title: Taiwan under Japanese rule

text: During this era, the world of puppet theatre in southern Taiwan had the Five Great Pillars (五大柱, "Godaichū") and Four Great Celebrities (四大名芸人, "Shidaimeigeinin"). The Five Great Pillars referred to Kō Kaitai, Shō Ninshō, Kō Tensen (黄 添泉, "Huáng Tiānquán"), Ko Kinchū (胡 金柱, "Hú Jīnzhù") and Ro Sūgi (盧 崇義, "Lú Chóngyì"); the Four Great Celebrities referred to Kō Tensen, Ro Sūgi, Ri Doin (李 土員, "Lǐ Tǔyuán") and Tei Zenmei (鄭 全明, "Zhèng Quánmíng").


title: Taiwan under Japanese rule

text: The Japanese also brought baseball to Taiwan. There were baseball teams in elementary schools as well as public schools, and the Japanese built baseball fields such as Tainan Stadium. It became such a widespread sport that, by the early 1930s, nearly all major secondary schools and many primary schools had established representative baseball teams. The development of the game in Taiwan culminated when Kanō Baseball Team from Kagi Agricultural and Forestry School ranked second in Japan's Kōshien national high-school baseball tournament. One legacy of this era today are the careers of several professional baseball players, such as Chien-Ming Wang, Hong-Chih Kuo, Tzu-Wei Lin, and Chien-Ming Chiang.


title: Taiwan under Japanese rule

text: With the end of World War II, Taiwan was placed under the administrative control of the Republic of China by the Allies of World War II after 50 years of colonial rule by Japan. Chen Yi, the ROC Chief Executive of Taiwan, arrived on October 24, 1945, and received the last Japanese Governor-General, Andō Rikichi, who signed the document of surrender on the next day, which was proclaimed by Chen as "Retrocession Day". This turned out to be legally controversial since Japan did not renounce its sovereignty over Taiwan until April 28, 1952, with the coming into force of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, which further complicated the political status of Taiwan. As a result, use of the term "Retrocession of Taiwan" () is less common in modern Taiwan.


title: Taiwan under Japanese rule

text: At the Cairo Conference of 1943, the Allies adopted a statement declaring that Japan would give up Taiwan at the end of the war. In April 1944, the ROC government at the wartime capital of Chongqing established the Taiwan Research Committee () with Chen Yi as chairman. Shortly afterwards, the committee reported its findings on the economy, politics, society, and military affairs of Taiwan to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek.


title: Taiwan under Japanese rule

text: Following the war, opinion in the ROC government was split as to the administration of Taiwan. One faction supported treating Taiwan in the same way as other Chinese territories occupied by the Japanese during World War II, creating a Taiwan Province. The other faction supported establishing a special administrative region in Taiwan with special military and police powers. In the end, Chiang Kai-shek chose to take Chen Yi's suggestion of creating a special 2000 man "Office of the Chief Executive of Taiwan Province" () to handle the transfer.


title: Taiwan under Japanese rule

text: Japan surrendered to the Allies on August 14, 1945. On August 29, Chiang Kai-shek appointed Chen Yi as Chief Executive of Taiwan Province, and announced the creation of the Office of the Chief Executive of Taiwan Province and Taiwan Garrison Command on September 1, with Chen Yi also as the commander of the latter body. After several days of preparation, an advance party moved into Taihoku on October 5, with more personnel from Shanghai and Chongqing arriving between October 5 and 24. By 1938 about 309,000 Japanese lived in Taiwan. Between the Japanese surrender of Taiwan in 1945 and April 25, 1946, the Republic of China forces repatriated 90% of the Japanese living in Taiwan to Japan.


title: Taiwan under Japanese rule

text: The formal surrender of Japanese forces on Taiwan occurred on the morning of October 25, 1945, in Taihoku City Public Auditorium. The Office of the Governor-General of Taiwan formally surrendered to the Allies of World War II. On the same day, the Office of the Chief Executive began functioning from the building which now houses the ROC Executive Yuan.


title: Potomac River

text: The Potomac River () drains the Mid-Atlantic United States, flowing from the Potomac Highlands into Chesapeake Bay. It is long, with a drainage area of 14,700 square miles (38,000 km), and is the fourth-largest river along the East Coast of the United States and the 21st-largest in the United States. Over 5 million people live within its watershed.


title: Potomac River

text: The river forms part of the borders between Maryland and Washington, D.C. on the left descending bank and between West Virginia and Virginia on the right descending bank. Except for a small portion of its headwaters in West Virginia, the North Branch Potomac River is considered part of Maryland to the low-water mark on the opposite bank. The South Branch Potomac River lies completely within the state of West Virginia except for its headwaters, which lie in Virginia.


title: Potomac River

text: The Potomac River runs from Fairfax Stone Historical Monument State Park in West Virginia on the Allegheny Plateau to Point Lookout, Maryland, and drains . The length of the river from the junction of its North and South Branches to Point Lookout is .


title: Potomac River

text: The river has two sources. The source of the North Branch is at the Fairfax Stone located at the junction of Grant, Tucker, and Preston counties in West Virginia. The source of the South Branch is located near Hightown in northern Highland County, Virginia. The river's two branches converge just east of Green Spring in Hampshire County, West Virginia, to form the Potomac. As it flows from its headwaters down to the Chesapeake Bay, the Potomac traverses five geological provinces: the Appalachian Plateau, the Ridge and Valley, the Blue Ridge, the Piedmont Plateau, and the Atlantic coastal plain.


title: Potomac River

text: Once the Potomac drops from the Piedmont to the Coastal Plain at the Atlantic Seaboard fall line at Little Falls, tides further influence the river as it passes through Washington, D.C. and beyond. Salinity in the Potomac River Estuary increases thereafter with distance downstream. The estuary also widens, reaching 11 statute miles (17 km) wide at its mouth, between Point Lookout, Maryland, and Smith Point, Virginia, before flowing into the Chesapeake Bay.


title: Potomac River

text: The source of the North Branch Potomac River is at the Fairfax Stone located at the junction of Grant, Tucker and Preston counties in West Virginia. From the Fairfax Stone, the North Branch Potomac River flows to the man-made Jennings Randolph Lake, an impoundment designed for flood control and emergency water supply. Below the dam, the North Branch cuts a serpentine path through the eastern Allegheny Mountains. First, it flows northeast by the communities of Bloomington, Luke, and Westernport in Maryland and then on by Keyser, West Virginia to Cumberland, Maryland. At Cumberland, the river turns southeast. downstream from its source, the North Branch is joined by the South Branch between Green Spring and South Branch Depot, West Virginia from whence it flows past Hancock, Maryland and turns southeast once more on its way toward Washington, D.C., and the Chesapeake Bay.


title: Potomac River

text: The exact location of the South Branch's source is northwest of Hightown along U.S. Route 250 on the eastern side of Lantz Mountain (3,934 ft) in Highland County. From Hightown, the South Branch is a small meandering stream that flows northeast along Blue Grass Valley Road through the communities of New Hampden and Blue Grass. At Forks of Waters, the South Branch joins with Strait Creek and flows north across the Virginia/West Virginia border into Pendleton County.


title: Potomac River

text: The river then travels on a northeastern course along the western side of Jack Mountain (4,045 ft), followed by Sandy Ridge (2,297 ft) along U.S. Route 220. North of the confluence of the South Branch with Smith Creek, the river flows along Town Mountain (2,848 ft) around Franklin at the junction of U.S. Route 220 and U.S. Route 33. After Franklin, the South Branch continues north through the Monongahela National Forest to Upper Tract where it joins with three sizeable streams: Reeds Creek, Mill Run, and Deer Run.


title: Potomac River

text: Between Big Mountain (2,582 ft) and Cave Mountain (2,821 ft), the South Branch bends around the Eagle Rock (1,483 ft) outcrop and continues its flow northward into Grant County. Into Grant, the South Branch follows the western side of Cave Mountain through the long Smoke Hole Canyon, until its confluence with the North Fork at Cabins, where it flows east to Petersburg. At Petersburg, the South Branch Valley Railroad begins, which parallelsthe river until its mouth at Green Spring.


title: Potomac River

text: In its eastern course from Petersburg into Hardy County, the South Branch becomes more navigable allowing for canoes and smaller river vessels. The river splits and forms a series of large islands while it heads northeast to Moorefield. At Moorefield, the South Branch is joined by the South Fork South Branch Potomac River and runs north to Old Fields where it is fed by Anderson Run and Stony Run.


title: Potomac River

text: At McNeill, the South Branch flows into the Trough where it is bound to its west by Mill Creek Mountain (2,119 ft) and to its east by Sawmill Ridge (1,644 ft). This area is the habitat to bald eagles. The Trough passes into Hampshire County and ends at its confluence with Sawmill Run south of Glebe and Sector.


title: Potomac River

text: The South Branch continues north parallel to South Branch River Road (County Route 8) toward Romney with a number of historic plantation farms adjoining it. En route to Romney, the river is fed by Buffalo Run, Mill Run, McDowell Run, and Mill Creek at Vanderlip. The South Branch is traversed by the Northwestern Turnpike (U.S. Route 50) and joined by Sulphur Spring Run where it forms Valley View Island to the west of town.


title: Potomac River

text: Flowing north of Romney, the river still follows the eastern side of Mill Creek Mountain until it creates a horseshoe bend at Wappocomo's Hanging Rocks around the George W. Washington plantation, Ridgedale. To the west of Three Churches on the western side of South Branch Mountain, 3,028 feet (923 m), the South Branch creates a series of bends and flows to the northeast by Springfield through Blue's Ford. After two additional horseshoe bends (meanders), the South Branch flows under the old Baltimore and Ohio Railroad mainline between Green Spring and South Branch Depot, and joins the North Branch to form the Potomac.


title: Potomac River

text: This stretch encompasses the section of the Potomac River from the confluence of its North and South Branches through Opequon Creek near Shepherdstown, West Virginia. Along the way the following tributaries drain into the Potomac: North Branch Potomac River, South Branch Potomac River, Town Creek, Little Cacapon River, Sideling Hill Creek, Cacapon River, Sir Johns Run, Warm Spring Run, Tonoloway Creek, Fifteenmile Creek, Sleepy Creek, Cherry Run, Back Creek, Conococheague Creek, and Opequon Creek.


