title: Amit Kumar

text: Kumar sang professionally for the first time, outside his father's composition, at the age of 21 in 1973. The song was "Hosh Mein Hum Kahan", composed by Sapan Jagmohan for the film "Darwaza", which was released in 1978.


title: Amit Kumar

text: His duet with his father "Nazar Lage Na Saathiyo" from "Des Pardes" in 1978 became popular. In the 1976 film "Balika Badhu", he sang "Bade Achchhe Lagte Hain" by the composer R.D. Burman, by which he attained national fame. This song was named the 26th most-popular film song of 1977 by the radio show "Binaca Geetmala". Kumar recorded 170 Hindi songs under R.D. Burman.


title: Amit Kumar

text: In 1978, he sang "Aati Rahengi Baharein" in "Kasme Vaade", for Randhir Kapoor's character. He also did playback singing for Randhir Kapoor in "Chor Ke Ghar Chor" (1978) and "Dhongee".


title: Amit Kumar

text: He sang in various films, including "Aandhi", "Aap Ke Deewane", "Khatta Meetha", "Gol Maal", "Des Pardes", "Ganga Ki Saugandh", "Deewanagi" (1976), "Duniya Meri Jeb Mein", "Parvarish", "Humare Tumhare" (1979) and "Baton Baton Mein". The duets he sang with Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle began his public display.


title: Amit Kumar

text: Kumar's duet "Ka Janu Main Sajaniya" with Lata Mangeshkar and "Ram Kare Allah Kare" and "Humto Aap Ke Deewane Hai" with Rafi. Then Amit sang all the songs for the 1981 film "Love Story" and won a Filmfare Award for the duet "Yaad Aa Rahi Hai" with Mangeshkar. Composer R.D. Burman jokingly told Amit before its release that this song sounds like a "bhajan".


title: Amit Kumar

text: After the success of "Love Story", Rajesh Khanna employed Kumar for playback singing in "Fiffty Fiffty" (1981) and then later in "Aakhir Kyon?" (1985), "Ghar Ka Chirag", "Jai Shiv Shankar", "Swarg" (1990) and "Sautela Bhai" (1996).


title: Amit Kumar

text: In 1980, Kumar sang "Laila o Laila" for "Qurbani". Kumar's singing in "Aao Naye Sapne Bune", composed by Basudev for "Main Qatil Hun" (1984). The Asha–Kumar duet "Yun Toh Haseen Hazar" from "Shradhanjali" in 1981 became a hit.


title: Amit Kumar

text: He had several "chart-busters" in 1982 and 1983, and "hits" with the duets "Tu Rootha Toh Main Ro Doongi Sanam", "Gali Gali Dhoonda Tujhe" and solo songs "Halla Gulla Maza Hai" and "Mana Abhi Tu Kamsin" from the film "Jawani" (1984). In 1985, the duet "Dushman Na Kare" from "Akhir Kyun" was popular. In 1986, the song "Mary Tu Hoja Meri" from "Anokha Rishta" and the duet "Roz Roz Ankhon" from "Jeeva" were popular. He had solo and duet songs in hit films such as "Hum Paanch", "Bulundi", "Itni Si Baat", "Hamari Bahu Alka", "Anokha Bandhan", "Ustaadi Ustad Se", "Bheegi Palkein", "Khatron Ke Khiladi", "Maalamaal", "Ilzaam", "Anokha Rishta", "Rama O Rama", "Jaaydaad", "Tridev", "ChaalBaaz", "Aag Se Khelenge", and "Dost".


title: Amit Kumar

text: Kumar sang for almost all music directors and actors in the 1980s, and was the second-most preferred male playback singer in Hindi films, after his father Kishore Kumar. Among music directors, Amit Kumar was used more by Pancham from 1975 to 1994 and by Bappi Lahiri from 1983 to 1995. He became the voice of Kumar Gaurav in the 1980s and their combination gave many hit songs from films such as "Romance" (1983), "Teri Kasam", "Lovers" (1983), "All-rounder" and "Telefilm-Janam". He was also the voice for newcomer Karan Shah in films such as "Jawani", "Anokha Rishta", "Apne Apne" and "Chor Pe Mor" and though the songs were popular, only "Anokha Rishta" and "Chor Pe Mor" were successful films. In the late 1980s, Kumar sang songs for Anil Kapoor in films including "Tezaab", "Yudh" and "Aag Se Khelenge" and continued to sing for him in the 1990s. The duets with Asha – "Pehle Pehle Pyar Ki" and "Yeh Tujhe Kya Hua" both from "Ilzaam" in 1986 and "Tere Naina Mere Naina" from "Aag Se Khelenge" and "Chotasa Parivaar Hamara" from "Dost" in 1989 became known in their respective years. The Anuradha Pudwal-Amit Kumar duet "Kehdo Ke Tum Meri" and solo song "Ek Do Teen" from "Tezaab" were part of Binaca Geet Mala's annual list in 1988. The song "Oye Oye- Tirchi Topi Waaley" from "Tridev" was a nationwide hit. Kumar did playback for Naseeruddin Shah in the film "Hero Hiralal", which was popular as well. His duet "Yeh Kismat Hai Kya Kisne Dekha Yahan" with Alka Yagnik from "Ghar Ka Chirag" became popular in 1989. Soon after his father's death, Kumar and his half-brother Sumit Kumar released the album "Dui Kishore" as a tribute to Kishore Kumar.


title: Amit Kumar

text: In 1990, the song "Sanam Mere Sanam" of "Hum" with Alka Yagnik is popular. "" had a smash hit in the song "Kaisa Lagta Hai". From the film "Ghayal", the song ""Pyaar tum mujhase"" was popular. In this decade, Kumar had notable songs in films such as "Sailaab", "Police Public", "Aaj Ka Arjun", "100 Days", "Awwal Number", "ChaalBaaz", Khel, "Vishwatma", "Honeymoon", "Aaj Ka Goonda Raaj", "Gurudev", "Bade Miyan Chote Miyan" and "Judaai" and also had hit songs in the films which flopped at the box office, such as "Jawani Zindabad", "Afsana Pyar Ka", "Indrajeet", "Sangdil Sanam", "Jaagruti", "Deewana Mujhsa Nahin" and "Suryavanshi".


title: Amit Kumar

text: Kumar enjoyed a special work relationship, in addition to R.D. Burman and Bappi Lahiri, with the music duo Anand–Milind, who heavily promoted Kumar in the early 1990s. Their collaborations include "", "Mera Pati Sirf Mera Hain", "Maha-Sangram", "Swarg", "Anjaane Rishtey", "Talaashi", "Sangdil Sanam", "Yaad Rakhegi Duniya", "Woh Phir Aayegi", "Aaj Ka Goonda Raaj", "Sanam", "Adharm", and "Rakhwala". Anand–Milind were one of the few new-age music composers of that period who regularly recorded with Kumar. Kumar's duets "Nazrein Milin" and "Tip Tip Baarish" with Asha Bhosle in "Afsana Pyar Ka" were hit songs. His duets such as "Palkon Ke Tale" and "Mujhko Yeh Zindagi Lagti Hai" in "Sailaab" were hits too. Kumar gained the reputation of being a singer who belted out hit songs irrespective of the film being a commercial success or critically panned. Kumar also worked with Ram Laxman and songs such as the Lata-Amit Kumar duets "Main Jis Din Bhoola Doon" from "Police Public" in 1990 and "Le Le Dil" from "100 days" in 1991 became popular. In 1990, Asha-Amit duets such as "Aur Suno Kya Haal" and "Baj Uthe Gunghroo" from "Chor Pe Mor" and Asha-Amit duets such as "Main Khule Aam Khedun" and "Main Na Jhoot" from "Indrajeet" in 1991 became popular. In 1992, the Lata-Amit Kumar duet "Adhi Raat Ko" from "Parampara", composed by Shiv-Hari and Asha-Amit duets such as "Rimjhim Rimjhim Barse" and "Jo Aap Aye" from "Jhooti Shaan" were huge hits. Amit delivered more even in 1993, with "Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa". The songs "Deewana Dil Deewana" and "Sachhi Yeh Kahani Hai" were written.


title: Amit Kumar

text: Kumar also collaborated with another fresh talent from the 1990s, Jatin–Lalit, who had Amit Kumar croon numbers in several films such as "Paandav" (1995), "Silsila Hai Pyar Ka", "Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa" and "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...". He even worked with Ilaiyaraaja for the song "Yeh Gulabi Shaam Ka Nasha", a duet with Asha from the film Mera Farz (1988). In 1996, his duet with Asha Bhosle in the film "Sapoot" – "Kajal Kajal Teri Ankhon Ka", composed by Anu Malik became popular.


title: Amit Kumar

text: Later in the decade, Kumar declined most singing offers citing that the quality of music was deteriorating since the 1990s and after the death of R.D. Burman in 1994, with whom Amit had a special bond, he withdrew himself from the film industry. Kumar started undertaking more live stage performances in various parts of the world since 1996.


title: Amit Kumar

text: Kumar sang songs for "Raju Chacha", "Apna Sapna Money Money" (2006), "Kandahar" (2010), "Dulha Mil Gaya", "Himmatwala" (2013).


title: Amit Kumar

text: In the late 1980s, Kumar performed voice work on Doordarshan TV serials such as "Chunauti" and "Campus". He also did songs for the television film "Janam", and sang the title tracks for the Hindi-dubbed version of Disney's animated series "Duck Tales" and "Bob the Builder".


title: Amit Kumar

text: Kumar was one of the judges in the singing reality show "K for Kishore", where singers tried to recreate the atmosphere of his father's songs. He was the main judge of the Zee Bangla singing competition "Sa Re Ga Ma Pa". He provided the voice of character "Guru" in animated series "Guru Aur Bhole" which aired on Sony Yay. The character was were inspired from Kishore Kumar's character from the film Padosan.


title: Amit Kumar

text: Amit Kumar acted in several films directed by and starring his father, which were "Door Gagan Ki Chhaon Mein" (1964), "Door Ka Raahi" (1971), "Badhti Ka Naam Dadhi" (1974), "Shabhash Daddy" (1979) and "Chalti Ka Naam Zindagi" (1982). In 1989, he made his last film appearance in his father's incomplete film "Mamta Ki Chhaon Mein", which starred himself, his stepmother Leena Chandavarkar and Rajesh Khanna. After his father's death in 1987, he took over as director and completed the film for release in 1989.


title: Amit Kumar

text: In his long career in film he acted in a Bengali film namely "Gayak". In this film the name of his character was Amit and it was of a struggling singer. He sang a number of songs for this film under the direction of Rabin Banerjee. This was the only Bengali film in his career where he acted and sang as a playback singer, for his own reel life for that same film. Besides he had a great role of playback singer in Bengali film industry and in this field he is really successful for over a few decades.


title: Akira Ishida

text: For his portrayal of Saki Abdusha in "You're Under Arrest", Makoto Kurumizawa in "BOYS BE", Setsuna Aoki in "Sakura Wars", and Athrun Zala in "Gundam SEED" & "Gundam Seed Destiny", he was chosen as the most popular voice actor in the Animage Anime Grand Prix in 2004, and won the Best Supporting Character (male) award at the 1st Seiyu Awards in 2007. He is best known for his roles as Cho Hakkai in Saiyuki, Katsura Kotarou in "Gin Tama" and Gaara in "Naruto".


