jurchens were "semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian () Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens". Hunting, horseback archery, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all practiced by Jianzhou Jurchens. The Jurchen way of life (economy) was described as agricultural. They farmed crops and raised animals. Jurchens practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north of Shenyang.


title: Jurchen people

text: In 1126, the Jurchens initially ordered male Han Chinese within their conquered territories to adopt the Jurchen hairstyle by shaving the front of their heads and adopting Jurchen dress, but the order was later lifted. Jurchens were impersonated by Han rebels who wore their hair in the Jurchen queue to strike fear within their population. During the Qing dynasty, the Manchus, who descended from the Jurchens, similarly made Han Chinese men shave the front of their head and wear the rest of their hair in a queue, or "soncoho" () (), the traditional Manchu hairstyle.


title: Jurchen people

text: Although their Mohe ancestors did not respect dogs, the Jurchens began to respect dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs. The Jurchens believed that the "utmost evil" was the usage of dog skin by Koreans.


title: Jurchen people

text: Pre-marital sex was probably accepted in lower class Jurchen society since the practice of guest prostitution - providing visitors with sex - did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens also allowed marriage with in-laws, a practice considered taboo in Chinese society.


title: Jurchen people

text: Until recently, it was uncertain what kind of burial rites existed among the Jurchens. In July 2012, Russian archaeologists discovered a Jurchen burial ground in Partizansky District of Primorye in Russia. Fifteen graves dating to the 12th or 13th century were found, consisting of the grave of a chieftain placed in the centre, with the graves of 14 servants nearby. All the graves contained pots with ashes, prompting the scientists to conclude that the Jurchens cremated the corpses of their dead. The grave of the chieftain also contained a quiver with arrows and a bent sword. The archaeologists propose that the sword was purposely bent, to signify that the owner would no longer need it in earthly life. The researchers planned to return to Primorye to establish whether this was a singular burial or a part of the larger burial ground.


title: Jurchen people

text: Only the Mongols and the northern "wild" Jurchen were semi-nomadic, unlike the mainstream Jianzhou Jurchens descended from the Jin dynasty, who were farmers that foraged, hunted, herded and harvested crops in the Liao and Yalu river basins. They gathered ginseng root, pine nuts, hunted for came pels in the uplands and forests, raised horses in their stables, and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields. They engaged in dances, wrestling and drinking strong liquor as noted during midwinter by the Korean Sin Chung-il when it was very cold. These Jurchens who lived in the northeast's harsh cold climate sometimes half sunk their houses in the ground which they constructed of brick or timber and surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud walls to defend against attack. Village clusters were ruled by beile, hereditary leaders. They fought each other and dispensed weapons, wives, slaves and lands to their followers in them. This was how the Jurchens who founded the Qing lived and how their ancestors lived before the Jin. Alongside Mongols and Jurchen clans there were migrants from Liaodong provinces of Ming China and Korea living among these Jurchens in a cosmopolitan manner. Nurhaci, who was hosting Sin Chung-il, was uniting all of them into his own army, having them adopt the Jurchen hairstyle of a long queue and a shaved forecrown and wearing leather tunics. His armies had black, blue, red, white and yellow flags. These became the Eight Banners, initially capped to 4 then growing to 8 with three different types of ethnic banners as Han, Mongol and Jurchen were recruited into Nurhaci's forces. Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese, adopting the Mongolian script for their own language, unlike the Jin Jurchen's use of the Khitan large script. They adopted Confucian values and practiced shamanist traditions. Most Jurchens raised pigs and stock animals and were farmers.


title: Jurchen people

text: The Qing stationed the "New Manchu" Warka foragers in Ningguta and attempted to turn them into normal agricultural farmers but then the Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth. The Qing wanted the Warka to become soldier-farmers and imposed this on them, but the Warka simply left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to the Sungari to their homes to herd, fish and hunt. The Qing accused them of desertion.


title: Jurchen people

text: Jurchens practiced shamanic rituals and believed in a supreme sky goddess ("abka hehe", literally sky woman). The Jurchens of the Jin dynasty practiced Buddhism, which became the prevalent religion of the Jurchens, and Daoism. The Jurchen word for "sorceress" was "shanman". Under Confucian influence during the Qing dynasty the gender of the female sky deity was switched to a male sky father, Abka Enduri ("abka-i enduri", "abka-i han").


title: Jurchen people

text: The early Jurchen script was invented in 1120 by Wanyan Xiyin, acting on the orders of Wanyan Aguda. It was based on the Khitan script that was inspired in turn by Chinese characters. The written Jurchen language died out soon after the fall of the Jin dynasty. The Translators' Bureau of the Ming tributary bureaucracy received a communication from the Jurchens in 1444 stating that nobody among them understood the Jurchen script, so all letters sent to them should be written in Mongolian.


title: Jurchen people

text: Until the end of the 16th century, when Manchu became the new literary language, the Jurchens used a combination of Mongolian and Chinese. The pioneering work on studies of the Jurchen script was done by Wilhelm Grube at the end of the 19th century.


title: Jurchen people

text: Haplogroup C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483) has been identified as a possible marker of the Aisin Gioro and is found in ten different ethnic minorities in northern China, but completely absent from Han Chinese.


title: Jurchen people

text: Genetic testing also showed that the haplogroup C3b1a3a2-F8951 of the Aisin Gioro family came to southeastern Manchuria after migrating from their place of origin in the Amur river's middle reaches, originating from ancestors related to Daurs in the Transbaikal area. The Tungusic speaking peoples mostly have C3c-M48 as their subclade of C3 which drastically differs from the C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro which originates from Mongolic speaking populations like the Daur. Jurchen (Manchus) are a Tungusic people. The Mongol Genghis Khan's haplogroup C3b1a3a1-F3796 (C3*-Star Cluster) is a fraternal "brother" branch of C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro. A genetic test was conducted on 7 men who claimed Aisin Gioro descent with 3 of them showing documented genealogical information of all their ancestors up to Nurhaci. 3 of them turned out to share the C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483) haplogroup, out of them, 2 of them were the ones who provided their documented family trees. The other 4 tested were unrelated. The Daur Ao clan carries the unique haplogroup subclade C2b1a3a2-F8951, the same haplogroup as Aisin Gioro and both Ao and Aisin Gioro only diverged merely a couple of centuries ago from a shared common ancestor. Other members of the Ao clan carry haplogroups like N1c-M178, C2a1b-F845, C2b1a3a1-F3796 and C2b1a2-M48. People from northeast China, the Daur Ao clan and Aisin Gioro clan are the main carriers of haplogroup C2b1a3a2-F8951. The Mongolic C2*-Star Cluster (C2b1a3a1-F3796) haplogroup is a fraternal branch to Aisin Gioro's C2b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup.


title: Jurchen people

text: In the Alternative History timeline of Harry Turtledove's novel "Agent of Byzantium", the Jurchens migrate westwards, reach Europe and become a serious threat to the Byzantine Empire.


title: Marky Ramone

text: Marc Steven Bell (born July 15, 1952) is an American drummer. He began playing in hard rock bands in the New York City area, notably Dust and Estus. He was asked to drum for punk rock band Richard Hell and the Voidoids. He replaced drummer Tommy Ramone in the Ramones in 1978, and went by the stage name Marky Ramone from then on. He has also played drums for other punk rock and heavy metal bands, including his own band Marky Ramone and the Intruders. He continues to keep the Ramones legacy alive around the world with his band Marky Ramone's Blitzkrieg.


title: Marky Ramone

text: Ramone lives in Brooklyn Heights with his wife, Marion Flynn. In 2015, he released his autobiography "Punk Rock Blitzkrieg: My Life as a Ramone".


title: Marky Ramone

text: According to his autobiography, he and his twin brother Fred were born at New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children on July 15, 1952, and is of Dutch ancestry on his father's side and of French and German ancestry on his mother's side.