title: Potomac River

text: This section covers the Potomac from just above Harpers Ferry in West Virginia down to Little Falls, Maryland on the border between Maryland and Washington, DC. Along the way the following tributaries drain into the Potomac: Antietam Creek, Shenandoah River, Catoctin Creek, Catoctin Creek, Tuscarora Creek, Monocacy River, Little Monocacy River, Broad Run, Goose Creek, Broad Run, Horsepen Branch, Little Seneca Creek, Tenmile Creek, Great Seneca Creek, Old Sugarland Run, Muddy Branch, Nichols Run, Watts Branch, Limekiln Branch, Carroll Branch, Pond Run, Clarks Branch, Mine Run Branch, Difficult Run, Bullneck Run, Rock Run, Scott Run, Dead Run, Turkey Run, Cabin John Creek, Minnehaha Branch, and Little Falls Branch.


title: Potomac River

text: The Tidal Potomac River lies below the Fall Line. This 108-mile (174-km) stretch encompasses the Potomac from a short distance below the Washington, DC - Montgomery County line, just downstream of the Little Falls of the Potomac River, to the Chesapeake Bay.


title: Potomac River

text: Along the way the following tributaries drain into the Potomac: Pimmit Run, Gulf Branch, Donaldson Run, Windy Run, Spout Run, Maddox Branch, Foundry Branch, Rock Creek, Rocky Run, Tiber Creek, Roaches Run, Washington Channel, Anacostia River, Four Mile Run, Oxon Creek, Hunting Creek, Broad Creek, Henson Creek, Swan Creek, Piscataway Creek, Little Hunting Creek, Dogue Creek, Accotink Creek, Pohick Creek, Pomonkey Creek, Occoquan River, Neabsco Creek, Powell's Creek, Mattawoman Creek, Chicamuxen Creek, Quantico Creek, Little Creek, Chopawamsic Creek, Tank Creek, Aquia Creek, Potomac Creek, Nanjemoy Creek, Chotank Creek, Port Tobacco River, Popes Creek, Gambo Creek, Clifton Creek, Piccowaxen Creek, Upper Machodoc Creek, Wicomico River, Cobb Island, Monroe Creek, Mattox Creek, Popes Creek, Breton Bay, Leonardtown, St. Marys River, Yeocomico River, Coan River, and Hull Creek.


title: Potomac River

text: The river itself is at least 3.5 million years old, likely extending back ten to twenty million years before the present when the Atlantic Ocean lowered and exposed coastal sediments along the fall line. This included the area at Great Falls, which eroded into its present form during recent glaciation periods.


title: Potomac River

text: "Potomac" is a European spelling of "Patawomeck", the Algonquian name of a Native American village on its southern bank. Native Americans had different names for different parts of the river, calling the river above Great Falls "Cohongarooton", meaning "honking geese" and "Patawomke" below the Falls, meaning "river of swans". In 1608, Captain John Smith explored the river now known as the Potomac and made drawings of his observations which were later compiled into a map and published in London in 1612. This detail from that map shows his rendition of the river that the local tribes had told him was called the "Patawomeck". The spelling of the name has taken many forms over the years from "Patawomeck" (as on Captain John Smith's map) to "Patomake", "Patowmack", and numerous other variations in the 18th century and now "Potomac". The river's name was officially decided upon as "Potomac" by the Board on Geographic Names in 1931.


title: Potomac River

text: The Potomac River brings together a variety of cultures throughout the watershed from the coal miners of upstream West Virginia to the urban residents of the nation's capital and, along the lower Potomac, the watermen of Virginia's Northern Neck.


title: Potomac River

text: Being situated in an area rich in American history and American heritage has led to the Potomac being nicknamed "the Nation's River". George Washington, the first President of the United States, was born in, surveyed, and spent most of his life within, the Potomac basin. All of Washington, D.C., the nation's capital city, also lies within the watershed. The 1859 siege of Harper's Ferry at the river's confluence with the Shenandoah was a precursor to numerous epic battles of the American Civil War in and around the Potomac and its tributaries, such as the 1861 Battle of Ball's Bluff and the 1862 Battle of Shepherdstown. General Robert E. Lee crossed the river, thereby invading the North and threatening Washington, D.C., twice in campaigns climaxing in the battles of Antietam (September 17, 1862) and Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863). Confederate General Jubal Early crossed the river in July 1864 on his attempted raid on the nation's capital. The river not only divided the Union from the Confederacy, but also gave name to the Union's largest army, the Army of the Potomac.


title: Potomac River

text: The Patowmack Canal was intended by George Washington to connect the Tidewater region near Georgetown with Cumberland, Maryland. Started in 1785 on the Virginia side of the river, it was not completed until 1802. Financial troubles led to the closure of the canal in 1830. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal operated along the banks of the Potomac in Maryland from 1831 to 1924 and also connected Cumberland to Washington, D.C. This allowed freight to be transported around the rapids known as the Great Falls of the Potomac River, as well as many other, smaller rapids.


title: Potomac River

text: Washington, D.C. began using the Potomac as its principal source of drinking water with the opening of the Washington Aqueduct in 1864, using a water intake constructed at Great Falls.


title: Potomac River

text: An average of approximately of water is withdrawn daily from the Potomac in the Washington area for water supply, providing about 78 percent of the region's total water usage, this amount includes approximately 80 percent of the drinking water consumed by the region's estimated 6.1 million residents.


title: Potomac River

text: As a result of damaging floods in 1936 and 1937, the Army Corps of Engineers proposed the Potomac River basin reservoir projects, a series of dams that were intended to regulate the river and to provide a more reliable water supply. One dam was to be built at Little Falls, just north of Washington, backing its pool up to Great Falls. Just above Great Falls, the much larger Seneca Dam was proposed whose reservoir would extend to Harpers Ferry. Several other dams were proposed for the Potomac and its tributaries.


title: Potomac River

text: When detailed studies were issued by the Corps in the 1950s, they met sustained opposition, led by U.S. Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, resulting in the plans' abandonment. The only dam project that did get built was Jennings Randolph Lake on the North Branch.


title: Potomac River

text: In 1940 Congress passed a law authorizing the creation of an interstate compact to coordinate water quality management among states in the Potomac basin. Maryland, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the District of Columbia agreed to establish the Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin. The compact was amended in 1970 to include coordination of water supply issues and land use issues related to water quality.


title: Potomac River

text: Beginning in the 19th century, with increasing mining and agriculture upstream and urban sewage and runoff downstream, the water quality of the Potomac River deteriorated. This created conditions of severe eutrophication. It is said that President Abraham Lincoln used to escape to the highlands on summer nights to escape the river's stench. In the 1960s, with dense green algal blooms covering the river's surface, President Lyndon Johnson declared the river "a national disgrace" and set in motion a long-term effort to reduce pollution from sewage and restore the beauty and ecology of this historic river. One of the significant pollution control projects at the time was the expansion of the Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant, which serves Washington and several surrounding communities. Enactment of the 1972 Clean Water Act led to construction or expansion of additional sewage treatment plants in the Potomac watershed. Controls on phosphorus, one of the principal contributors to eutrophication, were implemented in the 1980s, through sewage plant upgrades and restrictions on phosphorus in detergents.


title: Potomac River

text: By the end of the 20th century, notable success had been achieved, as massive algal blooms vanished and recreational fishing and boating rebounded. Still, the aquatic habitat of the Potomac River and its tributaries remain vulnerable to eutrophication, heavy metals, pesticides and other toxic chemicals, over-fishing, alien species, and pathogens associated with fecal coliform bacteria and shellfish diseases. In 2005 two federal agencies, the US Geological Survey and the Fish and Wildlife Service, began to identify fish in the Potomac and tributaries that exhibited "intersex" characteristics, as a result of endocrine disruption caused by some form of pollution.


title: Potomac River

text: On November 13, 2007, the Potomac Conservancy, an environmental group, issued the river a grade of "D-plus", citing high levels of pollution and the reports of "intersex" fish. Since then, the river has improved with a reduction in nutrient runoff, return of fish populations, and land protection along the river. As a result, the same group issued a grade of "B" for 2017 and 2018. In March 2019, the Potomac Riverkeeper Network launched a laboratory boat dubbed the "Sea Dog", which will be monitoring water quality in the Potomac and providing reports to the public on a weekly basis; in that same month, the catching near Fletcher's Boat House of a Striped Bass estimated to weigh 35 lbs was seen as a further indicator of the continuing improvement in the health of the river.


title: Potomac River

text: The average daily flow during the water years 1931–2018 was  /s. The highest average daily flow ever recorded on the Potomac at Little Falls, Maryland (near Washington, D.C.), was in March 1936 when it reached  /s. The lowest average daily flow ever recorded at the same location was  /s in September 1966 The highest crest of the Potomac ever registered at Little Falls was 28.10 ft, on March 19, 1936;


title: Potomac River

text: however, the most damaging flood to affect Washington, DC and its metropolitan area was that of October 1942.


title: Potomac River

text: For 400 years Maryland and Virginia have disputed control of the Potomac and its North Branch since both states' original colonial charters grant the entire river rather than half of it as is normally the case with boundary rivers. In its first state constitution adopted in 1776, Virginia ceded its claim to the entire river but reserved free use of it, an act disputed by Maryland. Both states acceded to the 1785 Mount Vernon Compact and the 1877 Black-Jenkins Award which granted Maryland the river bank-to-bank from the low-water mark on the Virginia side while permitting Virginia full riparian rights short of obstructing navigation.


title: Potomac River

text: From 1957 to 1996, the Maryland Department of the Environment (MDE) routinely issued permits applied for by Virginia entities concerning the use of the Potomac. However, in 1996 the MDE denied a permit submitted by the Fairfax County Water Authority to build a water intake 725 feet (220 m) offshore, citing potential harm to Maryland's interests by an increase in Virginia sprawl caused by the project. After years of failed appeals within the Maryland government's appeal processes, in 2000 Virginia took the case to the Supreme Court of the United States, which exercises original jurisdiction in cases between two states. Maryland claimed Virginia lost its riparian rights by acquiescing to MDE's permit process for 63 years (MDE began its permit process in 1933). A Special Master appointed by the Supreme Court to investigate recommended the case be settled in favor of Virginia, citing the language in the 1785 Compact and the 1877 Award. On December 9, 2003, the Court agreed in a 7–2 decision.