title: Sabbath

text: In Abrahamic religions, the Sabbath () or Shabbat (from Hebrew ) is a day set aside for rest and worship. According to the Book of Exodus, the Sabbath is a day of rest on the seventh day, commanded by God to be kept as a holy day of rest, as God rested from creation. The practice of observing the Sabbath (Shabbat) originates in the biblical commandment "Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy".


title: Sabbath

text: The Sabbath is observed in Judaism, Sabbatarian forms of Christianity (such as many Protestant and Eastern denominations), and Islam. Observances similar to, or descended from, the Sabbath also exist in other religions. The term may be generally used to describe similar weekly observances in other religions.


title: Sabbath

text: Sabbath (as the verb שָׁבַת֙ "shabbat") is first mentioned in the Genesis creation narrative, where the seventh day is set aside as a day of rest (in Hebrew, "shabbat") and made holy by God (). Observation and remembrance of Sabbath ( "shabbat") is one of the Ten Commandments (the fourth in the original Jewish, the Eastern Orthodox, and most Protestant traditions, the third in Roman Catholic and Lutheran traditions).


title: Sabbath

text: Most Jews who observe the Sabbath regard it as having been instituted as a perpetual covenant for the Israelites (), as a sign respecting two events: the day during which God rested after having completed Creation in six days () and the Israelites' deliverance from Egypt (). However, most Sabbath-keeping Christians regard the Sabbath as having been instituted by God at the end of Creation week and that the entire world was then, and continues to be, obliged to observe the seventh day as Sabbath.


title: Sabbath

text: Originally, Sabbath-breakers were officially to be cut off from the assembly or potentially killed (). Observance in the Hebrew Bible was universally from sixth-day sundown to seventh-day sundown (, cf. ), on a seven-day week. Consultations with prophets (II Kings iv. 23) were sought on the Sabbath. Sabbath corporate worship was not prescribed for the community at large, and the Sabbath activities at the shrines were originally a convocation of priests for the purpose of offering divine sacrifices, with family worship and rest being centered in homes.


title: Sabbath

text: Jewish "Shabbat" ("Shabbath", "Shabbes", "Shobos", etc.) is a weekly day of rest, observed from sundown on Friday until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night. Thirty-nine activities prohibited on "Shabbat" are listed in Tractate "Shabbat (Talmud)". Customarily, "Shabbat" is ushered in by lighting candles shortly before sunset, at halakhically calculated times that change weekly and geographically. "The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered", a translation by Robert Eisenman and Michael Wise, reveals the Essene calendar as celebrating the Sabbath commencing on the 4th day of Abib (Nisan) page 192 3 days after the new moon of the Passover month then celebrated on the 11th, 18th and 25th. The second Essene month reveals a Sabbath on the second day exactly 7 days from the 25th of Abib Sabbath witnessing a solar calendar continuation for the rest of the year. The Essenes did it this way to be in harmony with the book of Genesis where God created the moon and sun on the 4th day and rested 3 days later.


title: Sabbath

text: Judah ha-Levi (12th century) proposed a nascent Jewish date line for dating of "Shabbat", later calculated to fall between China and Japan (other lines exist, and travelers are expected to note both personal and local "Shabbat"); and Pinchas Elijah Horovitz (18th century) stated that polar regions should observe "Shabbat" based on calculating 24-hour days, although without establishing a date line.


title: Sabbath

text: "Shabbat" is a widely noted hallmark of Jewish peoples. Subbotniks (literally, Sabbatarians) are a Russian sect, categorized as either Jews or Judaizing Christians, that became particularly branded by strict "Shabbat" observance; (Hungarian-born radical Reform leader Ignaz Einhorn even shifted his congregation's "Shabbat" worship to Sundays.) Several weekly "Shabbat"s per year are designated as Special Sabbaths, such as "Shabbat haGadol", prior to Pesach (literally, "the High Sabbath", but not to be confused with other High Sabbaths); and "Shabbat Teshuvah", prior to Yom Kippur ("Repentance Sabbath").


title: Sabbath

text: Colloquially, in contemporary Israel, the term "Shabbaton" or "Shaboson" may mean an event or program of education and usually celebration held on "Shabbat", or over an entire weekend with main focus on "Shabbat". Such events are held by youth groups, singles groups, synagogues, schools, social groups, charitable groups or family reunions, can be either multi-generational and wide-open or limited-group, and can be held where a group usually meets or offsite. ""Shabbaton"", rather than just "retreat", signifies recognition of the importance of "Shabbat" in the event or program.. Another meaning of the term is what in English is called "Sabbatical", a period of paid leave from work, common mostly in educational systems.


title: Sabbath

text: In Eastern Christianity, the Sabbath is considered still to be on Saturday, the seventh day, in remembrance of the Hebrew Sabbath. In Catholicism and most branches of Protestantism, the "Lord's Day" (Greek Κυριακή) is considered to be on Sunday, the first day (and "eighth day"). Communal worship, including the Holy Mysteries, may take place on any day, but a weekly observance of the resurrection is made consistently on Sunday. Western Christianity sometimes refers to the Lord's Day as a "Christian Sabbath", distinct from the Hebrew Sabbath, but related in varying manner.


title: Sabbath

text: Since Puritan times, most English-speaking Protestants identify the "Lord's Day" (viz., Sunday) with a "Christian Sabbath", a term Roman Catholics in those areas may also celebrate with the Eucharist. It is considered both the first day and the "eighth day" of the seven-day week. In Tonga, all commerce and entertainment activities cease on Sunday, starting at midnight and ending the next day, at midnight, as Tonga's constitution declares the Sabbath sacred forever. In Oriental Orthodoxy, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has observed both Sunday Resurrection Day and Saturday Sabbath in different ways for several centuries, as have other Eastern Orthodox traditions.


title: Sabbath

text: Puritan Sabbatarianism or Reformed Sabbatarianism is strict observance of Sabbath in Christianity that is typically characterized by its avoidance of recreational activities. "Puritan Sabbath", expressed in the "Westminster Confession of Faith", is often contrasted with "Continental Sabbath": the latter follows the Continental Reformed confessions such as the "Heidelberg Catechism", which emphasize rest and worship on Lord's Day, but do not forbid recreational activities.


title: Sabbath

text: Several Christian denominations observe Sabbath in a similar manner to Judaism, though with observance ending at Saturday sunset instead of Saturday nightfall. Early church historians Sozomen and Socrates cite the seventh day as the Christian day of worship except for the Christians in Rome and Alexandria. Many Sabbatarian Judeo-Christian groups were attested during the Middle Ages. The Waldensians, a religious group founded during the 12th century, are regarded as one of the first Post-Constantinian Christian groups to observe the seventh-day Sabbath. The Szekler Sabbatarians were founded in 1588 from among the Unitarian Church of Transylvania and maintained a presence until the group converted to Judaism in the 1870s. Seventh Day Baptists have observed Sabbath on Saturday since the mid-17th century (either from sundown or from midnight), and influenced the (now more numerous) Seventh-day Adventists in America to begin the practice in the mid-19th century. They believe that keeping seventh-day Sabbath is a moral responsibility equal to that of any of the other Ten Commandments, based on the example of Jesus. They also use "Lord's Day" to mean the seventh day, based on Scriptures in which God calls the day "my Sabbath" () and "to the " () and in which Jesus calls himself "Lord of Sabbath" (). The question of defining Sabbath worldwide on a round earth was resolved by some seventh-day Sabbatarians by making use of the International Date Line (i.e., permitting local rest-day adjustment, ), while others (such as some Alaskan Sabbatarians) keep Sabbath according to Jerusalem time (i.e., rejecting manmade temporal customs, ). Adherents of Messianic Judaism (a Christian sect or grouping of sects), also generally observe the Sabbath on Saturdays.


title: Sabbath

text: Many of the Lemba in southern Africa, like some other African tribes, are Jewish and claim common descent from the Biblical Israelites, based on observing traditional Jewish customs. Genetic analysis has also demonstrated that a distinct group of the Lemba, have the oral history and genetic ancestry of early hebrews. The Lemba keep one day a week holy like Sabbath, and maintain many beliefs and practices associated with Judaism.


title: Sabbath

text: In 321 AD, Roman emperor Constantine the Great enacted the first civil law regarding Sunday observance. The law did not mention the Sabbath by name, but referred to a day of rest on "the venerable day of the sun."


title: Sabbath

text: The new moon, occurring every 29 or 30 days, is an important separately sanctioned occasion in Judaism and some other faiths. It is not widely regarded as Sabbath, but some messianic and Pentecostal churches, keep the day of the new moon as Sabbath or rest day, from evening to evening. New-moon services can last all day.


title: Sabbath

text: Some modern sects who are Sabbath keepers have suggested a Sabbath based on the New Moon citing Psalm 104:19 and Genesis 1:14 as a key prooftexts. Observers recognize the 1st, 8th, 15th, 22nd, and 29th days of the month of the Hebrew Calendar as Sabbath days which should be observed. They reject the 7 day week as non-biblical. The Lunar Sabbath theory is rejected by most Sabbatarian groups and Judaism as false and misleading but the recently discovered Dead Sea Scrolls translated by Eisenman and Wise show the Essene Jewish calendar revealing the first sabbath of the month of Nisan being on the 4th day 3 days after the new moon and kept every 7 days for the rest of the year.


title: Sabbath

text: Day of the Vow or Dingane's Day (Afrikaans "Geloftedag" or "Dingaansdag", December 16) was the name of a religious public holiday in South Africa commemorating a famous Boer victory over the Zulu. Celebrated as annual Sabbath (a holy day of thanksgiving) since 1838, it was renamed Day of Reconciliation in 1994. The anniversary and its commemoration are intimately connected with various streams of Afrikaner and South African nationalism.


title: Sabbath

text: Since Hippolytus of Rome in the early third century, Christians have often considered that some thousand-year Sabbath, expected to begin six thousand years after Creation, might be identical with the millennium described in the Book of Revelation. This view was also popular among 19th- and 20th-century dispensational premillennialists. The term "Sabbatism" or "Sabbatizing" (Greek "Sabbatismos"), which generically means any literal or spiritual Sabbath-keeping, has also been taken in to have special reference to this definition.


title: Sabbath

text: As another minority view, some modern Christians uphold Sabbath principles but do not limit observance to either Saturday or Sunday, instead advocating rest on any one chosen day of the week as following the spirit of Sabbath, or advocating Sabbath as instead a symbolic metaphor for rest in Christ. These look upon Sabbath as a principle to be observed in spirit rather than in letter, regarding the rest offered in Jesus as the only New Testament admonishment containing the root word of "Sabbath" () and sometimes as a more permanent rest than a day could fulfill ().


title: Sabbath

text: In 1831, Joseph Smith published a revelation commanding his related movement, the Latter Day Saint movement, to go to the house of prayer, offer up their sacraments, rest from their labors, and pay their devotions on the Lord's day (D&C 59:9–12).