title: Marky Ramone

text: Bell began playing drums in 1971 with the hard rock band Dust, featuring Kenny Aaronson on bass and Richie Wise on guitar, and produced by Kenny Kerner. Bell recorded two albums with the band, before getting into the punk scene. In late 1972, following the death of the New York Dolls' original drummer Billy Murcia, Bell was the only seriously considered alternative to the eventually chosen Jerry Nolan. "Jerry and I knew each other," he said. "When Billy died, I went down to the loft where the Dolls were auditioning… I could do different time signatures, different accents, and I basically overplayed it – put in all these drum fills that weren't necessary. And Jerry just kept the beat straight. So Jerry got it and I didn't."


title: Marky Ramone

text: In 1973, Marky joined Estus and recorded an album of the same name, produced by the Rolling Stones' first producer, Andrew Loog Oldham. Bandmates for Estus included Harry Rumpf and Tom and John Nicholas. In the mid-1970s, Bell joined Wayne County & The Backstreet Boys, Richard Hell and the Voidoids and played on their first album, "Blank Generation". In May 1978, Tommy Ramone asked Bell to join the Ramones; he accepted and was renamed Marky Ramone.


title: Marky Ramone

text: Marky was with the Ramones for the next five years. He starred in the movie "Rock 'n' Roll High School", recorded the anthem, "I Wanna be Sedated", and worked with producer Phil Spector. After five albums with Dee Dee, Joey, and Johnny Ramone, Marky was asked to leave the band in February 1983 because of a drinking problem. He was replaced by Richie Ramone who was himself replaced four years later by Clem Burke of Blondie, who was asked to leave after only two shows. Marky returned clean and sober in August 1987, and played 1,700 shows and recorded ten studio albums with the band until their retirement in August 1996.


title: Marky Ramone

text: In 2000, Marky joined Joey to record Joey's solo album, entitled "Don't Worry About Me". Joey told talk show host Joe Franklin that Marky was his favorite drummer along with Keith Moon.


title: Marky Ramone

text: In September 2004, Ramone served as executive producer and released a Ramones DVD entitled "", which featured footage of the band while on tour all over the world along with other various rare, vintage footage. Much of the candid footage is courtesy of Marky Ramone's personal video library. "Ramones: Raw" is the only certified gold-selling Ramones DVD and one of only two US gold selling releases in the Ramone entire catalog, the other being the greatest hits double LP "Ramones Mania". "Ramones: Raw" is also the highest charting release in Ramones history.


title: Marky Ramone

text: On April 22, 2008, Marky Ramone appeared on a new CD in Canada playing drums with the Canadian punk band called Teenage Head. The CD was called "Teenage Head with Marky Ramone" and was released in the USA on June 10, 2008.


title: Marky Ramone

text: Since 2005, he has hosted the show "Punk Rock Blitzkrieg" on Sirius XM. The show was originally aired on Faction (formerly Channel 41), but has since been moved to 1st Wave (Channel 33) following the launch of Turbo on Channel 41 and the relocation of Faction to Channel 314 as an Xtra Channel. The show has been renamed to "Marky Ramone's 1st Wave Blitzkrieg". In April 2018, "Marky Ramone's Punk Rock Blitzkrieg" launched as a 24/7 channel (Channel 712) available online only for Sirius XM subscribers. The channel features previously aired recordings of "Marky Ramone's 1st Wave Blitzkrieg".


title: Marky Ramone

text: Ramone produced, with Callicore Studio, two animated videos illustrating two songs from the Marky Ramone and the Intruders albums.


title: Dodecahedron

text: In geometry, a dodecahedron (Greek , from "dōdeka" "twelve" + "hédra" "base", "seat" or "face") or duodecahedron is any polyhedron with twelve flat faces. The most familiar dodecahedron is the regular dodecahedron with regular pentagons as faces, which is a Platonic solid. There are also three regular star dodecahedra, which are constructed as stellations of the convex form. All of these have icosahedral symmetry, order 120.


title: Dodecahedron

text: Some dodecahedra have the same combinatorial structure as the regular dodecahedron (in terms of the graph formed by its vertices and edges), but their pentagonal faces are not regular:


title: Dodecahedron

text: The pyritohedron, a common crystal form in pyrite, has pyritohedral symmetry, while the tetartoid has tetrahedral symmetry.


title: Dodecahedron

text: The rhombic dodecahedron can be seen as a limiting case of the pyritohedron, and it has octahedral symmetry. The elongated dodecahedron and trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron variations, along with the rhombic dodecahedra, are space-filling. There are numerous other dodecahedra.


title: Dodecahedron

text: While the regular dodecahedron shares many features with other Platonic solids, one unique property of it is that one can start at a corner of the surface and draw an infinite number of straight lines across the figure that return to the original point without crossing over any other corner.


title: Dodecahedron

text: The convex regular dodecahedron is one of the five regular Platonic solids and can be represented by its Schläfli symbol {5, 3}.


title: Dodecahedron

text: The dual polyhedron is the regular icosahedron {3, 5}, having five equilateral triangles around each vertex.


title: Dodecahedron

text: The convex regular dodecahedron also has three stellations, all of which are regular star dodecahedra. They form three of the four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra. They are the small stellated dodecahedron {5/2, 5}, the great dodecahedron {5, 5/2}, and the great stellated dodecahedron {5/2, 3}. The small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are dual to each other; the great stellated dodecahedron is dual to the great icosahedron {3, 5/2}. All of these regular star dodecahedra have regular pentagonal or pentagrammic faces. The convex regular dodecahedron and great stellated dodecahedron are different realisations of the same abstract regular polyhedron; the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are different realisations of another abstract regular polyhedron.


title: Dodecahedron

text: In crystallography, two important dodecahedra can occur as crystal forms in some symmetry classes of the cubic crystal system that are topologically equivalent to the regular dodecahedron but less symmetrical: the pyritohedron with pyritohedral symmetry, and the tetartoid with tetrahedral symmetry:


title: Dodecahedron

text: A pyritohedron is a dodecahedron with pyritohedral (T) symmetry. Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices (see figure). However, the pentagons are not constrained to be regular, and the underlying atomic arrangement has no true fivefold symmetry axis. Its 30 edges are divided into two sets – containing 24 and 6 edges of the same length. The only axes of rotational symmetry are three mutually perpendicular twofold axes and four threefold axes.


title: Dodecahedron

text: Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the pyritohedron form occurs in the crystals of the mineral pyrite, and it may be an inspiration for the discovery of the regular Platonic solid form. The true regular dodecahedron can occur as a shape for quasicrystals (such as holmium–magnesium–zinc quasicrystal) with icosahedral symmetry, which includes true fivefold rotation axes.


title: Dodecahedron

text: The name "crystal pyrite" comes from one of the two common crystal habits shown by pyrite (the other one being the cube). In pyritohedral pyrite, the faces have a Miller index of (210), which means that the dihedral angle is 2·arctan(2) ≈ 126.87° and each pentagonal face has one angle of approximately 121.6° in between two angles of approximately 106.6° and opposite two angles of approximately 102.6°. The following formulas show the measurements for the face of a perfect crystal (which is rarely found in nature).


title: Dodecahedron

text: "h" is the height of the wedge<nowiki>-shaped</nowiki> "roof" above the faces of that cube with edge length 2.


title: Dodecahedron

text: An important case is "h" = (a quarter of the cube edge length) for perfect natural pyrite (also the pyritohedron in the Weaire–Phelan structure).


title: Dodecahedron

text: Another one is "h" = = 0.618... for the regular dodecahedron. See section "Geometric freedom" for other cases.


title: Dodecahedron

text: Two pyritohedra with swapped nonzero coordinates are in dual positions to each other like the dodecahedra in the compound of two dodecahedra.


title: Dodecahedron

text: The pyritohedron has a geometric degree of freedom with limiting cases of a cubic convex hull at one limit of collinear edges, and a rhombic dodecahedron as the other limit as 6 edges are degenerated to length zero. The regular dodecahedron represents a special intermediate case where all edges and angles are equal.


title: Dodecahedron

text: It is possible to go past these limiting cases, creating concave or nonconvex pyritohedra. The "endo-dodecahedron" is concave and equilateral; it can tessellate space with the convex regular dodecahedron. Continuing from there in that direction, we pass through a degenerate case where twelve vertices coincide in the centre, and on to the regular great stellated dodecahedron where all edges and angles are equal again, and the faces have been distorted into regular pentagrams. On the other side, past the rhombic dodecahedron, we get a nonconvex equilateral dodecahedron with fish-shaped self-intersecting equilateral pentagonal faces.


