title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: The statute of limitations requires consumers to file suit prior to the earlier of: two years after the violation is discovered; or,


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: Consumer attorneys often take these cases on a contingency fee basis because the statute allows a consumer to recover attorney's fees from the offending party.


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: Users of the information for credit, insurance, or employment purposes (including background checks) have the following responsibilities under the FCRA:


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: Employers using consumer reports to screen job applicants or employees must follow specific procedures:


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: A creditor, as defined by the FCRA, is a company that furnishes information to consumer reporting agencies. Typically, these are creditors, with which a consumer has some sort of credit agreement (such as credit card companies, auto finance companies and mortgage banking institutions).


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: Other examples of information furnishers are collection agencies (third-party collectors), state or municipal courts reporting a judgment of some kind, past and present employers and bonders. Lenders have an important role to play in ensuring credit reports are accurate. Under the FCRA, creditors who furnish information about consumers to consumer reporting agencies must:


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: "(This notice doesn't have to be sent as a separate notice, but may be placed on a consumer's monthly statement. If sent as part as the monthly statement, it needs to be conspicuous, but need not be in bold type. Required wording developed by the US Federal Treasury Department):"


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: Notice before negative information is reported: "We may report information about your account to credit bureaus. Late payments, missed payments, or other defaults on your account may be reflected in your credit report."


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: Notice after negative information is reported: "We have told a credit bureau about a late payment, missed payment or other default on your account. This information may be reflected in your credit report."


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: Consumer reporting agencies (CRAs) are entities that collect and disseminate information about consumers to be used for credit evaluation and certain other purposes, including employment. Credit bureaus, a type of consumer reporting agency, hold a consumer's credit report in their databases. CRAs have a number of responsibilities under FCRA, including the following:


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: The three big CRAs—Experian, TransUnion, and Equifax—do not interact with information furnishers directly as a result of consumer disputes. They use a system called E-Oscar. In some areas of the country, however, there are other credit bureaus.


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: In addition to the three big CRAs, the FCRA also classifies dozens of other information technology companies as "nationwide specialty consumer reporting agencies" that produce individual consumer reports used to make credit determinations. Under Section 603 of the Fair Credit Reporting Act, the term "nationwide specialty consumer reporting agency" means a consumer reporting agency that compiles and maintains files on consumers on a nationwide basis relating to:


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: Because these nationwide specialty consumer reporting agencies sell consumer credit report files, they are required to provide annual disclosures of their report files to any consumer who requests disclosure. A partial list of companies classified as nationwide specialty consumer reporting agencies under FCRA includes: Telecheck, ChoicePoint, Acxiom, Integrated Screening Partners, Innovis, the Insurance Services Office, Tenant Data Services, LexisNexis, Retail Equation, Central Credit, Teletrack, the MIB Group, United Health Group (Ingenix Division), and Milliman.


title: Fair Credit Reporting Act

text: Although the major CRAs Experian, Equifax, and TransUnion are required by law to provide a central source website for consumers to request their reports, the nationwide specialty consumer reporting agencies are not required to provide a centralized online source for disclosure. The FCRA Section 612 merely requires nationwide specialty consumer reporting agencies to establish a streamlined process for consumers to request consumer reports, which shall include, at a minimum, the establishment by each such agency of a toll-free telephone number for such consumer disclosure requests.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: Frank Herbert's Dune is a three-part science fiction television miniseries based on the 1965 novel by Frank Herbert. It was written and directed by John Harrison. The cast includes Alec Newman as Paul Atreides, William Hurt as Duke Leto Atreides, and Saskia Reeves as Lady Jessica, as well as Ian McNeice as Baron Vladimir Harkonnen and Giancarlo Giannini as the Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: The miniseries was shot in Univisium (2.00:1) aspect ratio, although it was broadcast in 1.78:1. "Frank Herbert's Dune" was produced by New Amsterdam Entertainment, Blixa Film Produktion, and Hallmark Entertainment. It was first broadcast in the United States on December 3, 2000, on the Sci Fi Channel. It was released on DVD in 2001 by Artisan Entertainment, with an extended director's cut appearing in 2002.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: A 2003 sequel miniseries titled "Frank Herbert's Children of Dune" continues the story, adapting the second and third novels in the series (1969's "Dune Messiah" and its 1976 sequel "Children of Dune"). The miniseries are two of the three highest-rated programs ever to be broadcast on the Sci Fi Channel.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: "Frank Herbert's Dune" won two Emmy Awards in 2001 for Outstanding Cinematography and Outstanding Special Visual Effects in a miniseries or movie, and was nominated for a third Emmy for Outstanding Sound Editing. The series was also praised by several critics, including Kim Newman.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: Acquiring the television rights to Frank Herbert's original six "Dune" novels, executive producer Richard P. Rubinstein envisioned the complex material adapted in a miniseries format, as he had done previously with Stephen King's "The Stand" and "The Langoliers". He told "The New York Times" in 2003, "I have found there's a wonderful marriage to be had between long, complicated books and the television mini-series. There are some books that just can't be squeezed into a two-hour movie." Around the same time Rubenstein was first developing the material, the Sci Fi Channel's president, Bonnie Hammer, was spearheading a campaign for the channel to produce "blockbuster miniseries on a regular basis". The "Dune" miniseries was greenlit in November 1999. Released in 2000, "Frank Herbert's Dune" was the first of the Sci-Fi Channel's miniseries, followed by Steven Spielberg's miniseries "Taken" in 2002, and "Frank Herbert's Children of Dune" and "Battlestar Galactica" in 2003. Rubenstein called his two "Dune" miniseries "science fiction for people who don't ordinarily like science fiction" and suggested that "the "Dune" saga tends to appeal to women in part because it features powerful female characters".


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: Director John Harrison has described his adaptation as a "faithful interpretation" in which any changes he made served to suggest what Herbert had explained subtly or not at all. The miniseries introduces elements not found in Herbert's novel, but according to the director, these serve to elaborate rather than to edit. Hurt was the first to be cast in the 2000 adaptation. A fan of the novel, he told "The New York Times", "I was a science fiction junkie ... [Harrison] captured Herbert's prophetic reflection of our own age, where nation-states are competing with the new global economy and its corporate elements."


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: Herbert's novel begins with lead character Paul Atreides being 15 years old and aging to 18 over the course of the story. Harrison aged the character to adulthood in order to draw upon an adult acting pool for this crucial role.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: The miniseries invents an extensive subplot for Princess Irulan, a character who plays little part in the plot of the first novel. Harrison felt the need to expand Irulan's role because she played such an important part in later books, and epigraphs from her later writings opened each chapter of "Dune". Additionally, the character gave him a window into House Corrino. Besides the final scene, the only one of Irulan's appearances based on an actual excerpt from the novel is her visit to Feyd-Rautha. However, in the book it is a different Bene Gesserit, Margot Fenring, who visits the Harkonnen heir, on assignment from the Bene Gesserit to "preserve the bloodline" by retrieving his genetic material (through conception) for their breeding program. The miniseries does not suggest this as Irulan's motive.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: A soundtrack album for the miniseries was released by GNP Crescendo Records on December 3, 2000. It contains 27 tracks composed by Graeme Revell and performed by the City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: "Frank Herbert's Dune" aired in three parts, starting Sunday, December 3, 2000. The first installment achieved a 4.6 rating with 3 million homes, and the miniseries averaged a 4.4/2.9 million households over all three nights. This doubled all viewership records for Sci Fi, placing "Dune" among the top ten of basic cable's original miniseries in the five years previous. Two of the three installments also rated among the year's top 10 original cable movies. To date, the 2000 "Dune" miniseries and its 2003 sequel are two of the three highest-rated programs ever to be broadcast on the Sci Fi Channel.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: Emmet Asher-Perrin of "Tor.com" deemed the miniseries a better adaptation than the 1984 Lynch film, but wrote that "it doesn't reach spectacular heights due to the desire to be as close to the written text as possible." She wrote that "the story naturally drags at certain points in the book that work in prose but not on screen", and added that "the narrative gets over-explained in an effort to be sure that no one watching is left behind." Asher-Perrin suggested that Harrison's choice to cast adult actor Newman as Paul is problematic because the character is written in the script as less mature and observant than he is in the source novel, but she praised many members of the cast, in particular McNeice (Baron Harkonnen) and Cox (Irulan). Asher-Perrin also complimented the special effects, set design, and costuming.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: The miniseries was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards in 2001, for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special, Outstanding Cinematography for a Miniseries or Movie and Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special, winning the latter two.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: The 2001 3D video game "Frank Herbert's Dune" by Cryo Interactive/DreamCatcher Interactive is styled after the 2000 miniseries.


title: Frank Herbert's Dune

text: A 2003 sequel miniseries titled "Frank Herbert's Children of Dune" continues the story, adapting the second and third novels in the series (1969's "Dune Messiah" and its 1976 sequel "Children of Dune").