title: Sabbath

text: Latter-day Saints believe this means performing no labor that would keep them from giving their full attention to spiritual matters (Ex. 20:10). LDS prophets have described this as meaning they should not shop, hunt, fish, attend sports events, or participate in similar activities on that day. Elder Spencer W. Kimball wrote in his "The Miracle of Forgiveness" that mere idle lounging on the Sabbath does not keep the day holy, and that it calls for constructive thoughts and acts.


title: Sabbath

text: Members of the Church are encouraged to prepare their meals with "singleness of heart" on the Sabbath (D&C 59:13) and believe the day is only for righteous activities (Is. 58:13.) In most areas of the world, this means worship on Sunday, though there is adaptation for Israel and many majority-Muslim countries.


title: Sabbath

text: In harmony with this revelation, members of the LDS church attend sacrament meeting each week. Other Sabbath-day activities may include: praying, meditating, studying the scriptures and the teachings of latter-day prophets, writing letters to family members and friends, reading wholesome material, visiting the sick and distressed, and attending other Church meetings.


title: Sabbath

text: The Quran shares the six-part Abrahamic creation narrative (32:4, 50:38) and the Sabbath as the seventh day (: 2:65, 4:47, 154, 7:163, 16:124), but God's mounting the throne after creation is taken in contradistinction to Elohim's concluding and resting from his labors. The Quran states that since Sabbath was only for Jews, Muslims replace Sabbath rest with (). Also known as "Friday prayer", is a congregational prayer () held every Friday (the Day of Assembly), just after midday, in place of the otherwise daily prayer; it commemorates the creation of Adam on the sixth day, as a loving gathering of Adam's sons.


title: Sabbath

text: The Quran states: "When the call is proclaimed to prayer on Friday, hasten earnestly to the Remembrance of Allah, and leave off business: That is best for you if ye but knew" (62:9). The next verse ("When the prayer is ended, then disperse in the land ...") leads many Muslims not to consider Friday a rest day, as in Indonesia, which regards the seventh-day Sabbath as unchanged; but many Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Bangladesh, do consider Friday a nonwork day, a holiday or a weekend; and other Muslim countries, like Pakistan, count it as half a rest day (after the Friday prayer is over). attendance is strictly incumbent upon all free adult males who are


title: Sabbath

text: By synecdoche (naming the whole for a part), in Jewish sources by the time of the Septuagint, the term "Sabbath" (Greek "Sabbaton", Strong's "4521") also came to mean an entire "se'nnight" or seven-day week, the interval between two weekly Sabbaths. Jesus's parable of the Pharisee and the Publican () describes the Pharisee as fasting "twice a week" (Greek "dis tou sabbatou", literally, "Twice of the Sabbath").


title: Sabbath

text: "High Sabbaths" are observed by Jews and some Christians. Seven annual Biblical festivals, called "miqra" ("called assembly") in Hebrew and "High Sabbath" in English and serving as supplemental testimonies to Sabbath, are specified in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy; they do not necessarily fall on weekly Sabbath. Three occur in spring: the first and seventh days of Pesach (Passover), and Shavuot (Pentecost). Four occur in fall, in the seventh month, and are also called "Shabbaton": Rosh Hashanah (Trumpets); Yom Kippur, "Sabbath of Sabbaths" (Atonement); and the first and eighth days of Sukkoth (Tabernacles). "High Sabbaths" is also often a synonym of "High Holy Days", viz., Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.


title: Sabbath

text: "Shmita" (, Strong's 8059 as "shmittah", literally "release"), also called sabbatical year, is the seventh (שביעי, Strong's 7637 as "shbiy'iy") year of the seven-year agricultural cycle mandated by Torah for the Land of Israel, relatively little observed in Biblical tradition, but still observed in contemporary Judaism. During "Shmita", the land is left to lie fallow and all agricultural activity, including plowing, planting, pruning and harvesting, is forbidden by Torah and Jewish law. By tradition, other cultivation techniques (such as watering, fertilizing, weeding, spraying, trimming and mowing) may be performed as preventive measures only, not to improve the growth of trees or plants; additionally, whatever fruits grow of their own accord during that year are deemed "hefker" (ownerless), not for the landowner but for the poor, the stranger, and the beasts of the field; these fruits may be picked by anyone. A variety of laws also apply to the sale, consumption and disposal of "Shmita" produce. When the year ended, all debts, except those of foreigners, were to be remitted (); in similar fashion, Torah requires a slave who had worked for six years to go free in the seventh year. Leviticus 25 promises bountiful harvests to those who observe "Shmita", and describes its observance as a test of religious faith. The term "Shmita" is translated "release" five times in the Book of Deuteronomy (from the root שמט, "shamat", ""desist", "remit"", 8058).


title: Sabbath

text: Counting from the new moon, the Babylonians celebrated the 7th, 14th, 21st, and 28th as "holy-days", also called "evil days" (meaning "unsuitable" for prohibited activities). On these days officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to "make a wish", and at least the 28th was known as a "rest-day". On each of them, offerings were made to a different god and goddess. Tablets from the 6th-century BCE reigns of Cyrus the Great and Cambyses indicate these dates were sometimes approximate. The lunation of 29 or 30 days basically contained three seven-day weeks, and a final week of nine or ten days inclusive, breaking the continuous seven-day cycle. The Babylonians additionally celebrated the 19th as a special "evil day", the "day of anger", because it was roughly the 49th day of the (preceding) month, completing a "week of weeks", also with sacrifices and prohibitions. Difficulties with Friedrich Delitzsch's origin theory connecting Hebrew "Shabbat" with the Babylonian lunar cycle include reconciling the differences between an unbroken week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as "Shabbat" in any language. Reconstruction of a broken tablet seems to define the rarely attested Babylonian Akkadian word "Sapattu" or "Sabattu" as the full moon: this word is cognate or merged with Hebrew "Shabbat", but is monthly rather than weekly. It is regarded as a form of Sumerian "sa-bat" ("mid-rest"), attested in Akkadian as "um nuh libbi" ("day of mid-repose"). This conclusion is a contextual restoration of the damaged Enûma Eliš creation mythos, which is read as: "[Sa]pattu shalt thou then encounter, mid[month]ly."


title: Sabbath

text: The pentecontad calendar, thought to be of Amorite origin, includes a period known to Babylonians as "Shappatum". The year is broken down into seven periods of fifty days (made up of seven weeks of seven days, containing seven weekly Sabbaths, and an extra fiftieth day, known as the "atzeret"), plus an annual supplement of fifteen or sixteen days, called "Shappatum", the period of harvest time at the end of each year. Identified and reconstructed by Hildegaard and Julius Lewy in the 1940s, the calendar's use dates back to at least the 3rd millennium BCE in Western Mesopotamia and surrounding areas; it was used by the Canaanite tribes, thought by some to have been used by the Israelites prior to King Solomon, and related to the liturgical calendar of the Essenes at Qumran. Used well into the modern age, forms of it have been found in Nestorianism and among the Palestinian "fellaheen". Julius Morgenstern believed that the calendar of the Jubilees had ancient origins as a somewhat modified survival of the pentecontad calendar.


title: Sabbath

text: In relating to the seventh and other days of the month, the Zoroastrian calendar contributed to the Jewish calendar. For exemplar, the observance of Passover coincides with Nowruz, the Zoroastrian New Year which marks the first day of spring or vernal Equinox.


title: Sabbath

text: The "Uposatha" has been observed since Gautama Buddha's time (500 BCE), and is still being kept today in Theravada Buddhist countries. It occurs every seven or eight days, in accordance with the four phases of the moon. Buddha taught that "Uposatha" is for "the cleansing of the defiled mind", resulting in inner calm and joy. On this day, disciples and monks intensify their practice, deepen their knowledge, and express communal commitment through millennia-old acts of lay-monastic reciprocity.


title: Sabbath

text: Thai Chinese likewise observe their Sabbaths and traditional Chinese holidays according to lunar phases, but not on exactly the same days as "Uposatha". These Sabbaths cycle through the month with respect to the Thai solar calendar, so common Thai calendars incorporate Thai and Chinese calendar lunar dates, as well as "Uposatha" dates, for religious purposes.


title: Sabbath

text: The first day of the new moon, beginning at sunrise, is a holiday of quiet reflection and prayer among the Cherokee. Monthly fasting is encouraged, for up to four days. Work, cooking, sex and childbirth were also prohibited during the empty moon days, called "un-time" or "non-days"; childbirth during these days was considered unlucky. The Cherokee new year, the "great new moon" or "Hunting Moon", is the first new moon in autumn, after the setting of the Pleiades star cluster and around the time of the Leonids meteoric shower.


title: Sabbath

text: One folk tradition in English is the widespread use of "Sabbath" as a synonym of midnight-to-midnight "Saturday" (literally, Saturn's day in at least a dozen languages): this is a simplification of the use of "Sabbath" in other religious contexts, where the two do not coincide. (Using midnight instead of sundown as delimiter dates back to the Roman Empire.) In over thirty other languages, the common name for this day in the seven-day week is a cognate of "Sabbath". "Sabbatini", originally "Sabbadini", often "Sabatini", etc., is a very frequent Italian name form ("Sabbatos" is the Greek form), indicating a family whose ancestor was born on Saturday, Italian "sabato"; "Domenico" indicated birth on Sunday.


title: Sabbath

text: In vampire hunter lore, people born on Saturday were specially designated as "sabbatianoí" in Greek and "sâbotnichavi" in Bulgarian (rendered in English as "Sabbatarians"). It was also believed in the Balkans that someone born on a Saturday could see a vampire when it was otherwise invisible.


title: Sabbath

text: The annual cycle of the Earth's seasons is called the Wheel of the Year in Wicca and neopaganism. Eight sabbats (occasionally "sabbaths", or "Sun sabbats") are spaced at approximately even intervals throughout the year. Samhain, which coincides with Halloween, is considered the first sabbat of the year.


title: Sabbath

text: An esbat is a ritual observance of the full moon in Wicca and neopaganism. Some groups extend the esbat to include the dark moon and the first and last quarters. "Esbat" and "sabbat" are distinct and are probably not cognate terms, although an esbat is also called "moon sabbat".


title: Sabbath

text: European records from the Middle Ages to the 17th century or later also place Witches' Sabbaths on similar dates to sabbats in modern Wicca, but with some disagreement; medieval reports of sabbat activity are generally not firsthand and may be imaginative, but many persons were accused of, or tried for, taking part in sabbats.


title: Sabbath

text: The Unification Church has a regular day of worship on Sunday, but every eight days Unificationists celebrate the day of Ahn Shi Il, considered as Sabbath but cycling among the weekdays of the Gregorian calendar. The Family Pledge, formerly recited at 5:00 a.m. on Sundays, was moved to Ahn Shi Il in 1994 and includes eight verses containing the phrase "by centering on true love".