title: Dodecahedron

text: A tetartoid (also tetragonal pentagonal dodecahedron, pentagon-tritetrahedron, and tetrahedric pentagon dodecahedron) is a dodecahedron with chiral tetrahedral symmetry (T). Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices. However, the pentagons are not regular and the figure has no fivefold symmetry axes.


title: Dodecahedron

text: Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the tetartoid form does. The name tetartoid comes from the Greek root for one-fourth because it has one fourth of full octahedral symmetry, and half of pyritohedral symmetry. The mineral cobaltite can have this symmetry form.


title: Dodecahedron

text: Abstractions sharing the solid's topology and symmetry can be created from the cube and the tetrahedron. In the cube each face is bisected by a slanted edge. In the tetrahedron each edge is trisected, and each of the new vertices connected to a face center. (In Conway polyhedron notation this is a gyro tetrahedron.)


title: Dodecahedron

text: The regular dodecahedron is a tetartoid with more than the required symmetry. The triakis tetrahedron is a degenerate case with 12 zero-length edges. (In terms of the colors used above this means, that the white vertices and green edges are absorbed by the green vertices.)


title: Dodecahedron

text: A lower symmetry form of the regular dodecahedron can be constructed as the dual of a polyhedron constructed from two triangular anticupola connected base-to-base, called a "triangular gyrobianticupola." It has D symmetry, order 12. It has 2 sets of 3 identical pentagons on the top and bottom, connected 6 pentagons around the sides which alternate upwards and downwards. This form has a hexagonal cross-section and identical copies can be connected as a partial hexagonal honeycomb, but all vertices will not match.


title: Dodecahedron

text: The "rhombic dodecahedron" is a zonohedron with twelve rhombic faces and octahedral symmetry. It is dual to the quasiregular cuboctahedron (an Archimedean solid) and occurs in nature as a crystal form. The rhombic dodecahedron packs together to fill space.


title: Dodecahedron

text: The "rhombic dodecahedron" can be seen as a degenerate pyritohedron where the 6 special edges have been reduced to zero length, reducing the pentagons into rhombic faces.


title: Dodecahedron

text: The rhombic dodecahedron has several stellations, the first of which is also a parallelohedral spacefiller.


title: Dodecahedron

text: Another important rhombic dodecahedron, the Bilinski dodecahedron, has twelve faces congruent to those of the rhombic triacontahedron, i.e. the diagonals are in the ratio of the golden ratio. It is also a zonohedron and was described by Bilinski in 1960. This figure is another spacefiller, and can also occur in non-periodic spacefillings along with the rhombic triacontahedron, the rhombic icosahedron and rhombic hexahedra.


title: Dodecahedron

text: There are 6,384,634 topologically distinct "convex" dodecahedra, excluding mirror images—the number of vertices ranges from 8 to 20. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)


title: Dodecahedron

text: Armand Spitz used a dodecahedron as the "globe" equivalent for his Digital Dome planetarium projector. based upon a suggestion from Albert Einstein.


title: Rico Nasty

text: Maria-Cecilia Simone Kelly (born May 7, 1997), known professionally as Rico Nasty, is an American rapper, singer, and songwriter from Maryland. She rose to prominence in 2018 with singles such as "Smack a Bitch" and "Poppin".


title: Rico Nasty

text: While in high school, Rico Nasty began self-releasing content in 2014 and had released five solo mixtapes by late 2017. She gained a local, underground following with SoundCloud singles such as "iCarly" and "Hey Arnold". After gaining wider recognition in 2018, she signed to Atlantic Records where she released her sixth mixtape, "Nasty" (2018). This was followed by the collaborative mixtape "Anger Management" (2019) with long time associate Kenny Beats. Rico Nasty's debut studio album, "Nightmare Vacation", was released in December 2020. Rico's seventh mixtape, "Las Ruinas", was released on July 22, 2022.


title: Rico Nasty

text: Maria-Cecilia Simone Kelly was born an only child to a Puerto Rican mother and African-American father, also a rapper, who introduced her to rap music when she was a child. She was raised in various locations including Prince George's County, Maryland, New York, Virginia, and Washington, D.C. When she was 11, her mother moved to Palmer Park, Maryland where she was enrolled in a Baltimore boarding school for the sixth grade. She was expelled for smoking marijuana at 14 and transferred to Charles Herbert Flowers High School in Prince George's County where her music career began. The following year, her father was sent to prison and her parents divorced.


title: Rico Nasty

text: Rico started rapping in high school and released her first mixtape, "Summer's Eve" (2014), when she was in tenth grade at Charles Herbert Flowers High School. After graduating from high school, she started focusing on her music career and released two mixtapes in 2016: "The Rico Story" and "Sugar Trap". Rico Nasty gained some prominence with her 2016 single "iCarly" which amassed over 500 thousand views on YouTube within months. She also released the single "Hey Arnold," which was later remixed featuring Atlanta rapper Lil Yachty. The duo would later link again in 2017 for the single "Mamacita" as part of "" soundtrack.


title: Rico Nasty

text: In May 2017, Rico Nasty released her fourth mixtape, "Tales of Tacobella", which is her earliest commercially available release . Kyann-Sian Williams of "NME" described the mixtape as "otherworldly and synth-heavy" and noted that the mixtape proved Rico's singing abilities. In June 2017, Rico released her single "Poppin" which quickly garnered over five million views on YouTube. The single was also featured on the HBO television series "Insecure". Rico's fifth mixtape "Sugar Trap 2" was released in October 2017 and featured an appearance from rapper Famous Dex. Critics of "Rolling Stone" listed the mixtape as one of the Best Rap Albums of 2017. Rico embarked on the Sugar Trap Tour in late 2017.


title: Rico Nasty

text: The singles "Smack A Bitch", "Poppin" and "Key Lime OG" gained prominence in early 2018; all of them meeting and exceeding 10 million YouTube views in that year. The former two songs additionally gained some popularity on the video-sharing platform TikTok after being used in various memes. "Smack A Bitch" was also ranked at No. 2 on "The Fader"'s list of "The 100 Best Songs of 2018". The aforementioned influx of popularity helped Rico Nasty catch the attention of Atlantic Records, where she signed and released her sixth mixtape and major-label debut, "Nasty", in June 2018. The mixtape was generally well received and landed on critics lists of publications such as "Rolling Stone", "Pitchfork", "Stereogum", "Noisey", "Fact," and "Spin"," a"mong several others"." The mixtape's tracks, "Bitch I'm Nasty", "Countin' Up" and "Rage", were also ranked on lists of the best songs of 2018 by "Paper", "Highsnobiety" and "Pitchfork" respectively. In late July, Rico Nasty embarked on her headlining The Nasty Tour to support the mixtape, playing twenty-seven different venues across North America over six weeks and completing the tour in early September.


title: Rico Nasty

text: Rico Nasty released the non-album singles and respective music videos for "Guap (LaLaLa)" in December 2019, as well as "Roof" in January 2019. She followed them up with several more non-album singles in early 2019 such as "Sandy", "Party Goin Dumb", "Big Dick Energy", "Hit That", and "Wanna Do". In April 2019, Rico Nasty and producer Kenny Beats supported singer Khalid during the opening night of the Free Spirit World Tour. Rico Nasty made the cover of "The Fader" for their Summer 2018 issue, and was the subject of a documentary produced by the publication titled "Countin' Up".


title: Rico Nasty

text: In April 2019, Rico and producer Kenny Beats released the collaborative mixtape, "Anger Management", as a surprise release. The mixtape received critical acclaim and made the critics' lists of several publications including "Complex", "Rolling Stone", "Stereogum", "Noisey", "Billboard", "NME", and "Crack". "Anger Management" is arguably Rico Nasty's most successful release to date, both commercially and critically. In April 2019, Rico Nasty performed at Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival for the first time in her career. To support the record, Rico embarked on her "Live in Europe" tour starting in late May and ending in mid July. In June 2019, "XXL" announced that Rico Nasty was part of their "XXL" Freshman Class of 2019. She performed at New York Fashion Week in September 2019 and subsequently released the single, "Fashion Week". Rico Nasty also performed as a headlining act at Rolling Loud in New York in October 2019.


