text: Evening Dress is the most formal (and by U.S. military standards, the most elaborate) of the dress uniforms, and is the equivalent of white tie in usage. It is authorized for wear only by officers and SNCOs, and a required uniform item only for senior officers (majors and above). It comes in three varieties:


title: Uniforms of the United States Marine Corps

text: A blue boatcloak with a scarlet liner is optional. Junior officers not required to possess Evening Dress may substitute Blue or Blue-White dress "A". It is appropriate for such occasions as state functions, inaugural receptions and dinners, and formal dinners.


text: The service uniform consists of green and khaki colors. The present service uniform of the USMC for enlisted Marines was adopted in 1943 making it the oldest service uniform still in use by the United States armed forces. It is roughly equivalent in formality and function to a business suit.


text: There are two types of authorized headwear for the service uniform. Both men and women may wear the green soft garrison cap, sometimes nicknamed a "piss cutter". There is the option of wearing a peaked cap (called a barracks cover). The design of these covers had differed between women and men. However, in late 2013, the Commandant of the Marine Corps approved the Marine Corps Uniform Board's recommendation to adopt the male dress and service cap as the universal dress and service cap for all Marines, male and female. As on the Blue Dress uniform, officers wear rank insignia on the shoulder epaulettes of their jackets and the collars of their shirts, while enlisted personnel wear rank insignia sewn on their sleeves.


text: A green crewneck sweater (originally adopted from British Army and Royal Marines issue) in the same color shade as that of the trousers may be worn with the "B" and "C" uniforms. When wearing the crewneck sweater with the long sleeve khaki shirt, a tie is not required.


text: The Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform or MCCUU is intended for wear in the field or for working parties but has become the typical working uniform for all deployed and most garrison Marines and Sailors. Previously, Marines wore the same utility uniforms as the Army. Unlike the dress and service uniforms, utility uniforms are not permitted for wear on leave or liberty (i.e., while off-duty), except when traveling in a vehicle between a place of duty and a residence, or in emergency stops.


text: The uniform consists of a camouflage blouse and trousers, green undershirt, and tan (specifically "olive mojave") suede boots. The uniform uses MARPAT digital camouflage patterns, of which there are two approved varieties. The first is a four-color woodland pattern in green, tan, brown, and black, while the other is a three-color desert pattern in tan, brown, and grey. Both officers and enlisted Marines wear pin-on rank insignia on each collar point. Enlisted insignia is always black, while officers wear bright metal insignia in garrison and subdued insignia in the field. Most badges and breast insignia are authorized for wear on the utility uniform, shined or subdued as appropriate.


text: The variety worn depends on the environment; deployed Marines wear whichever color is more appropriate to the climate and terrain. The desert MCCUU is only worn in appropriate field environments During the summer months, Marines in garrison will roll the sleeves of the woodland blouse, tightly folded up to the biceps, exposing the lighter inside layer, and forming a neat cuff to present a crisper appearance to the otherwise formless uniform. In the past, when Marines wore the same utilities as the Army and Air Force, this served to distinguish them from the other branches, who folded the sleeves in with the camo facing out. In Haiti, the practice earned them the nickname "whitesleeves".


text: The approved headwear is the utility cover, an eight-pointed brimmed hat that is worn "blocked", that is, creased and peaked. In the field, a boonie cover is also authorized. The trouser legs are "bloused", or the cuffs are rolled inside and tightened over their boots with a spring or elastic band known as a "boot band" or "blousing garter". With the introduction of the Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP), Marines now wear a color-coded MCMAP belt or rigger instead of the old web belt, indicating their level of proficiency in MCMAP (the web belt was phased out in 2008 due to a requirement for all Marines to achieve a tan belt rank by then).


text: In combat, Marines will also wear one of two ballistic vests: the Outer Tactical Vest and the newer Modular Tactical Vest, as well as the Lightweight Helmet (replacing the PASGT helmet) and Improved Load Bearing Equipment. Marines in a combat area may also wear Flame Resistant Organizational Gear, or FROG uniforms. These combat uniforms are designed to reduce fire-related injuries, and look quite similar to the MCCUU. Other individual equipment may be worn as directed.


text: In addition, Marines can wear a watch cap and gloves in cold weather, or a hydration pack to prevent dehydration.


text: The following items may be worn at the individual's discretion, except when in formation, ceremony, inspection, or when the commander decrees that uniformity is required:


text: Working uniforms will be worn when the individual's duties require, to include coveralls, flight suits, cooking uniforms, and other safety clothing like goggles, gloves, or aprons.


text: Like any uniform, Marine uniforms have many accoutrements whose symbolism may not be obvious. One of the most notable adornments is the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor, found in some manner on most uniforms; it is even within the MARPAT digital camouflage pattern. It is also the standard cap badge for all uniform covers. An to the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor can be .


text: The "blood stripe" is found on the outside seams of the dress uniform trousers of NCOs, SNCOs, and officers. Tradition holds that it represents the high casualty rates of those leaders during the Battle of Chapultepec. Officers wearing the Evening Dress uniform also have additional gold trim on the trouser stripe.


text: Various uniforms display rank insignia differently. Enlisted Marines will wear chevrons on the sleeves of all uniforms but the Utility and other working uniforms: gold stripes on red for the Dress coat, green stripes on red for the service coat, green stripes on khaki for the khaki short and long sleeve shirts, and black metal or plastic pin-on insignia on the collar of the utility and other working uniforms and the all-weather coat. The same insignia is pinned on the epaulettes of the wool sweaters and tanker jacket. Officers will wear large insignia on the epaulettes of dress, evening dress, and service coats as well as sweaters and tanker jacket; smaller insignia is worn on the collar of all other uniforms (officers in a combat environment may wear subdued insignia, where flat black replaces silver and flat brown replaces gold). Chief Warrant Officers who are designated "Infantry Weapons Officer" with an MOS of 0306 (also known as "Marine Gunner") (or historically those in a combat arms MOS, which included artillery and communications among others during the Korean War era) replace their left insignia with a gold or black bursting bomb. Navy personnel authorized to wear Marine uniforms wear their assigned rate. Musicians in the United States Marine Band replace the crossed rifle in their insignia with lyres to denote their non-combat role.


text: Marines wear awards in several ways. Large medals are authorized only on the Dress "A" uniform, while awards for which no medal was struck will have ribbons mounted on the opposite pocket. Miniature medals are worn on the Evening Dress uniform, and are authorized for wear with civilian tuxedos when appropriate to the event. Other dress and service uniforms are worn with ribbons and weapon qualification badges, though the unit commander may decide to forgo the latter. Breast insignia, also known as badges, are similarly worn, though individuals have the option of wearing subdued insignia on the utility uniform.


text: The buttons on the dress and service coats are reminiscent of Marine insignia prior to the adoption of the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor. The quatrefoil—the cross-shaped braid worn atop an officer's cover—is a distinguishing part of the Marine officer's uniform. The design is of French origin, and is a tradition from the pre-Civil War era when officers wore a rope cross on their caps to allow sharpshooters high in the rigging of a sailing ship to identify his allies in a battle. Enlisted Marines wear service stripes on the cuff of the dress and service coats, each stripe denoting four years of service as a Marine. The standing collar of the dress coat is reminiscent of the uniform that earned Marines the nickname "Leatherneck".


text: Green cartridge belts or brassards can be worn by personnel in an authoritative or ceremonial duty status (such as drill instructors or fire watch sentries), wearing such items regards the individuals as "under arms" whether they are actually carrying a weapon or not. As such, they do not uncover indoors. During ceremonies, officers have the option of wearing a Sam Browne belt and the Mameluke sword, and Noncommissioned Officers may wear the NCO sword. The current Mameluke sword is modeled on the sword presented to First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon by the Ottoman Empire viceroy, Prince Hamet, in 1804, during the First Barbary War, as a gesture of respect and praise for the Marines' actions at the Battle of Derne.


text: Members of the 5th and 6th Marine Regiments wear the French Fourragère to represent the multiple awards of the Croix de Guerre by the French government in World War I.


text: Navy officers and enlisted sailors assigned to Marine units are authorized to wear all Marine uniforms except the Dress and Evening Dress uniforms. When wearing Marine uniforms, Navy personnel must meet and adhere to Marine grooming and physical regulations, as well as replace Marine insignia with U.S. Navy insignia whenever feasible. These members of the Fleet Marine Force include doctors, dentists, nurses, medical service, hospital corpsmen, chaplains, religious program specialists, lawyers, legalmen, naval gunfire liaison officers, divers, and Naval Academy midshipmen who are selected for Marine officership.


text: Most Marine units will have, at minimum, Navy medical and religious personnel, who will be issued and required to wear the MCCUU; wear of other Marine uniforms is optional. Medical battalions and dental battalions, being almost entirely Navy officers and sailors, may direct other uniform wear. Other units, such as artillery, aviation, or legal units, may have other Navy personnel attached, and issued Marine uniforms.


text: Marines are sometimes confused with United States Army soldiers, but there are several significant differences:


title: Heredity

text: Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents. Through heredity, variations between individuals can accumulate and cause species to evolve by natural selection. The study of heredity in biology is genetics.


title: Heredity

text: In humans, eye color is an example of an inherited characteristic: an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of the parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome is called its genotype.


title: Heredity

text: The complete set of observable traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits arise from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in their genotype: a striking example is people with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.


title: Heredity

text: Heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a long polymer that incorporates four types of bases, which are interchangeable. The Nucleic acid sequence (the sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule) specifies the genetic information: this is comparable to a sequence of letters spelling out a passage of text. Before a cell divides through mitosis, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. A portion of a DNA molecule that specifies a single functional unit is called a gene; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes. Organisms inherit genetic material from their parents in the form of homologous chromosomes, containing a unique combination of DNA sequences that code for genes. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a particular locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism.


title: Heredity

text: However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by multiple interacting genes within and among organisms. Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlie some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalization.