title: Sabbath

text: Secular use of "Sabbath" for "rest day", while it usually refers to the same period of time (Sunday) as the majority Christian use of "Sabbath", is often stated in North America to refer to different purposes for the rest day than those of Christendom. In "McGowan v. Maryland" (1961), the Supreme Court of the United States held that contemporary Maryland blue laws (typically, Sunday rest laws) were intended to promote the secular values of "health, safety, recreation, and general well-being" through a common day of rest, and that this day coinciding with majority Christian Sabbath neither reduces its effectiveness for secular purposes nor prevents adherents of other religions from observing their own holy days. Massachusetts, uncharacteristically, does not specify the weekday in its "Day of Rest" statute, providing only that one day off from work is required every week; an unspecified weekly day off is a very widespread business production cycle. The Supreme Court of Canada, in "R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd." (1985) and "R. v. Edwards Books and Art Ltd." (1986), found some blue laws invalid for having no legitimate secular purpose, but others valid because they had no religious purpose.


title: Sabbath

text: The weekend is that period of the week set aside by custom or law for rest from labor. In many countries it is Saturday and Sunday and often includes Friday night. This five-day workweek arose in America when labor unions attempted to accommodate Jewish Sabbath, beginning at a New England cotton mill and also instituted by Henry Ford in 1926; it became standard in America by about 1940 and spread among English-speaking and European countries to become the international workweek. China adopted it in 1995 and Hong Kong by 2006. India and some other countries follow both the international workweek and a more traditional Saturday half-workday and Sunday weekend. While Indonesia and Lebanon have the international workweek, most Muslim countries count Friday as the weekend, alone or with Thursday (all or half) or Saturday. Some universities permit a three-day weekend from Friday to Sunday. The weekend in Israel, Nepal, and parts of Malaysia, is Friday (all or half) and Saturday. Only the one-day customary or legal weekends are usually called "Sabbath".


title: Sabbath

text: State-mandated rest days are widespread. Laws of the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) required imperial officials to rest on every "mu" (every fifth day), within a ten-day Chinese week. The rest day was changed to "huan" or "xún" (every tenth day) in the Tang Dynasty (618–907).


title: Sabbath

text: The reform calendar of the French Revolution was used from 1793 to 1805. It contained twelve months of three ten-day weeks; the five or six extra days needed to approximate the tropical year were placed after the months at the end of each year. The tenth day of each week, "décadi", replaced Sunday as the day of rest and festivity in France.


title: Sabbath

text: From 1929 to 1931, the Soviet Union mandated a five-day week, with each day designated by color as a state rest day for a different 20% of the workforce; families usually did not share rest days. Three weeks a year were six or seven days, because interrupted by holidays. From 1931 to 1940, the Soviets mandated a six-day week, with state rest days for all upon the 6th, 12th, 18th, 24th, and 30th of each Gregorian month, as well as upon March 1. This also necessitated varying weeks of five to seven days over the year.


title: Sabbath

text: Among many calendar reform proposals that eliminate the constant seven-day week in exchange for simplified calculation of calendrical data like weekday names for given dates, some retain Sabbatical influences. The Hermetic Lunar Week Calendar uses moon phases, resulting in weeks of six to nine days. The International Fixed Calendar and World Calendar both consist of 364-day years containing exactly 52 weeks (each starting on a day designated as Sunday), with an additional one or two intercalary "blank" days not designated as part of any week (Year Day and Leap Day in the International Fixed Calendar; Worldsday and Leapyear Day in the World Calendar). Reform supporters sought to accommodate Sabbatical observance by retaining the modified week and designating the intercalary days as additional Sabbaths or holidays; however, religious leaders held that such days disrupt the traditional seven-day weekly cycle. This unresolved issue contributed to the cessation of reform activities in the 1930s (International Fixed Calendar) and again in 1955 (World Calendar), though supporters of both proposals remain.


title: Sabbath

text: The subbotnik is a weekly day of volunteer work on Saturday in Russia, other (former) Soviet republics, the Eastern Bloc, and the German Democratic Republic, sporadically observed since 1919. The "voskresnik" is a related volunteer workday on Sunday. They focus on community service work; "Lenin's Subbotnik" was also observed annually around his birthday.


title: Sabbath

text: From the biblical sabbatical year came the modern concept of a sabbatical, a prolonged, often one-year, hiatus in the career of an individual (not usually tied to a seven-year period). Such a period is often taken in order to fulfill some goal such as writing a book or traveling extensively for research. Some universities and other institutional employers of scientists, physicians, or academics offer paid sabbatical as an employee benefit, called "sabbatical leave"; some companies offer unpaid sabbatical for people wanting to take career breaks.


title: Cheyenne

text: The Cheyenne ( ) are an Indigenous people of the Great Plains. Their Cheyenne language belongs to the Algonquian language family. Today, the Cheyenne people are split into two federally recognized nations: the Southern Cheyenne, who are enrolled in the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes in Oklahoma, and the Northern Cheyenne, who are enrolled in the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana. The Cheyenne comprise two Native American tribes, the Só'taeo'o or Só'taétaneo'o (more commonly spelled as Suhtai or Sutaio) and the Tsétsêhéstâhese (also spelled Tsitsistas, ). The tribes merged in the early 19th century.


title: Cheyenne

text: At the time of their first European contact, the Cheyenne lived in what is now Minnesota. They were close allies of the Arapaho and loosely aligned with the Lakota. By the early 18th century, they were forced west across the Missouri River and into North and South Dakota, where they adopted the horse culture. Having settled the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Powder River Country of present-day Montana and Wyoming, they introduced the horse culture to Lakota people about 1730. With the Arapaho, the Cheyenne pushed the Kiowa to the Southern Plains. In turn, they were pushed west by the more numerous Lakota.


title: Cheyenne

text: The main group of Cheyenne, the Tsêhéstáno, was once composed of ten bands that spread across the Great Plains from southern Colorado to the Black Hills in South Dakota. They fought their historic enemies, the Crow and later (1856–79) the United States Army. In the mid-19th century, the bands began to split, with some bands choosing to remain near the Black Hills, while others chose to remain near the Platte Rivers of central Colorado.


title: Cheyenne

text: The Northern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne either as Notameohmésêhese, meaning "Northern Eaters" or simply as Ohmésêhese meaning "Eaters", live in southeastern Montana on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation. Tribal enrollment figures, as of late 2014, indicate that there are approximately 10,840 members, of which about 4,939 reside on the reservation. Approximately 91% of the population are Native Americans (full or part race), with 72.8% identifying themselves as Cheyenne. Slightly more than one quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Southern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne as Heévâhetaneo'o meaning "Roped People", together with the Southern Arapaho, form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes, in western Oklahoma. Their combined population is 12,130, . In 2003, approximately 8,000 of these identified themselves as Cheyenne, although with continuing intermarriage it has become increasingly difficult to separate the tribes.


title: Cheyenne

text: The Cheyenne are composed of two tribes, the "Só'taeo'o" or "Só'taétaneo'o" (more commonly as "Suhtai" or "Sutaio"; singular: "Só'taétane") and the "Tsétsêhéstâhese" (more commonly as the "Tsitsistas"; singular: "Tsétsêhéstaestse"), which translates to "those who are like this". Both tribes had always traveled together and fully merged sometime after 1883, though maintained separate camps. The Suhtai had slightly different speech and customs from their traveling companions.


title: Cheyenne

text: The name "Cheyenne" derive from the Lakota Sioux exonym "Šahíyena" meaning "little "Šahíya"". The identity of the "Šahíya" is not known, but many Great Plains tribes assume that it means Cree or another people who spoke an Algonquian language related to Cree and Cheyenne. The Cheyenne word for Ojibwe is "Sáhea'eo'o", a word that sounds similar to the "Lakota" word "Šahíya". Cheyenne also means “little beautiful blue bird”.


title: Cheyenne

text: Another of the common etymologies for "Cheyenne" is "a bit like the [people of an] alien speech" (literally, "red-talker"). According to George Bird Grinnell, the Lakota had referred to themselves and fellow Siouan-language bands as "white talkers", and those of other language families, such as the Algonquian Cheyenne, as "red talkers" ("Šahíyena").


title: Cheyenne

text: The etymology of the name Tsitsistas (technically Tsétsėhéstȧhese), which the Cheyenne call themselves, is uncertain. According to the Cheyenne dictionary offered online by Chief Dull Knife College, there is no definitive consensus, though various studies of the origins and translation of the word have been suggested. Grinnell's record is typical and states, "They call themselves Tsistsistas [sic, Tsitsistas is the correct pronunciation], which the books commonly give as meaning "people". It most likely means related to one another, similarly bred, like us, our people, or us. The term for the Cheyenne homeland is "Tsiihistano".


title: Cheyenne

text: The Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the Cheyenne language, known as "Tsêhésenêstsestôtse" (common spelling: Tsisinstsistots). Approximately 800 people speak Cheyenne in Oklahoma. There are only a handful of vocabulary differences between the two locations. The Cheyenne alphabet contains 14 letters. The Cheyenne language is one of the larger Algonquian-language group. Formerly, the Só'taeo'o (Só'taétaneo'o) or Suhtai (Sutaio) bands of Southern and Northern Cheyenne spoke "Só'taéka'ęškóne" or "Só'taenęstsestôtse", a language so close to "Tsêhésenêstsestôtse" (Cheyenne language), that it is sometimes termed a Cheyenne dialect.


title: Cheyenne

text: The earliest written historical record of the Cheyenne was in the mid-17th century, when a group of Cheyenne visited the French Fort Crevecoeur, near present-day Peoria, Illinois. The Cheyenne at this time lived between the Mississippi River and Mille Lacs Lake. Their economy was based on the collection of wild rice and hunting, especially of bison, which lived in the prairies 70–80 miles west of the Cheyenne villages.


title: Cheyenne

text: According to tribal history, during the 17th century, the Cheyenne were driven by the Assiniboine (Hóheeheo'o) from the Great Lakes region to present-day Minnesota and North Dakota, where they established villages. The most prominent of the ancient Cheyenne villages is Biesterfeldt Village, in eastern North Dakota along the Sheyenne River. They first reached the Missouri River in 1676. A more recent analysis of early records posits that at least some of the Cheyenne remained in the Mille Lac region of Minnesota until about 1765, when the Ojibwe defeated the Lakota with firearms — pushing the Cheyenne, in turn, to the Minnesota River, where they were reported in 1766.


title: Cheyenne

text: On the Missouri River, the Cheyenne came into contact with the neighboring Mandan, Hidatsa (Tsé-heše'émâheónese, "people who have soil houses"), and Arikara people (Ónoneo'o), adopting many of their cultural characteristics. They were first of the later Plains tribes to move into the Black Hills and Powder River Country. About 1730, they introduced the horse to Lakota bands (Ho'óhomo'eo'o). Conflict with migrating Lakota and Ojibwe people forced the Cheyenne further west, and they, in turn, pushed the Kiowa to the south.


title: Cheyenne

text: By 1776, the Lakota had overwhelmed the Cheyenne and taken over much of their territory near the Black Hills. In 1804, Lewis and Clark visited a surviving Cheyenne village in what is now North Dakota. Such European explorers learned many different names for the Cheyenne and did not realize how the different sections were forming a unified tribe.