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: The Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (or Fields), also called the Battle of the Campus Mauriacus, Battle of Châlons, Battle of Troyes or the Battle of Maurica, took place on June 20, 451 AD, between a coalition – led by the Roman general Flavius Aetius and by the Visigothic king Theodoric I – against the Huns and their vassals – commanded by their king Attila. It proved one of the last major military operations of the Western Roman Empire, although Germanic foederati composed the majority of the coalition army. Whether the battle was of strategic significance is disputed; historians generally agree that the Siege of Orleans was the decisive moment in the campaign and stopped the Huns' attempt to advance any further into Roman territory or establish vassals in Roman Gaul. However, the Huns successfully looted and pillaged much of Gaul and crippled the military capacity of the Romans and Visigoths. Attila died only two years later, in 453; after the Battle of Nedao in 454, the coalition of the Huns and the incorporated Germanic vassals gradually disintegrated.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: By 450, Roman authority over Gaul had been restored in much of the province, although control over all of the provinces beyond Italy was continuing to diminish. Armorica was only nominally part of the empire, and Germanic tribes occupying Roman territory had been forcibly settled and bound by treaty as Foederati under their own leaders. Northern Gaul between the Rhine north of Xanten and the Lys (Germania Inferior) had unofficially been abandoned to the Salian Franks. The Visigoths on the Garonne were growing restive, but still holding to their treaty. The Burgundians in Sapaudia were more submissive, but likewise awaiting an opening for revolt. The Alans on the Loire and in Valentinois were more loyal, having served the Romans since the defeat of Jovinus in 411 and the siege of Bazas in 414. The parts of Gaul still securely in Roman control were the Mediterranean coastline; a region including Aurelianum (present-day Orléans) along the Seine and the Loire as far north as Soissons and Arras; the middle and upper Rhine to Cologne; and downstream along the Rhône.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: The historian Jordanes states that Attila was enticed by the Vandal king Genseric to wage war on the Visigoths. At the same time, Genseric would attempt to sow strife between the Visigoths and the Western Roman Empire. However, Jordanes' account of Gothic history is notoriously unreliable. Modern scholars now believe that this explantion was Jordanes projecting contemporary events and political opinions onto Attila's time, and it was likely not original to Priscus. Christiensen points out that Amalafrida, wife of Thrasamund, was imprisoned and murdered by Hilderic after Thrasamund's death in 523, and that the tale of the blinding of Theodoric's daughter by Huneric was a fabrication.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Other contemporary writers offer different motivations: Justa Grata Honoria, the sister of the emperor Valentinian III, had been betrothed to the former consul Herculanus the year before. In 450, she sent the eunuch Hyacinthus to the Hunnic king asking for Attila's help in escaping her confinement, with her ring as proof of the letter's legitimacy. Allegedly, Attila interpreted it as offering her hand in marriage, and he had claimed half of the empire as a dowry. He demanded Honoria to be delivered along with the dowry. Valentinian rejected these demands, and Attila used it as an excuse to launch a destructive campaign through Gaul. Hughes suggests that the reality of this interpretation should be that Honoria was using Attila's status as honorary "magister militum" for political leverage.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Another conflict leading into the war was that in 449, the King of the Franks (possibly Chlodio) had died and that his two sons argued over the succession: while the older son sought Attila's help, the younger sided with Aetius, who adopted him. The identity of the younger prince, who was seen at Rome by the historian Priscus, remains unclear, though both Merowech and Childeric I have been suggested.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Attila crossed the Rhine early in 451 with his followers and a large number of allies, sacking Divodurum (now Metz) on April 7. Schultheis notes, however, that sacking of Metz on April 7th may have been a literary trope used by Hydatius and Gregory of Tours to emphasize Attila's pagan nature to a Christian audience and may not be reliable. Other cities attacked can be determined by the hagiographies written to commemorate their bishops: Nicasius of Rheims was slaughtered before the altar of his church in Reims; Servatius of Tongeren is alleged to have saved Tongeren with his prayers, as Genevieve is to have saved Paris. Lupus, bishop of Troyes, is also credited with saving his city by meeting Attila in person. Many other cities also claim to have been attacked in these accounts, although archaeological evidence shows no destruction layer dating to the timeframe of the invasion. The most likely explanation for Attila's widespread devastation of Gaul is that Attila's main column followed the Roman roads and crossed the Rhine at Strasbourg before marching to Worms, Mainz, Trier, Metz, Reims, and finally Orleans, while sending a small detachment north into Frankish territory to plunder the countryside. This explanation would support the literary evidence claiming North Gaul was attacked, and the archaeological evidence showing major population centers were not sacked.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Attila's army had reached Aurelianum (modern Orleans, France) before June. According to Jordanes, the Alan king Sangiban, whose Foederati realm included Aurelianum, had promised to open the city gates. This siege is confirmed by the account of the "Vita S. Aniani" and in the later account of Gregory of Tours, although Sangiban's name does not appear in their accounts. However, the inhabitants of Aurelianum shut their gates against the advancing invaders, and Attila began to besiege the city, while he waited for Sangiban to deliver on his promise. There are two different accounts of the siege of Aurelianum, and Hughes suggests that combining them provides a better understanding of what actually happened. After four days of heavy rain, Attila began his final assault on June 14, which was broken due to the approach of the Roman coalition. Modern scholars tend to agree that the siege of Aurelianum was the high point of Attila's attack on the West, and the staunch Alan defence of the city was the real decisive factor in the war of 451. Contrary to Jordanes, the Alans were never planning to defect as they were the loyal backbone of the Roman defence in Gaul.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Upon learning of the invasion, the "magister utriusque militiae" Flavius Aetius moved his army rapidly from Italy to Gaul. According to Sidonius Apollinaris, he was leading a force consisting of "few and sparse auxiliaries without one regular soldier." The insignificant number of Roman troops reported is probably due to the fact the majority of Aetius' army was stationed in Gaul, combined with Sidonius' need to embellish the account in favor of Avitus. Aetius immediately attempted to persuade Theodoric I, king of the Visigoths, to join him. Allegedly, Theodoric learned how few troops Aetius had with him and decided it was wiser to wait and oppose the Huns in his own lands, so Aetius then turned to the former Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, Avitus, for help. According to tradition, Avitus was not only able to persuade Theodoric to join the Romans, but also a number of other wavering barbarian residents in Gaul. The coalition assembled at Arles before moving to meet the Goths at Toulouse, and the army was supplied by Tonantius Ferreolus, who had been preparing for a Hunnic attack for a few years. The combined army then marched to Aurelianum ((present-day Orléans), reaching that city on June 14.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: From Aurelianum, Aetius and his coalition pursued Attila, who was leaving Gaul with the majority of his objectives completed. According to Jordanes, the night before the main battle, some of the Franks allied with the Romans encountered a band of the Gepids loyal to Attila and engaged them in a skirmish. Jordanes' recorded number of 15,000 dead on either side for this skirmish is not verifiable. Attila had set up a tactical delay along his route of retreat in order to keep Aetius from catching him before he arrived at a suitable battlefield location. The two forces at last met somewhere on the Catalaunian Fields circa June 20, a date first proposed by J. B. Bury and since accepted by many, although some authors have proposed the first week of July or September 27. The date of the battle can be secured to June by the entries of Hydatius' chronicle, which places it in-between the appearance and disappearance of Halley's Comet.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: According to tradition, Attila had his diviners examine the entrails of a sacrifice the morning of the day of the battle. They foretold that disaster would befall the Huns, but one of the enemy leaders would be killed. Attila delayed until the ninth hour (about 2:30 PM) so the impending sunset would help his troops to flee the battlefield in case of defeat. Hughes takes his own interpretation of this, noting that the divination may be an indicator of Attila's barbarity and therefore possibly a fabrication. He states that the choice to begin the battle at the ninth hour was due to the fact that both sides spent the entire day carefully deploying their coalition armies.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: According to Jordanes, the Catalaunian plain rose on one side by a sharp slope to a ridge; this geographical feature dominated the battlefield and became the center of the battle. The Huns first seized the right side of the ridge, while the Romans seized the left, with the crest unoccupied between them. Jordanes explains that the Visigoths held the right side, the Romans the left, with Sangiban of uncertain loyalty and his Alans surrounded in the middle. The Hunnic forces attempted to take the ridge, but were outstripped by the Romans under Aetius and the Goths under Thorismund.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Jordanes goes on to state that Theodoric, whilst leading his own men against the enemy Amali Goths, was killed in the assault without his men noticing. He then states that Theodoric was either thrown from his horse and trampled to death by his advancing men, or slain by the spear of the Amali Andag. Since Jordanes served as the notary of Andag's son Gunthigis, even if this latter story is not true, this version was certainly a proud family tradition.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Then Jordanes claims the Visigoths outstripped the speed of the Alans beside them and fell upon Attila's own Hunnic household unit. Attila was forced to seek refuge in his own camp, which he had fortified with wagons. The Romano-Gothic charge apparently swept past the Hunnic camp in pursuit; when night fell, Thorismund, son of king Theodoric, returning to friendly lines, mistakenly entered Attila's encampment. There he was wounded in the ensuing melee before his followers could rescue him. Darkness also separated Aetius from his own men. As he feared that disaster had befallen them, he spent the rest of the night with his Gothic allies.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: On the following day, finding the battlefield was "piled high with bodies and the Huns did not venture forth", the Goths and Romans met to decide their next move. Knowing that Attila was low on provisions and "was hindered from approaching by a shower of arrows placed within the confines of the Roman camp", they started to besiege his camp. In this desperate situation, Attila remained unbowed and "heaped up a funeral pyre of horse saddles, so that if the enemy should attack him, he was determined to cast himself into the flames, that none might have the joy of wounding him and that the lord of so many races might not fall into the hands of his foes".