title: Potomac River

text: The original charters are silent as to which branch from the upper Potomac serves as the boundary, but this was settled by the 1785 Compact. When West Virginia seceded from Virginia in 1863, the question of West Virginia's succession in title to the lands between the branches of the river was raised, as well as title to the river itself. Claims by Maryland to West Virginia land north of the South Branch (all of Mineral and Grant Counties and parts of Hampshire, Hardy, Tucker and Pendleton Counties) and by West Virginia to the Potomac's high-water mark were rejected by the Supreme Court in two separate decisions in 1910.


title: Potomac River

text: A variety of fish inhabit the Potomac, including bass, muskellunge, pike, walleye. The northern snakehead, an invasive species resembling the native bowfin, lamprey, and American eel, was first seen in 2004. Many types of sunfish are also present in the Potomac and its headwaters. Although rare, bull sharks can be found.


title: Potomac River

text: After having been depressed for many decades, the river's population of American Shad is currently re-bounding as a result of the ICPRB's successful "American Shad Restoration Project" that was begun in 1995. In addition to stocking the river with more than 22 million shad fry, the Project supervised the construction of a fishway that was built to facilitate the passage of adults around the Little Falls Dam on the way to their traditional spawning grounds upstream.


title: Potomac River

text: Early European colonists who settled along the Potomac found a diversity of large and small mammals living in the dense forests nearby. Bison, elk, wolves (both gray and red) and cougars were still present at that time, but had been hunted to extirpation by the middle of the 19th century. Among the denizens of the Potomac's banks, beavers and otters met a similar fate, while small populations of American mink and American martens survived into the 20th century in some secluded areas.


title: Potomac River

text: There is no record of early settlers having observed marine mammals in the Potomac, but several sightings of Atlantic bottle-nosed dolphins ("Tursiops truncatus") were reported during the 19th century. In July 1844. a pod of 14 adults and young was followed up the river by men in boats as high as the Aqueduct Bridge (approximately the same location occupied by Key Bridge today).


title: Potomac River

text: Since 2015, perhaps as a result of warmer temperatures, rising water levels in the Chesapeake Bay and improving water quality in the Potomac, unprecedented numbers of Atlantic bottle-nosed dolphins have been observed in the river. According to Dr Janet Mann of Georgetown University's Potomac-Chesapeake Dolphin Project, more than 500 individual members of the species have been identified in the Potomac during this period.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: Hypersonic flight is flight through the atmosphere below altitudes of about 90 km at speeds greater than Mach 5, a speed where dissociation of air begins to become significant and high heat loads exist. Speeds of Mach 25+ have been achieved below the thermosphere as of 2020.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: The first manufactured object to achieve hypersonic flight was the two-stage Bumper rocket, consisting of a WAC Corporal second stage set on top of a V-2 first stage. In February 1949, at White Sands, the rocket reached a speed of , or about Mach 6.7. The vehicle, however, burned on atmospheric re-entry, and only charred remnants were found. In April 1961, Russian Major Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel at hypersonic speed, during the world's first piloted orbital flight. Soon after, in May 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American and second person to fly hypersonic when his capsule reentered the atmosphere at a speed above Mach 5 at the end of his suborbital flight over the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: The reentry problem of a space vehicle was extensively studied. The NASA X-43A flew on scramjet for 10 seconds, and then glided for 10 minutes on its last flight in 2004. The Boeing X-51 Waverider flew on scramjet for 210 seconds in 2013, finally reaching Mach 5.1 on its fourth flight test. The hypersonic regime has since become the subject for further study during the 21st century, and strategic competition between the United States, India, Russia, and China.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: The stagnation point of air flowing around a body is a point where its local velocity is zero. At this point the air flows around this location. A shock wave forms, which deflects the air from the stagnation point and insulates the flight body from the atmosphere. This can affect the lifting ability of a flight surface to counteract its drag and subsequent free fall.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: In order to maneuver in the atmosphere at faster speeds than supersonic, the forms of propulsion can still be airbreathing systems, but a ramjet does not suffice for a system to attain Mach 5, as a ramjet slows down the airflow to subsonic. Some systems (waveriders) use a first stage rocket to boost a body into the hypersonic regime. Other systems (boost-glide vehicles) use scramjets after their initial boost, in which the speed of the air passing through the scramjet remains supersonic. Other systems (munitions) use a cannon for their initial boost.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: Hypersonic flow is a high energy flow. The ratio of kinetic energy to the internal energy of the gas increases as the square of the Mach number. When this flow enters a boundary layer, there are high viscous effects due to the friction between air and the high-speed object. In this case, the high kinetic energy is converted in part to internal energy and gas energy is proportional to the internal energy. Therefore, hypersonic boundary layers are high temperature regions due to the viscous dissipation of the flow's kinetic energy. Another region of high temperature flow is the shock layer behind the strong bow shock wave. In the case of the shock layer, the flow's velocity decreases discontinuously as it passes through the shock wave. This results in a loss of kinetic energy and a gain of internal energy behind the shock wave. Due to high temperatures behind the shock wave, dissociation of molecules in the air becomes thermally active. For example, for air at T > 2000 K, dissociation of diatomic oxygen into oxygen radicals is active: O → 2O For T > 4000 K, dissociation of diatomic nitrogen into N radicals is active: N → 2N Consequently, in this temperature range, a plasma forms: —molecular dissociation followed by recombination of oxygen and nitrogen radicals produces nitric oxide: N + O → 2NO, which then dissociates and recombines to form ions: N + O → NO + e


title: Hypersonic flight

text: At standard sea-level condition for air, the mean free path of air molecules is about formula_1. Low density air is much thinner. At an altitude of the mean free path is formula_2. Because of this large free mean path aerodynamic concepts, equations, and results based on the assumption of a continuum begin to break down, therefore aerodynamics must be considered from kinetic theory. This regime of aerodynamics is called low-density flow.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: For a given aerodynamic condition low-density effects depends on the value of a nondimensional parameter called the Knudsen number formula_3, defined as formula_4 where formula_5 is the typical length scale of the object considered. The value of the Knudsen number based on nose radius, formula_6, can be near one.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: Hypersonic vehicles frequently fly at very high altitudes and therefore encounter low-density conditions. Hence, the design and analysis of hypersonic vehicles sometimes require consideration of low-density flow. New generations of hypersonic airplanes may spend a considerable portion of their mission at high altitudes, and for these vehicles, low-density effects will become more significant.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: The flow field between the shock wave and the body surface is called the shock layer. As the Mach number M increases, the angle of the resulting shock wave decreases. This Mach angle is described by the equation formula_7 where a is the speed of the sound wave and v is the flow velocity. Since M=v/a, the equation becomes formula_8. Higher Mach numbers position the shock wave closer to the body surface, thus at hypersonic speeds, the shock wave lies extremely close to the body surface, resulting in a thin shock layer. At low Reynolds number, the boundary layer grows quite thick and merges with the shock wave, leading to a fully viscous shock layer.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: The compressible flow boundary layer increases proportionately to the square of the Mach number, and inversely to the square root of the Reynolds number.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: At hypersonic speeds, this effect becomes much more pronounced, due to the exponential reliance on the Mach number. Since the boundary layer becomes so large, it interacts more viscously with the surrounding flow. The overall effect of this interaction is to create a much higher skin friction than normal, causing greater surface heat flow. Additionally, the surface pressure spikes, which results in a much larger aerodynamic drag coefficient. This effect is extreme at the leading edge and decreases as a function of length along the surface.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: The entropy layer is a region of large velocity gradients caused by the strong curvature of the shock wave. The entropy layer begins at the nose of the aircraft and extends downstream close to the body surface. Downstream of the nose, the entropy layer interacts with the boundary layer which causes an increase in aerodynamic heating at the body surface. Although the shock wave at the nose at supersonic speeds is also curved, the entropy layer is only observed at hypersonic speeds because the magnitude of the curve is far greater at hypersonic speeds.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: Transport consumes energy for three purposes: overcoming gravity, overcoming air/water friction, and achieving terminal velocity. The reduced trip times and higher flight altitudes reduce the first two, while increasing the third. Proponents claim that the net energy costs of hypersonic transport can be lower than those of conventional transport while slashing journey times.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: Two main types of hypersonic weapons are hypersonic cruise missiles and hypersonic glide vehicles. Hypersonic weapons, by definition, travel five or more times the speed of sound. Hypersonic cruise missiles, which are powered by scramjets, are limited to below ; hypersonic glide vehicles can travel higher.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: Hypersonic vehicles are much slower than ballistic (i.e. sub-orbital or fractional orbital) missiles, because they travel in the atmosphere, and ballistic missiles travel in the vacuum above the atmosphere. However, they can use the atmosphere to manoeuvre, making them capable of large-angle deviations from a ballistic trajectory. A hypersonic glide vehicle is usually launched with a ballistic first stage, then deploys wings and switches to hypersonic flight as it re-enters the atmosphere, allowing the final stage to evade all existing nuclear missile defense systems, which were designed for ballistic-only missiles.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: According to a CNBC July 2019 report (and now in a CNN 2022 report), Russia and China lead in hypersonic weapon development, trailed by the United States, and in this case the problem is being addressed in a joint program of the entire Department of Defense. To meet this development need, the US Army is participating in a joint program with the US Navy and Air Force, to develop a hypersonic glide body. India is also developing such weapons. France and Australia may also be pursuing the technology. Japan is acquiring both scramjet (Hypersonic Cruise Missile), and boost-glide weapons (Hyper Velocity Gliding Projectile).