title: Cheyenne

text: The Cheyenne Nation is descended from two related tribes, the "Tsétsêhéstâhese / Tsitsistas" (Cheyenne proper) and "Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o" (better known as Suhtai or Sutaio). The latter may have joined the Tsétsêhéstâhese in the early 18th century. Their oral history relays that both tribal peoples are characterized, and represented by two cultural heroes or prophets who received divine articles from their god "Ma'heo'o", which the Só'taeo'o called "He'emo."


title: Cheyenne

text: The Tsétsêhéstâhese / Tsitsistas prophet "Motsé'eóeve" (Sweet Medicine Standing, Sweet Root Standing, commonly called "Sweet Medicine") received the "Maahótse" ((Sacred) Arrows Bundle) at "Nóávóse" (″medicine(sacred)-hill″, name for Bear Butte, northwest of Rapid City, South Dakota, which they carried when they waged tribal-level war and were kept in the "maahéome" (Arrow Lodge or Arrow Tepee). He organized the structure of Cheyenne society, their military or war societies led by prominent warriors, their system of legal justice, and the Council of Forty-four peace chiefs. The latter was formed from four "véhoo'o" (chiefs or leaders) of the ten principal "manaho" (bands) and an additional four ″Old Man″ meetings to deliberate at regular tribal gatherings, centered around the Sun Dance.


title: Cheyenne

text: Sweet Medicine is the Cheyenne prophet who predicted the coming of the horse, the cow, the white man and other new things to the Cheyenne. He was named for "motsé'eonȯtse" (sweetgrass), one of the sacred plant medicines used by many Plains peoples in ceremonies.


title: Cheyenne

text: The "Maahótse" (Sacred Arrows) are symbols of male power. The "Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e" (Sacred Buffalo Hat) is the symbol of female power. The Sacred Buffalo Hat and the Sacred Arrows together form the two great covenants of the Cheyenne Nation. Through these two bundles, Ma'heo'o assures continual life and blessings for the people.


title: Cheyenne

text: The Só'taeo'o prophet "Tomȯsévėséhe" ("Erect Horns") received the "Ésevone" (aka "Is'siwun" – "Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Bundle") at "Toh'nihvoos" (″Stone Hammer Mountain″) near the Great Lakes in the present state of Minnesota. The "Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat)" is kept in the "vonȧhéome" (old term) or "hóhkėha'éome" (new term) ("Sacred Hat Lodge, Sacred Hat Tepee"). Erect Horns gave them the accompanying ceremonies and the Sun Dance. His vision convinced the tribe to abandon their earlier sedentary agricultural traditions to adopt nomadic Plains horse culture. They replaced their earth lodges with portable tipis and switched their diet from fish and agricultural produce, to mainly bison and wild fruits and vegetables. Their lands ranged from the upper Missouri River into what is now Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, and South Dakota.


title: Cheyenne

text: The "Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e" ("Sacred Buffalo Hat") is kept among the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Só'taeo'o. The "Tséá'enōvȧhtse" (″Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Keeper″ or ″Keeper of the Sacred (Buffalo) Hat″) must belong to the Só'taeo'o (Northern or Southern alike). In the 1870s tribal leaders became disenchanted with the keeper of the bundle demanded the keeper Broken Dish give up the bundle; he agreed but his wife did not and desecrated the Sacred Hat and its contents; a ceremonial pipe and a buffalo horn were lost. In 1908 a Cheyenne named Three Fingers gave the horn back to the Hat. The pipe came into possession of a Cheyenne named Burnt All Over who gave it to Hattie Goit of Poteau, Oklahoma who in 1911 gave the pipe to the Oklahoma Historical Society. In 1997 the Oklahoma Historal Society negotiated with the Northern Cheyenne to return the pipe to the tribal keeper of the Sacred Medicine Hat Bundle James Black Wolf.


title: Cheyenne

text: Known in Cheyenne either as "Notameohmésêhese" or "Notameohmésėhétaneo'o" meaning "Northern Eaters" or simply as "Ohmésêhese / Ôhmésêheseo'o" meaning "Eaters".


title: Cheyenne

text: Known in Cheyenne as "Heévâhetaneo'o" meaning "Roped People." Named after the most populous band, also commonly known as "Sówoniá" – "the Southern People."


title: Cheyenne

text: The ten principal bands that had the right to send four chief delegates representing them in the Council of Forty-Four were the


title: Cheyenne

text: After the "Masikota" and "Oo'kóhta'oná" bands had been almost wiped out through a cholera epidemic in 1849, the remaining Masikota joined the Dog Soldiers warrior society ("Hotamétaneo'o"). They effectively became a separate band and in 1850 took over the position in the camp circle formerly occupied by the Masikota. The members often opposed policies of peace chiefs such as Black Kettle. Over time, the Dog Soldiers took a prominent leadership role in the wars against the whites. In 1867, most of the band were killed by United States Army forces in the Battle of Summit Springs.


title: Cheyenne

text: Due to an increasing division between the Dog Soldiers and the council chiefs with respect to policy towards the whites, the Dog Soldiers separated from the other Cheyenne bands. They effectively became a "third division" of the Cheyenne people, between the Northern Cheyenne, who ranged north of the Platte River, and the Southern Cheyenne, who occupied the area north of the Arkansas River.


title: Cheyenne

text: After being pushed south and westward by the Lakota, the unified Cheyenne people began to create and expand a new territory of their own. Sometime around 1811, the Cheyenne made a formal alliance with the Arapaho people (Hetanevo'eo'o – "People of the Sky", "Cloud People", because of their close interaction also known as Héstanėheo'o – "people, mankind, tribe of people"), which would remain strong throughout their history and into modern times. The alliance helped the Cheyenne expand their territory which stretched from southern Montana, through most of Wyoming, the eastern half of Colorado, far western Nebraska, and far western Kansas. As early as 1820, traders and explorers reported contact with Cheyenne at present-day Denver, Colorado and on the Arkansas River. They were probably hunting and trading in that area earlier. They may have migrated to the south for winter. The Hairy Rope band is reputed to have been the first band to move south, capturing wild horses as far south as the Cimarron River Valley. In response to the construction of Bent's Fort by Charles Bent, a friend of the Cheyenne who established a popular trading area for the Cheyenne, a large portion of the tribe moved further south and stayed around the area. The other part of the tribe continued to live along the headwaters of the North Platte and Yellowstone rivers. The groups became the Southern Cheyenne, known as Sówoníă (Southerners) and the Northern Cheyenne, known as O'mǐ'sǐs (Eaters). The separation of the tribe was only a geographic one and the two divisions had regular and close contact.


title: Cheyenne

text: In the southern portion of their territory, the Cheyenne and Arapaho warred with the allied Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache. Numerous battles were fought including a notable fight along the Washita River in 1836 with the Kiowa which resulted in the death of 48 Cheyenne warriors of the Bowstring society. In summer 1838, many Cheyenne and Arapaho attacked a camp of Kiowa and Comanche along Wolf Creek in Oklahoma resulting in heavy losses from both sides. Conflict with the Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache ended in 1840 when the tribes made an alliance with each other. The new alliance allowed the Cheyenne to enter the Llano Estacado in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles and northeastern New Mexico to hunt bison and trade. Their expansion in the south and alliance with the Kiowa led to their first raid into Mexico in 1853. The raid ended in disaster with heavy resistance from Mexican lancers, resulting in all but three of the war party being killed. To the north, the Cheyenne made a strong alliance with the Lakota Sioux, which allowed them to expand their territory into part of their former lands around the Black Hills. They managed to escape the smallpox epidemics, which swept across the plains from white settlements in 1837–39, by heading into the Rocky Mountains but were greatly affected by the Cholera epidemic in 1849. Contact with Euro-Americans was mostly light, with most contact involving mountain men, traders, explorers, treaty makers, and painters..


title: Cheyenne

text: Like many other plains Indian nations, the Cheyenne were a horse and warrior people who developed as skilled and powerful mounted warriors. A warrior was viewed by the people not as a maker of war but as a protector, provider, and leader. Warriors gained rank in Cheyenne society by performing and accumulating various acts of bravery in battle known as coups. The title of war chief could be earned by any warrior who performs enough of the specific coups required to become a war chief. Specific warrior societies developed among the Cheyenne as with other plains nations. Each society had selected leaders who would invite those that they saw worthy enough to their society lodge for initiation into the society. Often, societies would have minor rivalries; however, they might work together as a unit when warring with an enemy. Military societies played an important role in Cheyenne government. Society leaders were often in charge of organizing hunts and raids as well as ensuring proper discipline and the enforcement of laws within the nation. Each of the six distinct warrior societies of the Cheyenne would take turns assuming the leadership role within the nation. The four original military societies of the Cheyenne were the Swift Fox Society, Elk Horn Scrapper or Crooked Lance Society, Shield Society, and the Bowstring Men Society. The fifth society is split between the Crazy Dog Society and the famous Dog Soldiers. The sixth society is the Contrary Warrior Society, most notable for riding backwards into battle as a sign of bravery. All six societies and their various branches exist among the Southern and Northern Cheyenne Nations in present times. Warriors used a combination of traditional weapons such as various types of war clubs, tomahawks, bows and arrows, and lances as well as non-traditional weapons such as revolvers, rifles, and shotguns acquired through raid and trade.


title: Cheyenne

text: The enemies of the Cheyenne included the Crow (Óoetaneo'o – "crow (bird) people"), Shoshone (Sósone'eo'o), Blackfeet (Mo'ôhtávêhahtátaneo'o, same literal meaning), Flathead (Kȧhkoestséataneo'o – "flat-headed-people"), Nez Perce (Otaesétaneo'o – "pierced nose people"), Arikara, Gros Ventre (Hestóetaneo'o – "beggars for meat", "spongers" or Môhónooneo'o – lit. "scouting all over ones"), Assiniboine, and Plains Cree (Vóhkoohétaneo'o – "rabbit people") to the north and west of Cheyenne territory. By the help of the Medicine Arrows (the Mahuts), the Cheyenne tribe massacred a Crow camp in 1820. To the east of Cheyenne Territory they fought with the Sioux, Pawnee (Ho'néhetaneo'o – "wolf people", possibly an adaptive from the Skiri/Skidi Pawnee or Wolf Pawnee), Ponca (Onéhao'o), Kaw (Oo'kóhtâxétaneo'o – "cut hair people"), Iowa, Ho-Chunk and Omaha (Onéhao'o). The Cheyenne lost the Medicine Arrows during an attack on a hunting camp of Pawnees around 1830. South of Cheyenne territory they fought with the Kiowa (Vétapâhaetó'eo'o – "greasy wood ones"), Comanche (Šé'šenovotsétaneo'o – "snake people"), Ute (Mo'ȯhtávėhetaneo'o – "black (skinned) people"), Plains Apache (Mȯhtséheonetaneo'o – "occupied.comp-people"), Osage (Oo'kóhtâxétaneo'o – "cut hair people"), Wichita people, various Apache tribes and Navajo (Hotamó'keeho – "Indians from out west"; collective name for tribes of the Southswest and Great Basin). Many of the enemies the Cheyenne fought were only encountered occasionally, such as on a long-distance raid or hunt. Some of their enemies, particularly the Indian peoples of the eastern great plains such as the Pawnee and Osage would act as Indian Scouts for the US Army, providing valuable tracking skills and information regarding Cheyenne habits and fighting strategies to US soldiers. Some of their enemies such as the Lakota would later in their history become their strong allies, helping the Cheyenne fight against the United States Army during Red Cloud's War and the Great Sioux War of 1876. The Comanche, Kiowa and Plains Apache became allies of the Cheyenne towards the end of the Indian wars on the southern plains, fighting together during conflicts such as the Red River War.