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: While Attila was besieged in his camp, the Visigoths searched for their missing king and his son Thorismund. After a long search, they found Theodoric's corpse "where the dead lay thickest" and bore him away with heroic songs in sight of the enemy. Upon learning of his father's death, Thorismund wanted to assault Attila's camp, but Aetius dissuaded him. According to Jordanes, Aetius feared that if the Huns were completely destroyed, the Visigoths would break off their allegiance to the Roman Empire and become an even graver threat. So Aetius persuaded Thorismund to return home quickly and secure the throne for himself, before his brothers could. Otherwise, civil war would ensue among the Visigoths. Thorismund quickly returned to Tolosa (present-day Toulouse) and became king without any resistance. Gregory of Tours claims Aetius used the same reasoning to dismiss his Frankish allies, and collected the booty of the battlefield for himself.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: The primary sources give little information as to the outcome of the battle, barring Jordanes. All emphasize the casualty count of the battle, and the battle became increasingly seen as a Gothic victory, beginning with Cassiodorus in the early sixth century.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Hydatius states:The Huns broke the peace and plundered the Gallic provinces. A great many cities were taken. On the Catalaunian Plains, not far from the city of Metz, which they had taken, the Huns were cut down in battle with the aid of God and defeated by general Aetius and King Theoderic, who had made a peace treaty with each other. The darkness of night interrupted the fighting. King Theoderic was laid low there and died. Almost 300,000 men are said to have fallen in that battle. — Hydatius, "Chronicon", 150.Prosper, contemporary to the battle, states:


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: After killing his brother, Attila was strengthened by the resources of the deceased and forced many thousands of neighboring peoples into a war. This war, he announced as a guardian of Roman friendship, he would wage only against the Goths. But when he had crossed the Rhine and many Gallic cities had experienced his savage attacks, both our people and the Goths soon agreed to oppose with allied forces the fury of their proud enemies. And Aetius had such great foresight that, when fighting men were hurriedly collected from everywhere, a not unequal force met the opposing multitude. Although the slaughter of all those who died there was incalculable – for neither side gave way – it appears that the Huns were defeated in this battle because those among them that survived lost their taste for fighting and turned back home. —Prosper, "Epitoma Chronicon", s.a. 451.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: The battle raged five miles down from Troyes on the field called Maurica in Campania. —"Additamenta ad Chronicon Prosperi Hauniensis", s.a. 451.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: At this time Attila, king of the Huns, invaded the Gauls. Here trusting in lord Peter the apostle himself patrician Aetius proceeded against him, he would fight with the help of God. —"Continuatio Codex Ovetensis".