title: Hypersonic flight

text: In 2016, Russia is believed to have conducted two successful tests of Avangard, a hypersonic glide vehicle. The third known test, in 2017, failed. In 2018, an Avangard was launched at the Dombarovskiy missile base, reaching its target at the Kura shooting range, a distance of 3700 miles (5955 km). Avangard uses new composite materials which are to withstand temperatures of up to 2,000 degrees Celsius (3,632 degrees Fahrenheit). The Avangard's environment at hypersonic speeds reaches such temperatures. Russia considered its carbon fiber solution to be unreliable, and replaced it with new composite materials. Two Avangard hypersonic glide vehicles (HGVs) will first be mounted on SS-19 ICBMs; on 27 December 2019 the weapon was first fielded to the Yasnensky Missile Division, a unit in the Orenburg Oblast. In an earlier report, Franz-Stefan Gady named the unit as the 13th Regiment/Dombarovskiy Division (Strategic Missile Force).


title: Hypersonic flight

text: In 2021 Russia launched a 3M22 Zircon antiship missile over the White Sea, as part of a series of tests. "Kinzhal and Zircon (Tsirkon) are standoff strike weapons". In February 2022, a coordinated series of missile exercises, some of them hypersonic, were launched on 18 February 2022 in an apparent display of power projection. The launch platforms ranged from submarines in the Barents sea in the Arctic, as well as from ships on the Black sea to the south of Russia. The exercise included a RS-24 Yars ICBM which was launched from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome, and flown across Northern Russia, to land on the Kamchatka peninsula.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: These tests have prompted US responses in weapons development. By 2018, the AGM-183 and Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon were in development per John Hyten's USSTRATCOM statement on 8 August 2018 (UTC). At least one vendor is developing ceramics to handle the temperatures of hypersonics systems. There are over a dozen US hypersonics projects as of 2018, notes the commander of USSTRATCOM; from which a future hypersonic cruise missile is sought, perhaps by Q4 FY2021. The Long range precision fires (LRPF) CFT is supporting Space and Missile Defense Command's pursuit of hypersonics. Joint programs in hypersonics are informed by Army work; however, at the strategic level, the bulk of the hypersonics work remains at the Joint level. Long Range Precision Fires (LRPF) is an Army priority, and also a DoD joint effort. The Army and Navy's Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB) had a successful test of a prototype in March 2020. A wind tunnel for testing hypersonic vehicles will be built in Texas (2019). The Army's Land-based Hypersonic Missile "is intended to have a range of ". By adding rocket propulsion to a shell or glide body, the joint effort shaved five years off the likely fielding time for hypersonic weapon systems. Countermeasures against hypersonics will require sensor data fusion: both radar and infrared sensor tracking data will be required to capture the signature of a hypersonic vehicle in the atmosphere. There are also privately developed hypersonic systems, as well as critics.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: DoD tested a Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB) in 2020. The Air Force dropped out of the tri-service hypersonic project in 2020, leaving only the Army and Navy on the C-HGB.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: According to Air Force chief scientist, Dr. Greg Zacharias, the US anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonic drones by the 2030s, and recoverable hypersonic drone aircraft by the 2040s. The focus of DoD development will be on air-breathing boost-glide hypersonics systems. Countering hypersonic weapons during their cruise phase will require radar with longer range, as well as space-based sensors, and systems for tracking and fire control. A mid-2021 report from the Congressional Research Service states the United States is "unlikely" to field an operational hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) until 2023.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: On 21 October 2021, the Pentagon stated that a test of a hypersonic glide body failed to complete, because its booster failed; according to Lt. Cmdr. Timothy Gorman the booster was not part of the equipment under test, but the booster's failure mode will be reviewed to improve the test setup. The test occurred at Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska, on Kodiak island. Three rocketsondes at Wallops Island completed successful tests earlier that week, for the hypersonics effort. On 29 October 2021 the booster rocket for the Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon was successfully tested in a static test; the first stage thrust vector control system control system was included. On 26 October 2022 Sandia National Laboratories conducted a successful test of hypersonic technologies at Wallops Island.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: In September 2021, and in March 2022, US vendors Raytheon/Northrop Grumman, and Lockheed respectively, first successfully tested their air-launched, scramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missiles, which were funded by DARPA. By September 2022 Raytheon was selected for fielding Hypersonic Attack Cruise Missile (HACM), a scramjet-powered hypersonic missile by FY2027.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: Rand Corporation (28 September 2017) estimates there is less than a decade to prevent Hypersonic Missile proliferation.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: In the same way that anti-ballistic missiles were developed as countermeasures to ballistic missiles, counter-countermeasures to hypersonics systems were not yet in development, as of 2019. "See the National Defense Space Architecture (2021), above." But by 2019, $157.4 million was allocated in the FY2020 Pentagon budget for hypersonic defense, out of $2.6 billion for all hypersonic-related research. $207 million of the FY2021 budget was allocated to defensive hypersonics, up from the FY2020 budget allocation of $157 million. Both the US and Russia withdrew from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in February 2019. This will spur arms development, including hypersonic weapons, in FY2021 and forward. By 2021 the Missile Defense Agency was funding regional countermeasures against hypersonic weapons in their glide phase. James Acton characterized the proliferation of hypersonic vehicles as never-ending in October 2021; Jeffery Lewis views the proliferation as additional arguments for ending the arms race. Doug Loverro assesses that both missile defense and competition need rethinking. CSIS assesses that hypersonic defense should be the US' priority over hypersonic weapons.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: In 2021, DoD was codifying flight test guidelines, knowledge gained from Conventional Prompt Strike (CPS) and the other hypersonics programs, for some 70 hypersonics R&D programs alone, as of 2021. In 2021-2023, Heidi Shyu, the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering (USD(R&E)) is pursuing a program of annual rapid joint experiments, including hypersonics capabilities, to bring down their cost of development. A hypersonic test bed aims to bring the frequency of tests to one per week.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: France, Australia, India, Germany, Japan, South Korea and North Korea and Iran also have hypersonic weapon research programs.


title: Hypersonic flight

text: Australia and the US have begun joint development of air-launched hypersonic missiles, as announced by a Pentagon statement on 30 November 2020. The development will build on the $54 million Hypersonic International Flight Research Experimentation (HIFiRE) under which both nations collaborated on over a 15-year period. Small and large companies will all contribute to the development of these hypersonic missiles, named SCIFIRE in 2022.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hrvatski nogometni klub Hajduk Split, commonly referred to as Hajduk Split () or simply Hajduk, is a Croatian professional football club based in Split, that competes in the Croatian First League, the top tier in Croatian football. Since 1979, the club's home ground has been the 34,198-seater Stadion Poljud. The team's traditional home colours are white shirts with blue shorts and blue socks.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: The idea to form a football club was started by group of Split students who were studying in Prague. After observing a game between Slavia and Sparta Prague, the group gathered at the U Fleků tavern and talked of creating a football club at home. When they returned to Split, they put their plan in motion and Hajduk was founded on 13 February 1911. Between the early 1920s and 1940, Hajduk regularly participated in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia national championship. Following World War II and the formation of the Yugoslav league system in 1946, Hajduk went on to spend the entire SFR Yugoslavia period at the top level. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, the club joined the Croatian First League in its inaugural season in 1992, never having been relegated from its top tier. Hajduk is thus the only ex-Yugoslav side to have never been relegated from the top flight since the foundation of the original Yugoslavia, though a number of ex-Yugoslav clubs have long spells in the top flight dating to the SFR Yugoslavia era.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: They are one of the most successful teams in Croatia and ex-Yugoslavia, having won nine Yugoslav and six Croatian league championships, in addition to nine Yugoslav and seven Croatian cup titles, and five Croatian supercup titles, without ever being relegated from its country's top football league.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: The club's golden era came in the 1970s, when they won four Yugoslav Leagues and five Yugoslav Cups. Hajduk is also the only club in Yugoslav football history that has won five-straight Yugoslav Cups (between 1972 and 1977), and also the only unbeaten champion (season 1950). Hajduk's biggest European achievements are appearances in three European Cup quarter-finals, one UEFA Cup semi-final and one Cup Winners' Cup semi-final.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: The club's main rivals are Dinamo Zagreb, with matches between the two referred to as the "Eternal Derby". Hajduk Split fans are called Torcida Split, who are the oldest organized firm in Europe, being founded in 1950. The inspiration of the name were the Brazilian fans at the 1950 FIFA World Cup, which were called Torcida.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: As of 2008, the club is a stock company, although not listed on the public stock exchange, with majority of the stock owned by the City of Split. It is one of two fan-owned sports teams in Croatia, reaching over 43,000 members in 2016, and over 81,000 members for 2022. There are also over 50 Hajduk fan clubs situated mostly across Croatia and Germany, but as far as United States, Ireland and Australia.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: The club was founded in the centuries-old pub U Fleků in Prague (then also part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire), by a group of students from Split: Fabjan Kaliterna, Lucijan Stella, Ivan Šakić and Vjekoslav Ivanišević. They went to the pub following a match between AC Sparta and SK Slavia and decided it was time their own town founded a professional club. They all knew how popular the sport was in their home city of Split, and how well their friends can play.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: The club was officially registered with the authorities on 13 February 1911. While trying to come up with a name for the club (other options being "Velebit", "Uskok", "Marjan"...), the students went to their old teacher Josip Barač for advice and according to accounts, after enthusiastically storming into his office, he told them to take the name "Hajduk" which symbolized "that which is best in our people: bravery, humanity, friendship, love of freedom, defiance to powers, and protection of the weak. Be worthy of that great name".