title: Rico Nasty

text: Rico Nasty provided the original song "My Little Alien" to the soundtrack for the 2020 film "Scoob"! in May 2020. In June 2020, her single "Smack a Bitch" (2017) was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling over 500,000 units in the United States. In June 2020, Rico Nasty also released the single, "Dirty", as part of the original soundtrack for the HBO television series "Insecure". On August 7, 2020, Rico Nasty appeared alongside Colombian-American singer Kali Uchis on the song, "Aquí Yo Mando", which served as the lead single from Uchis' second studio album, "Sin Miedo (del Amor y Otros Demonios)" (2020).


title: Rico Nasty

text: On August 13, 2020, Rico Nasty released the single "iPhone" as the lead single of her debut studio album, "Nightmare Vacation". On the same day, she announced that she would be collaborating with makeup brand Il Makiage on a new makeup line. Rico Nasty made the front cover of British music magazine "NME" in September 2020. Rico Nasty released "Own It" as the second single from "Nightmare Vacation" on September 17. In October 2020 she became an ambassador for Rihanna's lingerie brand Savage X Fenty, and made a cameo appearance in the "Savage X Fenty Show: Vol 2". A few days later, Rico Nasty engaged in a social media campaign with children's TV mascot Hip Hop Harry and Atlantic Records to encourage the general public to vote in the 2020 United States presidential election. She released the song "Don't Like Me" featuring rappers Don Toliver and Gucci Mane as the third single off of "Nightmare Vacation". In November 2020, "OHFR?" was released as the fourth single from the album, as Rico Nasty revealed its release date and album cover on the same day. She also released a visual trailer for the album in November 2020. Rico Nasty revealed the tracklist on December 1, before the album was officially released on December 4. The release of "Nightmare Vacation" coincided with the release of its fifth single, "STFU". In January 2021, Rico Nasty made her television debut when she performed "OHFR?" on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon".


title: Rico Nasty

text: On May 29, 2021, Rico Nasty announced her upcoming seventh mixtape, "Rx", on her social media platforms by revealing teaser art designed by Karli Fetz.


title: Rico Nasty

text: On June 17, 2021, Rico Nasty joined Little Bacon Bear for a casual, interview-style conversation presented by GRAMMY U. Rico disclosed more details about the anticipated mixtape, including that it spans seven tracks, employs Dylan Brady of 100 Gecs as a co-producer, and features Flo Milli and G Herbo.


title: Rico Nasty

text: In late 2021, Rico Nasty was the opening act for Playboi Carti's King Vamp Tour. In numerous cities on the tour, Rico Nasty was booed or had items thrown at her while she was on stage. On Twitter, she wrote that she needed at least two hours a day to cry, and that she cried herself to sleep every night on the tour bus. In another Tweet, she wrote she wished she was dead.


title: Rico Nasty

text: Rico Nasty is known for performing hip hop music and trap music, particularly styles such as punk rap, trap metal, nu metal, pop-trap, SoundCloud rap, and rap rock. She is known for her "aggressive, cutthroat flow" as well as her "spiky style and raspy delivery". Rico Nasty told "NME" that she "resonate[s] with being a pop-punk princess."


title: Rico Nasty

text: Rico Nasty coined the term "sugar trap" early in her career and has used it as the title of her independent record label as well as two of her mixtapes. Musically, the term has simply been described as "bubbly, upbeat rap" as well as "singing and trap rapping". Lawrence Burney of "Noisey" noted that sugar trap is "markedly upbeat, bubbly, and self-loving, no matter her chosen delivery", while Kyann-Sian Williams of "NME" described it as a blend of "hardcore, gruff vocals" and "grungy hooks with softer, computerised beats". Rico Nasty has said that sugar trap has "soft, beautiful, melodic, flowy vibes" as well as elements of "trap music like Chicago drill music, Atlanta trap music, Memphis trap music, little bit of California trap music. I mix everything. If the sound catches my ear, I mix it." She has also described "sugar trap" metaphorically as "a headspace", "a way of fashion" and "a way of life". She also described the term as a "metaphorical place", saying "It's like when you have a really, really bad life and shit good starts happening and you don't know how to adapt to the good shit." In April 2018, Rico Nasty officially trademarked the term "sugar trap".


title: Rico Nasty

text: Musically, Rico Nasty has cited Joan Jett, Avril Lavigne and Rihanna as her biggest influences. She has been named as an influence on Flo Milli, and ppcocaine.


title: Rico Nasty

text: Rico Nasty's use of alter egos and personas in her music have varied throughout her career. These include "Tacobella" (a "vulnerable, sensitive persona"), and "Trap Lavigne", which is inspired by Avril Lavigne. Rico Nasty told "NME" that her personas are inspired by David Bowie, Tyler, the Creator, and Nicki Minaj."


title: Rico Nasty

text: Rico Nasty is known for her unique style in punk fashion. Kyle Munzenrieder of the American fashion magazine "W" has described her as a "maximalist fashion icon". Kyann-Sian Williams of "NME" wrote, "With her androgynous nature and outlandish style, Rico has been an icon for outcasts for years."


title: Rico Nasty

text: At age 18, Rico Nasty gave birth to her son, Cameron while in her senior year of high school. As she began gaining attention with her music, she quit her job as a hospital receptionist, while her manager, Malik Foxx, began buying production equipment. Rico Nasty revealed to "The Fader" that Foxx is "the only father figure that Cameron has ever known."


title: 2014 in film

text: The following is an overview of the events of 2014 in film, including the highest-grossing films, award ceremonies, festivals, and a list of films released and notable deaths.


title: 2014 in film

text: In his article highlighting the best films of 2014, Richard Brody of "The New Yorker" stated, "The great surge in American filmmaking in the past ten years is due to independent financing at all levels. The American independent cinema is right now the flower of the world, but independence isn't in itself a merit badge. Artistically, the films in question range from the majestic to the meretricious. Independent financing has set truly imaginative directors into free flight. This is a moment of extraordinary cinematic invention—of filmmakers, working at a wide range of budget levels, coming up with original and personal ideas about movies and how to make them. On the other hand, this independent surge has also created a new class of culturally respectable directors and films, an ostensible art cinema that flows into the mainstream. True independent filmmaking has always been a tough proposition in the marketplace, let alone at the multiplex. Its commercial obstacles are an increasing problem even for established professionals, who now take their place alongside street-level independents. Filmmakers rightly worry that it's becoming more difficult than ever to make a salable movie, to make a living making movies. If films are becoming like books, where the artistically ambitious ones are only rarely big hits, then directors working outside Hollywood will become more and more like novelists, who often need to supplement their income with teaching or other outside jobs. As independent films become increasingly marginalized in the marketplace, this loss of status risks marginalizing critics as well—which is why the re-professionalization of the movie business has become a matter of critical advocacy."


title: Kara Killmer

text: Kara Killmer (born June 14, 1988) is an American actress, best known for starring as paramedic Sylvie Brett in the NBC drama series "Chicago Fire" (as well as the associated series "Chicago Med" and "Chicago P.D.", which together make up the "One Chicago" franchise), since 2014. Prior to that she starred in the short-lived 2010 Hulu original reality web series "If I Can Dream".


title: Kara Killmer

text: Killmer was born in Crowley, Texas. She attended Baylor University in Waco, Texas, and graduated in 2010 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in performing arts.


title: Kara Killmer

text: Killmer starred in the short-lived Hulu original reality web series "If I Can Dream" in 2010, which featured five aspiring actors and actresses who were trying to make it in the entertainment business by living together in a Los Angeles home, fitted with cameras following their every move, “The goal is to get a job that will allow us to get out of the house and to move on to a bigger career. This is just the first step.”