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Battle was made in the Gauls between Aetius and Attila king of the Huns with both peoples and massacre. Attila fled into the greater Gauls. —"Continuatio Codex Reichenaviensis".The Gallic Chronicles of 452 and 511 state:Attila entered Gaul as if he had the right to ask for a wife that was owed to him. There, he inflicted and suffered defeat and then withdrew to his homeland. —"Chronica Gallica Anno" 452, s.a. 451.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Patrician Aetius with king Theodoric of the Goths fight against Attila king of the Huns at Tricasses on the Mauriac plain, where Theodoric was slain, by whom it is uncertain, and Laudaricus the relative of Attila: and the bodies were countless. —"Chronica Gallica Anno" 511, s.a. 451.The "Paschale Chronicle", preserving a garbled and abbreviated passage of Priscus, states:While Theodosius and Valentinian, the Augusti, were emperors, Attila, from the race of the Gepid Huns, marched against Rome and Constantinople with a multitude of many tens of thousands. He notified Valentinian, the emperor of Rome, through a Gothic ambassador, "Attila, my master and yours, orders you through me to make ready the palace for him." He gave the same notice to Theodosius, the emperor in Constantinople, through a Gothic ambassador. Aetius, the first man of senatorial rank in Rome, heard the excessive daring of Attila's desperate response and went off to Alaric in Gaul, who was an enemy of Rome because of Honorius. He urged him to join him in standing against Attila, since he had destroyed many Roman cities. They unexpectedly launched himself against him as he was bivouacked near the Danubios river, and cut down his many thousands. Alaric, wounded by a "saggita" in the engagement, died.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Attila died similarly, carried off by a nasal hemorrhage while he slept at night with his Hunnic concubine. It was suspected that this girl killed him. The very wise Priscus the Thracian wrote about this war. —"Chronicon Paschale", p. 587.Jordanes reports the number of dead from this battle as 165,000, excluding the casualties of the Franco-Gepid skirmish previous to the main battle. Hydatius, a historian who lived at the time of Attila's invasion, reports the number of 300,000 dead. The garbled Chronicle of Fredegar states that in a prior battle on the Loire, 200,000 Goths and 150,000 Huns were slain. The figures offered are implausibly high, but the battle was noted as being exceptionally bloody by all of the primary sources. It is ultimately Jordanes' writing that leads to the difference in opinions in modern interpretations of the battle's outcome.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: In the traditional account, modern scholars take a very direct interpretation of Jordanes, although usually with various points of contention. Modern scholars tend to agree that the battle took place on a long ridge, not a plain with a hill to one side. Hughes argues that the Huns deployed in the center, with their vassals on the wings, because they were expecting a Roman infantry center, with cavalry wings. This way Attila could pin down the center with the disorganized Hunnic style of warfare, while the majority of his troops focused on breaking one or both of the enemy flanks. However, Hughes argues that the Romans were expecting this, which is why he placed the Alans in the center of the formation, who were skilled cavalrymen and had advanced knowledge of how to fight alongside the Roman style of warfare. Bachrach also notes that Jordanes' point of placing the Alans in the center due to disloyalty is biased on Jordanes' part.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Jordanes' description of the battle, according to Hughes, takes place from the Roman perspective. Attila's forces arrived on the ridge first, on the far right side, before the Visigoths could take that position. Then Aetius' Romans arrived on the left side of the ridge, and repulsed the Gepids as they came up. Finally the Alans and the Visigoths under Thorismund fought their way up and secured the center of the ridge, holding it against Attila. However, Hughes differs from mainstream explanations in that he places Thorismund between the Alans and Visigothic main body, rather than on the Visigothic flank. MacDowall, for example, places Thorismund on the far right of the battlefield. The final phase of the battle is characterized by the Gothic attempt to take the right side of the ridge, in which Theodoric is slain, with the rest of his army unaware of his death. It is at this point that Thorismund located Attila's position in the Hunnic battle line, and attacked the Hunnic center, nearly slaying Attila himself and forcing the Hunnic center to retreat. Both armies fell into confusion as darkness descended, and neither side knew the outcome of the battle until the following morning.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: After the battle, the allies decided what to do next, and resolved to place Attila under siege for a few days while they discussed the matter. Aetius allegedly persuaded both Thorismund and the Goths, and the Franks as well, to leave the battle and return home. Hughes argues that since the Franks were fighting a civil war in the battle, and Thorismund had five brothers who could usurp his new-found position as king, that it is likely Aetius did advise them to do so. O'Flynn argues that Aetius persuaded the Visigoths to return home in order to eliminate a group of volatile allies, and argues that he let Attila escape because he would have been just as happy to make an alliance with the Huns as with the Visigoths. The majority of historians also share the view that at this point Attila's "aura of invincibility" was broken, and that Aetius allowed the Huns to retreat in the hopes he could return to a status of partnership with them and draw on the Huns for future military support.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: It has been suggested by Hyun Jin Kim that the entire battle is a play on the Battle of Marathon, with the Romans being the Plateans on the left, the Alans the weak Athenian center, and the Goths the Athenian regulars on the right, with Theodoric as Miltiades and Thorismund as Callimachus. The return home by the Goths to secure Thorismund's throne is the same as the return to Athens to protect it from sedition and the Persian Navy. However, Kim's views have received a mixed reception among scholars of the period, with one reviewer noting that much of the text amounts to "a confused and confusing story, involving the rewriting of histories, genealogies and chronologies... exacerbated by strange and clumsy conflations." His view that Attila won the battle therefore should be taken with skepticism.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Other authors have previously considered the battle to have been indecisive. This latter view is rather widely accepted, although the outcome remains in disagreement as a whole. The most recent and comprehensive argument for an indecisive outcome belongs to that of Schultheis, who argues that Jordanes' work is more complicated than assumed due to the rearranging of a narrative first penned by a Goth named Ablabius in 471 and expanded by Cassiodorus before his own abridgement of the latter's narrative. Schultheis argues that provided that the entire conflict was not a play on the Battle of Marathon, the Alans were placed in the center of the battle line due to their effectiveness against the Huns as proscribed by the Strategikon of Pseudo-Maurice, and that Jordanes' text indicates the Hunnic center retreated before Thorismund charged. The Romans and Alans attacked down the ridge and across the plain to Attila's camp, while the Amali and other Gothic groups chased the collapsing Gothic right back to their camp, resulting in the mass confusion that followed. He concludes that losses during the retreats were heavy and led to an indecisive outcome, which an analysis of the chronology of primary source accounts shows over time was embellished into a Gothic victory.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Kim's suggestion of Jordanes paralleling Herodotus has been noted by prior scholarship. Franz Altheim drew a parallel between the Catalaunian Fields and Salamis, and thought that the battle narrative was completely fabricated. John Wallace-Hadrill drew a parallel between Aetius and Themistocles regarding the alleged subterfuge after the battle in some primary source accounts. Other historians have noted its possible political statements on Jordanes' contemporary time, particularly regarding the Battle of Vouille and the Gothic Wars towards the end of Justinian's reign. Ultimately this has led mainstream scholarship to agree that Jordanes' description of the Battle of the Catalaunian fields is distorted, even if they do not agree with a pro-Hunnish interpretation of the outcome.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Both armies consisted of combatants from many peoples. Besides the Roman troops, the Alans, and the Visigoths, Jordanes lists Aetius' allies as including the Francii, Sarmatae, Armoriciani, Liticiani, Burgundiones, Saxones, Riparii, and Olibrones (whom he describes as "once Roman soldiers and now the flower of the allied forces"), as well as "other Celtic or German tribes." The Liticiani could be either Laeti or Romano-Britons, the latter of which are recorded by Gregory. Halsall argues that the Rhine limitanei and the old British field army composed the forces of the Riparii and Armoricans, and Heather suggests that the Visigoths may have been able to field about 25,000 men total. Drinkwater adds that a faction of Alamanni may have participated in the battle, possibly on both sides like the Franks and Burgundians. The Olibrones remain unknown, although it has been suggested these were Germanic limitanei garrisons. Schultheis argues that on paper, the Germanic federates could theoretically number more than 70,000, but likely numbered under 50,000.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: A sense of the size of the actual Roman army may be found in the study of the "Notitia Dignitatum" by A.H.M. Jones. This document is a list of officials and military units that was last updated in the first decades of the fifth century. The "Notitia Dignitatum" lists 58 various regular units, and 33 "limitanei" serving either in the Gallic provinces or on the frontiers nearby; the total of these units, based on Jones' analysis, is 34,000 for the regular units and 11,500 for the "limitanei", or just under 46,000 all told. However, this figure is an estimate for the years 395–425 and one that constantly changes with new research. The loss of the Western Roman provinces in North Africa resulted in the loss of funding for 40,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry in the Roman army, in addition to previous losses, which was enough to permanently cripple Roman military capacity after 439 AD. According to Herwig Wolfram, with an annual revenue of 40,000 pounds of gold in 450 AD, the Western Empire would have had to spend almost two thirds of its income to maintain an army of 30,000 men. Hugh Elton gives the same figure in 450, but estimates the cost of maintaining an army of 300,000 at 31,625 lbs. of gold or 7.6 solidi a year per soldier. He states that there were also other unquantifiable military costs such as defensive installations, equipment, logistical supplies, paper, animals, and other costs. The size of the army in 450 AD therefore must have been significantly reduced from its status in the late 420's. Schultheis argues that the Roman field army as calculated from his own estimates of the Notitia Dignitatum, chronology of military losses, and income losses numbered approximately 20,500 "comitatenses" and 18,000 "limitanei" by the time of the battle, not including supernumerary officers.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Jordanes' list for Attila's allies includes the Gepids under their king Ardaric, as well as an army of various Gothic groups led by the brothers Valamir, Theodemir (the father of the later Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great) and Videmir, scions of the Amali Goths. Sidonius offers a more extensive list of allies: Rugians, Gepids, Geloni, Burgundians, Sciri, Bellonoti, Neuri, Bastarnae, Thuringians, Bructeri, and Franks living along the river Neckar. E.A. Thompson expresses his suspicions that some of these names are drawn from literary traditions rather than from the event itself:


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: On the other hand, Thompson believes that the presence of Burgundians on the Hunnic side is credible, noting that a group is documented remaining east of the Rhine; likewise, he believes that the other peoples Sidonius mentions (the Rugians, Sciri, and Thuringians) were participants in this battle.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Thompson remarks in a footnote, "I doubt that Attila could have fed an army of even 30,000 men." Lindner argues that by crossing the Carpathians to the area of modern Hungary the Huns had forfeited their best logistic base and grazing grounds, and that the Great Hungarian Plain could only support 15,000 mounted nomads. Schultheis notes that Attila had control of other Hunnic groups East of the Carpathians, and proposes the eastern half of Attila's empire could field an additional 7,000 to 12,000 men based on later 6th century sources. Kim notes that the Huns continued use of the Xiongnu decimal system, meaning their army was probably organized into divisions of 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000, but no real estimates of Hunnic military capacity can be determined. Their barbarian allies, however, do receive mentions at other times in other sources: in 430 CE. The Hunnish king Octar was defeated by a force of 3,000 Neckar Burgundians who would later come under Hun subjugation, and Heather estimates that both the Gepids and the Amali Goths could have each fielded a maximum of 15,000 men at the Battle of Nedao in 454. Schultheis argues that when combining primary and secondary source estimates Attila's forces would number more than 100,000 on paper, but was likely closer to 70,000. This is somewhat supported by the Chronicon Paschale which preserves an extremely abbreviated and garbled fragment of Priscus' account of the campaign, stating that Attila's forces numbered in the tens of thousands. Assuming that the Hunnic and Germanic forces were roughly the same size as the Roman and federate army, those involved in the battle could have been well in excess of 100,000 combatants in total. This excludes the inevitable servants and camp followers who usually escape mention in the primary sources.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: The actual location of the Catalaunian Fields has long been considered unclear. As a whole, the current scholarly consensus is that there is no conclusive site, merely being that it is in the vicinity of Châlons-en-Champagne (formerly called Châlons-sur-Marne) or Troyes. Historian Thomas Hodgkin located the site near Méry-sur-Seine. A more recent evaluation of the location has been performed by Phillippe Richardot, who proposed a location of La Cheppe, slightly north of the modern town of Châlons.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Simon Macdowall in his 2015 Osprey title proposed the battle took place at Montgueux just west of Troyes. Macdowall goes as far as to identify the Roman alliance's camp site being placed at Fontvannes, a few kilometers west of the proposed battlefield, and places Attila's camp on the Seine at Saint-Lyé. This draws on the earlier work of M. Girard, who was able to identify "Maurica" as the "les Maures" ridge of Montgueux, based on the second "Additamenta Altera" to Prosper's "Epitoma Chronicon", which states it took place five Roman miles from "Tecis" or "Tricasses", the modern Troyes. The road in the region is known as the "Voie des Maures", and the base of the ridge is known as "l'enfer" to the locals. A small stream near the battlefield that runs to Troyes is known as "la Riviere de Corps" to this day. According to MacDowall, modern maps continue to identify the plains in the region as the "les Maurattes." Iaroslav Lebedensky argued the Battle likely stretched across the plain from Montgueux to Tourvellieres, while Schultheis argues that the battle took place wholly on the "les Maures" ridge itself until its final phase, when retreating and pursuing forces stretched across several kilometers. The ridge at Montgueux is currently the most thoroughly researched proposal for the battlefield location.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: In 1842, a labourer uncovered a burial at Pouan-les-Vallées, a village on the south bank of the river Aube, that consisted of a skeleton with a number of jewels and gold ornaments and buried with two swords. By the nature of its grave goods, it was initially thought to be the burial of Theodoric, but Hodgkin expressed skepticism, suggesting that this elite burial was that of a princely Germanic warrior who had lived in the fifth century. The Treasure of Pouan is conserved in the Musée Saint-Loup (Musée d'Art d'Archéologie et de Sciences Naturelles), Troyes. It is still not known whether or not the find is related to the battle.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: The immediate and long-term effects of the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields are somewhat disputed. Attila returned to invade the Western Roman Empire in 452, which was more successful than his invasion of Gaul. After a 3-month siege of Aquileia, arranged by Aetius in the hopes it would use up his whole campaigning season, Attila razed the city and ravaged the Po Valley. Aetius, without aid from the federates in Gaul and without the military capacity to stop Attila on his own, sent an embassy consisting of Pope Leo I, Trygetius, and Gennadius Avienus to broker a treaty with Attila. Attila ultimately retreated from Italy, most likely due to a local famine and disease within his army. Some authors have argued that this sequence of military fiascos for Aetius ultimately led to his downfall. Merrils and Miles also argue it led to the downfall of Valentinian III as a result of Aetius' assassination. This has been disputed recently by Meghan McEvoy, who argues that Valentinian III wanted to be an active emperor and simply needed to remove his manager, and that there was no real direct cause for Aetius' murder.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: In Gaul, the effects were somewhat more significant. Hughes argues that their assistance at the Catalaunian Plains led the Goths to destroy the Alans and besiege Orleans, believing that they had not been adequately rewarded for their service. In turn, this led to further concessions to the Goths from Aetius after Thorismund's assassination by his brother, who was amicable to the Romans. He thinks this may have been the point at which the Goths gained the same status of an independent kingdom that Gaiseric had. On the other hand, Kim argues that the Battle led to the decline of Roman influence in north Gaul, and strengthened the position of the Salian Franks and the Burgundians. He argues that it ultimately led to the victory of Childeric and the Franks over the Goths, the Roman comes Paul who had replaced Aegidius, and Odoacer, who returned to the Danube. This set the Franks up for dominance in Gaul and put Odoacer back in power as king of the Sciri. This would ultimately lead to his service during the final years of the Western Roman Empire and his establishment of a Kingdom of Italy.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Tackholm makes a distinct note of the increasing prominence of the battle in Gothic history. He shows that contemporary sources state the battle was inconclusive and give credit to Aetius, while later sources cast the battle as a Gothic victory and a major point of Gothic pride. This is also noted by Barnish, who claims that Cassiodorus and Jordanes works intended to portray Clovis, who had been at war with the Ostrogoths, as a new Attila and Theodoric the Great as a new Aetius. However, in the Roman sources, like those of Procopius and Victor Tunnensis, Aetius remains the central figure of pride and importance.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: The most important effect of the battle is usually considered to be its impact on long-term Hunnic hegemony in Europe, of which there are differing opinions.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: The Battle of the Catalaunian Plains is given its first modern historical perspective by Edward Gibbon, who called it the last victory achieved in the name of the Western Roman Empire. The first individual historical survey of the battle was given by Edward Creasy, who heralded it as a triumph of Christian Europe over the pagan savages of Asia, saving classical heritage and European culture.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: John Julius Norwich, a historian known for his works on Venice and on Byzantium, somewhat reiterates Creasy, saying of the battle of Châlons:


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Modern authors have mostly moved away from this viewpoint though, some categorizing it as a battle that broke the myth of Hunnish invincibility. Parker called it a triumph of Roman defensive strategy. Arther Ferrill notes that, aside from the Battle of Qarqar (Karkar), this was the first significant conflict that involved large alliances on both sides. No single nation dominated either side; rather, two alliances met and fought in surprising coordination for the time. Meghan McEvoy, also, indicates that Aetius' successful construction and utilization of the federates in Gaul was a testament to his diplomatic and administrative skills, as well as to the influence of his military success. Ferrill writes:


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Hyun Jin Kim thinks that the battle had a major impact on the future of Roman Gaul. He doesn't believe that it was a religious and cultural victory over the Huns of Central Asia. Kim argues that the battle significantly weakened the military capacity of the Alans, Visigoths, and the Romans, which allowed for Frankish and Burgundian hegemony in North Gaul. He also believes that it set up the career of Odoacer, who was later to found his own Kingdom in Italy after deposing the last Western Roman Emperor and submitting to Constantinople.


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: This assessment is also corroborated by Hughes, Bachrach, and Kim, all of whom argue that the real turning point of the invasion of Gaul was the successful defense of Orleans. They consider that the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains occurred as Attila was already retreating from Gaul. Bury also considers that as a whole, the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains would not have seriously altered history had it been a Hunnish victory:


title: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains

text: Despite his views on the battle, it is noteworthy that Bury, who does not believe the Battle of Chalôns to be of macrohistorical importance, characterizes Aetius' rule thus: "From the end of the regency to his own death, Aetius was master of the Empire in the west, and it must be imputed to his policy and arms that Imperial rule did not break down in all the provinces by the middle of the fifth century." Bury thinks it clear that there was no one capable of taking Aetius' place. But he also considers that the Battle of the River Nedao was far more consequential to European history than the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, a view also shared by many modern authors. Kim argues that the Huns were instrumental in triggering the evolution of medieval Europe during the early migration era by the introduction of East Asian, Central Asian, and Iranian cultural and societal practices, which agrees with Bury that the outcome of the battle would not have turned Europe into a cultural desert.


title: Mount Zion

text: Mount Zion (, "Har Ṣīyyōn"; , "Jabal Sahyoun") is a hill in Jerusalem, located just outside the walls of the Old City. The term Mount Zion has been used in the Hebrew Bible first for the City of David (, ; , ) and later for the Temple Mount, but its meaning has shifted and it is now used as the name of ancient Jerusalem's Western Hill. In a wider sense, the term Zion is also used for the entire Land of Israel.


title: Mount Zion

text: The etymology of the word "Zion" is uncertain. Mentioned in the Bible in the Book of Samuel (2 Samuel 5:7) as the name of the Jebusite fortress conquered by King David, its origin likely predates the Israelites. If Semitic, it may be associated with the Hebrew root "ṣiyyôn" ("castle"). Though not spoken in Jerusalem until 1,700 years later, the name is similar in Arabic and may be connected to the root "ṣiyya" ("dry land") or the Arabic "šanā" ("protect" or "citadel"). It might also be related to the Arabic root "ṣahî" ("ascend to the top") or "ṣuhhay" ("tower" or "the top of the mountain"). A non-Semitic relationship to the Hurrian word "šeya" ("river" or "brook") has also been suggested.


title: Mount Zion

text: "Sahyun" (, "Ṣahyūn" or "Ṣihyūn") is the word for Zion in Arabic and Syriac. A valley called "Wâdi Sahyûn" ("wadi" being the Arabic for "valley") seemingly preserves the name and is located approximately one and three-quarter miles () from the Old City of Jerusalem's Jaffa Gate.