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduks were romanticized bandits that fought the rule of the Ottoman Turks. It is speculated that famed hajduk Andrijica Šimić, who triumphantly arrived in Split in 1902 to cheering crowds (after a long stint in an Austrian prison), was perhaps the inspiration for the name. The founders subsequently designed the club's emblem, and a group of Catholic nuns from a monastery in Split, created copies which were distributed to fans. Both the name and the checkered board on the crest were found provocative by the Monarchy, but it eventually allowed them having been convinced that a football club is a good way to train soldiers.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduk gathered the pro-Croat party of citizens of Split, Croat unionists or "puntari". That is why the club specifically has the name "hrvatski nogometni klub" ("Croatian football club") and has the Croatian coat-of-arms in its crest. The club itself was against the Austrian-Hungarian government's policy of not allowing the unification of the Croatian provinces and keeping them separated (the government and the emperor did not allow the reunion of Dalmatia with the rest of Croatia). Hajduk's first opponent were Calcio Spalato, the club of an autonomist party from in Split, and the match ended with a 9–0 (6–0) victory for Hajduk. The first to score for Hajduk was Šime Raunig, legend has it – with his knee.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: In 1912, Hajduk played their first match in Zagreb against the HAŠK football club, and lost 3–2. The first international match against an eminent opponent was held in 1913 against Czech club Slavia Prague, which at that time were one of the strongest squads in Europe. Hajduk ended up losing the match 1–13 (0–13). After the formation of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, Hajduk first entered the Yugoslav league in 1923, losing their first and only match that season against SAŠK. However, that same year while on tour in North Africa, Hajduk defeated Marseille 3–2 in their first international match, sparking mass celebrations in Split. The next year, the squad was considered so strong that 10 out of the 11 players which played an international friendly for Yugoslavia against Czechoslovakia were contracted to Hajduk (only exception being the goalkeeper, as Hajduk had an Italian goalkeeper at the time).


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: In 1926, in honour of the club's 15th birthday, composer Ivo Tijardović dedicated an operetta "" to the club, making it the only football club in the world to have its own operetta. Apart from national championship, from 1920 to 1936 Hajduk continuously competed in Dalmatian Championship, having won all but one of them.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduk reached their first period of glory in the late 1920s, when they won their first two Yugoslav championships (1927 and 1929), which earned them a slot in the Central European Cup. Some of the best players in that period were Leo Lemešić and Vladimir Kragić, with Ljubo Benčić managed to become the best goalscorer of the 1927 season. Long-lasting coach of the team was one of clubs greats, Luka Kaliterna. During the 6 January Dictatorship the adjective "Croatian" in "Croatian Football Club" was forcibly replaced by the adjective "Yugoslav" to the dismay of the team. Furthermore, the 1930s proved disastrous for Hajduk, as they won no tournaments or championships, recording only a few successes in international matches.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: They did manage to win one title during the Banovina of Croatia era in 1940–41, with an impressive 14–3–1 record. As a Croatian champion the club was about the play the playoffs for Yugoslav championship, but with World War II emerging, the championship was never finished. During this time, Hajduk could have had a fantastic generation lead by young Frane Matošić, Ratko Kacijan, as well as prominent Czech international Jiří Sobotka.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: In April 1941, during World War II, Yugoslavia was invaded, occupied and carved-up by the Axis powers, with Split being annexed directly into Italy. Residents and players were both opposed to the assimilation to Italy, thus the club ceased to compete in defiance throughout the occupation of Split, declining an offer to join the Italian first division under the name "AC Spalato". Instead, Benito Mussolini founded Societa Calcio Spalato, and renamed the club's home ground after his son's name. After the capitulation of Italy in 1943, the Partisans temporarily liberated Split and disarmed the Italian garrison, but the German Army quickly re-occupied the city and granted it to the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) they had installed in Zagreb back in 1941. The attitude of the club did not change when the NDH authorities attempted to include Hajduk in the Independent State of Croatia Cup, as NDH earned resentment in Split for allying and partitioning them to Italy. With the Allies invading southern Italy and controlling the Mediterranean, the Adriatic islands became a haven for the resistance, prompting Hajduk's rebirth on one of them in 1944.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: The club's players then joined the Partisan general headquarters on the island of Vis in the Adriatic. On 7 May 1944, on the Feast of Saint Domnius, the patron saint of Split, in presence of Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito's and British officers (one of them being Randolph Churchill) Hajduk was formed again and began playing as the official football team of the Yugoslav resistance. They competed with Allied service football teams from across the Adriatic in Italy, where they famously played the British Army in a friendly match in Bari on 23 September, in front at least 40,000 spectators, losing 2–9. The match is considered to be one of the most attended football games during the war years, with a rematch in liberated Split few years after (Hajduk won 1–0). At this time, the club leadership adopted the Partisans' red star as the badge on the white-and-blue club dress. During 1945, Hajduk embarked on a tourney through Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria and Malta. Traveling roughly 30,000 kilometers, and playing over 90 matches, the club won 74 of them, while at the same time Allied airplanes dropped fliers all over Europe prompting other football clubs to follow Hajduk example. While in Beirut, Charles de Gaulle gave Hajduk the title of honorary team of Free France, the trophy being treasured ever since.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: With its proficiency and its "unique Dalmatian spirit", the club reportedly impressed Tito, who frequently attended matches. After the war, he invited Hajduk to move to the Yugoslav capital Belgrade and become the official Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) team, but the club refused, wanting to continue to play in their hometown of Split. One of their biggest future rivals, FK Partizan, were founded instead. However, Hajduk continued to enjoy the reputation of "Tito's favorite" long after the war, and it was because of the friendly relationship with the resistance, it became one of the few Yugoslav football clubs (and the only prominent one) not to be disbanded after the war by the communist government (as was the case with a number of other clubs, especially prominent ones such as BSK, Građanski, Jugoslavija, Concordia, HAŠK and Slavija).