title: Cheyenne

text: The Cheyenne and Arapaho people formed an alliance around 1811 that helped them expand their territories and strengthen their presence on the plains. Like the Cheyenne, the Arapaho language is part of the Algonquian group, although the two languages are not mutually intelligible. The Arapaho remained strong allies with the Cheyenne and helped them fight alongside the Sioux during Red Cloud's War and the Great Sioux War of 1876, also known commonly as the Black Hills War. On the southern plains, the Arapaho and Cheyenne allied with the Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache to fight invading settlers and US soldiers. The Arapaho were present with the Cheyenne at the Sand Creek Massacre when a peaceful encampment of mostly women, children, and the elderly were attacked and massacred by US soldiers. Both major divisions of the Cheyenne, the Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne were allies to the Arapaho who like the Cheyenne are split into northern and southern divisions. The Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho were assigned to the same reservation in Oklahoma Indian Territory and remained together as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes after the reservation was opened to American settlement and into modern times. The Northern Arapaho were to be assigned a reservation of their own or share one with the Cheyenne however the government failed to provide them with either and placed them on the already established Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming with their former enemies the Shoshone.


title: Cheyenne

text: In the summer of 1825, the tribe was visited on the upper Missouri by a US treaty commission consisting of General Henry Atkinson and Indian agent Benjamin O'Fallon, accompanied by a military escort of 476 men. General Atkinson and his fellow commissioner left Fort Atkinson on May 16, 1825. Ascending the Missouri, they negotiated treaties of friendship and trade with tribes of the upper Missouri, including the Arikara, the Cheyenne, the Crow, the Mandan, the Ponca, and several bands of the Sioux. At that time, the US had competition on the upper Missouri from British traders, who came south from Canada.


title: Cheyenne

text: The treaties acknowledged that the tribes lived within the United States, vowed perpetual friendship between the US and the tribes, and, recognizing the right of the United States to regulate trade, the tribes promised to deal only with licensed traders. The tribes agreed to forswear private retaliation for injuries, and to return stolen horses or other goods or compensate the owner. The commission's efforts to contact the Blackfoot and the Assiniboine were unsuccessful. During their return to Fort Atkinson at the Council Bluff in Nebraska, the commission had successful negotiations with the Ota, the Pawnee and the Omaha.


title: Cheyenne

text: Increased traffic of emigrants along the related Oregon, Mormon and California trails, beginning in the early 1840s, heightened competition with Native Americans for scarce resources of water and game in arid areas. With resource depletion along the trails, the Cheyenne became increasingly divided into the Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne, where they could have adequate territory for sustenance.


title: Cheyenne

text: During the California Gold Rush, emigrants brought in cholera. It spread in mining camps and waterways due to poor sanitation. The disease was generally a major cause of death for emigrants, about one-tenth of whom died during their journeys.


title: Cheyenne

text: Perhaps from traders, the cholera epidemic reached the Plains Indians in 1849, resulting in severe loss of life during the summer of that year. Historians estimate about 2,000 Cheyenne died, one-half to two-thirds of their population. There were significant losses among other tribes as well, which weakened their social structures. Perhaps because of severe loss of trade during the 1849 season, Bent's Fort was abandoned and burned.


title: Cheyenne

text: In 1846, Thomas Fitzpatrick was appointed US Indian agent for the upper Arkansas and Platte River. His efforts to negotiate with the Northern Cheyenne, the Arapaho and other tribes led to a great council at Fort Laramie in 1851. Treaties were negotiated by a commission consisting of Fitzpatrick and David Dawson Mitchell, US Superintendent of Indian Affairs, with the Indians of the northern plains.


title: Cheyenne

text: To reduce intertribal warfare on the Plains, the government officials "assigned" territories to each tribe and had them pledge mutual peace. In addition, the government secured permission to build and maintain roads for European-American travelers and traders through Indian country on the Plains, such as the Emigrant Trail and the Santa Fe Trail, and to maintain forts to guard them. The tribes were compensated with annuities of cash and supplies for such encroachment on their territories. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 affirmed the Cheyenne and Arapaho territory on the Great Plains between the North Platte River and the Arkansas. This territory included what is now Colorado, east of the Front Range of the Rockies and north of the Arkansas River; Wyoming and Nebraska, south of the North Platte River; and extreme western Kansas.


title: Cheyenne

text: In April 1856, an incident at the Platte River Bridge (near present-day Casper, Wyoming), resulted in the wounding of a Cheyenne warrior. He returned to the Cheyenne on the plains. During the summer of 1856, Indians attacked travelers along the Emigrant Trail near Fort Kearny. In retaliation, the US Cavalry attacked a Cheyenne camp on Grand Island in Nebraska. They killed ten Cheyenne warriors and wounded eight or more.


title: Cheyenne

text: Cheyenne parties attacked at least three emigrant settler parties before returning to the Republican River. The Indian agent at Fort Laramie negotiated with the Cheyenne to reduce hostilities, but the Secretary of War ordered the 1st Cavalry Regiment (1855) to carry out a punitive expedition under the command of Colonel Edwin V. Sumner. He went against the Cheyenne in the spring of 1857. Major John Sedgwick led part of the expedition up the Arkansas River, and via Fountain Creek to the South Platte River. Sumner's command went west along the North Platte to Fort Laramie, then down along the Front Range to the South Platte. The combined force of 400 troops went east through the plains searching for Cheyenne.


title: Cheyenne

text: Under the influence of the medicine man White Bull (also called Ice) and Grey Beard (also called Dark), the Cheyenne went into battle believing that strong spiritual medicine would prevent the soldiers' guns from firing. They were told that if they dipped their hands in a nearby spring, they had only to raise their hands to repel army bullets. Hands raised, the Cheyenne surrounded the advancing troops as they advanced near the Solomon River. Sumner ordered a cavalry charge and the troops charged with drawn sabers; the Cheyenne fled. With tired horses after long marches, the cavalry could not engage more than a few Cheyenne, as their horses were fresh.


title: Cheyenne

text: This was the first battle which the Cheyenne fought against the US Army. Casualties were few on each side; J.E.B. Stuart, then a young lieutenant, was shot in the breast while attacking a Cheyenne warrior with a sabre. The troops continued on and two days later burned a hastily abandoned Cheyenne camp; they destroyed lodges and the winter supply of buffalo meat.


title: Cheyenne

text: Sumner continued to Bent's Fort. To punish the Cheyenne, he distributed their annuities to the Arapaho. He intended further punitive actions, but the Army ordered him to Utah because of an outbreak of trouble with the Mormons (this would be known as the Utah War). The Cheyenne moved below the Arkansas into Kiowa and Comanche country. In the fall, the Northern Cheyenne returned to their country north of the Platte.


title: Cheyenne

text: Starting in 1859 with the Colorado Gold Rush, European-American settlers moved into lands reserved for the Cheyenne and other Plains Indians. Travel greatly increased along the Emigrant Trail along the South Platte River and some emigrants stopped before going on to California. For several years there was peace between settlers and Indians. The only conflicts were related to the endemic warfare between the Cheyenne and Arapaho of the plains and the Utes of the mountains.


title: Cheyenne

text: US negotiations with Black Kettle and other Cheyenne favoring peace resulted in the Treaty of Fort Wise: it established a small reservation for the Cheyenne in southeastern Colorado in exchange for the territory agreed to in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. Many Cheyenne did not sign the treaty, and they continued to live and hunt on their traditional grounds in the Smokey Hill and Republican basins, between the Arkansas and the South Platte, where there were plentiful buffalo.


title: Cheyenne

text: Efforts to make a wider peace continued, but in the spring of 1864, John Evans, governor of Colorado Territory, and John Chivington, commander of the Colorado Volunteers, a citizens militia, began a series of attacks on Indians camping or hunting on the plains. They killed any Indian on sight and initiated the Colorado War. General warfare broke out and Indians made many raids on the trail along the South Platte, which Denver depended on for supplies. The Army closed the road from August 15 until September 24, 1864.


title: Cheyenne

text: On November 29, 1864, the Colorado Militia attacked a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment under Chief Black Kettle, although it flew a flag of truce and indicated its allegiance to the US government. The Sand Creek massacre, as it came to be known, resulted in the death of between 150 and 200 Cheyenne, mostly unarmed women and children. The survivors fled northeast and joined the camps of the Cheyenne on the Smokey Hill and Republican rivers. There warriors smoked the war pipe, passing it from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho.


title: Cheyenne

text: In January 1865, they planned and carried out an attack with about 1000 warriors on Camp Rankin, a stage station and fort at Julesburg. The Indians made numerous raids along the South Platte, both east and west of Julesburg, and raided the fort again in early February. They captured much loot and killed many European Americans. Most of the Indians moved north into Nebraska on their way to the Black Hills and the Powder River. (See Battle of Julesburg, Battle of Mud Springs, Battle of Rush Creek, Powder River Expedition, Battle of Platte Bridge)


title: Cheyenne

text: Black Kettle continued to desire peace and did not join in the second raid or in the plan to go north to the Powder River country. He left the large camp and returned with 80 lodges of his tribesmen to the Arkansas River, where he intended to seek peace with the US.


title: Cheyenne

text: Four years later, on November 27, 1868, George Armstrong Custer and his troops attacked Black Kettle's band at the Battle of Washita River. Although his band was camped on a defined reservation, complying with the government's orders, some of its members had been linked to raiding into Kansas by bands operating out of the Indian Territory. Custer claimed 103 Cheyenne "warriors" and an unspecified number of women and children killed whereas different Cheyenne informants named between 11 and 18 men (mostly 10 Cheyenne, 2 Arapaho, 1 Mexican trader) and between 17 and 25 women and children killed in the village.


title: Cheyenne

text: There are conflicting claims as to whether the band was hostile or friendly. Historians believe that Chief Black Kettle, head of the band, was not part of the war party but the peace party within the Cheyenne nation. But, he did not command absolute authority over members of his band and the European Americans did not understand this. When younger members of the band took part in raiding parties, European Americans blamed the entire band for the incidents and casualties.


title: Cheyenne

text: The Northern Cheyenne fought in the Battle of the Little Bighorn, which took place on June 25, 1876. The Cheyenne, together with the Lakota, other Sioux warriors and a small band of Arapaho, killed General George Armstrong Custer and much of his 7th Cavalry contingent of soldiers. Historians have estimated that the population of the Cheyenne, Lakota and Arapaho encampment along the Little Bighorn River was approximately 10,000, making it one of the largest gatherings of Native Americans in North America in pre-reservation times. News of the event traveled across the United States and reached Washington, D.C., just as the nation was celebrating its Centennial. Public reaction arose in outrage against the Cheyenne.