title: Mount Zion

text: The phrase "Har Tzion", lit. "Mount Zion", appears nine times in the Tanakh. It is spelled with a Tzadi and not Zayin.


title: Mount Zion

text: The name "Mount Zion" referred successively to three locations, as Jerusalemites preserved the time-honoured name, but shifted the location they venerated as the focal point of biblical Jerusalem to the site considered most appropriate in their own time.


title: Mount Zion

text: At first, Mount Zion was the name given to the Jebusite fortified city on the lower part of ancient Jerusalem's Eastern Hill, also known as the City of David.


title: Mount Zion

text: According to the Book of Samuel, Mount Zion was the site of the Jebusite fortress called the "stronghold of Zion" that was conquered by King David, then renamed and partially rebuilt by him as the "City of David", where he erected his palace.


title: Mount Zion

text: Once the First Temple was erected at the top of the Eastern Hill, the name "Mount Zion" migrated there too.


title: Mount Zion

text: After the conquest of the Jebusite city, its built-up area expanded northward towards the uppermost part of the same, Eastern Hill. This highest part became the site of Solomon's Temple.


title: Mount Zion

text: The identification of the pre-Israelite (Jebusite) and Israelite towns on the Eastern Hill is based on the existence of only one perennial water source in the area, the Gihon Spring, and on archaeological excavations revealing sections of the Bronze Age and Iron Age city walls and water systems.


title: Mount Zion

text: The "Mount Zion" mentioned in the later parts of the Book of Isaiah (), in the Book of Psalms, and the First Book of Maccabees (c. 2nd century BCE; ) seems to refer to the top of the hill, generally known as the Temple Mount.


title: Mount Zion

text: The last shift of the name Mount Zion was to the Western Hill, which is more dominant than the Eastern Hill and seemed to first-century CE Jerusalemites the worthier location for the by-then lost palace of King David. The Western Hill is what today is called Mount Zion.


title: Mount Zion

text: In the second half of the First Temple period, the city expanded westward and its defensive walls were extended to include the entire Western Hill behind them. Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed the city almost completely around 586 BCE, severing the continuity of historical memory. A long period of rebuilding followed, ending with Jerusalem's second total destruction at the hands of the Romans in 70 CE. Josephus, the first-century CE historian who knew the city as it was before this second catastrophic event, identified Mount Zion as being the Western Hill, separated from the lower, Eastern Hill, by what he calls the "Tyropoeon Valley". It must however be said that Josephus never used the name "Mount Zion" in any of his writings, but described the "Citadel" of King David as being situated on the higher and longer hill, thus pointing at the Western Hill as what the Bible calls Mount Zion.


title: Mount Zion

text: At the end of the Roman period, a synagogue was built at the entrance of the structure known as David's Tomb, probably based on the belief that David brought the Ark of the Covenant here from Beit Shemesh and Kiryat Ye'arim before the construction of the Temple.


title: Mount Zion

text: During the 1948 war, Mount Zion was conquered by the Harel Brigade on May 18, 1948 and became the only part of the Old City to stay in Israeli hands until the armistice. At first it was linked to the Jewish neighborhood of Yemin Moshe across the Valley of Hinnom via a narrow tunnel, but eventually an alternative was needed to evacuate the wounded and transport supplies to soldiers on Mount Zion. A cable car capable of carrying a load of 250 kilograms was designed for this purpose. The cable car was only used at night and lowered into the valley during the day to escape detection; it is still in place at what is now the Mount Zion Hotel. The ride from the Israeli position at the St. John Eye Hospital to Mount Zion took two minutes.


title: Mount Zion

text: Between 1948 and 1967, when the Old City was under Jordanian rule, Israelis were forbidden access to the Jewish holy places. Mount Zion was a designated no-man's land between Israel and Jordan. Mount Zion was the closest accessible site to the ancient Jewish Temple. Until East Jerusalem was captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, Israelis would climb to the rooftop of David's Tomb to pray. The winding road leading up to Mount Zion is known as Pope's Way ("Derekh Ha'apifyor"). It was paved in honor of the historic visit to Jerusalem of Pope Paul VI in 1964.


title: Mount Zion

text: The Tanakh reference to "Har Tzion" (Mount Tzion) that identifies its location is derived from the Psalm 48 composed by the sons of Korah, i.e. Levites, as "the northern side of the city of the great king", which Radak interprets as the City of David "from the City of David, which is Zion (1 Kings 8:1-2; 2 Chron. 5:2)". 2 Samuel 5:7 also reads, "David took the strong hold of Zion: the same is the city of David," which identifies Mount Tzion as part of the City of David, and not an area outside today's Old City of Jerusalem. Rashi identifies the location as the source of "joy" mentioned in the Psalm as the Temple Courtyard, the location of atonement offerings in the northern part of the Temple complex.


title: Mount Zion

text: In the New Testament, Mount Zion is used metaphorically to refer to the heavenly Jerusalem, God's holy, eternal city. Christians are said to have “ . . . come to Mount Zion and to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, to an innumerable company of angels, to the general assembly and church of the firstborn who are registered in heaven” (Hebrews 12:22-23 cf. Revelation 14:1).


title: Mount Zion

text: Important sites on Mount Zion are Dormition Abbey, the Armenian Monastery of St. Saviour, King David's Tomb and the Room of the Last Supper. Most historians and archeologists today do not regard "David's Tomb" there to be the actual burial place of King David. The Chamber of the Holocaust ("Martef HaShoah"), the precursor of Yad Vashem, is also located on Mount Zion. Another place of interest is the Catholic cemetery where Oskar Schindler, a Righteous Gentile who saved the lives of 1,200 Jews in the Holocaust, is buried.


title: Mount Zion

text: Notable burials in the Protestant cemetery on Mt. Zion include a number of prominent individuals from the 19th and 20th centuries. These include explorers and archaeologists such as: Flinders Petrie, Charles Frederick Tyrwhitt Drake, James Duncan, Clarence Stanley Fisher, Charles Lambert and James Leslie Starkey; the architect Conrad Schick; and pioneers in the fields of medicine, education, religion, diplomacy and social services such as James Edward Hanauer, Ernest Masterman, John Nicholayson, Paul Palmer, Max Sandreczky, Johann Ludwig Schneller, Horatio G. Spafford, author of the hymn "It Is Well With My Soul". Also buried in the cemetery are G. Douglas Young, founder of Jerusalem University College, and his wife Georgina (Snook) Young. The cemetery is also the final resting place for a number of soldiers who fought in the First World War, as well as members of the Palestinian Police who served under the British mandate. Several persons buried here were killed in the bombing of the King David Hotel on the morning of 22 July 1946.


title: Mount Zion

text: In 1874, an Englishman, Henry Maudsley, discovered a large segment of rock scarp and numerous ancient dressed stones on Mount Zion that were believed to be the base of Josephus's First Wall. Several of these stones were used to construct a retaining wall outside the main gate of the Bishop Gobat school (later known as the American Institute of Holy Land Studies and Jerusalem University College).


title: Property Brothers

text: Property Brothers is a Canadian reality television series now produced by Scott Brothers Entertainment, and is the original show in the "Property Brothers" franchise. The series features twin brothers Drew Scott and Jonathan Scott.


title: Property Brothers

text: Drew is a real estate expert who scouts neglected houses and negotiates their purchases. His brother, Jonathan, is a licensed contractor who then renovates the houses. Together, the Property Brothers help families find, buy, and transform fixer-uppers into dream homes on a strict timeline and budget. The show has aired in over 150 countries, including on the W Network in Canada and on HGTV in the United States.


title: Property Brothers

text: Drew was offered a job as a host of a real estate competition show that ultimately didn't materialize. Cineflix, however, wanted Drew for a show tentatively called "My Dream Home", with the intention of finding a female co-host.


title: Property Brothers

text: When they learned he had a brother who was also in real estate, the production company asked the brothers to make a sizzle reel. Jonathan and Drew submitted a video of themselves making over their older brother's living room. Six months went by before Cineflix responded favorably, and a week later they began filming a pilot for the show in Toronto.


title: Property Brothers

text: Originally, the production company wanted Drew to work as the contractor because of his physique; however, when they realized that Jonathan was licensed, they switched the roles.


title: Property Brothers

text: Cineflix searched for a distributor, and six months went by with no offers. But then, off the strength of the pilot, the W Network in Canada ordered a full season, while HGTV initially passed. When HGTV noted the show's success in Canada, however, they chose to condense the existing episodes to 30 minutes and air them on a trial basis. After the show scored number-one ratings for its timeslot, the network picked the show up for distribution in the US.