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: After World War II, Hajduk continued to play in the Yugoslav championship and its cup. In 1946, they won Croatian championship and established the magazine "Journal of Hajduk". In 1948–49, Hajduk visited Australia and became the first team from Yugoslavia to play on all continents. The club won the 1950 Yugoslav championship without a single loss, setting a record that no one managed to accomplish before the breakup of Yugoslavia 40 years later. On 28 October 1950, a day before a decisive match against one of its biggest rivals Red Star Belgrade (a 2–1 win), the official fan organization Torcida was founded. It was created by engineering student Vjenceslav Žuvela, who chose the name after the enthusiastic Brazilian fans, and Torcida become the first organized group of supporters in Europe. The following year, reconstruction of "Stari Plac" stadium was finished, and it homed the club for more than three decades.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Consequent seasons showed Hajduk's supremacy, but also the political manipulations to prevent them winning the championships. For one, Torcida was viewed as a hostile organization by the communist authorities, which posed a risk to the national consciousness of the new Yugoslavian state. Hajduk's leadership was sanctioned, the team's captain expelled from the communist party, and Vjenceslav Žuvela imprisoned. Also, during the winter break of the 1952–53 season, following an invitation from Juan Perón, Hajduk went on tour to South America and eventually extended their stay there. This caused them to come home late, but instead of promised delay of games in the Championship, they faced defeat against BSK and a draw with Spartak Subotica as their youth team and couple of veteran players had to play them. Although Hajduk later beat both Red Star (4–1) and Partizan (4–2) in Belgrade, Red Star became the champion by only a two-point margin.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Next season saw a similar occurrence, with players Vladimir Beara and Bernard Vukas arriving late for national team training and receiving a month-long ban from football. Without these essential players, Hajduk lost important matches and Dinamo Zagreb finished as champions. All this prompted club legend Frane Matošić to storm a meeting of the Yugoslav Football Association and say, "Have you at least a gram of integrity?" On 3 April 1955 in Zagreb, Hajduk defeated Dinamo 6–0, recording its biggest win in the derby between the two largest Croatian clubs, and later won the championship. However, the Football Association of Yugoslavia qualified them to the European Mitropa Cup, while Partizan was chosen to participate in the inaugural European Cup.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: During the early 1950s, the club had one of its most iconic generation of players, winning three Yugoslav championships. Two such players – goalkeeper Vladimir Beara and Zagreb-born midfielder Bernard Vukas (called "Bajdo") – were called to represent Team Europe in friendly matches against Great Britain. In one of the matches, Vukas scored a hat-trick. Apart from them, Frane Matošić scored his 729 goals in 739 official and unofficial games, setting a club record likely never to be broken. Other famous players included Božo Broketa, Ljubomir Kokeza, Slavko Luštica and Lenko Grčić.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Generation of 1950s broke down after 1955 title, with Matošić retiring, Beara moving to Red Star Belgrade and Vukas to Italian club Bologna. The 1960s were remembered as some of the hardest times in Hajduk's history. In four seasons (1963 to 1966), the club finished no better than tenth and no better than fourth in the next half of the decade. In the 1965–66 season, due to the "Planinić affair" accusing Hajduk of rigging matches during those unsuccessful seasons, five points were deducted (down from the initial penalty of relegation), and Hajduk managed to stay in the top flight with much thanks to Petar Nadoveza, who managed to become the league's top scorer with 21 goals. During this era, the club won just one trophy – the 1967 cup, which was also their first Yugoslav cup trophy and send the team to European Cup Winners' Cup the next year, their first appearance under UEFA-organized international competition. Prominent players of the time included Ante Žanetić (member of 1960 World Soccer Team of the Year), Ivica Hlevnjak, Vinko Cuzzi and Andrija Anković.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: From 1970 to 1980, Hajduk had achieved its most successful years in Yugoslavia. The new "Golden Generation" won five consecutive cups and four championships in the period from 1972 to 1979, accompanied by notable international success. In 1971, and after a 16-year wait, Hajduk won the title after a memorable 4–3 away win over Partizan in a decisive match Hajduk were at one time behind 0–3. This unexpected success was achieved with a team of youngsters, and Nadoveza as a league top scorer yet another time. After winning their first out of five consecutive domestic cups in 1972, the team achieved first major international success, playing in the semi-finals of next year's Cup Winners' Cup against Leeds United. The team's manager at the time was one of Croatia's finest, Branko Zebec.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: After Zebec left the club, he was replaced by the young and talented Tomislav Ivić, who would later become the club's coaching legend and one of the most successful managers in Europe, winning eight league titles in seven different countries. The first three years under Ivić saw Hajduk win two Yugoslav titles and three cups. In 1976, Hajduk could have won a third-straight Double after defeating the top league team Partizan 6–1 away. However, there was a scandal in the last match of the season when Partizan defeated Olimpija after scoring in the 95th minute of the match (despite UEFA not yet introducing added time for another 20 years) after numerous dubious referee decisions during the match. With the season finishing, Ivić left Hajduk for Ajax, but would return two years later only to win another league title, the club's last in the former Yugoslavia.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: During these years, Hajduk reached quarter-finals of both the European Cup and Cup Winners' Cup, with notable home wins against PSV (2–0), Arsenal (2–1) and Saint Etienne (4–1). Notable Hajduk and Yugoslav international players included goalkeepers Ivan Katalinić and Radomir Vukčević; defenders Ivan Buljan (1975 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), Zoran Vujović, Dragan Holcer, Vilson Džoni, Luka Peruzović and Vedran Rožić; midfielders Jurica Jerković, Dražen Mužinić (1975 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), Branko Oblak (1974 Ballon d'Or candidate); and strikers Ivica Šurjak (1976 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year) and Slaviša Žungul. The club's respected president at the time was Tito Kirigin.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: In 1979, Hajduk moved to the newly designed stadium at Poljud, built to host the 1979 Mediterranean Games. However, the 1980s were noticeably less successful, as the club won only three Yugoslav cups before SFR Yugoslavia fell apart in 1991. The club's struggles were often linked to their new home stadium, which had athletic running track around the pitch, as opposed to Stari Plac, where supporters could cheer much closer to their team. The club's Inaugural season at Poljud saw Hajduk's most iconic official international match: the 1979–80 European Cup quarter-finals against eventual finalists Hamburger SV, and a 3–2 home win after losing 0–1 away. Later years saw Hajduk achieve memorable home wins against Valencia (4–1), Bordeaux (4–1), Marseille (2–0), Universitatea Craiova (1–0), Tottenham Hotspur (2–1) and a friendly win against Manchester United (6–0), considered to be United's biggest loss outside England. Hajduk also eliminated clubs such as Metz (5–1, 2–2), VfB Stuttgart (3–1, 2–2), Torino (3–1, 1–1), Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk (2–0, 1–0), Universitatea Craiova (0–1, 1–0, 3–1pen) and Sparta Prague (2–0, 0–1), reaching UEFA Cup semi-final in 1984 and quarter-final in 1986. In 1988, during a Cup Winners' Cup home match with Marseille, releasing tear gas from the crowd caused the game to be canceled at 2–0 for Hajduk to award Marseille a default 0–3 victory; Hajduk was also banned from all UEFA competitions for the next two years.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Apart from international success, domestic results were not as impressive. Although Hajduk spent the entire decade near the top of the league table, competing with Dinamo Zagreb, Partizan and Red Star Belgrade to form what was known as the "Great Yugoslav Four", the club won no title before Croatia became independent. Prominent players of the time included goalkeepers Ivan Pudar and Zoran Simović (1983 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year); defenders Boro Primorac, Branko Miljuš and Jerko Tipurić; midfielders Blaž Slišković (1985 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), Ivan Gudelj (1982 Yugoslav Footballer of the Year), Zoran Vulić, Aljoša Asanović, Stipe Andrijašević, Dragutin Čelić; and striker Zlatko Vujović (1981 Ballon d'Or candidate). By the end of the Yugoslav era, a young generation of future 1998 FIFA World Cup bronze medalists began playing for the club. These included Igor Štimac, Robert Jarni, Alen Bokšić, Nikola Jerkan and Slaven Bilić.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: In the wake of national tensions which would eventually lead to Yugoslav Wars, during a tour in Australia, Hajduk restored its traditional emblem with the Croatian checkerboard, omitting the red star and sparking a massive crowd celebrations upon return. In September of that same year, a home match against Partizan would be cancelled in the 73rd minute due to the crowd entering the pitch and burning the Yugoslav flag. Later, on 8 May 1991, Hajduk won the last held Yugoslav Cup final, defeating that year's European champions Red Star in Belgrade with a goal scored by Bokšić. Tito's trophy for Yugoslav Cup winners was therefore awarded to Hajduk to stay in the club's permanent possession.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: In the first four years of the HNL (the Croatian football league), Hajduk became far more successful than rivals Dinamo from Zagreb, winning three league titles, two domestic cups and two supercups, with the 1994–95 season still standing as the most successful since playing in independent Croatia. Hajduk entered that year's UEFA Champions League with a mix of young upcoming stars Milan Rapaić, Ivica Mornar, Tomislav Erceg, Goran Vučević and experienced players such as Igor Štimac, Zoran Vulić, Aljoša Asanović and Tonči Gabrić returning to assist them. After entering the group stage, Hajduk finished second behind Benfica, ahead of Steaua București and Anderlecht, before losing in the quarter-finals to eventual champions Ajax (0–0, 0–3). Domestically, the club won its first and (as of yet) last double crown. However, even though the team was performing well, the club was financially poorly managed, accumulating a massive financial loss that led to blocking of club's account.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: For the next five years, Hajduk stood in the shadow of wealthier and politically privileged rivals Dinamo Zagreb, and the Champions League was no longer realistically within reach. Between 1995 and 2000, the club won zero trophies. After continuous domestic and European failures, Hajduk fans began to seek the dismissal of administration officials and circulated the story about the possible privatization of the club, which at that time did not happen. While arch-rivals Dinamo (then called "Croatia Zagreb") won titles, Hajduk had problems with the registration of players for the league. Dissatisfaction among the fans grew so much that some broke into the club premises, causing a change in leadership and promises of new beginnings. After the death of the first Croatian president Franjo Tuđman, whom many saw as heavily preferring and financing Croatia Zagreb, 2001 saw Hajduk become champions once more after a memorable 4–2 win against Varteks in Varaždin, a match attended by far more Hajduk fans than locals. Unfortunately, financial conditions in the club were still dire, and the club was often on the precipice of bankruptcy and collapse.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: And yet, even if operating with blocked account, chairman Branko Grgić boosted with promises of attractive signings and trophies. Although Hajduk did manage to win Cup in 2003 and league titles in 2004 and 2005, as well as sign Dinamo's promising young captain Niko Kranjčar and their legendary manager Miroslav Blažević, when finances and politically driven leadership finally broke down, so did the club's results. Hajduk spent rest of the decade finishing behind its rival, with numerous coaching and management changes and reorganizations, players of dubious quality and mediocre international performances, worst of which came after being eliminated by Shelbourne and 0–5 home loss to Debrecen. The election of new chairman Mate Peroš in June 2008, upon which he changed the entire professional staff and reorganized the administration, brought only temporary relief. Hajduk achieved first away win against Dinamo after five-and-a-half years (2–0), but again finished behind their arch-rivals, and reached Croatian Cup finals only to lose to Dinamo once again in a two-game thriller which saw two 3–0 wins by both teams, before Dinamo won 4–3 in penalty shootout. More importantly, the club's finances did not radically change until next season, when Hajduk became joint stock company owned by the City of Split. Even if financially secure, newly appointed chairman Joško Svaguša continued the policy of expensive signings and unsustainable expenses to regain the club's former glory. In 2010, Hajduk won the Croatian Cup, its first trophy in five years, and later managed to qualify for the group stage of 2010–11 UEFA Europa League which was the first time since 1994 club secured a place in the group stages of UEFA competitions. Home wins against Dinamo București (3–0), Unirea Urziceni (4–1) and Anderlecht (1–0) were, however, just a temporary reminiscence of former successes.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Notable players of 1990's and 2000's include goalkeepers Stipe Pletikosa, Danijel Subašić and Tonči Gabrić; defenders Igor Štimac, Igor Tudor and Darijo Srna; midfielders Milan Rapaić, Nenad Pralija, Dean Računica, Niko Kranjčar, Josip Skoko, Ivan Leko, Srđan Andrić and Senijad Ibričić; and strikers Ardian Kozniku, Nikola Kalinić and Tomislav Erceg.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: On 13 February 2011, Hajduk commemorated its 100th anniversary with a massive celebration in Split and all of Croatia, with both Hajduk players and fans honouring the club. The entire city was decorated with Hajduk banners, flags, posters and paraphernalia, and there was a spectacular firework show over Split. Hajduk played a friendly game with Slavia Prague to honour Hajduk's Czech origins, losing 0–2.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: All this time supporters led by Torcida led a struggle to end what they considered to be politically driven management of the club, and install experts to save Hajduk. In 2009, they started an initiative called "Dite puka" (People's Child) that should have prompted fans to buy up the club's shares and gain control of the club, which at the time didn't happen. However, in July 2011, inspired by examples in Germany and Sweden and organized under the association "Naš Hajduk" (Our Hajduk), fans managed to gain rights of organizing elections for members of the club's supervisory board, making Hajduk only fan-owned football club in Croatian First League, and one of only two in former Yugoslavia (the other being nearby HNK Trogir).


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: In 2012, the club fell into yet another financial trouble caused by former Hajduk presidents, leaving it with more than 100 million kunas in debt, and one town meeting away of being bankrupt. After forming lines in front of the City Hall on 15 October 2012, fans convinced the town leaders to sign a loan insurance to the newly elected chairman Marin Brbić and start the club's long needed financial recovery. Since then, according to the club's annual financial report, Hajduk is under continuous financial and managerial recovery. On 1 April 2015, Brbić was sacked by the club's supervisory board and on 18 May replaced by Ivan Kos.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Notable successes include 2–0 away win over Internazionale and winning the 2012–13 Croatian Cup. By the end of 2016, the club numbered 43.339 members, more than any club in the region.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduk's home ground is one of the two largest stadiums in Croatia, designed by architect Boris Magaš, chosen among 20 other projects in a 1975 competition. The stadium was built for the 1979 Mediterranean Games, but was also a venue for the 1990 European Athletics Championships and the 2010 IAAF Continental Cup. The stadium is affectionately known to the locals as the "Poljudska ljepotica" ("Poljud Beauty"). The largest crowd recorded was in 1980 at a match against Hamburger SV – 52,000 spectators. Two years later, after the stadium was fully completed, its capacity was increased to 62,000 for a derby against Dinamo Zagreb.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: From 1911 to 1979, Hajduk played on a stadium called Kod stare Plinare, used today by RK Nada rugby club. The stadium's first name was Krajeva njiva, but after club moved to Poljud, the old ground has become known in Split as the "Stari Plac" or "Staro Hajdukovo" ("Old Hajduk's place"). During this time, the stadium hosted a match between Yugoslavia and the Netherlands in the UEFA Euro 1972 qualifying tournament. Hajduk supporters who would later reestablish the once forbidden name of Torcida, were situated in the east stands. 3,148 games were played on it, with 9,542 goals scored, 11 championships and six cups have been won.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduk played its first game in a strip with red and white vertical stripes, which symbolized the Croatian coat of arms. The former Austrian City Council did not want to be seen as partisan and would not allow club colors to be made up from the emergent Croatian tricolour. Hajduk changed its kit design to red and blue vertical stripes with white "Hajduk" written in the middle. 1914 saw the club choose a white shirt, blue shorts and socks; a combination that symbolizes white sails on a blue sea. The color white has since then become a symbol for the club, along with the nickname 'Bili' ('Whites').