title: Kara Killmer

text: In 2014, Killmer was cast as Athena True in the NBC science fiction crime thriller pilot "Tin Man", but it was not picked up by the network when it announced its 2014–15 television schedule. That same year, Killmer joined the cast of the NBC drama "Chicago Fire" as Sylvie Brett, the paramedic who replaces Leslie Shay (Lauren German) in the third season premiere titled "Always" that aired on September 23, 2014. She was featured on the cover of "Chicago Splash" magazine's August 2016 issue with "Chicago Fire" co-stars Monica Raymund and Miranda Rae Mayo.


title: Kara Killmer

text: Killmer made her feature film debut with her future husband Andrew Cheney and John Rhys-Davies in the Revolutionary War action-adventure thriller "Beyond the Mask" that was released on April 6, 2015.


title: Kara Killmer

text: On May 14, 2016, Killmer married her "Beyond the Mask" co-star Andrew Cheney, whom she met on August 27, 2012 on the set of the film.


title: Pap test

text: The Papanicolaou test (abbreviated as Pap test, also known as Pap smear (AE), cervical smear (BE), cervical screening (BE), or smear test (BE)) is a method of cervical screening used to detect potentially precancerous and cancerous processes in the cervix (opening of the uterus or womb) or colon (in both men and women). Abnormal findings are often followed up by more sensitive diagnostic procedures and, if warranted, interventions that aim to prevent progression to cervical cancer. The test was independently invented in the 1920s by Georgios Papanikolaou and Aurel Babeș and named after Papanikolaou. A simplified version of the test was introduced by Anna Marion Hilliard in 1957.


title: Pap test

text: A Pap smear is performed by opening the vagina with a speculum and collecting cells at the outer opening of the cervix at the transformation zone (where the outer squamous cervical cells meet the inner glandular endocervical cells), using an Ayre spatula or a cytobrush. A similar method is used to collect cells in anus of both women and men. The collected cells are examined under a microscope to look for abnormalities. The test aims to detect potentially precancerous changes (called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or cervical dysplasia; the squamous intraepithelial lesion system (SIL) is also used to describe abnormalities) caused by human papillomavirus, a sexually transmitted DNA virus. The test remains an effective, widely used method for early detection of precancer and cervical cancer. While the test may also detect infections and abnormalities in the endocervix and endometrium, it is not designed to do so.


title: Pap test

text: In the United States, Pap smear screening is recommended starting around 21 years of age until the age of 65. Guidelines on frequency vary from every three to five years. If results are abnormal, and depending on the nature of the abnormality, the test may need to be repeated in six to twelve months. If the abnormality requires closer scrutiny, the patient may be referred for detailed inspection of the cervix by colposcopy, which magnifies the view of the cervix, vagina and vulva surfaces. The person may also be referred for HPV DNA testing, which can serve as an adjunct to Pap testing. Additional biomarkers that may be applied as ancillary tests with the Pap test are evolving.


title: Pap test

text: Screening guidelines vary from country to country. In general, screening starts about the age of 20 or 25 and continues until about the age of 50 or 60. Screening is typically recommended every three to five years, as long as results are normal.


title: Pap test

text: American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and others recommend starting screening at age 21. Many other countries wait until age 25 or later to start screening. For instance, some parts of Great Britain start screening at age 25. ACOG's general recommendation is that people with female reproductive organs age 30–65 have an annual well-woman examination, that they not get annual Pap tests, and that they do get Pap tests at three to five year intervals.


title: Pap test

text: HPV is passed through skin to skin contact; sex does not have to occur, although it is a common way for it to spread. It takes an average of a year, but can take up to four years, for a person's immune system to control the initial infection. Screening during this period may show this immune reaction and repair as mild abnormalities, which are usually not associated with cervical cancer, but could cause the patient stress and result in further tests and possible treatment. Cervical cancer usually takes time to develop, so delaying the start of screening a few years poses little risk of missing a potentially precancerous lesion. For instance, screening people under age 25 does not decrease cancer rates under age 30.


title: Pap test

text: HPV can be transmitted in sex between females, so those who have only had sex with other females should be screened, although they are at somewhat lower risk for cervical cancer.


title: Pap test

text: Guidelines on frequency of screening vary—typically every three to five years for those who have not had previous abnormal smears. Some older recommendations suggested screening as frequently as every one to two years, however there is little evidence to support such frequent screening; annual screening has little benefit but leads to greatly increased cost and many unnecessary procedures and treatments. It has been acknowledged since before 1980 that most people can be screened less often. In some guidelines, frequency depends on age; for instance in Great Britain, screening is recommended every three years for women under 50, and every five years for those over.


title: Pap test

text: Screening should stop at about age 65 unless there is a history of abnormal test result or disease. There is probably no benefit in screening people aged 60 or over whose previous tests have been negative. If a woman's last three Pap results were normal, she can discontinue testing at age 65, according to the USPSTF, ACOG, ACS, and ASCP; England's NHS says 64. There is no need to continue screening after a complete hysterectomy for benign disease.


title: Pap test

text: Pap smear screening is still recommended for those who have been vaccinated against HPV since the vaccines do not cover all HPV types that can cause cervical cancer. Also, the vaccine does not protect against HPV exposure before vaccination.


title: Pap test

text: Those with a history of endometrial cancer should discontinue routine Pap tests after hysterectomy. Further tests are unlikely to detect recurrence of cancer but do bring the risk of giving false positive results, which would lead to unnecessary further testing.


title: Pap test

text: More frequent Pap smears may be needed to follow up after an abnormal Pap smear, after treatment for abnormal Pap or biopsy results, or after treatment of cancer ( cervical, colon, etc. ).


title: Pap test

text: The Pap test, when combined with a regular program of screening and appropriate follow-up, can reduce cervical cancer deaths by up to 80%.


title: Pap test

text: Failure of prevention of cancer by the Pap test can occur for many reasons, including not getting regular screening, lack of appropriate follow-up of abnormal results, and sampling and interpretation errors. In the US, over half of all invasive cancers occur in females who have never had a Pap smear; an additional 10 to 20% of cancers occur in those who have not had a Pap smear in the preceding five years. About one-quarter of US cervical cancers were in people who had an abnormal Pap smear but did not get appropriate follow-up (patient did not return for care, or clinician did not perform recommended tests or treatment).


title: Pap test

text: Adenocarcinoma of the cervix has not been shown to be prevented by Pap tests. In the UK, which has a Pap smear screening program, adenocarcinoma accounts for about 15% of all cervical cancers.


title: Pap test

text: Estimates of the effectiveness of the United Kingdom's call and recall system vary widely, but it may prevent about 700 deaths per year in the UK.


title: Pap test

text: Multiple studies have performed sensitivity and specificity analyses on Pap smears. Sensitivity analysis captures the ability of Pap smears to correctly identify women with cervical cancer. Various studies have revealed the sensitivity of Pap smears to be between 47.19 - 55.5%. Specificity analysis captures the ability of Pap smears to correctly identify women without cervical cancer. Various studies have revealed the specificity of Pap smears to be between 64.79 - 96.8%. While Pap smears may not be entirely accurate, they remain one of the most effective cervical cancer prevention tools. Pap smears may be supplemented with HPV DNA testing.


title: Pap test

text: In the United States, about 2–3 million abnormal Pap smear results are found each year. Most abnormal results are mildly abnormal (ASC-US (typically 2–5% of Pap results) or low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL) (about 2% of results)), indicating HPV infection. Although most low-grade cervical dysplasias spontaneously regress without ever leading to cervical cancer, dysplasia can serve as an indication that increased vigilance is needed.


title: Pap test

text: In a typical scenario, about 0.5% of Pap results are high-grade SIL (HSIL), and less than 0.5% of results indicate cancer; 0.2 to 0.8% of results indicate Atypical Glandular Cells of Undetermined Significance (AGC-NOS).


title: Pap test

text: As liquid-based preparations (LBPs) become a common medium for testing, atypical result rates have increased. The median rate for all preparations with low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions using LBPs was 2.9% in 2006, compared with a 2003 median rate of 2.1%. Rates for high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (median, 0.5%) and atypical squamous cells have changed little.


title: Pap test

text: Endocervical and endometrial abnormalities can also be detected, as can a number of infectious processes, including yeast, herpes simplex virus and trichomoniasis. However it is not very sensitive at detecting these infections, so absence of detection on a Pap does not mean absence of the infection.