title: Cheyenne

text: Following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the US Army increased attempts to capture the Cheyenne. In 1879, after the Dull Knife Fight, when Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson, a few Cheyenne chiefs and their people surrendered as well. They were Dull Knife, Standing Elk and Wild Hog with around 130 Cheyenne. Later that year Two Moons surrendered at Fort Keogh, with 300 Cheyenne. The Cheyenne wanted and expected to live on the reservation with the Sioux in accordance to an April 29, 1868 treaty of Fort Laramie, which both Dull Knife and Little Wolf had signed.


title: Cheyenne

text: As part of a US increase in troops following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the Army reassigned Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie and his Fourth Cavalry to the Department of the Platte. Stationed initially at Camp Robinson, they formed the core of the Powder River Expedition. It departed in October 1876 to locate the northern Cheyenne villages. On November 25, 1876, his column discovered and defeated a village of Northern Cheyenne in the Dull Knife Fight in Wyoming Territory. After the soldiers destroyed the lodges and supplies and confiscated the horses, the Northern Cheyenne soon surrendered. They hoped to remain with the Sioux in the north but the US pressured them to locate with the Southern Cheyenne on their reservation in Indian Territory. After a difficult council, the Northern Cheyenne eventually agreed to go South.


title: Cheyenne

text: When the Northern Cheyenne arrived at Indian Territory, conditions were very difficult: rations were inadequate, there were no buffalo near the reservation and, according to several sources, there was malaria among the people. On 9 September 1878, a portion of the Northern Cheyenne, led by Little Wolf and Dull Knife started their trek back to the north. After fighting battles with the U.S. army at Turkey Springs and Punished Woman's Fork and reaching the northern area, they split into two bands. That led by Dull Knife (mostly women, children and elders) surrendered and were taken to Fort Robinson, where subsequent events became known as the Fort Robinson tragedy. Dull Knife's group was first offered food and firewood and then, after a week and a half, they were told to go back to Indian territory. When they said no, they were then locked in the wooden barracks with no food, water or firewood for heat for four days. Most escaped in an estimated forty degrees below zero on January 9, 1879, but all were recaptured or killed.


title: Cheyenne

text: The Cheyenne who traveled to Fort Keogh (present-day Miles City, Montana), including Little Wolf, settled near the fort. Many of the Cheyenne worked with the army as scouts. The Cheyenne scouts were pivotal in helping the Army find Chief Joseph and his band of Nez Percé in northern Montana. Fort Keogh became a staging and gathering point for the Northern Cheyenne. Many families began to migrate south to the Tongue River watershed area, where they established homesteads.


title: Cheyenne

text: The US established the Tongue River Indian Reservation, now named the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation, of by the executive order of President Chester A. Arthur November 16, 1884. It excluded Cheyenne who had homesteaded further east near the Tongue River. The western boundary is the Crow Indian Reservation. On March 19, 1900, President William McKinley extended the reservation to the west bank of the Tongue River, making a total of . Those who had homesteaded east of the Tongue River were relocated to the west of the river.


title: Cheyenne

text: The Northern Cheyenne, who were sharing the Lakota land at Pine Ridge Indian Reservation were finally allowed to return to the Tongue River on their own reservation. Along with the Lakota and Apache, the Cheyenne were the last nations to be overpowered and forced on reservations. (The Seminole tribe of Florida never made a treaty with the US government.)


title: Cheyenne

text: The Northern Cheyenne were given the right to remain in the north, near the Black Hills, land which they consider sacred. The Cheyenne also managed to retain their culture, religion and language. Today, the Northern Cheyenne Nation is one of the few American Indian nations to have control over the majority of its land base, currently 98%.


title: Cheyenne

text: Over the past 400 years, the Cheyenne have changed their lifestyles. In the 16th century, they lived in the regions near the Great Lakes. They farmed corn, squash, and beans, and harvested wild rice like other indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands. They migrated west in the 18th century and hunted bison on the Great Plains. By the mid-19th century, the US forced them onto reservations.


title: Cheyenne

text: The traditional Cheyenne government system is a politically unified system. The central traditional government system of the Cheyenne is the Arrow Keeper, followed by the Council of Forty-Four. Early in Cheyenne history, three related tribes, known as the "Heviqsnipahis", the "Só'taeo'o" and the "Masikota", unified themselves to form the "Tsé-tsêhéstâhese" or the "Like Hearted People" who are known today as the "Cheyenne". The unified tribe then divided themselves into ten principal bands:


title: Cheyenne

text: Each of the ten bands had four seated chief delegates; the remaining four chiefs were the principal advisers of the other delegates. Smaller bands or sub-bands had no right to send delegates to the council. This system also regulated the Cheyenne military societies that developed for planning warfare, enforcing rules, and conducting ceremonies.


title: Cheyenne

text: Anthropologists debate about Cheyenne societal organization. On the plains, it appears that they had a bilateral band kinship system. However, some anthropologists reported that the Cheyenne had a matrilineal band system. Studies into whether, and if so, how much the Cheyenne developed a matrilineal clan system are continuing.


title: Cheyenne

text: While they participated in nomadic Plains horse culture, men hunted and occasionally fought with and raided other tribes. The women tanned and dressed hides for clothing, shelter, and other uses. They also gathered roots, berries, and other useful plants. From the products of hunting and gathering, the women also made lodges, clothing, and other equipment. Their lives were active and physically demanding. The Cheyenne held territory in and near the Black Hills, but later all the Great Plains from Dakota to the Arkansas River.


title: Cheyenne

text: A Cheyenne woman has a higher status if she is part of an extended family with distinguished ancestors. Also, if she is friendly and compatible with her female relatives and does not have members in her extended family who are alcoholics or otherwise in disrepute. It is expected of all Cheyenne women to be hardworking, chaste, modest, skilled in traditional crafts, knowledgeable about Cheyenne culture and history and speak Cheyenne fluently. Tribal powwow princesses are expected to have these characteristics.


title: Cheyenne

text: An infusion of the pulverized leaves and blossoms of tansy is used for dizziness and weakness. They give dried leaves of Sagittaria cuneata to horses for urinary troubles and for a sore mouth.


title: Cheyenne

text: "Please list 20th and 21st-century Cheyenne people under their specific tribes, Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes and Northern Cheyenne Tribe of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation."


title: Foo fighter

text: The term foo fighter was used by Allied aircraft pilots during World War II to describe various UFOs or mysterious aerial phenomena seen in the skies over both the European and Pacific theaters of operations.


title: Foo fighter

text: Though "foo fighter" initially described a type of UFO reported and named by the U.S. 415th Night Fighter Squadron, the term was also commonly used to mean any UFO sighting from that period. Formally reported from November 1944 onwards, foo fighters were presumed by witnesses to be secret weapons employed by the enemy.


title: Foo fighter

text: The Robertson Panel explored possible explanations, for instance that they were electrostatic phenomena similar to St. Elmo's fire, electromagnetic phenomena, or simply reflections of light from ice crystals.


title: Foo fighter

text: The nonsense word "foo" emerged in popular culture during the early 1930s, first being used by cartoonist Bill Holman, who peppered his "Smokey Stover" fireman cartoon strips with "foo" signs and puns.


title: Foo fighter

text: The term "foo" was borrowed from "Smokey Stover" by a radar operator in the 415th Night Fighter Squadron, Donald J. Meiers, who, according to most 415th members, gave the foo fighters their name. Meiers was from Chicago and was an avid reader of Holman's strip, which was run daily in the "Chicago Tribune". Smokey Stover's catch-phrase was "where there's foo, there's fire". In a mission debriefing on the evening of November 27, 1944, Frederic "Fritz" Ringwald, the unit's S-2 Intelligence Officer, stated that Meiers and Pilot Lt. Ed Schleuter had sighted a red ball of fire that appeared to chase them through a variety of high-speed maneuvers. Ringwald said that Meiers was extremely agitated and had a copy of the comic strip tucked in his back pocket. He pulled it out and slammed it down on Ringwald's desk and said, "[I]t was another one of those fuckin' foo fighters!" and stormed out of the debriefing room.


title: Foo fighter

text: According to Ringwald, because of the lack of a better name, it stuck. And this was originally what the men of the 415th started calling these incidents: "fuckin' foo fighters". In December 1944, a press correspondent from the Associated Press in Paris, Bob Wilson, was sent to the 415th at their base outside of Dijon, France, to investigate this story. It was at this time that the term was cleaned up to just "foo fighters". The squadron commander, Capt. Harold Augsperger, also decided to sanitize the term to "foo fighters" in the historical data of the squadron.


title: Foo fighter

text: Other proposed origins of the term have been a corruption of the French "feu" for fire, and a corruption of the military acronym FUBAR (fucked up beyond all recognition).


title: Foo fighter

text: Although Royal Air Force personnel had reported seeing lights following their aircraft from as early as March 1942, with similar sightings involving RAF bomber crews over the Balkans starting in April 1944, American sightings were first recorded by crews from the 422nd Night-Fighter Squadron stationed in Occupied Belgium during the first week of October 1944. At the time, these were erroneously believed to be Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-powered interceptors which did not operate at night. However, the bulk of the sightings started occurring in the last week of November 1944, when pilots flying over Western Europe by night reported seeing fast-moving round glowing objects following their aircraft. The objects were variously described as fiery, and glowing red, white, or orange. Some pilots described them as resembling Christmas-tree lights and reported that they seemed to toy with the aircraft, making wild turns before simply vanishing. Pilots and aircrew reported that the objects flew together in formation with their aircraft and behaved as if they were under intelligent control, but never displayed hostile behavior. However, they could not be outmaneuvered or shot down. The phenomenon was so widespread that the lights earned a name – in the European Theater of Operations they were often called "Kraut fireballs", but for the most part called "foo fighters". The military took the sightings seriously, suspecting that the mysterious sightings might be secret German weapons, but further investigation revealed that German and Japanese pilots had reported similar sightings.


title: Foo fighter

text: On 13 December 1944, the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force in Paris issued a press release, which was featured in "The New York Times" the next day, officially describing the phenomenon as a "new German weapon". Follow-up stories, using the term "Foo Fighters", appeared in the "New York Herald Tribune" and the British "Daily Telegraph".


title: Foo fighter

text: In its 15 January 1945 edition, "Time" magazine carried a story titled "Foo-Fighter", in which it reported that the "balls of fire" had been following USAAF night fighters for over a month, and that the pilots had named it the "foo-fighter". According to "Time", descriptions of the phenomena varied, but the pilots agreed that the mysterious lights followed their aircraft closely at high speed.


title: Foo fighter

text: The "balls of fire" phenomenon reported from the Pacific Theater of Operations differed somewhat from the foo fighters reported from Europe; the "ball of fire" resembled a large burning sphere that "just hung in the sky", though it was reported to sometimes follow aircraft. There was speculation that the phenomena could be related to the Japanese fire balloon campaign. As with the European foo fighters, no aircraft were reported as having been attacked by a "ball of fire".


title: Foo fighter

text: The postwar Robertson Panel cited foo fighter reports, noting that their behavior did not appear to be threatening, and mentioned possible explanations, for instance that they were electrostatic phenomena similar to St. Elmo's fire, electromagnetic phenomena, or simply reflections of light from ice crystals. The Panel's report suggested that "If the term 'flying saucers' had been popular in 1943–1945, these objects would have been so labeled."