title: Heredity

text: Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that cannot be explained by direct agency of the DNA molecule. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes. Research into modes and mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance is still in its scientific infancy, but this area of research has attracted much recent activity as it broadens the scope of heritability and evolutionary biology in general. DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference, and the three dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level. Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effect that modifies and feeds back into the selection regime of subsequent generations. Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors. Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits, group heritability, and symbiogenesis. These examples of heritability that operate above the gene are covered broadly under the title of multilevel or hierarchical selection, which has been a subject of intense debate in the history of evolutionary science.


title: Heredity

text: When Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in 1859, one of its major problems was the lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity. Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits (pangenesis). Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and then would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act. This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas in later editions of "On the Origin of Species" and his later biological works. Darwin's primary approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared to work (noticing that traits that were not expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction could be inherited, that certain traits could be sex-linked, etc.) rather than suggesting mechanisms.


title: Heredity

text: Darwin's initial model of heredity was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin Francis Galton, who laid the framework for the biometric school of heredity. Galton found no evidence to support the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model, which relied on acquired traits.


title: Heredity

text: The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the 1880s when August Weismann cut the tails off many generations of mice and found that their offspring continued to develop tails.


title: Heredity

text: Scientists in Antiquity had a variety of ideas about heredity: Theophrastus proposed that male flowers caused female flowers to ripen; Hippocrates speculated that "seeds" were produced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time of conception; and Aristotle thought that male and female fluids mixed at conception. Aeschylus, in 458 BC, proposed the male as the parent, with the female as a "nurse for the young life sown within her".


title: Heredity

text: Ancient understandings of heredity transitioned to two debated doctrines in the 18th century. The Doctrine of Epigenesis and the Doctrine of Preformation were two distinct views of the understanding of heredity. The Doctrine of Epigenesis, originated by Aristotle, claimed that an embryo continually develops. The modifications of the parent's traits are passed off to an embryo during its lifetime. The foundation of this doctrine was based on the theory of inheritance of acquired traits. In direct opposition, the Doctrine of Preformation claimed that "like generates like" where the germ would evolve to yield offspring similar to the parents. The Preformationist view believed procreation was an act of revealing what had been created long before. However, this was disputed by the creation of the cell theory in the 19th century, where the fundamental unit of life is the cell, and not some preformed parts of an organism. Various hereditary mechanisms, including blending inheritance were also envisaged without being properly tested or quantified, and were later disputed. Nevertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds of animals as well as crops through artificial selection. The inheritance of acquired traits also formed a part of early Lamarckian ideas on evolution.


title: Heredity

text: During the 18th century, Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) discovered "animalcules" in the sperm of humans and other animals. Some scientists speculated they saw a "little man" (homunculus) inside each sperm. These scientists formed a school of thought known as the "spermists". They contended the only contributions of the female to the next generation were the womb in which the homunculus grew, and prenatal influences of the womb. An opposing school of thought, the ovists, believed that the future human was in the egg, and that sperm merely stimulated the growth of the egg. Ovists thought women carried eggs containing boy and girl children, and that the gender of the offspring was determined well before conception.


title: Heredity

text: An early research initiative emerged in 1878 when Alpheus Hyatt led an investigation to study the laws of heredity through compiling data on family phenotypes (nose size, ear shape, etc.) and expression of pathological conditions and abnormal characteristics, particularly with respect to the age of appearance. One of the projects aims was to tabulate data to better understand why certain traits are consistently expressed while others are highly irregular.


title: Heredity

text: The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed to the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel who published his work on pea plants in 1865. However, his work was not widely known and was rediscovered in 1901. It was initially assumed that Mendelian inheritance only accounted for large (qualitative) differences, such as those seen by Mendel in his pea plants – and the idea of additive effect of (quantitative) genes was not realised until R.A. Fisher's (1918) paper, "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance" Mendel's overall contribution gave scientists a useful overview that traits were inheritable. His pea plant demonstration became the foundation of the study of Mendelian Traits. These traits can be traced on a single locus.


title: Heredity

text: In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a combination of Mendelian and biometric schools into the modern evolutionary synthesis. The modern synthesis bridged the gap between experimental geneticists and naturalists; and between both and palaeontologists, stating that:


title: Heredity

text: The idea that speciation occurs after populations are reproductively isolated has been much debated. In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation. Formulations such as 'evolution consists primarily of changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and another' were proposed rather later. The traditional view is that developmental biology ('evo-devo') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of Gavin de Beer's work by Stephen Jay Gould suggests he may be an exception.


title: Heredity

text: Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success. There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology. It cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research in the post-World War II era.


title: Heredity

text: Trofim Lysenko however caused a backlash of what is now called Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union when he emphasised Lamarckian ideas on the inheritance of acquired traits. This movement affected agricultural research and led to food shortages in the 1960s and seriously affected the USSR.


title: Heredity

text: There is growing evidence that there is transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic changes in humans and other animals.


title: Heredity

text: These three categories are part of every exact description of a mode of inheritance in the above order. In addition, more specifications may be added as follows:


title: Heredity

text: Determination and description of a mode of inheritance is also achieved primarily through statistical analysis of pedigree data. In case the involved loci are known, methods of molecular genetics can also be employed.


title: Heredity

text: An allele is said to be dominant if it is always expressed in the appearance of an organism (phenotype) provided that at least one copy of it is present. For example, in peas the allele for green pods, "G", is dominant to that for yellow pods, "g". Thus pea plants with the pair of alleles either "GG" (homozygote) or "Gg" (heterozygote) will have green pods. The allele for yellow pods is recessive. The effects of this allele are only seen when it is present in both chromosomes, "gg" (homozygote). This derives from Zygosity, the degree to which both copies of a chromosome or gene have the same genetic sequence, in other words, the degree of similarity of the alleles in an organism.


title: Conner O'Malley

text: Conner O'Malley (born December 20, 1986) is an American comedian, writer and actor. For his work on "Late Night with Seth Meyers", he received three Writers Guild of America Awards nominations. He also produces videos on YouTube and was active on the now defunct social media platform Vine. O'Malley has also appeared on "Broad City" and "Joe Pera Talks with You". He is married to actress and fellow comedian Aidy Bryant.


title: Conner O'Malley

text: O'Malley began his comedy career at the Annoyance Theatre, where he met his future wife, Aidy Bryant. When Aidy was cast on "SNL", the couple moved to New York, and O'Malley began uploading short comedy videos to the social media platform Vine, while working a day job as a dog walker. O'Malley's videos quickly began to gain attention and acclaim, and in 2014, he was hired as a writer for "Late Night with Seth Meyers". While writing for "Late Night", O'Malley also occasionally performed on the show, creating several re-occurring characters, such as "Anniversary Guy", "Stink Mouth PigMan", and "Gørbøn Hausinfrud".


title: Conner O'Malley

text: In addition to writing for "Late Night", O'Malley has also written for "Joe Pera Talks with You", which he also co-starred in as Joe's neighbor Mike Melsky, and the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards. As an actor, O'Malley has been featured in several television shows, most notably "Detroiters", where he played Trevor, Tim's free-wheeling brother, and "Horace and Pete", where he played Eric, the boyfriend of Horace's daughter, played by Bryant. O'Malley has also appeared on "Broad City", and Netflix's "", and has been a recurring guest on "The Chris Gethard Show" since 2013. In 2019, he appeared on "I Think You Should Leave with Tim Robinson" and he appeared in 2021 on HBO's "That Damn Michael Che".


title: Conner O'Malley

text: Since 2016, O'Malley has also frequently posted videos on his YouTube channel, similar to his Vine work.


title: Conner O'Malley

text: O'Malley's videos have shown him playing a manic and aggressive persona with loose thoughts. His Vines, uploaded until the site was defunct, showed him confronting drivers on the street and talking to them in non-sequiturs, and his Twitter videos have included a series of increasingly chaotic and demanding vlogs directed toward presidential candidates Howard Schultz and Beto O'Rourke that have been compared to performance art.


title: Conner O'Malley

text: Shane Ryan, writing for "Paste", said O'Malley's comedy expresses "anger and envy and a sort of perverted worship of wealth and the American dream". O'Malley has also published comedy videos on YouTube that have satirized "InfoWars", South by Southwest and the AVN Awards. Chloe Lizotte, writing for "Reverse Shot", compared O'Malley's work to Adam Curtis and said that his videos "mock the idea that commercial entertainment could stand in for political action or fill a spiritual void."


title: Sunflower oil

text: Sunflower oil is the non-volatile oil pressed from the seeds of the sunflower ("Helianthus annuus"). Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil, and in cosmetic formulations as an emollient.


title: Sunflower oil

text: Sunflower oil is primarily composed of linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fat, and oleic acid, a monounsaturated fat. Through selective breeding and manufacturing processes, oils of differing proportions of the fatty acids are produced. The expressed oil has a neutral taste profile. The oil contains a large amount of vitamin E.


title: Sunflower oil

text: As of 2017, genome analysis and development of hybrid sunflowers to increase oil production are under development to meet greater consumer demand for sunflower oil and its commercial varieties.


title: Sunflower oil

text: Four types of sunflower oils with differing concentrations of fatty acids are produced through plant breeding and industrial processing: high-linoleic, high-oleic, mid-oleic, and high-stearic combined with high-oleic.


title: Sunflower oil

text: In an analysis of the sunflower genome to reveal plant metabolism producing its oil, phytosterols were identified, as confirmed in another analysis of sunflower oil components, including polyphenols, squalene, and terpenoids.


title: Sunflower oil

text: In 2018, world production of sunflower oil was 18 million tonnes, led by Ukraine and Russia as the leading producers accounting together for 53% of the world total.


title: Sunflower oil

text: In 2022, there is a global shortage of sunflower oil due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine which has led to over 50% drop in the availability of sunflower oil. Due to the shortages many brands are reforming their recipes by switching to rapeseed oil to allow the production of their products to continue.