title: Pap test

text: Pap tests can usually be performed during pregnancy up to at least 24 weeks of gestational age. Pap tests during pregnancy have not been associated with increased risk of miscarriage. An inflammatory component is commonly seen on Pap smears from pregnant women and does not appear to be a risk for subsequent preterm birth.


title: Pap test

text: After childbirth, it is recommended to wait 12 weeks before taking a Pap test because inflammation of the cervix caused by the birth interferes with test interpretation.


title: Pap test

text: Transgender women who have not had vaginoplasties are not at risk of developing cervical cancer because they do not have cervices. Transgender women who have had vaginoplasties and have a neo-cervix or neo-vagina have a small chance of developing cancer, according to the Canadian Cancer Society. Surgeons typically use penile skin to create the new vagina and cervix, which can contract HPV and lead to cancer. Therefore, routine cervical cancer screenings are recommended for transgender women with vaginoplasties.


title: Pap test

text: Transgender men are also at risk for HPV due to retention of the uterine cervix in the majority of individuals in this subgroup. As such, professional guidelines recommend that transgender men be screened routinely for cervical cancer using methods such as Pap smear, identical to the recommendations for cisgender women. Many transgender men report barriers to receiving gender-affirming healthcare, including lack of insurance coverage and stigma/discrimination during clinical encounters, due to provider misconceptions regarding risk in this population for cervical cancer. As such, transgender men have lower rates of cervical cancer screening than cisgender women.


title: Pap test

text: Pap smears may be presented to patients as non-gendered screening procedures for cancer rather than one specific for examination of the female reproductive organs. Pap smears may trigger gender dysphoria in patients and gender-neutral language can be used when explaining the pathogenesis of cancer due to infection, emphasizing the pervasiveness of HPV infection regardless of gender.


title: Pap test

text: For best results, a Pap test should not occur when a woman is menstruating, partly because the additional cells can obscure cervical cells and partly because this part of the menstrual cycle is when the female organs are most inflamed. However, Pap smears can be performed during a woman's menstrual period, especially if the physician is using a liquid-based test; if bleeding is extremely heavy, endometrial cells can obscure cervical cells, and it is therefore inadvisable to have a Pap smear if bleeding is excessive.


title: Pap test

text: Obtaining a Pap smear should not cause much pain, but it can if the woman has certain untreated vaginal problems such as cervical stenosis or vaginismus.


title: Pap test

text: It is, however, not comfortable, for two reasons: the cervix is full of nociceptors (pain nerves), and the brush used to collect cells has to be stiff enough to scrape them off of the surrounding tissue. So it can be uncomfortable, but it is generally quick, and the information obtained may be critical. People with underlying pain or tissue diseases that can react to nociceptors being scraped or to excessive cold in the mucous membranes should take appropriate precautions and discuss the process ahead of time with their providers.


title: Pap test

text: Many people experience spotting or mild diarrhea afterward. The spotting is usually from the scrape on the cervix, and the diarrhea may be due to indirect stimulation of the lower intestine during the exam.


title: Pap test

text: A number of studies have shown that using a small amount of water-based gel lubricant does not interfere with, obscure, or distort the Pap smear. Further, cytology is not affected, nor are some STD testing.


title: Pap test

text: The health care worker begins by inserting a speculum into the woman's vagina, which spreads the vagina open and allows access to the cervix. The health care provider then collects a sample of cells from the outer opening or os of the cervix by scraping it with an Aylesbury spatula. An endocervical brush is rotated in the central opening of the cervix. The cells are placed on a glass slide and taken to the laboratory to be checked for abnormalities.


title: Pap test

text: A plastic-fronded broom is sometimes used in place of the spatula and brush. The broom is not as good a collection device, since it is much less effective at collecting endocervical material than the spatula and brush. The broom is used more frequently with the advent of liquid-based cytology, although either type of collection device may be used with either type of cytology.


title: Pap test

text: The sample is stained using the Papanicolaou technique, in which tinctorial dyes and acids are selectively retained by cells. Unstained cells cannot be seen adequately with a light microscope. Papanicolaou chose stains that highlighted cytoplasmic keratinization, which actually has almost nothing to do with the nuclear features used to make diagnoses now.


title: Pap test

text: A single smear has an area of 25 x 50 mm and contains a few hundred thousand cells on average. Screening with light microscopy is first done on low (10x) power and then switched to higher (40x) power upon viewing suspicious findings. Cells are analyzed under high power for morphologic changes indicative of malignancy (including enlarged and irregularly shaped nucleus, an increase in nucleus to cytoplasm ratio, and more coarse and irregular chromatin). Approximately 1,000 fields of view are required on 10x power for screening of a single sample, which takes on average 5 to 10 minutes.


title: Pap test

text: In some cases, a computer system may prescreen the slides, indicating those that do not need examination by a person or highlighting areas for special attention. The sample is then usually screened by a specially trained and qualified cytotechnologist using a light microscope. The terminology for who screens the sample varies according to the country; in the UK, the personnel are known as cytoscreeners, biomedical scientists (BMS), advanced practitioners and pathologists. The latter two take responsibility for reporting the abnormal sample, which may require further investigation.


title: Pap test

text: In the last decade, there have been successful attempts to develop automated, computer image analysis systems for screening. Although, on the available evidence automated cervical screening could not be recommended for implementation into a national screening program, a recent NHS Health technology appraisal concluded that the 'general case for automated image analysis ha(d) probably been made'. Automation may improve sensitivity and reduce unsatisfactory specimens. Two systems have been approved by the FDA and function in high-volume reference laboratories, with human oversight.


title: Pap test

text: Pap tests commonly look for epithelial abnormalities/ metaplasia/ dysplasia/ borderline changes, all of which may be indicative of CIN. Nuclei will stain dark blue, squamous cells will stain green and keratinised cells will stain pink/ orange. Koilocytes may be observed where there is some dyskaryosis (of epithelium). The nucleus in koilocytes is typically irregular, indicating possible cause for concern; requiring further confirmatory screens and tests.


title: Pap test

text: In addition, human papillomavirus (HPV) test may be performed either as indicated for abnormal Pap results, or in some cases, dual testing is done, where both a Pap smear and an HPV test are done at the same time (also called Pap co-testing).


title: Pap test

text: The endocervix may be partially sampled with the device used to obtain the ectocervical sample, but due to the anatomy of this area, consistent and reliable sampling cannot be guaranteed. Since abnormal endocervical cells may be sampled, those examining them are taught to recognize them.


title: Pap test

text: The endometrium is not directly sampled with the device used to sample the ectocervix. Cells may exfoliate onto the cervix and be collected from there, so as with endocervical cells, abnormal cells can be recognised if present but the Pap test should not be used as a screening tool for endometrial malignancy.


title: Pap test

text: In the United States, a Pap test itself costs $20 to $30, but the costs for Pap test visits can cost over $1,000, largely because additional tests are added that may or may not be necessary.


title: Pap test

text: The test was invented by and named after the Greek doctor Georgios Papanikolaou, who started his research in 1923. Aurel Babeș of Romania independently made similar discoveries in 1927. However, Babeș' method was radically different from Papanicolaou's.


title: Pap test

text: Papanicolaou's name was repeatedly submitted to the Nobel Committee and rejected every time. The Nobel Committee delegated the in-depth investigation of Papanicolaou's merits and demerits to Professor Santesson, who was at that time the head of pathology at the Stockholm Cancer Institute (Radiumhemmet). Santesson discovered Babeș' contributions that had never been cited by Papanicolaou and duly reported this fact to the committee, which then rejected Papanicolaou's Nobel award.


title: Pap test

text: In the developed world, cervical biopsy guided by colposcopy is considered the "gold standard" for diagnosing cervical abnormalities after an abnormal Pap smear. Other techniques such as triple smear are also done after an abnormal Pap smear. The procedure requires a trained colposcopist and can be expensive to perform. However, Pap smears are very sensitive and some negative biopsy results may represent undersampling of the lesion in the biopsy, so negative biopsy with positive cytology requires careful follow-up.