title: Foo fighter

text: The 415th Night-Fighter Squadron's Intelligence Officer, Captain Ringwald, sent a report listing 14 separate incidents in December 1944 and early January 1945 to the intelligence section at XII Tactical Air Command, the unit's immediate superiors at 64th Fighter Wing being unable to offer any answers. Without answers of their own, XII TAC requested assistance from their opposite numbers at Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), in Paris. SHAEF had no knowledge of the phenomenon and asked if the British Air Ministry in London had any information. The Air Ministry's explanation for the Foo Fighter phenomenon was received on 13 March 1945:


title: Foo fighter

text: A group of scientists, engineers and former high-ranking Luftwaffe officers were questioned about wartime "Balls of Fire" reports by staff from United States Air Force in Europe's intelligence section in the early autumn of 1945. None of the thirteen interviewed claimed any knowledge of a German secret weapons program that could have explained the sightings.


title: Foo fighter

text: The author Renato Vesco revived the wartime theory that the foo fighters were a Nazi secret weapon in his work "Intercept UFO", reprinted in a revised English edition as "Man-Made UFOs: 50 Years of Suppression" in 1994. Vesco claims that the foo fighters were in fact a form of ground-launched, automatically guided, jet-propelled flak mine called the "Feuerball" (Fireball). This device, supposedly operated by special SS units, resembled a tortoise shell in shape, and it flew by means of gas jets that spun like a Catherine wheel around the fuselage. Miniature klystron tubes inside the device, in combination with the gas jets, created the characteristic glowing spheroid appearance of the foo fighters. A crude form of collision avoidance radar ensured the craft would not crash into another airborne object, and an onboard sensor mechanism would even instruct the machine to depart swiftly if it was fired upon. The purpose of the "Feuerball", according to Vesco, was twofold. The appearance of this weird device inside a bomber stream would (and indeed did) have a distracting and disruptive effect on the bomber pilots. Also, Vesco alleges that the devices were also intended to have an "offensive" capability. Electrostatic discharges from the klystron tubes would, he stated, interfere with the ignition systems of the bombers, causing the engines to stall and the planes to crash. Although there is no hard evidence to support the reality of the "Feuerball" drone, this theory has been taken up by other aviation/ufology authors, and it has even been cited by some as the most likely explanation for the phenomena in at least one recent TV "documentary" on Nazi secret weapons. However, others cite the single-sourced nature of the claims, the complete lack of evidence supporting them, and the implausible capabilities of the supposed device as marking this explanation as nonsense.


title: Foo fighter

text: Any type of electrical discharge from the wings of airplanes (see St. Elmo's Fire) has been suggested as an explanation, since it has been known to appear at the wingtips of aircraft. It has also been pointed out that some of the descriptions of foo fighters closely resemble those of ball lightning.


title: Foo fighter

text: During April 1945, the U.S. Navy began to experiment on visual illusions as experienced by nighttime aviators. This work began the U.S. Navy's Bureau of Medicine (BUMED) project X-148-AV-4-3. This project pioneered the study of aviators' vertigo and was initiated because a wide variety of anomalous events were being reported by nighttime aviators. Dr. Edgar Vinacke, who was the prime flight psychologist on this project, summarized the need for a cohesive and systemic outline of the epidemiology of aviators' vertigo:


title: Gary Brooker

text: Gary Brooker (29 May 1945 – 19 February 2022) was an English singer and pianist, and the founder and lead singer of the rock band Procol Harum.


title: Gary Brooker

text: Born in Hackney Hospital, East London, on 29 May 1945, Brooker grew up in Hackney before the family moved out to Middlesex (Bush Hill Park and then to nearby Edmonton). His father Harry Brooker was a professional musician, playing pedal steel guitar with Felix Mendelssohn's Hawaiian Serenaders, and as a child Brooker learned to play piano, cornet, and trombone. In 1954 the family moved to the seaside resort of Southend-on-Sea, Essex, where Brooker attended Westcliff High School for Boys. His father died of a heart attack when Gary was 11 years old, forcing his mother to work in order to make ends meet, while Brooker himself took on a paper-round. When he left school, he went on to Southend Municipal College to study zoology and botany but dropped out to become a professional musician.


title: Gary Brooker

text: Brooker founded the Paramounts in 1962 with his guitarist friend, Robin Trower. The band gained respect within the burgeoning 1960s British R&B scene, which yielded the Beatles, the Animals, the Spencer Davis Group, the Rolling Stones, and many others. The Rolling Stones, in particular, were Paramounts fans, sharing the stage with them several times in the early 1960s.


title: Gary Brooker

text: In 1966, Brooker founded Procol Harum with his friend Keith Reid. "A Whiter Shade of Pale" is the worldwide hit for which Procol Harum is best known, but Brooker's melancholic vocals and emotive, eclectic piano playing were a key part of the band's musical mix. In the early years Brooker, Hammond organist Matthew Fisher, and Trower were the guiding musical forces behind the band, but after disparities in style became too much and Fisher and Trower left, Brooker was the clear leader. Brooker started a solo career and released the album "No More Fear of Flying" in 1979.


title: Gary Brooker

text: The same year, Brooker joined friend and neighbour Eric Clapton's band. With Brooker in the line-up, they released the studio album "Another Ticket". Clapton fired the entire band in 1981, but he and Brooker remained good friends afterwards, and were for many years neighbours in the Surrey Hills. Brooker joined Clapton for several one-off benefit gigs over the years. Brooker sang lead vocal on the Alan Parsons Project song "Limelight", on their 1985 album, "Stereotomy". Brooker sang the lead vocal of the song "No News from the Western Frontier", a single taken from the album "Hi-Tec Heroes" by the Dutch performer Ad Visser.


title: Gary Brooker

text: A new incarnation of Procol Harum, led by Brooker, continued touring the world, celebrating its 40th anniversary in July 2007 with two days of musical revels at St John's, Smith Square, in London. Brooker also toured with Ringo Starr's All-Starr Band in 1997 and 1999, and he was also a member of Bill Wyman's Rhythm Kings for several years, appearing on three of their albums and touring with the band. On 28 September 1996, as the Gary Brooker Ensemble, he organized a charity concert to raise funds for his local church, St Mary and All Saints, in Surrey. The resulting live CD of the concert, "Within Our House", originally released on a fan club CD in a limited run of 1000 units, later became a collectable recording. His guests and supporting artists included Dave Bronze, Michael Bywater, Mark Brzezicki, and Robbie McIntosh.


title: Gary Brooker

text: Also in 1996, Brooker appeared in the Alan Parker film adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber's "Evita" starring Madonna, Jonathan Pryce, and Antonio Banderas. Playing the part of Juan Atilio Bramuglia, he sang the song "Rainbow Tour" with Peter Polycarpou and Antonio Banderas. Brooker said that his greatest single earning in his career was from his appearance in the film.


title: Gary Brooker

text: Brooker contributed to George Harrison's albums "All Things Must Pass" (1970), "Somewhere in England" (1981) and "Gone Troppo" (1982). On 29 November 2002 he was among musicians and singers participating in the Harrison tribute concert, Concert for George, at which he sang lead vocals on their version of "Old Brown Shoe".


title: Gary Brooker

text: In April 2005, as part of the Gary Brooker Ensemble, he played a sold out charity concert at Guildford Cathedral in aid of the tsunami appeal, playing a mixture of Procol Harum and solo songs and arrangements of classical and spiritual songs. His guests and supporting artists included Andy Fairweather Low and Paul Jones (ex-Manfred Mann).


title: Gary Brooker

text: On 28 October 2009, Brooker was presented with a BASCA in recognition of his unique contribution to music. In 2011 he organised and performed in a concert at his home Wintershall, in Bramley, Surrey, in aid of the charity HASTE (Heart and Stroke Trust Endeavour). His guest musicians included Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Andy Fairweather Low, Georgie Fame, and Lulu.


title: Gary Brooker

text: In May 2012, Procol Harum were forced to cancel the remainder of their dates in South Africa after Brooker fractured his skull following a fall in his hotel room in Cape Town. The fall came on Brooker's 67th birthday. The band was part of the British Invasion Tour of South Africa along with the Moody Blues and 10cc. Brooker again fell injuring himself, during the interval of a Procol Harum concert at London's Royal Festival Hall in March 2017. Returning to the stage after a longer than expected interval, Brooker's head was bandaged and it was later discovered that he had broken a finger. However, they continued touring until 2019, playing their final gig in Switzerland.


title: Gary Brooker

text: In July 1968, Brooker married Françoise Riedo ("Franky"), a Swiss au pair, whom he met circa 1965. The couple had no children.


title: Gary Brooker

text: Brooker was a supporter of the Countryside Alliance and played in concerts to raise funds for the organization. On 14 June 2003, he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2003 Queen's Birthday Honours, in recognition of his charitable services.


title: Gary Brooker

text: In 2005, former Procol Harum organist Matthew Fisher filed suit in the High Court against Brooker and his publisher, claiming that he co-wrote the music for the song. Fisher won the case on 20 December 2006 but was awarded 40% of the composers' share of the music copyright, rather than the 50% he was seeking and was not granted royalties for the period before 2005.


title: IPhone 3G

text: The iPhone 3G (also known as iPhone 2) is a smartphone that was designed and marketed by Apple Inc.; it is the second generation of iPhone, successor to the original iPhone, and was introduced on June 9, 2008, at the WWDC 2008 at the Moscone Center in San Francisco, United States.


title: IPhone 3G

text: The iPhone 3G is internally similar to its predecessor, but included several new hardware features, such as GPS, 3G data and tri-band UMTS/HSDPA. The device was originally loaded with the concurrently launched iPhone OS 2.0. In addition to other features (including push email and turn-by-turn navigation), this new operating system introduced the App StoreApple's new distribution platform for third-party applications.


title: IPhone 3G

text: On July 11, 2008, Apple released the iPhone 3G across twenty-two countries in two storage options, 8 GB and 16 GB. The 16 GB model was produced in either black or white. It was sold for a suggested retail price of $199 (US) for the 8 GB model and $299 (US) for the 16 GB model.


title: IPhone 3G

text: Following the release of the successor iPhone 3GS model one year later, the iPhone 3G remained on sale but became Apple's budget phone offer, with its price reduced. This $99 iPhone 3G required a two-year contract and was available only in black and with 8 GB of storage, but came bundled with the then-new IPhone OS 3.0 firmware. Without a contract, the iPhone 3G was available no-commitment from AT&T for $499 (8 GB) or $549 (16 GB) in 2009. On June 7, 2010, the iPhone 3G was finally discontinued, and replaced as Apple's budget phone by an 8 GB iPhone 3GS selling for $99 with a 2-year contract.


title: IPhone 3G

text: In 2008, Import Genius, a provider of business intelligence for the import-export industry, used electronic customs clearance data, which is published by U.S. Customs and Border Protection pursuant to the Freedom of Information Act, to detect the arrival of the iPhone 3G prior to Apple's announcement.