title: Sunflower oil

text: Several varieties of sunflower oil seeds have been developed by standard plant breeding methods, mainly to vary the amounts of oleic acid and linoleic acid which, respectively, are the predominant monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats in sunflower oil. Sunflower oil is a rich source of vitamin E (tables).


title: Sunflower oil

text: Sunflower oil is liquid at room temperature. The refined oil is clear and slightly amber-colored with a slightly fatty odour.


title: Sunflower oil

text: Because sunflower oil is primarily composed of less-stable polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, it can be particularly susceptible to degradation by heat, air, and light, which trigger and accelerate oxidation. Keeping sunflower oil at low temperatures during manufacture and storage can help minimize rancidity and nutrient loss—as can storage in bottles that are made of either darkly-colored glass, or, plastic that has been treated with an ultraviolet light protectant.


title: Sunflower oil

text: Sunflower oil can be extracted using chemical solvents (e.g., hexane), or expeller pressing (i.e., squeezed directly from sunflower seeds by crushing them). "Cold-pressing" (or expeller pressing) sunflower seeds under low-temperature conditions is a method that does not use chemical solvents to derive sunflower seed oil.


title: Sunflower oil

text: Refining sunflower oil through solvent extraction, de-gumming, neutralization, and bleaching can make it more stable and suitable for high-temperature cooking, but doing so will also remove some of the oil's nutrients, flavor, color (resulting in a pale-yellow), free fatty acids, phospholipids, polyphenols, and phytosterols. Also, some of the polyunsaturated fatty acids will be converted into trans fat due to the high temperatures involved in the process. Unrefined sunflower oil is less heat-stable (and therefore well-suited to dishes that are raw, or cooked at low temperatures), but it will retain more of its original nutrient content, flavor, and color (light-amber).


title: Sunflower oil

text: Refined sunflower oil is used for low-to-extremely-high-temperature cooking. As a frying oil, it behaves as a typical vegetable triglyceride. Unrefined sunflower oil is a traditional salad dressing in Eastern European cuisines. Sunflower oil is also an ingredient in sunflower butter.


title: Sunflower oil

text: Extraction of sunflower oil leaves behind the crushed seeds, typically referred to as seed meal, which is rich in protein and dietary fiber and used as an animal feed, fertilizer or fuel.


title: Sunflower oil

text: Sunflower oil dietary supplements have been marketed for treatment of eczema, but research has shown it is not medically effective.


title: Sunflower oil

text: Sunflower oil can be used to run diesel engines when mixed with diesel in the tank. Due to the high levels of unsaturated fats, there is higher viscosity in cold temperatures.


title: Sunflower oil

text: PEG-10 sunflower glycerides, a pale yellow liquid with a "slightly fatty" odor, are the polyethylene glycol derivative of the mono- and diglycerides derived from sunflower seed oil with an average of 10 moles of ethylene oxide. PEG-10 sunflower glycerides are commonly used in cosmetic formulations.


title: Sunflower oil

text: In the European Union, and United Kingdom (since Brexit), sunflower oil is sprayed onto tomato crops as a fungicide to control powdery mildew from "Oidium neolycopersici". For this use it is classified as a 'Basic Substance' that can be used on both organic and conventional farms.


title: Arc'teryx

text: Arc'teryx is a Canadian high-end design company specializing in outdoor apparel and equipment headquartered in North Vancouver, Canada. It focuses on technical apparel for mountaineering and Alpine sports, including related accessories. The company's name and logo reference the "Archaeopteryx", the transitional fossil of early dinosaurs to modern dinosaurs (birds). Arc'teryx is known for their water-resistant Gore-Tex shell jackets, knitwear, and down parkas.


title: Arc'teryx

text: Founded in 1989 as Rock Solid, the company re-branded in 1991 as Arc'teryx to produce outerwear and climbing gear inspired by the Coast Mountains in Canada. The company was sold to Salomon Group in 2001 before being bought out by Amer Sports in 2005 and re-structured under ANTA Sports in 2019. Arc'teryx maintains two divisions: Veilance, their luxury streetwear retailer and LEAF, their retailer of technical gear for law enforcement and military forces.


title: Arc'teryx

text: The company is a major influence in the "gorpcore" fashion movement, the wearing of outdoor apparel in urban settings.


title: Arc'teryx

text: Originally named "Rock Solid" by founder Dave Lane, the company's first line of products was climbing gear. Dave Lane sold his 50% interest to Blair Murdoch and Tim Duholke who became silent partners in 1989. Then-principal Jeremy Guard changed the company name to "Arc'teryx" in 1991 to reflect the company's vision of creating disruptive "evolutionary" innovation within the outdoor products industry. Using a heat laminate (thermolamination) technology, the partners designed and marketed the "Vapor" harness, which would become the company's most popular item. In 1993, after a series of relocations and staff additions, Arc'teryx released the "Bora" backpack using the same "Vapor" technology. In 1996, after obtaining a licence from W. L. Gore & Associates for use of the Gore-Tex fabric, the company adapted it for its new line of outdoor technical apparel. Needing a larger manufacturing space, the company moved its headquarters to Burnaby, British Columbia, in 1999. In 2005, the "Arc'teryx" head office moved back across the Burrard Inlet to North Vancouver.


title: Arc'teryx

text: Guard was president and principal of the company from 1991 through 2001. In January 2001, Arc'teryx was purchased by the Adidas-owned Salomon Group. In May 2005, Amer Sports purchased the Salomon Group from Adidas. Since 2019, the Amer Sports Corporation is owned by the Chinese Anta Sports group. The Arc'teryx head office is located in North Vancouver and harnesses, backpacks, and other apparel is made in its own factory in New Westminster, BC. Their apparel line has expanded, thus Arc'teryx has consequently outsourced to plants in China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Bangladesh, El Salvador, Laos, and Greece.


title: Arc'teryx

text: Jon Hoerauf joined the company as president in 2012, assuming the additional role of general manager in 2016.


title: Arc'teryx

text: Arc'teryx Veilance is the company's high-end, formal urban-wear brand. This division was introduced in Fall/Winter 2009.


title: Arc'teryx

text: Arc'teryx's LEAF (Law Enforcement and Armed Forces) line is aimed at the military and police market. In the consumer and Internet market, it is often referred to as "military birds". Some of the collections are designed for their civilian counterparts, while others, such as Arc'teryx's Tango and Charlie backpacks, feature camouflage designs that are entirely geared toward the military. In contrast, military bird products use dark colors and military colors. Only a handful of products, such as the Alpha jacket, are currently made in Canada, while the rest, such as Assault Shirt, are made overseas, such as in El Salvador and Vietnam.


title: Arc'teryx

text: Arc'teryx has become widely popular in the street fashion scene and Internet culture. The theft ("racking") of Arc'teryx and other Gore-Tex items is considered to be part of the street subculture. It is seen as a high-end status symbol among youth, "just shy of Stone Island and Moncler."


title: Arc'teryx

text: The company is a major influence in the "gorpcore" fashion movement – the wearing of outdoor apparel in urban settings, along with Mammut, REI, Marmot and Patagonia.