title: Pap test

text: Experimental visualization techniques use broad-band light (e.g., direct visualization, speculoscopy, cervicography, visual inspection with acetic acid or with Lugol's, and colposcopy) and electronic detection methods (e.g., Polarprobe and "in vivo" spectroscopy). These techniques are less expensive and can be performed with significantly less training. They do not perform as well as Pap smear screening and colposcopy. At this point, these techniques have not been validated by large-scale trials and are not in general use.


title: Pap test

text: Australia has used the Pap test as part of its cervical screening program since its implementation in 1991 which required women past the age of 18 be tested every two years. In December 2017 Australia discontinued its use of the Pap test and replaced it with a new HPV test that is only required to be conducted once every five years from the age of 25. Medicare covers the costs of testing; however, a patient's doctor does not allow bulk billing, they may have to pay for the appointment and then claim the Medicare rebate.


title: Pap test

text: Free Pap tests were offered from 1974–1984 before being replaced by a system in which all women over the age of 30 could have the cost of their Pap test reimbursed by the National Health Insurance in 1995. This policy was still ongoing in 2018 and encouraged women to screen at least every three years.


title: Pap test

text: Despite this, the number of people receiving Pap tests remain lower than countries like Australia. Some believe this is due to a lack of awareness regarding the test and its availability. It has also been found that women who have chronic diseases or other reproductive diseases are less likely to receive the test.


title: Pap test

text: the NHS maintains a cervical screening program in which women between the age of 25–49 are invited for a smear test every three years, and women past 50 every five years. Much like Australia, England uses a HPV test before examining cells that test positive using the Pap test. The test is free as part of the national cervical screening program.


title: Pap test

text: The finding of coccoid bacteria on a Pap test is of no consequence with otherwise normal test findings and no infectious symptoms. However, if there is enough inflammation to obscure the detection of precancerous and cancerous processes, it may indicate treatment with a broad-spectrum antibiotic for streptococci and anaerobic bacteria (such as metronidazole and amoxicillin) before repeating the smear. Alternatively, the test will be repeated at an earlier time than it would otherwise. If there are symptoms of vaginal discharge, bad odor or irritation, the presence of coccoid bacteria also may indicate treatment with antibiotics as per above.


title: Mahindra Group

text: Mahindra Group is an Indian multinational conglomerate, headquartered in Mumbai. The group has operations in over 100 countries, with a presence in aerospace, agribusiness, aftermarket automotive components, construction equipment, defence, energy, farm equipment, finance and insurance, industrial equipment, information technology, leisure and hospitality, logistics, real estate, retail and education. The group's flagship company Mahindra & Mahindra has market leadership in utility vehicles as well as tractors in India.


title: Mahindra Group

text: Mahindra & Mahindra was incorporated as Mahindra & Mohammed in 1945 by the brothers J. C. Mahindra and K. C. Mahindra, and Malik Ghulam Muhammad in Ludhiana, Punjab to trade steel. Following the Partition of India in 1947, Malik Ghulam Muhammad left the company and emigrated to Pakistan, where he became the first finance minister of the new state (and later the third Governor General in 1951). In 1948, K. C. Mahindra changed the company's name to Mahindra & Mahindra.


title: Mahindra Group

text: Building on their expertise in the steel industry, the Mahindra brothers began trading steel with UK suppliers. They won a contract to manufacture Willys Jeeps in India and began producing them in 1947. By 1956, the company was listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, and by 1969 the company became an exporter of utility vehicles and spare parts. Like many Indian companies, Mahindra responded to the restrictions of the Licence Raj by expanding into other industries. Mahindra & Mahindra created a tractor division in 1982 and a tech division (now Tech Mahindra) in 1986. It has continued to diversify its operations through both joint ventures and greenfield investments.


title: Mahindra Group

text: By 1994, the group had become so diverse that it undertook a fundamental reorganization, dividing into six Strategic Business Units: Automotive; Farm Equipment; Infrastructure; Trade and Financial services; Information Technology; and Automotive Components (known internally as Systech). The new managing director, Anand Mahindra, followed this reorganization with a new logo in 2000 and the successful launch of the Mahindra Scorpio (a wholly indigenously designed vehicle) in 2002. Along with an overhaul in production and manufacturing methods, these changes helped make the company more competitive, and since then the Group's reputation and revenues have risen noticeably. Currently, Mahindra & Mahindra is one of the 20 largest companies in India In 2009, Forbes ranked Mahindra among the top 200 most reputable companies in the world.


title: Mahindra Group

text: In January 2011, the Mahindra Group launched a new corporate brand, Mahindra Rise, to unify Mahindra's image across industries and geographies. The brand positions Mahindra products and services as aspirational, supporting customers' ambitions to 'Rise.'


title: Mahindra Group

text: In April 2012, the Mahindra Group expressed interest in purchasing the bankrupt automobile company Saab, and placed several bids for Saab, though was outbid by Saab's new owner National Electric Vehicle Sweden.


title: Mahindra Group

text: The Mahindra Group is extensively involved in philanthropy and volunteering. It is considered an active participant in the Indian Corporate Social Responsibility field and received the Pegasus Award for CSR in 2007. Mahindra engages in philanthropy primarily through the KC Mahindra Trust, which serves as the CSR arm of the group (although many subsidiaries have their own CSR initiatives, notably Tech Mahindra and Mahindra Satyam). Founded in 1953 by K.C Mahindra, the trust focuses primarily on fostering literacy in India and promoting higher learning through grants and scholarships. Mahindra operates several vocational schools as well as the Mahindra United World College. The KC Mahindra Trust's primary project however is Project Nanhi Kali, which targets the education of young Indian girls. The foundation currently supports the education of approximately 153,190 underprivileged girls. Other initiatives include Mahindra Hariyali (a 1 million tree planting campaign) as well as sponsorship of the Lifeline Express, a mobile hospital train. Mahindra employees also plan and lead their own service projects through Mahindra's Employee Social Options Plans. In 2009, more than 35,000 employees participated.


title: Mahindra Group

text: The Mahindra Group was responsible for the creation of Mahindra United World College, a UWC campus located in Pune.


title: Mahindra Group

text: Mahindra supports the Mahindra Excellence in Theatre Awards to recognize Indian theater talent, the Mahindra Indo-American Film Festival, and the Mahindra Lucknow Festival. In 2011, it held the first annual Mahindra Blues Festival with guests including Buddy Guy, Johnny Lang, and Shemekia Copeland at the Mehboob Studios in Mumbai. Mahindra partners with the NBA and Celtic Football Club to bring grassroots basketball and football to India.


title: Mahindra Group

text: Keshub Mahindra, the Chairman Emeritus of Mahindra & Mahindra, is a graduate of Wharton Business School, University of Pennsylvania, USA. He joined the company in 1947 and became the chairman in 1963.


title: Mahindra Group

text: During his career he has also been Chairman of Bombay Chamber of Commerce and Industry (1966–67), President of ASSOCHAM (1969–70), Chairman of the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad (1975–85); Member of the Foundation Board – International Institute for Management Development (1984–89)


title: Mahindra Group

text: Institute of Company Secretaries of India (ICSI) Lifetime Achievement Award for Excellence in Corporate Governance (2004),


title: Mahindra Group

text: ICFAI Business School (IBS) Kolkata Lifetime Achievement Award presented by the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India (ICFAI)(2007)


title: Mahindra Group

text: At the time of the Bhopal Disaster he was managing director of Union Carbide India Ltd.(In 2010 he was charged and indicted for causing death due to negligence and sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment and Rs 1 Lakh fine. He was granted bail shortly after being sentenced.


title: Mahindra Group

text: Anand Mahindra is chairman and managing director of Mahindra & Mahindra. He graduated from Harvard University and earned his MBA from Harvard Business School in 1981. He joined the Mahindra Group in 1981 as an Executive Assistant to the Finance Director of the Mahindra Ugine Steel Company.


title: Brine shrimp

text: Artemia is a genus of aquatic crustaceans also known as brine shrimp. It is the only genus in the family Artemiidae. The first historical record of the existence of "Artemia" dates back to the first half of the 10th century AD from Urmia Lake, Iran, with an example called by an Iranian geographer an "aquatic dog", although the first unambiguous record is the report and drawings made by Schlösser in 1757 of animals from Lymington, England. "Artemia" populations are found worldwide in inland saltwater lakes, but not in oceans. "Artemia" are able to avoid cohabiting with most types of predators, such as fish, by their ability to live in waters of very high salinity (up to 25%).