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Its away strip consists of red and blue shirts with vertical stripes (sometimes narrow, sometimes wide), blue shorts and socks, to symbolize the Croatian flag. From 2008 to 2011, the stripes were made horizontal. Although UEFA has not introduced compulsory registration of the third set of colours, one possibility was shirts of vertical red and white stripes, but were not adopted due to the resemblance of club colours of Red Star Belgrade. Third set of colours was therefore often a combination of first two (most often completely white outfit), until a new gray design, composed of small triangular fan flags was introduced in 2015.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: At one time the main colours were to be a combination of navy blue, white with blue horizontal stripes, but this kit was only sporadically worn by goalkeepers Stipe Pletikosa and Danijel Subašić.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduk's crest consists of the Croatian checkerboard with 25 red and white checkers bordered by a circle of blue ribbon, with two white vertical lines on each side. The words "Hajduk" and "Split" are written above and below the checkerboard respectively. The symbolism of the white vertical lines is still under discussion, with theories such as being a symbol of the four founders, the equals sign or quotation marks.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: The modern crest is almost identical to the one created in 1911. The original was designed by one of club's founders Vjekoslav Ivanišević. It was then taken to Ana, the sister of the Kaliterna brothers who took a drawing of the crest to a convent where nuns created 20–30 pieces by hand. The crest first appeared in public in 1926 during a performance of the Tijardović opera "" as part of the scenery.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: However, Hajduk did not wear the original crest before World War II as it was not obligatory at the time. After the club's rebirth following the end of WWII the new crest became just a red star a symbol of anti-fascism which Hajduk stood up for during the war. In 1960, a new crest was made, similar to the old one but with the red star in the middle instead of the former red and white traditional checkerboard. In 1990, while on tour in Australia, the original crest was returned and has been used ever since.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduk Split supporters, Torcida, were formed on 28 October 1950 by a group of students in Zagreb, namely Ante Dorić, Ante Ivanišević and Vjenceslav Žuvela, and are the oldest organized supporters group in Europe. They took their name from the Brazilian fan group they idolized, which comes from the Portuguese 'torcer' which means 'to cheer on'. "Hajduk lives forever" is their slogan.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Torcida members and other fervent fans gather in the north stand at the Poljud stadium from where they support their club. The 'Heart of Hajduk' () is an annual football prize which was established in 1994 and is officially awarded by the Hajduk Split supporters' to the team's best performing player during the season. It is awarded during the annual futsal competition Torcida Cup.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Today, Hajduk's biggest rivals are Dinamo Zagreb, as the matches between the two teams are referred to as "Eternal Derby". Former major rivalries used to include Serbian clubs Crvena Zvezda and Partizan who along with Hajduk and Dinamo were part of the so-called Yugoslav "Big Four", the biggest and most successful clubs in the former Yugoslavia.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Croatian teams are restricted to fielding at most six foreign players in the first eleven during the domestic league and cup matches. The squad list includes only the principal nationality of each player; players who also hold Croatian citizenship are specifically noted.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Vedran Rožić holds the club's overall official games appearance record by playing in 390 matches over the course of 12 seasons from 1972 to 1984. Hajduk's all-time leading scorer in all competitions is Frane Matošić, scoring 211 official goals for the club, while Zlatko Vujović is all-time leading goalscorer in European competition with 19 goals.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduk's record home attendance is 62,000 during a Yugoslav Championship match against Dinamo Zagreb on 28 February 1982. The record modern (all-seated) attendance is 38,000 for a match against Dinamo Zagreb on 22 February 2009.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduk's first competitive game was a 9–0 victory against Calcio Spalato. 14–0 win over Slavija Sarajevo in 1934 was their largest league win during Yugoslav era. In Prva HNL club's largest league win was 10–0 against Radnik in 1994, while their biggest defeat was against Varteks in 2001, losing 1–5. Hajduk's biggest victory in European competitions was 8–0 against Gøtu Ítróttarfelag in 2002, while their heaviest defeat, 0–6, came against Ajax in 1993.


title: HNK Hajduk Split

text: Hajduk won two Kingdom of Yugoslavia championships, seven Yugoslav championships, six Croatian championships, as well as nine Yugoslav Cup titles, seven Croatian Cup titles and five Croatian Super Cup titles. Abroad, the club has reached five European quarterfinals: three times in European Cup (now UEFA Champions League), once in UEFA Cup and once in Cup Winners' Cup, as well as two European semi-finals: Cup Winners' Cup in 1973, and UEFA Cup in 1984.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: The coat of arms of Germany displays a black eagle with a red beak, a red tongue and red feet on a golden field, which is blazoned: "Or, an eagle displayed sable beaked langued and membered gules". This is the (German for "Federal Eagle"), formerly known as (German for "Imperial Eagle"). It is one of the oldest coats of arms in the world, and today the oldest national symbol used in Europe.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: It is a re-introduction of the coat of arms of the Weimar Republic (in use 1919–1935), which was adopted by the Federal Republic of Germany in 1950. The current official design is due to (1887–1967) and was originally introduced in 1928.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: The German Empire of 1871–1918 had re-introduced the medieval coat of arms of the Holy Roman Emperors, in use during the 13th and 14th centuries (a black single-headed eagle on a golden background), before the emperors adopted the double-headed eagle, beginning with Sigismund of Luxemburg in 1433. The single-headed Prussian Eagle (on a white background; blazoned: "Argent, an eagle displayed sable") was used as an escutcheon to represent the Prussian kings as dynasts of the German Empire. The Weimar Republic introduced a version in which the escutcheon and other monarchical symbols were removed.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: The Federal Republic of Germany adopted the Weimar eagle as its symbol in 1950. Since then, it has been known as the "Bundesadler" ("federal eagle"). The legal basis of the use of this coat of arms is the announcement by President Theodor Heuss, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and Interior Minister Gustav Heinemann of 20 January 1950, which is word for word identical to the announcement by President Friedrich Ebert and Interior Minister Erich Koch-Weser by 11 November 1919:


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: Since the accession (1990) of the states that used to form the German Democratic Republic, the Federal Eagle has been the symbol of the reunified Germany.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: Official depictions of the eagle can be found not only in the federal coat of arms but also on the federal institutions flag, the standard of the President of Germany and official seals. These are designs by various artists of the Weimar period and differ primarily in the shape and position of the wings. A large and rather plump version of the eagle decorates the chamber of the Bundestag, the German parliament; it is sometimes called "Fette Henne" ("Fat Hen"), with a similar representation found on the German euro coins.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: In addition to the official depictions, artistic renderings of the federal eagle are permitted and have found their way onto coins, stamps and the letterhead of federal authorities. In 1997 the Federal Press Office implemented a slightly simplified version of the original von Weech seal design which has since been used as a corporate design of the Federal government especially for publications and media appearances. It has no official status though as it is not mentioned in any ordinance or shown in the binding patterns of 1952 still in effect.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: The German Imperial Eagle ("Reichsadler") originates from a proto-heraldic emblem believed to have been used by Charlemagne, the first Frankish ruler crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope in 800, and derived ultimately from the "Aquila" or eagle standard, of the Roman army.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: By the 13th century the imperial coat of arms was generally recognized as: "Or, an eagle displayed sable beaked and membered gules" (a black eagle with wings expanded with red beak and legs on a gold field). During the medieval period the imperial eagle was usually single-headed. A double-headed eagle is attributed as the arms of Frederick II in the "Chronica Majora" (c. 1250). In 1433 the double-headed eagle was adopted by Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor. Thereafter the double-headed eagle was used as the arms of the German emperor, and hence as the symbol of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. From the 12th century the Emperors also used a personal coat of arms separate from the imperial arms. From the reign of Albert II (reigned 1438–39), the Emperors bore the old Imperial arms with an inescutcheon of pretence of his personal family arms, which appears as the black eagle with an escutcheon on his breast.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: In 1815, a German Confederation ("Bund") of 39 loosely united German states was founded on the territory of the former Holy Roman Empire. Until 1848, the confederation did not have a coat of arms of its own. The Federal Diet ("Bundestag") meeting at Frankfurt am Main used a seal which carried the emblem of the Austrian Empire, since Austria had taken over the union's leadership. It showed a black, double-headed eagle, which Austria had adopted just before the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: During the 1848 revolution, a new "Reich" coat of arms was adopted by the National Assembly that convened in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt. The black double-headed eagle was retained, but without the four symbols of the emperor: the sword, the imperial orb, the sceptre and the crown. The eagle rested on a golden shield; above was a five-pointed golden star. On both sides the shield was flanked by three flags with the colors black-red-gold. The emblem, however, never gained general acceptance.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: In 1867, the North German Confederation was established without Austria and the four southern German states (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt with only its southern half) and under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia (see Coat of arms of Prussia). A new coat of arms was adopted, which consisted of a shield with the colors black-white-red, flanked by two wild men holding cudgels and standing on a pedestal.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: The "Reichsadler" had already been introduced at the Proclamation of Versailles, although the first version had been only a provisional one. The design of the eagle was altered at least twice during the German Empire (1871–1918). It shows the imperial eagle, a comparatively realistic black eagle, with the heraldic crown of the German Empire. The eagle has a red beak, tongue and claws, with open wings and feathers. In contrast to its predecessor, the eagle of the German Confederation, it has only one head, looking to the right, symbolising that important parts of the old empire, Austria and Bohemia, were not part of this new empire. Its legal basis was an imperial rescript:


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: After the introduction of the republic the coat of arms of Germany was also altered accounting for the political changes. The Weimar Republic (1918–1933), retained the Reichsadler without the symbols of the former Monarchy (Crown, Collar, Breast shield with the Prussian Arms). This left the black eagle with one head, facing to the right, with open wings but closed feathers, with a red beak, tongue and claws and white highlighting.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: The republican Reichsadler is based on the Reichsadler introduced by the Paulskirche Constitution of 1849, which was decided by the German National Assembly in Frankfurt upon Main, at the peak of the German civic movement demanding parliamentary participation and the unification of the German states. The achievements and signs of this movement had been mostly done away after its downfall and the political reaction in the 1850s. Only the tiny German Principality of Waldeck-Pyrmont upheld the tradition and continued to use the German colours called Schwarz-Rot-Gold in German ().