title: Arc'teryx

text: Throughout 2022, a TikTok trend emerged where individuals would shower, fully clothed with an Arc'teryx jacket, as British rapper YT's song "Arc'teryx" played on background.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Burlesque is a 2010 American backstage musical film written and directed by Steven Antin. It stars Cher, Christina Aguilera, Kristen Bell, Cam Gigandet, Stanley Tucci, Julianne Hough, Alan Cumming, and Peter Gallagher, and features cameos from Dianna Agron, and James Brolin. The film tells the story of Ali (Aguilera), an aspiring singer who leaves her small hometown for Los Angeles, where she becomes a dancer at a struggling burlesque lounge owned by Tess (Cher). After a performance is sabotaged by her rival, Nikki (Bell), Ali sings the song herself, impressing Tess and leading to her becoming the main attraction of the lounge. "Burlesque" marks Aguilera's first leading role, as well as Cher's first musical performance on screen.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: "Burlesque" was released in the United States on November 24, 2010 by Screen Gems. Its jazz-inspired soundtrack was released ahead of the film's release on November 19, 2010 by RCA Records and Screen Gems. Aguilera and Cher both contributed to the album. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the cast's performance and the soundtrack but criticized the cliche writing. Despite its mixed reception, the film did modestly at the box office, grossing $91 million worldwide and earning an additional $42 million in domestic video sales. The film earned a nomination for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy at the 66th Golden Globe Awards, where Cher's performance of "You Haven't Seen the Last of Me", written by Diane Warren won the for Best Original Song. The soundtrack received a nomination at the 54th Grammy Awards for Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Alice "Ali" Marilyn Rose (Christina Aguilera) is a young waitress from Iowa who dreams of becoming a professional dancer following her mother's death during childhood.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: After her selfish boss refuses salary, Ali steals from him and moves to Los Angeles. There Ali attends multiple auditions with little success. One night, Ali comes across a burlesque club where Tess Scali (Cher), the club's owner, and an entourage of dancers perform an opening number. Ali also meets songwriter Jack Miller (Cam Gigandet) at the club's bar. Jack refers her to Tess for an audition but she is told to come back another time and ushered out by her assistant Sean (Stanley Tucci). Upon seeing the waitress shortage, Ali picks up a tray and begins serving. As a result, she manages to get a job as a waitress at the club.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: When Georgia (Julianne Hough), one of the leading dancers, becomes pregnant, auditions are held in search of a replacement to fill her role. Ali performs a difficult dance routine and eventually persuades Tess to hire her. This, however, infuriates Nikki (Kristen Bell), a lead performer struggling with alcoholism.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Ali replaces Nikki one night to host a performance after the latter is too intoxicated to perform. In a fit of rage, Nikki sabotages the performance by turning off the music that the dancers usually lip sync to until Ali impresses everyone with her singing skills. Her performance is an instant success to which Tess casts her in an upcoming show. Despite the club's growing popularity, Tess struggles with a bank loan indicted to her owning the rights of the building.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: One night after the club closes, Tess grows increasingly worried about her financiallity before a drunken Nikki shows up, accusing Tess of rejecting their long friendship. In defense of Ali, Tess questions Nikki's gratitude for the help she has received during her binges. In retaliation, a furious Nikki quits after she reveals to have slept with Tess' ex-husband Vince (Peter Gallagher). Tess then angrily smashes the passenger side window on Nikki's convertible with a crowbar after she leaves.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Meanwhile, Ali and Jack become romantically attracted. However, Jack is already engaged to Natalie (Dianna Agron), an actress working in New York City. Sean encourages Jack to end the engagement, as Ali is a better person than his shallow fiancée. Marcus (Eric Dane), a wealthy clubgoer, becomes infatuated with Ali, who begins spending time with him, making Jack jealous. At Georgia's wedding, Jack appears to call off his engagement and becomes drunk. That night, Ali and Jack sleep together, beginning an affair. In the morning, Natalie unexpectedly returns from New York and finds the two in bed together. Natalie angrily insists she and Jack never broke up though the latter denies this but asks Ali to leave. Feeling heartbroken and betrayed, Ali runs to Sean for support, also learning that Sean is gay. Marcus calls Ali, and Sean prompts her to go out with him.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Ali learns that Marcus is interested in the "air rights" above the club; he hopes to build a skyscraper on the property. Distraught, Ali breaks off her relationship with Marcus. She later tells Tess about his plan, and they inform the owner (James Brolin) of new million-dollar condos being sold across the street. Fearing the obstruction of his prospective purchasers' view, he buys the air rights to the club's property from Tess. She then uses the money to buy out Vince's share, pay off the bank, and redecorate the club in her own vision. Later, a sobered Nikki admits that she lied about sleeping with Vince out of anger, and Tess rehires her.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Ali rekindles her relationship with Jack after he tells her about breaking up with Natalie, as she cared more about her job than her relationship with him. Having earned Nikki's respect, Ali performs "Show Me How You Burlesque", a song written by Jack, with all of the dancers on stage, delighting the crowd.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Steven Antin's sister Robin was a member of the modern burlesque troupe the Pussycat Dolls. Circa 2002, the group performed at the Roxy Theatre, West Hollywood, with multiple artists—among them Christina Aguilera—and Steven Antin directed some of these shows. The first outline of the screenplay was written by Antin and Clint Culpepper, the Screen Gems' president. It was about "a girl escaping her life", showing up in a neo-burlesque club and launching a career as a performer.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Cher accepted the supporting role of Tess Scali because she wanted to sing in a movie and thought this would be her last opportunity to do so. While on the film set, she went on to praise co-star Christina Aguilera's acting abilities, revealing to "Entertainment Tonight": "She was keeping up, and she was hot. I mean, it was, like, she was really up there. Her game is good." Canadian actor Shawn Roberts, who was previously cast in another Screen Gems production "", was briefly considered for the role of Jack Miller.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: "Burlesque" started shooting on November 9, 2009 and ended on March 3, 2010. Although director Steven Antin wrote the original screenplay, Diablo Cody ("Juno") revised it uncredited. It was later further revised by Susannah Grant, also uncredited. "Burlesque" is Screen Gems' most expensive film, with the exception of the "Resident Evil" films, with costs of $55 million.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Filming locations included the exterior and adjacent parking as the "Burlesque Lounge" of the Ricardo Montalbán Theatre in Hollywood, as well as the interior of the Cathedral of Saint Vibiana.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: The soundtrack album features ten tracks: eight performed by Aguilera including "Express"; and two performed by Cher which are her first original recordings in 7 years. The soundtrack includes a mix of original and cover songs. Both the ballads from the soundtrack – "Bound to You" performed by Aguilera and "You Haven't Seen the Last of Me" performed by Cher – were nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. Cher's "You Haven't Seen the Last of Me", which was written by Diane Warren, won the award. In the United States, the soundtrack was certified Gold by the RIAA for shipments of 500,000 copies in October 2011.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: The theatrical trailer was attached to screenings of "Step Up 3D" and "Easy A". The first TV spot premiered during the season 2 premiere of Fox's "Glee" on September 21, 2010. A third TV spot also aired the following day during "Dancing with the Stars", later followed by another during MTV's "Jersey Shore". Several teasers have been released for promotional purposes including the Etta James's "Something's Got a Hold on Me". This was then followed by the track "But I Am a Good Girl" which was released in November 2010.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Aguilera performed "Bound to You" on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" and gave an interview and performance on "Conan". Aguilera also gave an interview to show host Chelsea Handler to discuss the film and other subjects. On November 19, 2010, Aguilera also gave a television interview to Ellen DeGeneres. She then performed a track from the soundtrack, the Etta James track "Something's Got a Hold on Me". Aguilera performed "Express" at the American Music Awards of 2010 and "Show Me How You Burlesque" at the "Dancing with the Stars" finale. She also performed "Express" on the final of the seventh series of "The X Factor" which received criticism and complaints for the raunchy content.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: The DVD and Blu-ray were released in North America on March 1, 2011. A Blu-ray/DVD combo has been released as well. The DVD and Blu-ray sales exceed one million units and have grossed $20,563,918 in the United States alone; and, , it is the 19th highest selling movie of the year. In all, the DVD has sold over 1.4 million units in the United States. Overall, it has grossed over $30,053,366 on video sales (DVD and Blu-ray sales) in United States alone.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: "Burlesque" received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 36% based on 176 reviews, with an average rating of 4.90/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Campy and clichéd, "Burlesque" wastes its talented cast (including a better-than-expected Christina Aguilera) on a movie that wavers uncertainly between 'bad' and 'so bad it's good.'" On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 47 out of 100, based on 38 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: Michael Phillips of the "Chicago Tribune" said, "The choicest dialogue in "Burlesque" provokes the sort of laughter that other, intentionally funny films only dream of generating." Mick LaSalle from "San Francisco Chronicle" gave the movie a full score and praised Aguilera's acting, calling her "jaw-droppingly good in several numbers" and said, "Aguilera knows how to listen to her fellow actors, to react and be spontaneous, and it makes all the difference". Kirk Honeycutt of "The Hollywood Reporter" called Burlesque "a refreshing throwback to movie musicals that celebrates its stars while indulging in sexy fun" and also praised Aguilera's acting and singing. Lou Lumenick of the "New York Post" said, "Aguilera can dance like nobody's business, but her acting debut isn't going to keep Anne Hathaway awake at night." Stanley Tucci's performance received praise from "Entertainment Weekly" and "Empire" thought the dance numbers were thrilling. "Time Out" labelled the drama "perfunctory" while Roger Ebert said that ""Burlesque" shows Cher and Christina Aguilera being all that they can be, and that's more than enough." "Variety" observed that the film "wants to be "Cabaret", but lacks the edge and historical context to pull it off." "The New York Times" said that the story line "had already gathered dust by the time [of] the 1933 musical "42nd Street"".


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: "Burlesque" was released on Wednesday, November 24, 2010, the day before Thanksgiving in the United States; on its opening day, it came in third to "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1" and "Tangled". On Thursday, November 25, 2010, it dropped down to fourth place in the box office behind "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 1", "Tangled" and "Unstoppable" and went down to fifth on Friday, November 26, 2010. On Sunday, November 28, 2010, it went back up to third place behind "Tangled" and "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 1". It stayed in the top five until December 10, 2010, when it fell to sixth behind "", "The Tourist", "Tangled", "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 1" and "Unstoppable". By the Christmas weekend, it was number 15 at the box office.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: The week after Thanksgiving, "Burlesque" experienced a substantial decrease on ticket sales, earning $9.65 million ($6.1 million for the weekend), for a total of $26.98 million for its first twelve days. , it had grossed $39.4 million in North America, and, , $51.1 million in foreign countries, for a total of $91 million worldwide, and an additional $42 million in domestic video sales (DVD and Blu-ray).


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: According to Joey Nolfi of "Entertainment Weekly", since its release the movie "inspired everything, from drag queen revues to viral internet moments". Nolfi applauded "Burlesque" as "a campy, niche classic". In 2019, a full-length "Burlesque" tour, based on the movie, embarked, including at British venues. It starred Farrah Moan as Ali Rose and Chad Michaels as Tess Scali. The "Burlesque" stage musical was supposed to open at the Paper Mill Playhouse, New Jersey, in Autumn 2020, followed by a Broadway theatre adaptation, but the plans were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The movie was also referenced in the third season of the VH1 reality show "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars". In a 2020 interview Antin revealed a "hybrid television event/series", based on the movie, was under development.


title: Burlesque (2010 American film)

text: In January 2021, Madison Hubbell and Zachary Donohue won the gold medal at the U.S. Figure Skating Championships. During the 2020–21 season they danced to a medley of Aguilera's "Burlesque" songs, which included "Express".


title: Reichsmark

text: The (; sign: ℛℳ; abbreviation: RM) was the currency of Germany from 1924 until 20 June 1948 in West Germany, where it was replaced with the , and until 23 June 1948 in East Germany, where it was replaced by the East German mark. The Reichsmark was subdivided into 100 s (Rpf or ℛ₰). The Mark is an ancient Germanic weight measure, traditionally a half pound, later used for several coins; whereas ("realm" in English), comes from the official name for the German state from 1871 to 1945, .


title: Reichsmark

text: The Reichsmark was introduced in 1924 as a permanent replacement for the Papiermark. This was necessary due to the 1920s German inflation which had reached its peak in 1923. The exchange rate between the old Papiermark and the Reichsmark was = 10 ℳ (one trillion in American English and French, one billion in German and other European languages and British English of the time; see long and short scale). To stabilize the economy and to smooth the transition, the Papiermark was not directly replaced by the Reichsmark, but by the Rentenmark, an interim currency backed by the "Deutsche Rentenbank", owning industrial and agricultural real estate assets. The Reichsmark was put on the gold standard at the rate previously used by the Goldmark, with the U.S. dollar worth .