title: Brine shrimp

text: The ability of the "Artemia" to produce dormant eggs, known as cysts, has led to extensive use of "Artemia" in aquaculture. The cysts may be stored indefinitely and hatched on demand to provide a convenient form of live feed for larval fish and crustaceans. Nauplii of the brine shrimp "Artemia" constitute the most widely used food item, and over of dry "Artemia" cysts are marketed worldwide annually. In addition, the resilience of "Artemia" makes them ideal animals running biological toxicity assays and it has become a model organism used to test the toxicity of chemicals. Breeds of "Artemia" are sold as novelty gifts under the marketing name "Sea-Monkeys".


title: Brine shrimp

text: The brine shrimp "Artemia" comprises a group of seven to nine species very likely to have diverged from an ancestral form living in the Mediterranean area about , around the time of the Messinian salinity crisis.


title: Brine shrimp

text: The Laboratory of Aquaculture & Artemia Reference Center (ARC) at Ghent University possesses the largest known "Artemia" cyst collection, a cyst bank containing over 1,700 "Artemia" population samples collected from different locations around the world.


title: Brine shrimp

text: "Artemia" is a typical primitive arthropod with a segmented body to which is attached broad leaf-like appendages. The body usually consists of 19 segments, the first 11 of which have pairs of appendages, the next two which are often fused together carry the reproductive organs, and the last segments lead to the tail. The total length is usually about for the adult male and for the female, but the width of both sexes, including the legs, is about .


title: Brine shrimp

text: The body of "Artemia" is divided into head, thorax, and abdomen. The entire body is covered with a thin, flexible exoskeleton of chitin to which muscles are attached internally and which is shed periodically. In female "Artemia," a moult precedes every ovulation.


title: Brine shrimp

text: For brine shrimp, many functions, including swimming, digestion and reproduction are not controlled through the brain; instead, local nervous system ganglia may control some regulation or synchronisation of these functions. Autotomy, the voluntary shedding or dropping of parts of the body for defence, is also controlled locally along the nervous system. "Artemia" have two types of eyes. They have two widely separated compound eyes mounted on flexible stalks. These compound eyes are the main optical sense organ in adult brine shrimps. The median eye, or the naupliar eye, is situated anteriorly in the centre of the head and is the only functional optical sense organ in the nauplii, which is functional until the adult stage.


title: Brine shrimp

text: Brine shrimp can tolerate any levels of salinity from 25‰ to 250‰ (25–250 g/L), with an optimal range of 60‰–100‰, and occupy the ecological niche that can protect them from predators. Physiologically, optimal levels of salinity are about 30–35‰, but due to predators at these salt levels, brine shrimp seldom occur in natural habitats at salinities of less than 60–80‰. Locomotion is achieved by the rhythmic beating of the appendages acting in pairs. Respiration occurs on the surface of the legs through fibrous, feather-like plates (lamellar epipodites)


title: Brine shrimp

text: Males differ from females by having the second antennae markedly enlarged, and modified into clasping organs used in mating.


title: Brine shrimp

text: Adult female brine shrimp ovulate approximately every 140 hours. In favourable conditions, the female brine shrimp can produce eggs that almost immediately hatch . While in extreme conditions, such as low oxygen level or salinity above 150‰, female brine shrimp produce eggs with a chorion coating which has a brown colour. These eggs, also known as cysts, are metabolically inactive and can remain in total stasis for two years while in dry oxygen-free conditions, even at temperatures below freezing. This characteristic is called cryptobiosis, meaning "hidden life". While in cryptobiosis, brine shrimp eggs can survive temperatures of liquid air () and a small percentage can survive above boiling temperature () for up to two hours.


title: Brine shrimp

text: Once placed in briny (salt) water, the eggs hatch within a few hours. The nauplius larvae are less than 0.4 mm in length when they first hatch.


title: Brine shrimp

text: Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilisation. Thelytoky is a particular form of parthenogenesis in which the development of a female individual occurs from an unfertilised egg. Automixis is a form of thelytoky, but there are different kinds of automixis. The kind of automixis relevant here is one in which two haploid products from the same meiosis combine to form a diploid zygote.


title: Brine shrimp

text: Diploid "Artemia parthenogenetica" reproduce by automictic parthenogenesis with central fusion (see diagram) and low but nonzero recombination. Central fusion of two of the haploid products of meiosis (see diagram) tends to maintain heterozygosity in transmission of the genome from mother to offspring, and to minimise inbreeding depression. Low crossover recombination during meiosis likely restrains the transition from heterozygosity to homozygosity over successive generations.


title: Brine shrimp

text: In their first stage of development, "Artemia" do not feed but consume their own energy reserves stored in the cyst. Wild brine shrimp eat microscopic planktonic algae. Cultured brine shrimp can also be fed particulate foods including yeast, wheat flour, soybean powder or egg yolk.


title: Brine shrimp

text: "Artemia" comprises sexually reproducing, diploid species and several obligate parthenogenetic "Artemia" populations consisting of different clones and ploidies (2n->5n). Several genetic maps have been published for "Artemia". The past years, different transcriptomic studies have been performed to elucidate biological responses in "Artemia", such as its response to salt stress, toxins, infection and diapause termination. These studies also led to various fully assembled "Artemia" transcriptomes. Recently, the "Artemia" genome was assembled and annotated, revealing a genome containing an unequaled 58% of repeats, genes with unusually long introns and adaptations unique to the extremophilic nature of "Artemia" in high salt and low oxygen environments. These adaptations include a unique energy-intensive endocytosis-based salt excretion strategy resembling salt excretion strategies of plants, as well as several survival strategies for extreme environments it has in common with the extremophilic tardigrade.


title: Brine shrimp

text: Fish farm owners search for a cost-effective, easy to use, and available food that is preferred by the fish. From cysts, brine shrimp nauplii can readily be used to feed fish and crustacean larvae just after one-day incubation. Instar I (the nauplii that just hatched and with large yolk reserves in their body) and instar II nauplii (the nauplii after first moult and with functional digestive tracts) are more widely used in aquaculture, because they are easy for operation, rich in nutrients, and small, which makes them suitable for feeding fish and crustacean larvae live or after drying.


title: Brine shrimp

text: "Artemia" found favor as a model organism for use in toxicological assays, despite the recognition that it is too robust an organism to be a sensitive indicator species.


title: Brine shrimp

text: In pollution research "Artemia", the brine shrimp, has had extensive use as a test organism and in some circumstances is an acceptable alternative to the toxicity testing of mammals in the laboratory. The fact that millions of brine shrimp are so easily reared has been an important help in assessing the effects of a large number of environmental pollutants on the shrimps under well controlled experimental conditions.


title: Brine shrimp

text: Overall brine shrimp are abundant, but some populations and localized species do face threats, especially from habitat loss to introduced species. For example, "A. franciscana" of the Americas has been widely introduced to places outside its native range and is often able to outcompete local species, such as "A. salina" in the Mediterranean region.


title: Brine shrimp

text: Among the highly localized species are "A. urmiana" from Lake Urmia in Iran. Once abundant, the species has drastically declined due to drought, leading to fears that it was almost extinct. However, a second population of this species has recently been discovered in the Koyashskoye Salt Lake at the Crimean Peninsula.


title: Brine shrimp

text: "A. monica", the species commonly known as Mono Lake brine shrimp, can be found in Mono Lake, Mono County, California. In 1987, Dennis D. Murphy from Stanford University petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to add "A. monica" to the endangered species list under the Endangered Species Act (1973). The diversion of water by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power resulted in rising salinity and concentration of sodium hydroxide in Mono Lake. Despite the presence of trillions of brine shrimp in the lake, the petition contended that the increase in pH would endanger them. The threat to the lake's water levels was addressed by a revision to California State Water Resources Control Board's policy, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service found on 7 September 1995 that the Mono Lake brine shrimp did not warrant listing.