title: Property Brothers

text: Using the expertise of the Property brothers, prospective homebuyers find a "fixer-upper" and remodel it into their dream home while staying within their budget. The featured families and individuals are often working towards a deadline, like the birth of a child or a special occasion. Originally, each episode started with Drew showing potential homebuyers a house with everything on their wish list, only to later reveal that the house was outside of their reach financially.


title: Property Brothers

text: However, beginning with season 6 (10), Drew began to explain from the start that the home would exceed their budget, and should only serve as inspiration. In either scenario, Drew and Jonathan then highlight the advantages of purchasing an older home. Afterwards, Drew takes the buyers on a tour of homes that are significantly less ideal, but have renovation potential, and the buyers are asked to narrow their choices down to two. Jonathan then uses computer-generated imagery to illustrate his imagined vision for the homes after significant renovations. The graphics featured on every episode are made by an outside company called NEEZO Studios at a cost of about $10,000 per episode.


title: Property Brothers

text: After the family makes a final decision, Drew leads them through the process of bidding on and purchasing a home. Once a purchase is made, Jonathan and his team begin renovations. After the initial demolition, the family is kept away from the site, and are brought back at the conclusion for the final reveal.


title: Property Brothers

text: The show's producers choose cities for filming based on a variety of factors including fan interest, proximity to a major airport, and diversity of architecture.


title: Property Brothers

text: As is typical of home improvement shows with an accelerated renovation format, three experienced crews work on the house in tandem to finish within the four to seven week timeline. The brothers hire local design, real estate, and construction companies in the cities where they film. Additionally, building permits are typically ready prior to construction, and the brothers' projects take priority with their suppliers.


title: Property Brothers

text: The buyers own the property and pay for the remodeling, but the show is able to provide about $20,000 to $25,000 worth of cash and furnishings. The brothers do not charge for their services. The total budget presented is for the three or four rooms featured on the show; the rest of the renovations are done off-camera on a separate budget and timeline.


title: Property Brothers

text: Homebuyers interested in appearing on the show must come up with a shortlist of homes or a home they plan to buy, though Drew provides additional options, and reserves the right to reject their selection if the home is unsafe. Producers screen applicants for their ability to make quick decisions and their availability to film for at least eight weekdays during the project. Individual applicants must appear on the show with a "sidekick," whether it be a partner, friend, or family member. While financial requirements for applicants vary from season to season, the casting call for filming that began in March 2018 required applicants to have a renovation and design budget of at least $90,000 with an additional contingency for unexpected expenses. Real estate agents have helped the brothers find the "inspiration" homes that match the buyers' wish list; the homes are not always for sale.


title: Property Brothers

text: The brothers have maintained that their shows are not contrived or scripted. Homeowners are not provided with storylines or dialog, and unforeseen construction challenges are real. Additionally, the homebuyers work with real project budgets. However, the brothers concede that conversations may be re-shot and incidents may be reconstructed due to disruptions on set (e.g. a plane flying overhead), to highlight how protracted problems were resolved, or because the cameras did not capture the real-time shot.


title: Property Brothers

text: The show started out in Toronto. Season 3 (4) of the show was filmed in Austin, Texas for seven episodes, and in Canada for the rest. Part of the reason for the move was the fact that American audiences couldn't relate to the higher market prices in Canada. The brothers returned to their hometown of Vancouver, British Columbia, to film in 2013. In 2014, the show filmed several episodes in Atlanta and Toronto. Between 2015 and 2016 they filmed in Westchester County, New York. In 2017, they filmed in Nashville, Tennessee and in Toronto. In 2018, they filmed in Nashville and Calgary, Alberta.


title: Property Brothers

text: "Property Brothers" debuted on the W Network on January 4, 2011, and aired on the channel until its owner, Corus Entertainment, decided to shift the channel's focus to more dramatic content. Starting with 2017/2018 broadcast season, the show began to be broadcast on HGTV Canada in its country of origin. It airs on HGTV in the United States, and with other distributors in over 150 other countries, including Australia, Italy, France, Denmark, Spain, Norway, and South Africa, as well as countries throughout Latin America and Asia. The show is also carried on streaming services such as Hulu, Amazon Video, and Netflix (in some regions). The program is dubbed in Portuguese for some markets, as well as in Spanish, where the voices of both brothers is provided by the same voice actor. Though Corus Entertainment commissioned and developed the program, the company did not take an ownership stake in the series or the concept, so did not see any revenue from international broadcast sales or from spin-off series in the franchise.


title: Property Brothers

text: The W Network worked with advertisers to generate revenue for the program. Scotiabank has been a sponsor. In 2014, Mazda Canada Inc. announced a sponsorship in the form of embedded marketing (through product placement and story integration) to span all 13 episodes of season 4 (7) filmed in Toronto. The sponsorship also included broadcast and internet ads, billboards, and a contest on the W Network for viewers to win one of three C$5,000 prizes for their homes, a strategy designed to direct traffic to the Mazda website.


title: Property Brothers

text: In 2019, Scott Brothers Global acquired the brand and related IP rights to "Property Brothers" from Cineflix Media and producing rights for all future "Property Brothers" projects. In the deal, Cineflix Rights kept the worldwide distribution rights, excluding the US and English-language in Canada, as well as financial and distribution participation in future productions from the franchise.


title: Property Brothers

text: Both brothers are licensed real estate agents (Drew is a licensed agent with Keller Williams Elite in British Columbia.) Jonathan is also a licensed contractor. Before going into real estate as a profession, however, the brothers tried acting, including minor roles in "Breaker High", "Smallville", and "The X-Files".


title: Property Brothers

text: Drew aspired to be an actor, while Jonathan sought a career as an illusionist, but they began working in the real estate and design fields to financially support themselves as entertainers.


title: Property Brothers

text: In 1996, they bought their first house as 18-year-old university students and, after renovations, sold it a year later for a $50,000 profit.


title: Property Brothers

text: In 2004, they founded Scott Real Estate, Inc., a company that oversaw the sale and construction of residential and commercial projects, and that eventually had offices in Vancouver, Calgary and Las Vegas. While their business did well, after ten years went by with little to no acting jobs, Drew decided to return to acting full-time. In 2009, he was finally approached for what would become "Property Brothers". At the show's start, the twins had managed real estate holdings for 15 years.


title: Property Brothers

text: Within three weeks of its HGTV debut in the United States, the show was the top rated of the night. By 2015, "Property Brothers" had seen a 77-percent increase in ratings on the W Network over its premiere season. The fifth season attracted more than 10 million US viewers on HGTV in the 25–54 age demographic, and the series consistently ranked as a top five cable program among upscale women in the 25–54 age group.


title: Property Brothers

text: By 2017, "Property Brothers" remained one of HGTV's highest rated shows, was HGTV's number three primetime show, and averaged 2 million viewers per week.


title: Property Brothers

text: "Consumer Reports" put it on its list of best home improvement shows, saying, "We all wish Drew and Jonathan were our big brothers—and that they’d help us find our dream home." Critics of the show have remarked that the high-budget home purchases and renovations are "out of touch" with the changing housing markets that favor rentals, though Kathleen Finch (an HGTV executive) has said that so-called "hatewatch is part of the appeal" of the show.


title: Property Brothers

text: "Property Brothers" has drawn notice from multiple awards. After being nominated in 2011, Drew and Jonathan won the 2012 Leo Award (the awards program for the British Columbia film and television industry) for "Best Host(s) in an Information or Lifestyle Series" for "Property Brothers". In 2012, they were nominated for a Rose d'Or award in the lifestyle show category. The show has been nominated for a Cablefax Award and for Outstanding Structured Reality Program at the 2015 Emmy Awards.


title: Property Brothers

text: At the 2018 Canadian Screen Awards, the program won for Best Lifestyle Program or Series; the program won again in 2019. "Property Brothers" won the inaugural Critics' Choice Real TV Award in the category Lifestyle Show: Home/Garden.


title: Property Brothers

text: The program has influenced popular culture, and has been the subject of multiple jokes on "Brooklyn Nine-Nine", "Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt", "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert", and "Saturday Night Live".


title: Property Brothers

text: For its duration, "Property Brothers" has been produced by Cineflix. HGTV (a property of Discovery Inc.) has since joined the program as a distributor, however, and has broadcast the show's episodes on a separate schedule. The dates in the chart below correspond to the episodes' earliest broadcast date.


title: Property Brothers

text: On November 9, 2015, the brothers hosted an hour-long special, "The Property Brothers: 100 Episodes & Counting", ahead of its 100th episode. The special highlighted their favourite moments from the preceding 99 episodes, and was accompanied by the release of the Property Brothers Handbook, a mobile app that includes design tips, multimedia from the show, and "inspirational photos".