title: Reichsmark

text: During this period a number of shell companies were created and authorized to issue bonds outside the Reichsmark in order to finance state projects. Nominally exchangeable at a 1:1 rate for Reichsmarks but then discounted by the Reichsbank this created secret monetary expansion without formally renouncing the gold standard of the Reichsmark.


title: Reichsmark

text: With the annexation of the Federal State of Austria by Germany in 1938, the Reichsmark replaced the Austrian schilling. During the Second World War, Germany established fixed exchange rates between the Reichsmark and the currencies of the occupied and allied countries, often set so as to give economic benefits to German soldiers and civilian contractors, who were paid their wages in local currency. The rates were as follows:


title: Reichsmark

text: After the Second World War, the Reichsmark continued to circulate in Germany, but with new banknotes (Allied Occupation Marks) printed in the US and in the Soviet Zone, as well as with coins (without swastikas). Inflation in the final months of the war had reduced the value of the Reichsmark from = $1US to = $1US and a barter economy had emerged due to the rapid depreciation. The Reichsmark was replaced by the Deutsche Mark at a rate of 10:1 (1:1 for cash and current accounts) in June 1948 in the Trizone and later in the same year by the East German Mark in the Soviet Occupation Zone (colloquially also "Ostmark", since 1968 officially "Mark der DDR"). The 1948 currency reform under the direction of Ludwig Erhard is considered the beginning of the West German economic recovery; however, the secret plan to introduce the Deutsche Mark in the Trizone was formulated by economist Edward A. Tenenbaum of the US military government, and was executed abruptly on 21 June 1948. Three days later, the new currency also replaced the Reichsmark in the three Western sectors of Berlin. In November 1945, the Reichsmark was superseded by the Allied Military Schilling in Austria. In 1947 a local currency (the Saar Mark, later replaced with the Saar Franc) was introduced in the Saar.


title: Reichsmark

text: In 1924, coins were introduced in denominations of 1 ℛ₰, 2 ℛ₰, 5 ℛ₰, 10 ℛ₰, and 50 ℛ₰, and 1 ℳ and 3 ℳ. The 1 ℛ₰ and 2 ℛ₰ were struck in bronze, and depicted a wheat sheaf. The 5 ℛ₰, 10 ℛ₰, and 50 ℛ₰ were struck in aluminium-bronze and depicted wheat stocks crossed into a stylized pattern. The two highest denominations were struck in .500 fine silver and depicted the German eagle standard. In 1925, .500 fine silver and coins were introduced for circulation, along with the first of many commemorative and coins. In 1927, nickel 50 ℛ₰ coins were introduced along with regular-type 5 ℛℳ coins, followed by the coin in 1931.


title: Reichsmark

text: Nazi Germany had a number of mints. Each mint location had its own identifiable letter. It is therefore possible to identify exactly which mint produced what coin by noting the mint mark on the coin. Not all mints were authorized to produce coins every year. The mints were also only authorized to produce a set number of coins with some mints allocated a greater production than others. Some of the coins with particular mint marks are therefore scarcer than others. With the silver and coins, the mint mark is found under the date on the left side of the coin. On the smaller denomination Reichspfennig coins, the mint mark is found on the bottom center of the coin.


title: Reichsmark

text: 4 ℛ₰ coins were issued in 1932 as part of a failed attempt by the Reichskanzler Heinrich Brüning to reduce prices through use of 4 ℛ₰ pieces instead of 5 ℛ₰ coins. Known as the "Brüningtaler" or "Armer Heinrich" ("poor Heinrich"), they were demonetized the following year. See . The quality of the Reichsmark coins decreased more and more towards the end of World War II and misprints happened more frequently. This led to an increase in counterfeiting of money.


title: Reichsmark

text: Production of silver 1 ℛℳ coins ended in 1927. In 1933, nickel coins were introduced, and new silver and coins were introduced which were smaller but struck in .625 and .900 fineness so as to maintain the amount of silver. Between 1933 and 1939, a number of commemorative pieces were issued. Production of the coin ceased altogether. In 1935, aluminium 50 ℛ₰ coins were introduced, initially for just the one year. In 1937, nickel 50 ℛ₰ coins were issued and continued to be produced up to 1939, before reverting to aluminum. From 1936 on, all coins except the and the first version (1935–36) of the coin (bearing the image of the late president Paul von Hindenburg) bore the Nazi state insignia. The eagle had two standard designs on most coin denominations, a soaring eagle and large swastika depicted on most earlier issues, and a more 'aggressive' eagle with less prominent swastika which became predominant in the 1940s.


title: Reichsmark

text: During World War II, bronze and aluminium-bronze coins were replaced by zinc and aluminium, with the 2 ℛ₰ discontinued for potential of being too easily mistaken for the 5 ℛ₰ when struck in the same metal. The 1 ℛℳ, 2 ℛℳ, and 5 ℛℳ coins were no longer issued, replaced instead by banknotes. Aluminium 50 ℛ₰ coins were reintroduced to replace the nickel versions. This time around they had a longer run, being produced from 1939 to 1944. Lower denominations were produced in zinc from 1940 onwards. Due to their composition, these coins had poor durability and are hard to find in very good condition. The last production of coins bearing the swastika was in 1944 (1 ℛ₰, 5 ℛ₰, 10 ℛ₰, and 50 ℛ₰) and 1945 (1 ℛ₰ and 10 ℛ₰ only).


title: Reichsmark

text: These coins were issued with designs very similar to those minted in 1944–45, with the eagle changed to the pre-1935 die.


title: Reichsmark

text: The zinc 10 Reichspfennig coin was minted by Nazi Germany between 1940 and 1945 during World War II, replacing the aluminium-bronze version, which had a distinct golden colour. It is worth 1/10 or .10 of a Reichsmark. Made entirely of zinc, the 10 ℛ₰ is an emergency issue type, similar to the zinc 1 ℛ₰ and 5 ℛ₰, and the aluminium 50 ℛ₰ coins from the same period.


title: Reichsmark

text: The first Reichsmark banknotes were introduced by the Reichsbank and state banks such as those of Bavaria, Saxony and Baden. The first Reichsbank issue of 1924 came in denominations of , , , , and . This was followed by a second issue in the same denominations, dated between 1929 and 1936. The second issue commemorated persons who made contributions to German agriculture, industry, economy, science, and architecture: issued in 1929 commemorated agronomist Albrecht Thaer; issued in 1929 commemorated engineer, inventor, and industrialist Werner von Siemens; issued in 1933 commemorated Prussian politician and banker David Hansemann; 100 ℛℳ issued in 1935 commemorated chemist and "father of fertilizer industry" Justus von Liebig; issued in 1936 commemorated Prussian architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel.


title: Reichsmark

text: A newer version of note was introduced in 1939, using a design taken from an unissued Austrian S100 banknote type. notes were issued in 1942. Throughout this period, the Rentenbank also issued banknotes denominated in Rentenmark, mostly in RM 1 and RM 2 denominations.


title: Reichsmark

text: In preparation for the occupation of Germany, the United States issued occupation banknotes dated 1944, printed by the Forbes Lithograph Printing Company of Boston. These were printed in similar colours with different sizes for groups of denominations. Notes were issued for  ℳ, 1 ℳ, 5 ℳ, 10 ℳ, 20 ℳ, 50 ℳ, 100 ℳ, and 1,000 ℳ. The issuer was the "Alliierte Militärbehörde" ("Allied military authorities") with "In Umlauf gesetzt in Deutschland" ("in legal circulation in Germany") printed on the obverse.


title: Reichsmark

text: These notes were convertible to US dollars at a rate of 10:1. Seeing an opportunity to procure foreign hard currency, the Soviet Union demanded copies of the engraving plates, ink, and associated equipment in early 1944, and on 14 April 1944 Henry Morgenthau and Harry Dexter White of the U.S. Treasury Department authorized the air transfer of these to the USSR. Using a printing plant in occupied Leipzig, the Soviet authorities printed large runs of occupation marks to fill Soviet coffers with dollars causing inflation and financial instability. An investigation by the United States Congress (Occupation Currency Transactions Hearings before the Committee on Appropriations, Armed Services and Banking and Currency, U.S. Senate, 1947) found that about $380,000,000 "more currency than there were appropriations for" had been circulated.


title: Reichsmark

text: Coins and banknotes for circulation in the occupied territories during the war were issued by the "Reichskreditkassen". Holed, zinc coins in 5 ℛ₰ and 10 ℛ₰ denominations were struck in 1940 and 1941. Banknotes were issued between 1939 and 1945 in denominations of 50 ℛ₰, , , , , and . These served as legal tender alongside the currency of the occupied countries.


title: Reichsmark

text: The coins were originally planned in great numbers of 100 million and 250 million each of the 5 ℛ₰ and 10 ℛ₰ coins respectively. The first embossing order, which was issued in April 1940, was about 40 million × 5 ℛ₰ and 100 million × 10 ℛ₰. The total amount was divided between each of the seven German mints after the embossing key of 1939. The contract was stopped in August 1940 as the Wehrmacht, which had requested the coins for Belgium and France, had no more need of it. When the embossing stopped, only Berlin ("A") and Munich ("D") produced significant quantities, but they still came to only a small extent of original production plans. The majority were melted down due to the limited supply of metal and thus, most mint marks are now quite rare (except for 1940 5 A and D, and 1940 10 A).


title: Reichsmark

text: Various special issues of Reichsmark currency were issued for use in concentration and prisoner of war (POW) camps. None were legal tender in Germany itself. From 1942 to 1943 tokens were struck for use within the Łódź Ghetto.


title: Reichsmark

text: Special issues of Reichsmark currency were issued for use by the German Armed Forces from 1942 to 1944. The first issue was denominated in 1 ℛ₰, 5 ℛ₰, 10 ℛ₰, and 50 ℛ₰ and , but was valued at 1 military Reichspfennig = 10 civilian Reichspfennig. This series was printed on only one side. The second issue notes of , , , and were equal in value to the ordinary German Reichsmark and were printed on both sides.