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: These signs had remained symbols of the Paulskirche movement and Weimar Germany wanted to express its view of being also originated in that political movement between 1848 and 1852. The republican coat of arms took up the idea of the German crest established by the Paulskirche movement, using the same charge animal, an eagle, in the same colors (black, red and or), but modernising its form, including a reduction of the heads from two to one. The artistic rendition of the eagle was very realistic. This eagle is mounted on a yellow (golden) shield. The coat of arms was announced in 1919 by the President Friedrich Ebert and Interior Minister Erich Koch-Weser:


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: However, in 1928 the Reichswappen (Reich's coat of arms) designed by Tobias Schwab (1887–1967) in 1926 (or 1924) for the German Olympic team became the official emblem. The Reichswehr adopted the new Reichswappen already in 1927. Emil Doepler's earlier design then became the "Reichsschild" (Reich's escutcheon) with restricted use such as pennant for government vehicles. In 1920, designed a "Staatssiegel" (State seal), of which the smaller version was used since 1921 by all Reich ministries and authorities on official documents as a consistent sign. It also appeared on the German passports. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany adopted all signs of Weimar Republic, Reichswappen, Reichsschild, Staatssiegel, Reichsflagge as Bundeswappen, Bundesschild. Bundessiegel and Bundesflagge in the 1950s.


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: Nazi Germany used the Weimar coat of arms until 1935. The Nazi Party used a black eagle above a stylised oak wreath, with a swastika at its centre. With the eagle looking over its left shoulder, that is, looking to the right from the viewer's point of view, it symbolises the Nazi Party, and was therefore called the "Parteiadler". After 1935 the Nazis introduced their party symbol as the national insignia ("Hoheitszeichen") as well. This version symbolises the country ("Reich"), and was therefore called the "Reichsadler". It can be distinguished from the "Parteiadler" because the eagle of the latter is looking over its right shoulder, that is, looking to the left from the viewer's point of view. The emblem was established by a regulation made by Adolf Hitler, 5 November 1935:


title: Coat of arms of Germany

text: East Germany (German Democratic Republic) used a socialist insignia from 1950 until its reunification with West Germany in 1990. In 1959 the insignia was also added to the flag of East Germany.


title: Ufa

text: Ufa (; ) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Bashkortostan in Russia. The city lies at the confluence of the Belaya and Ufa rivers, in the centre-north of Bashkortostan, on hills forming the Ufa Plateau to the west of the southern Ural Mountains, with a population of over 1.1 million residents, up to 1.4 million residents in the urban agglomeration. Ufa is the tenth-most populous city in Russia, and the fourth-most populous city in the Volga Federal District.


title: Ufa

text: The city is considered to have been founded in 1574, when a fortress was built on the site of the city by order of Ivan the Terrible. Ufa was made capital of Ufa Governorate in 1865 when the governorate split from Orenburg Governorate. Ufa's population expanded during the early 20th century.


title: Ufa

text: Today, Ufa's economy consists primarily of the oil refining, chemistry, and mechanical engineering industries; the petroleum company Bashneft and several of its subsidiaries are headquartered in Ufa. Ufa is an ethnically diverse city, home to a substantial number of ethnic Bashkirs and Tatars, with an ethnic Russian majority population. Several educational institutions are located in Ufa, including Bashkir State University, Ufa State Aviation Technical University, Ufa State Petroleum Technological University, and Ural State Law University. The city hosted separate summits of the BRICS group as well as the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation in 2015.


title: Ufa

text: The name "Ufa" comes from the Ufa River on which the city lies, but the origin of the river's name is disputed. The Russian linguist Aleksandr Matveyev proposes that the name is of Iranian origin, from "ap", meaning water.


title: Ufa

text: In a paper published in 2014, researchers Karimov and Khabibov from Bashkir State Pedagogical University present and argue for a hypothesis according to which before the construction of the foundational Russian fortress in 1574, which has since grown to become the current city of Ufa, there had already been an ancient settlement called Ufa on a hilltop near the mouth of the Ufa River. According to them, this settlement was founded by Turkic-speaking tribes to perform rituals and sacrifices to the sky god Tengri, and they called this place Upe or Ufe because, they argue, in ancient Turkic languages a place of ritual sacrifice used to be called an "opo" or an "ope." They further hypothesize that the inhabitants of the settlement themselves also came to be called the Upe or Ufe tribe and subsequently, the river along which they flourished and expanded their settlement towards its source also came to be called Ufa. Karimov and Khabibov claim that the Russian fortress builders were probably aware of this ancient name and consequently named their new settlement Ufa.


title: Ufa

text: Early history of the surrounding area of Ufa dates back to Paleolithic times. Presumably, from the 5th to 16th century there was a medieval city on the site of Ufa. On the Pizzigano brothers' map (1367) and on the Catalan Atlas (1375) a town approximately on the Belaya River was designated Pascherti (Bashkort), and Gerardus Mercator's map (1554) also marked the settlement with the Pascherti name. French orientalist Henri Cordier associates the position of Pascherti with the current location of Ufa.


title: Ufa

text: Russian historian of the 18th century Peter Rychkov wrote that there was a great city on the territory of Ufa before the arrival of the Russians.


title: Ufa

text: The official of the Orenburg Governorate government Vasily Rebelensky wrote that Ufa was founded by the Bashkirs.


title: Ufa

text: By order of Ivan the Terrible a fortress was built on the site of modern Ufa in 1574, and originally bore the name of the hill it stood on, "Tura-Tau". 1574 is now considered to be the official date of Ufa's foundation. Town status was granted to it in 1586.


title: Ufa

text: Before becoming the seat of a separate Ufa Governorate in 1781, the city, along with the rest of the Bashkir lands, was under the jurisdiction of the Orenburg governors. And even though the 1796 reform reunited Orenburg and Ufa again, in 1802, the city of Ufa became a new center of the entire Orenburg Governorate that included large territories of modern-day Republic of Bashkortostan, Orenburg Oblast, and Chelyabinsk Oblast.


title: Ufa

text: The Belaya River Waterway (1870) and the Samara-Zlatoust Railroad (1890) connected the city to the European part of the Russian Empire and stimulated the development of the city's light industry. During World War II, following eastward Soviet retreat in 1941, the Abwehr operated in Ufa, 1941–1943, some German infiltration, occurred 1914–1943 in espionage, many industrial enterprises of the western parts of the Soviet Union were evacuated to Ufa.


title: Ufa

text: During 9–10 July 2015, Ufa hosted summits of the BRICS group and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.


title: Ufa

text: Ufa is the capital of the republic and, within the framework of the administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Ufimsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is, together with twenty-four rural localities, incorporated separately as the city of republic significance of Ufa, an administrative unit with status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of republic significance of Ufa is incorporated as "Ufa Urban Okrug".


title: Ufa

text: According to Forbes, in 2013, Ufa was the best city in Russia for business among cities, with a population of over one million.


title: Ufa

text: Many urban enterprises engaged in oil refining, chemistry, and mechanical engineering reside in Ufa. Additionally, the economy of Ufa is composed of many fuel, energy, and engineering complexes.


title: Ufa

text: Ufa Station is linked to the rest of Russia, being on a historic branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway. Ufa is the only city connected to Moscow by more than one federal highway. The M7 motorway links the city to Kazan and Moscow and the M5 motorway links Ufa to Moscow and to the Asian part of Russia.


title: Ufa

text: The Ufa International Airport has international flights to Turkey, Tajikistan, Egypt, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan,


title: Ufa

text: The Ufa Metro is a planned and oft-delayed subway system, discussed since the late 1980s. On May 30, 1996, there was a ceremony marking the beginning of preparatory construction work, attended by then-President Boris Yeltsin.


title: Ufa

text: Public transportation in Ufa includes trams (since 1937) and trolleybuses (since 1962), as well as bus and "marshrutka" (routed cabs) lines.


title: Ufa

text: The population of Ufa exceeded one million in 1980. It currently ranks 11th among Russian cities by population, and the 29th among cities in Europe by city proper. As of January 1, 2009, the city accounted for 25.4% of all residents of the republic or 42.2% of the urban population.


title: Ufa

text: Ufa is situated in Eastern Europe near its land boundary with Northern Asia, at the confluence of the Belaya (Agidel) and Ufa Rivers, on low hills forming the Ufa Plateau to the west of the southern Urals. The area of the city is . It stretches from north to south for and from west to east for .


title: Ufa

text: Ufa has a warm summer continental climate (Köppen: "Dfb"). Ufa's climate is characterized by harsh winters, but in some cases, summers can be quite long and hot.


title: Ufa

text: In Ufa, there is the Ufa branch of the Financial University and the Ufa branch of the Russian State Economic University. Plekhanov, where there are practically no check digits for admissions to the budget. They are housed in good-quality buildings, but they don't benefit from them to society, more and more often, rumors are circulating about them that they are designed for siphoning money - since there are practically no budget places for economic specialties in Ufa. In the economic specialties of the magistracy, the plan for admission to Ufa universities is no more than 30 budget places.


title: Ufa

text: Periodically, a suffocating, unpleasant chemical odor can be smelled in the Ufa region. The media reports about the smell come out with an enviable regularity. All these reports are not groundless, and the culprits are getting out of responsibility due to the fact that there is no Continuous Emission Control System (CEMS) in the city.


title: Ufa

text: There are no street vacuum cleaners, road vacuum sweepers, or industrial (street) vacuum cleaners on the streets. Unfortunately, there is a complete lack of sanitation services in the city.