title: Reichsmark

text: The 5 Mark note pictured, front and back, is Allied military currency ("AMC") printed at Forbes Lithograph Manufacturing Company in Boston for occupied Germany. There were different AMCs for each liberated area of Europe.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Hạ Long Bay or Halong Bay (, ) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and popular travel destination in Quảng Ninh Province, Vietnam. The name Hạ Long means "descending dragon". Administratively, the bay belongs to Hạ Long city, Cẩm Phả city, and is a part of Vân Đồn district. The bay features thousands of limestone karsts and isles in various shapes and sizes. Hạ Long Bay is a center of a larger zone which includes Bai Tu Long Bay to the northeast, and Cát Bà Island to the southwest. These larger zones share a similar geological, geographical, geomorphological, climate, and cultural characters.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Hạ Long Bay has an area of around , including 1,960–2,000 islets, most of which are limestone. The core of the bay has an area of with a high density of 775 islets. The limestone in this bay has gone through 500 million years of formation in different conditions and environments. The evolution of the karst in this bay has taken 20 million years under the impact of the tropical wet climate. The geo-diversity of the environment in the area has created biodiversity, including a tropical evergreen biosystem, oceanic and sea shore biosystem. Hạ Long Bay is home to 14 endemic floral species and 60 endemic faunal species.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Historical research surveys have shown the presence of prehistoric human beings in this area tens of thousands years ago. The successive ancient cultures are the Soi Nhụ culture around 18,000–7,000 BC, the Cái Bèo culture 7,000–5,000 BC and the Hạ Long culture 5,000–3,500 years ago. Hạ Long Bay also marked some important events in Vietnamese history, with many artifacts found in Bài Thơ mountain, Đầu Gỗ cave, and Bãi Cháy.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: 500 years ago, Nguyễn Trãi praised the beauty of Hạ Long Bay in his verse "Lộ nhập Vân Đồn", in which he called it "rock wonder in the sky". In 1962, the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism of North Vietnam listed Hạ Long Bay in the National Relics and Landscapes publication. In 1994, the core zone of Hạ Long Bay was listed as a World Heritage Site under Criterion VII, and was listed for a second time under Criterion VIII.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Before the 19th century, the name Hạ Long Bay had not been recorded in the old books of the country. It has been called An Bang, Lục Thủy, Vân Đồn ... In the late 19th century, the name Hạ Long Bay appeared on the Maritime Map of France. The French-language "Hai Phong News" reported "Dragon appears on Hạ Long Bay".


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: According to local legend, when Vietnam had just started to develop into a country, they had to fight against invaders. To assist the Vietnamese in defending their country, the gods sent a family of dragons as protectors. This family of dragons began spitting out jewels and jade. These jewels turned into the islands and islets dotting the bay, linking together to form a great wall against the invaders. Under magics, numerous rock mountains abruptly appeared on the sea, ahead of invaders' ships; the forward ships struck the rocks and each other. After winning the battle, the dragons were interested in peaceful sightseeing of the Earth, and then decided to live in this bay. The place where the mother dragon descended was named Hạ Long, the place where the dragon's children attended upon their mother was called "Bái Tử Long" island ("Bái": attend upon, "Tử": children, "Long": dragon), and the place where the dragon's children wriggled their tails violently was called "Bạch Long Vĩ" island ("Bạch": white-color of the foam made when Dragon's children wriggled, "Long": dragon, "Vĩ": tail), present-day Tra Co peninsula, Móng Cái.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The bay consists of a dense cluster of some 1,600 limestone monolithic islands each topped with thick jungle vegetation, rising spectacularly from the ocean. Several of the islands are hollow, with enormous caves. Hang Dau Go (Wooden Stakes cave) is the largest grotto in the Hạ Long area. French tourists visited in the late 19th century, and named the cave "Grotte des Merveilles". Its three large chambers contain large numerous stalactites and stalagmites (as well as 19th-century French graffiti). There are two bigger islands, Tuần Châu and Cát Bà, that have permanent inhabitants, as well as tourist facilities including hotels and beaches. There are a number of beautiful beaches on the smaller islands.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: A community of around 1,600 people live on Hạ Long Bay in four fishing villages: Cua Van, Ba Hang, Cong Tau and Vong Vieng in Hung Thang ward, Hạ Long city. They live on floating houses and are sustained through fishing and marine aquaculture (cultivating marine biota), plying the shallow waters for 200 species of fish and 450 different kinds of mollusks. Many of the islands have acquired their names as a result of interpretation of their unusual shapes. Such names include Voi Islet (elephant), Ga Choi Islet (fighting cock), Khi Islet (monkey), and Mai Nha Islet (roof). 989 of the islands have been given names. Birds and animals including bantams, antelopes, monkeys, and lizard also live on some of the islands.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Almost all these islands are as individual towers in a classic fenglin landscape with heights from , and height/width ratios of up to about six.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Another specific feature of Hạ Long Bay is the abundance of lakes inside the limestone islands. For example, Dau Be island has six enclosed lakes. All these island lakes occupy drowned dolines within fengcong karst.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Hạ Long Bay is located in northeastern Vietnam, from E106°55' to E107°37' and from N20°43' to N21°09'. The bay stretches from Quang Yen town, past Hạ Long city, Cẩm Phả city to Vân Đồn District, is


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: bordered on the south and southeast by Lan Ha Bay, on the north by Hạ Long city, and on the west by Bai Tu Long Bay. The bay has a coastline and is approximately in size with about 2,000 islets. The area designated by UNESCO as the World Natural Heritage Site incorporates with 775 islets, of which the core zone is delimited by 69 points: Dau Go island on the west, Ba Ham lake on the south and Cong Tay island on the east. The protected area is from the Cái Dăm petrol store to Quang Hanh ward, Cẩm Phả city and the surrounding zone.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The climate of the bay is tropical, wet, sea islands, with two seasons: hot and moist summer, dry and cold winter. The average temperature is from , and annual rainfall is between . Hạ Long Bay has the typical diurnal tide system (tide amplitude ranges from ). The salinity is from 31 to 34.5MT in the dry season and lower in the rainy season.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Of the 1,969 islands in Hạ Long, only approximately 40 are inhabited. These islands range from tens to thousands of hectares in size, mainly in the East and Southeast of Hạ Long Bay. In recent decades, thousands of villagers have been starting to settle down on the pristine islands and build new communities such as Sa Tô Island (Hạ Long City), Thắng Lợi Island (Vân Đồn district).


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The population of Hạ Long Bay is about 1,540, mainly in Cửa Vạn, Ba Hang and Cặp Dè fishing villages (Hùng Thắng Ward, Hạ Long City). Residents of the bay mostly live on boats and rafts buoyed by tires and plastic jugs to facilitate the fishing, cultivating and breeding of aquatic and marine species. Fish require feeding every other day for up to three years, when they are eventually sold to local seafood restaurants for up to 300,000 Vietnamese dong per kilogram. Today the life of Hạ Long Bay inhabitants has much improved due to new travel businesses. Residents of the floating villages around the Hạ Long Bay now offer bedrooms for rent, boat tours, and fresh seafood meals to tourists. While this is an isolating, back-breaking lifestyle, floating village residents are considered wealthy to residents of other Hạ Long Bay islands.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: At present , the Quảng Ninh provincial government has a policy to relocate the households living in the bay to resettle, in order to stabilize their life and to protect the landscape of the heritage zone. More than 300 households living in fishing villages in Hạ Long Bay have been relocated ashore in Khe Cá Resettlement Area, now known as Zone 8 (Hà Phong Ward, Hạ Long City) since May 2014. This project will continue to be implemented. The province will only retain a number of fishing villages for sightseeing tours.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Located within Hạ Long and Bái Tử Long are archaeological sites such as Mê Cung and Thiên Long. There are remains from mounds of mountain shellfish (Cyclophorus), spring shellfish (Melania, also called Thiana), some fresh water mollusc and some rudimentary labour tools. The main way of life of Soi Nhụ's inhabitants included catching fish and shellfish, collecting fruits and digging for bulbs and roots. Their living environment was a coastal area unlike other Vietnamese cultures, for example, like those found in Hòa Bình and Bắc Sơn.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Located in Hạ Long and Cát Bà island, its inhabitants developed to the level of sea exploitation. Cái Bèo culture is a link between Soi Nhụ culture and Hạ Long culture.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Hạ Long Bay was the setting for historical naval battles against Vietnam's coastal neighbors. On three occasions, in the labyrinth of channels in Bạch Đằng River near the islands, the Vietnamese army stopped the Chinese invaders from landing. In 1288, General Trần Hưng Đạo stopped Mongol ships from sailing up the nearby Bạch Đằng River by placing steel-tipped wooden stakes at high tide, sinking the Mongol Kublai Khan's fleet.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Hạ Long Bay was the site of the first ever raising of the new national flag of the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam on 5 June 1948 during the signing of the Halong Bay Agreements ("Accords de la baie d’Along") by High Commissioner Emile Bollaert and President Nguyễn Văn Xuân.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: During the Vietnam War, many of the channels between the islands were heavily mined by the United States Navy, some of which continue to pose threats to shipping routes in the present day.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: In 2000, UNESCO's World Heritage Committee inscribed Hạ Long Bay in the World Heritage List according to its outstanding examples representing major stages of the Earth's history and its original limestone karstic geomorphologic features. Hạ Long Bay and its adjacent areas consist of a part of the Sino-Vietnamese composite terrane having its development history from pre-Cambrian up to present day. During Phanerozoic, terrigenous, volcanogenic and cherty-carbonate sediments containing in abundance graptolites, brachiopods, fishes, corals, foraminiferans, radiolarias, bivalves and flora, separated one from another by 10 stratigraphic gaps, but the boundary between Devonian and Carboniferous has been considered as continuous. The limestone karstic geomorphology of the bay was developed since Miocene, especially the cone-shaped hills (fengcong), or isolated high limestone karst towers (fenglin) with many remnants of old phreatic caves, old karstic foot caves, marine notch caves form magnificent limestone karst landforms as unique on the world. The Quaternary geology was developed through 5 cycles with the intercalation of marine and continental environments. The present Hạ Long Bay, in fact, appeared after the Middle Holocene maximum transgression, leaving ultimate zone of lateral undercutting in the limestone cliffs bearing many shells of oysters, having the 14C age as 2280 to >40,000 y. BP. Geological resources are abundant: anthracite, lignite, oil shale, petroleum, phosphate, limestone and cement additives, kaolin, silica sand, dolomite, quartzite of exogenous origin, and antimony, mercury of hydrothermal origin. Besides, there still are surface water, groundwater and thermal mineral water on the shore of the Hạ Long – Bái Tử Long Bays and other environmental resources.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: In terms of marine geology, this area is recorded as an especially coastal sedimentary environment. In the alkaline seawater environment, the chemical denudation process of calcium carbonate proceeds rapidly, creating wide, strangely shaped marine notches.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The bottom surface sediments are various from clay mud to sand, however, silty mud and clay mud are dominated in distribution. Especially, the carbonate materials originated from organisms make up from 60 to 65% sedimentary content. The surface sediments of coral reefs are mainly sand and pebbles of which the carbonate materials occupy for more than 90%. The intertidal zone sediments are various from clay mud to sand and gravel depending to distinguished sedimentary environments such as mangrove marshes, tidal flats, beaches etc. At the small, but wonderfully beautiful beaches, the sand sediments may be dominated quartz or carbonate materials.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The sediment layers of intertidal zone, the upper sea bed with a plain surface conserving ancient rivers, systems of caves and its sediments, traces of ancient marine action forming distinctive notches, beaches and marine terraces, mangrove swamps are important evidence of geological events and processes taking place during Quaternary.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Hạ Long Bay has experienced at least 500 million years in various geological states of orogeny, marine transgression and marine regression. During the Ordovician and Silurian periods (500-410 million years ago), Hạ Long Bay was deep sea. During the Carboniferous and Permian periods (340-250 million years ago), Hạ Long Bay was at shallow sea level.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The dominated uplift movement of neotectonic and recent tectonic influenced deeply on topography of this area, and the present landscape of sea-islands was formed around 7 or 8 thousand years ago by the sea invasion during Holocene transgression begun at about 17–18 thousand years ago. Particularly from the Holocene time, from about 11,000 years ago Cat Ba – Hạ Long area has much archaeological evidence connecting variations in sea levels with the development of ancient cultures such as the Soi Nhu and Hạ Long cultures.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Due to a simultaneous combination of ideal factors such as thick, pale, grey, and strong limestone layers, which are formed by fine-grained materials; hot and moist climate and slow tectonic process as a whole; Hạ Long Bay has had a complete karst evolution for 20 million years. There are many types of karst topography in the bay, such as karst field.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Hạ Long Bay is a mature karst landscape developed during a warm, wet, tropical climate. The sequence of stages in the evolution of a karst landscape over a period of 20 million years requires a combination of several distinct elements including a massive thickness of limestone, a hot wet climate and slow overall tectonic up lift. The process of karst formation is divided into five stages, the second of which is the formation of the distinctive do line karst. This is followed by the development of fengcong karst, which can be seen in the groups of hills on Bo Hon and Dau Be Inland. These cones with sloping sides average 100m in height with the tallest exceeding 200m. Fenglin karst is characterised by steep separate towers. The hundreds of rocky islands with form the beautiful and famous landscape of the Bay are the individual towers of a classic Fenglin landscape where the intervening plains have been submerged by the sea. Most towers reach a height of between 50 and 100m with a height to width ratio of about 6. The karst dolines were flooded by the sea, becoming the abundance of lakes that lie within the limestone islands. For example, Dau Be island at the mouth of the Bay has six enclosed lakes including those of the Ba Ham lakes lying within its fengcong karst. The Bay contains examples of the landscape elements of fengcong, fenglin and karst plain. These are not separate evolutionary stages but the result of natural non – uniform processes in the denudation of a large mass of limestone. Marine erosion created the notches which in some places have been enlarged into caves. The marine notch is a feature of limestone coastline but, in Hạ Long Bay, it has created the mature landscape.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Within Hạ Long Bay, the main accessible caves are the older passages that survive from the time when the karst was evolving though its various stages of fengcong and fenglin. Three main types of caves can be recognized in the limestone islands (Waltham, T. 1998):


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The first group consists of old phreatic caves which include Sung Sot, Tam Cung, Lau Dai, Thien Cung, Dau Go, Hoang Long, Thien Long. Nowadays, these caves lie at various high levels. Sung Sot cave is on Bo Hon island. From its truncated entrance chambers on a ledge high on the cliff, a passage of more that 10m high and wide descends to the south. Tam Cung is a large phreatic fissure cave that developed in the bedding planes of the limestone dividing the fissure cave into three chambers. Lau Dai is a cave with a complex of passages extending over 300m opening on the south side of Con Ngua island. Thien Cung and Dau Go are remnants of the same old cave system. They both survive in the northern part of Dau Go island at between 20 and 50m above sea level. Thien Cung has one large chamber more that 100m long, blocked at its ends and almost subdivided into smaller chambers by massive wall of stalactites and stalagmites. Dau Go is a single large tunnel descending along a major set of fractures to a massive choke.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The second group of caves is the old karstic foot caves which include Trinh Lu, Bo Nau, Tien Ong and Trong caves. Foot caves are a ubiquitous feature of karst landscapes which have reached a stage of widespread lateral undercutting at base level. They may extend back into maze caves of stream caves draining from larger cave systems within the limestone. They are distinguished by the main elements of their passages being close to the horizontal and are commonly related to denuded or accumulated terraces at the old base levels. Trinh Nu, which is one of the larger foot caves in Hạ Long Bay with its ceiling at about 12m above sea level and about 80m in length, was developed in multiple stages. Bo Nau, a horizontal cave containing old stalactite deposits, cuts across the 25o dip of the bedding plane.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The third group is the marine notch caves that are a special feature of the karst of Hạ Long Bay. The dissolution process of sea water acting on the limestone and erosion by wave action crates notches at the base of the cliffs. In advantageous conditions, dissolution of the limestone allows the cliff notches to be steadily deepened and extended into caves. Many of these at sea level extend right though the limestone hills into drowned dolines which are now tidal lakes.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: A distinguishing feature of marine notch caves is an absolutely smooth and horizontal ceiling cut through the limestone. Some marine notch caves had been not formed at present sea level, but old sea levels related to sea level changes in Holocene transgression, event to Pleistocene sea levels. Some of them passed preserved the development of old karstic foot cave in mainland environment or preserved the remnants of older phreatic caves. One of the most unusual features of Hạ Long Bay is the Bo Ham lake group of hidden lakes and their connecting tunnel – notch caves in Dau Be island. From the island's perimeter cliff a cave, 10m wide at water level and curving so that it is almost completely dark, extends about 150m to Lake 1. Luon cave is on Bo Hon island and extends 50m though to an enclosed tidal lake. It has a massive stalactite hanging 2m down and truncated at the modern tidal level. It has passed through many stages in its formation.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The karst landscape of Hạ Long Bay is of international significance and of fundamental importance to the science of geomorphology. The fenglin tower karst, which is the type present in much of Hạ Long Bay, is the most extreme form of limestone landscape development. If these karst landscapes are broadly compared in terms of their height, steepness and number of their limestone towers, Hạ Long Bay is probably second in the entire world only to Yangshou, in China. However, Hạ Long Bay has also been invaded by the sea so that the geomorphology of its limestone islands are, at least in part, the consequence of marine erosion. The marine invasion distinguishes Hạ Long Bay and makes it unique in the world. There are other areas of submerged karst towers which were invaded by the sea, but none is as extensive as Hạ Long Bay.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Some of the most remarkable geological events in Hạ Long Bay's history have occurred in the last 1,000 years, include the advance of the sea, the raising of the bay area, strong erosion that has formed coral, and, pure blue and heavily salted water. This process of erosion by seawater has deeply engraved the stone, contributing to its fantastic beauty. Present-day Hạ Long Bay is the result of this long process of geological evolution that has been influenced by so many factors.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Due to all these factors, tourists visiting Hạ Long Bay are not only treated to one of the natural wonders of the world, but also to a precious geological museum that has been naturally preserved in the open air for the last 300 million years.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Two ecosystems coexist in Ha Long Bay: a tropical, moist, evergreen rainforest ecosystem and a marine and coastal ecosystem. Livistona halongensis, Impatiens halongensis, Chirita halongensis, Chirita hiepii, Chirita modesta, Paraboea halongensis, and Alpinia calcicola are among the seven endemic species found in the bay. There is also bioluminescent plankton..


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The many islands that dot the bay are home to a great many other species, including (but likely not limited to): 477 magnoliales, 12 pteris, 20 salt marsh flora; and 4 amphibia, 10 reptilia, 40 aves, and 4 mammalia.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Common aquatic species found in the bay include: cuttlefish ("mực"); oyster ("hào"); cyclinae ("ngán"); prawns (penaeidea ("tôm he"), panulirus ("tôm hùm"), parapenaeopsis ("tôm sắt"), etc.); sipunculoideas ("sá sùng"); nerita ("ốc đĩa"); charonia tritonis ("ốc tù và"); and "cà sáy".


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: With an increasing tourist trade, mangroves and seagrass beds have been cleared and jetties and wharves have been built for tourist boats.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Local government and businesses are aware of the problems and many measures have been taken to minimise the impact of tourism on the bay environment for sustainable economic growth like introducing eco-friendly tours and introducing tight waste control on resorts.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: In 1962, the Vietnam Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism designated Hạ Long Bay a 'Renowned National Landscape Monument'.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Hạ Long Bay was first listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994, in recognition of its outstanding, universal aesthetic value. In 2000, the World Heritage Committee additionally recognised Hạ Long Bay for its outstanding geological and geomorphological value, and its World Heritage Listing was updated.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: In October 2011, the World Monuments Fund included the bay on the 2012 World Monuments Watch, citing pressure from tourism and associated developments as threats to the site that must be addressed.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: In 2012, the New 7 Wonders Foundation officially named Hạ Long Bay as one of the New 7 Wonders of Nature.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Lord Trịnh Cương overflowed with emotion: "Mountains are glistened by water shadow, water spills all over the sky".


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: The inhabitants of the bay and its adjacent city have transmitted numerous ancient tales explaining names given to various isles and caves in the bay.


title: Hạ Long Bay

text: Hạ Long Bay appears in the 2016 video game "Civilization VI"'s "Khmer and Indonesia Civilization & Scenario Pack" as a Natural Wonder. In addition to providing Food, Production and Culture, it strengthens Naval units' defense while within its area.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Robert Newton Ford (January 31, 1862 – June 8, 1892) was an American outlaw best known for his assassination of Jesse James on April 3, 1882. He and his brother Charley, both members of the James–Younger Gang under James’s leadership, went on to perform paid re-enactments of the killing at publicity events. Ford would spend his later years operating multiple saloons and dance halls in the West.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Ten years after James's assassination, Ford was himself the victim of a fatal shot to the neck by Edward Capehart O'Kelley in Creede, Colorado, dying at only 30 years old. While initially buried in Creede, his remains were later exhumed and reinterred in his hometown of Richmond, Missouri.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Robert Ford was born in 1862 in Ray County, Missouri, to James Thomas and Mary Bruin Ford as the youngest of seven siblings. As a young man, Ford came to admire Jesse James for his Civil War record and criminal exploits, eventually getting to meet him in 1880 at the age of 18.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Ford's brother Charley is believed to have taken part in the James–Younger gang's Blue Cut train robbery in Jackson County, west of Glendale, Missouri (renamed Selsa and now part of Independence), on September 7, 1881.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: In November 1881, after the train robbery, James moved his family to St. Joseph, Missouri, and intended to give up crime. The James gang had been greatly reduced in numbers by that time; some had fled the gang in fear of prosecution, and many of the original members were either dead or in prison after a botched bank robbery in Northfield, Minnesota.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: After the train robbery, James’s brother Frank James had also decided to retire from crime and moved East, settling in Lynchburg, Virginia.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: By the spring of 1882, with his gang depleted by arrests, deaths and defections, James thought that he could trust only the Ford brothers. Charles had been out on raids with James before, but Bob was an eager new recruit. The Fords resided in St. Joseph with the James family, where Jesse went by the alias Thomas Howard.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Hoping to keep the gang alive, James invited the Fords to take part in the robbery of the Platte City Bank in Missouri, but the brothers had already decided not to participate; rather, they intended to collect the $10,000 bounty placed on James by Governor Thomas T. Crittenden. In January 1882, Bob Ford and gang member Dick Liddil had surrendered to Sheriff James Timberlake at their sister Martha Bolton's residence in Ray County. They were brought into a meeting with Crittenden, as they had been around James's cousin Wood Hite the day Hite was murdered. Crittenden promised Ford a full pardon if he would kill James, who was by then the most wanted criminal in the USA. Crittenden had made capturing the James brothers his top priority; in his inaugural address he declared that no political motives could be allowed to keep them from justice. Barred by law from offering a sufficiently large reward, he had turned to the railroad and express corporations to put up a $5,000 bounty for the delivery of each of them and an additional $5,000 for the conviction of either of them.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Living with the James family, the Fords became part of the daily routine, and James’s wife cooked for them. They were nervous and bored, looking for opportunity, and feeling restless. The confession of Liddil to participating in Hite's murder made the news, and pressure began to build around James.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: On April 3, 1882, after eating breakfast, the Fords and James went into the living room before travelling to Platte City. By reading the daily newspaper, James had just learned of gang member Liddil's confession for participating in Hite's murder and grew increasingly suspicious of the Fords for never reporting this matter to him. According to Robert Ford, it became clear to him that James had realized they were there to betray him. However, instead of scolding the Fords, James walked across the living room to lay his revolvers on a sofa. He turned around and noticed a dusty picture above the mantel, and stood on a chair in order to clean it. Robert Ford drew his weapon and shot James in the back of the head.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: After the killing, the Fords wired Crittenden to claim their reward. They surrendered themselves to legal authorities but were dismayed to be charged with first degree murder. In one day, the Ford brothers were indicted, pleaded guilty, and sentenced to death by hanging, but two hours later Crittenden granted them a full pardon.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Public opinion turned against the Fords for betraying their gang leader, and Bob was seen as a coward and traitor for killing James. This sentiment clashed with the general public opinion at the time of James's death that it had been time for James to be stopped by any means. For a period, Bob earned money by posing for photographs as "the man who killed Jesse James" in dime museums. He also appeared on stage with his brother Charles, reenacting the murder in a touring stage show.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Charles, terminally ill with tuberculosis and addicted to morphine, died by suicide on May 4, 1884. Soon afterward, Bob Ford and Dick Liddil relocated to Las Vegas, New Mexico, where they opened a saloon. According to legend, Ford had a shooting contest with Jose Chavez y Chavez, a comrade-in-arms of Billy the Kid's during the Lincoln County War. Ford lost the contest and left town.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: On December 26, 1889, Ford survived an assassination attempt in Kansas City, Kansas when an assailant tried to slit his throat. Within a few years, Ford settled in Colorado, where he opened a saloon and gambling house in Walsenburg. When silver was found in Creede, Ford closed his saloon and opened one there.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Ford purchased a lot and on May 29, 1892, opened Ford's Exchange, said to have been a dance hall. Six days later, the entire business district, including Ford's Exchange, burned to the ground in a major fire. Ford erected a tent saloon to operate from temporarily until his former establishment could be rebuilt.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Three days after the fire, on June 8, 1892, Edward O'Kelley entered Ford's tent saloon with a shotgun. According to witnesses, Ford's back was turned. O'Kelley said, "Hello, Bob." As Ford turned to see who it was, O'Kelley fired both barrels, killing Ford instantly. He became "the man who killed the man who killed Jesse James". He never explained his motive for the murder.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: O'Kelley's sentence was commuted because of a medical condition and a 7,000-signature petition in favor of his release, and he was released on October 3, 1902. O'Kelley was subsequently killed on January 13, 1904, while trying to shoot a policeman.


title: Robert Ford (outlaw)

text: Ford was buried in Creede. His remains were later moved and reinterred at Richmond Cemetery in his native Richmond in Ray County, Missouri; "The man who shot Jesse James" was inscribed on his grave marker.


title: December

text: December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and is also the last of seven months to have a length of 31 days.


title: December

text: December got its name from the Latin word "decem" (meaning ten) because it was originally the tenth month of the year in the calendar of Romulus which began in March. The winter days following December were not included as part of any month. Later, the months of January and February were created out of the monthless period and added to the beginning of the calendar, but December retained its name.


title: December

text: In Ancient Rome, as one of the four Agonalia, this day in honour of Sol Indiges was held on December 11, as was Septimontium. Dies natalis (birthday) was held at the temple of Tellus on December 13, Consualia was held on December 15, Saturnalia was held December 17–23, Opiconsivia was held on December 19, Divalia was held on December 21, Larentalia was held on December 23, and the dies natalis of Sol Invictus was held on December 25. These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.


title: December

text: The Anglo-Saxons referred to December–January as Ġēolamonaþ (modern English: "Yule month"). The French Republican Calendar contained December within the months of Frimaire and Nivôse.


title: December

text: December contains the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the day with the fewest daylight hours, and the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere, the day with the most daylight hours (excluding polar regions in both cases). December in the Northern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to June in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa. In the Northern hemisphere, the beginning of the astronomical winter is traditionally 21 December or the date of the solstice.


title: December

text: Meteor showers occurring in December are the Andromedids (September 25 – December 6, peaking around November 9), the Canis-Minorids (December 4 – December 15, peaking around December 10–11), the Coma Berenicids (December 12 to December 23, peaking around December 16), the Delta Cancrids (December 14 to February 14, the main shower from January 1 to January 24, peaking on January 17), the Geminids (December 13–14), the Monocerotids (December 7 to December 20, peaking on December 9. This shower can also start in November), the Phoenicids (November 29 to December 9, with a peak occurring around 5/6 December), the Quadrantids (typically a January shower but can also start in December), the Sigma Hydrids (December 4–15), and the Ursids (December 17-to December 25/26, peaking around December 22).


title: The Shadow

text: The Shadow is a fictional character created by magazine publishers Street & Smith and writer Walter B. Gibson. Originally created to be a mysterious radio show narrator, and developed into a distinct literary character in 1931 by writer Walter B. Gibson, The Shadow has been adapted into other forms of media, including American comic books, comic strips, television, serials, video games, and at least five feature films. The radio drama included episodes voiced by Orson Welles.


title: The Shadow

text: The Shadow debuted on July 31, 1930, as the mysterious narrator of the radio program "Detective Story Hour", which was developed to boost sales of Street & Smith's monthly pulp "Detective Story Magazine". When listeners of the program began asking at newsstands for copies of "that Shadow detective magazine", Street & Smith launched a magazine based on the character, and hired Gibson to create a concept to fit the name and voice and to write a story featuring him. The first issue of the pulp series "The Shadow Magazine" went on sale April 1, 1931.


title: The Shadow

text: On September 26, 1937, "The Shadow", a new radio drama based on the character as created by Gibson for the pulp magazine, premiered with the story "The Death House Rescue", in which The Shadow was characterized as having "the hypnotic power to cloud men's minds so they cannot see him". In the magazine stories, The Shadow did not become literally invisible.