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: Mackenzie Frances Ziegler (born June 4, 2004) is an American singer, actress, former dancer, and internet personality. She first gained notice as a child while appearing for six years on the Lifetime reality dance series "Dance Moms" together with her older sister, dancer and actress Maddie Ziegler.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: Ziegler's music career began with her 2014 studio album, "Mack Z". In 2018 she released her second studio album, "Phases". She has joined singer Johnny Orlando in joint concert tours in North America and Europe and has released several other singles with Orlando and several solo releases. In 2017 and 2018, Ziegler traveled in Australia and New Zealand on dance workshop tours with her sister. She has also modeled for Polo Ralph Lauren.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: In addition to "Dance Moms", Ziegler has appeared on other television series, including the sitcom "Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn" (2015 and 2017). From 2018 to 2020, she starred in the Brat TV high school drama series "Total Eclipse". She also competed on "" and starred as Dorothy in a holiday stage pantomime adaptation, "The Wonderful Winter of Oz", in Pasadena, California.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: As of February 2022, Ziegler has accumulated more than 14 million Instagram followers, 22 million TikTok followers, 3 million YouTube subscribers, and one million Twitter followers.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: Ziegler was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Melissa Ziegler-Gisoni and Kurt Ziegler and grew up in Murrysville, Pennsylvania. She is of Polish, Italian and German descent. Her parents divorced when she was 6 years old after a 2009 bankruptcy. Her mother remarried Greg Gisoni in 2013. Ziegler has an older sister, Maddie, who is also a dancer and actress, as well as two older paternal half-brothers, Ryan and Tyler, and two older step-siblings, Matthew and Michelle. She began dancing at the Abby Lee Dance Company in Pittsburgh at the age of two. With that company, she won titles in dance competitions. Ziegler was homeschooled.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: Ziegler first appeared on television in 2011 on Lifetime's reality dance show "Dance Moms", alongside her mother and sister. In 2016, the Zieglers left the show after six seasons to pursue other projects. Ziegler also appeared on "Dance Moms"' sister shows "Abby's Ultimate Dance Competition" and "Abby's Studio Rescue".


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: In 2014, Ziegler released her debut album titled "Mack Z", which she also used as a stage name for singing appearances. The album peaked at #1 on the iTunes pop charts, as well as #7 on iTunes' albums sales chart across all genres. The music video for the album's lead single, "Girl Party", also reached #1 on the iTunes pop chart. The video of the single has been viewed more than 80 million times. Later that year, her videos for "Shine" and "Christmas All Year Long" premiered. She continued to release singles and videos as Mack Z in 2015 and 2016. In 2014, Ziegler and her sister released a limited edition fashion line, "The Maddie & Mackenzie Collection", through Mod Angel.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: In 2015, Ziegler made her acting debut on Nickelodeon's sitcom "Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn" and appeared in a WowWee commercial alongside her sister. She returned to "Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn" in January 2017 in the episode "Keeping Up with the Quadashians". Also in 2015, she walked the Polo Ralph Lauren Runway in New York City and appeared in an ad campaign video for "Glamour Magazine".


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: In November 2016, Ziegler released her first single under her full name, a duet with singer Johnny Orlando, titled "Day & Night". The duet's music video was released on December 21, 2016, and has been viewed more than 24 million times. In 2017–2018, Ziegler and Orlando presented their Day & Night Tour throughout North America and the UK. Her 2017 video "Breathe" has been viewed more than 45 million times, and the video of her 2018 duet with Orlando, "What If", has been viewed more than 60 million times.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: In 2016, she and her sister were the faces of Clean & Clear's fall back-to-school campaign. Ziegler was the face of Polo Ralph Lauren's children's spring 2016 collection and was named a brand ambassador for girls' fashion line Emily West in 2017. In 2016, Ziegler collaborated with TurnBoard to release the Kenzie Ziegler TurnBoard, a turning practice tool for dancers. In 2017 and 2018, Ziegler collaborated on dance-inspired activewear clothing lines with tween retailer Justice. Justice also collaborated with her on a video of her song, "Teamwork", a back-to-school social media campaign with an anti-bullying theme, to promote the line. Later that year, Ziegler released a tee-shirt line called Tee4Too, and, with FanJoy in 2019, she released a line of sweatshirts and tee-shirts.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: Ziegler and her sister conducted a dance workshop tour of Australia in January 2017. Ziegler is featured in a 2017 dance advertisement for General Electric. They conducted another dance workshop tour of Australia and New Zealand in mid-2018.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: From 2018 to 2020, Ziegler starred as Cassie, a teenage girl coping with unpopularity, in the high school drama series "Total Eclipse" on the Brat TV digital network. She was an executive producer for the show. She also co-starred as the same character in the film "Brat Holiday Spectacular" (2018). In February 2018, Ziegler and her sister appeared on The Slow Mo Guys YouTube channel. She appeared on the cover of the April/May 2018 issue of "Girls' Life" magazine. Ziegler released a self-help book in May 2018, titled "Kenzie's Rules for Life: How to be Happy, Healthy, and Dance to Your Own Beat", "a collection of inspirational, upbeat lessons for kids learning to navigate life." The book ranked No. 7 on the "Publishers Weekly" best-seller list for juvenile non-fiction. In fall 2018, Ziegler launched her own cosmetics line, "Love, Kenzie".


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: Ziegler was a contestant on "" in 2018, reaching the finals. On one episode of this show she danced together with her sister for the first time on television since "Dance Moms". On November 20, 2018, Ziegler released her second studio album, "Phases". One of the singles on the album, "Wonderful", was written by Sia, and Ziegler premiered the song on "Dancing with the Stars". In December 2018, Ziegler starred as Dorothy in a holiday stage pantomime adaptation, "The Wonderful Winter of Oz", in Pasadena, California. In mid-2019, Ziegler signed with Arista Records and toured the US as the warm-up act for PrettyMuch. She stars as the title character in an animated film, released in the US in November 2019 with the American title "Ice Princess Lily", about an ice princess who befriends a dragon to defeat the evil snowman who rules her land.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: Ziegler and her sister were guest judges in 2020 on the Quibi dance competition show "Floored". She duetted with Sia on her song "Exhale", released in June 2020. In 2020–2021, Ziegler competed on "The Masked Singer" spin-off "The Masked Dancer" as "Tulip" and finished in third place.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: In 2012, Ziegler, along with her mother and sister, partnered with Starlight Children's Foundation to help raise awareness for chronically ill youth. Ziegler has also partnered with foundations such as Love Your Melon and Dancers Against Cancer to raise awareness and funding for childhood cancer. In 2016, Ziegler and her sister made a public service announcement for DoSomething.org's Birthday Mail campaign, which enables people to send homemade birthday cards to children living in homeless shelters. The same organization placed the Ziegler sisters on their 2016 list of charitable young celebrities. Ziegler has also joined her sister to support Dancers Against Cancer.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: In 2018, Ziegler performed at the first We Day Alberta in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. She appeared on "Celebrity Family Feud" in 2019 together with her sister, mother, aunt and dancer Charlize Glass, playing for "My Friend's Place", where they have volunteered in the past, which provides meals for homeless youth in Los Angeles.


title: Mackenzie Ziegler

text: As of 2022, Ziegler's Instagram account, "Kenzie", has more than 14 million followers, she has more than 22 million followers on TikTok, her two YouTube channels have received a total of more than 500 million views, with more than 3 million subscribers on her main channel, and she has more than one million Twitter followers under her nickname, "Kenzie". "Refinery29" included her on its 2017 list of 29 young actors, singers and activists "on the verge of superstardom." The same year, "Tiger Beat" named her to its annual list of "19 Under 19". Ziegler won the 2018 Teen Choice Awards for Choice Muser.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: Matheus Santos Carneiro Cunha (born 27 May 1999), commonly known as Matheus Cunha, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a forward for La Liga club Atlético Madrid and the Brazil national team.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: Cunha played youth football in Brazil for Coritiba. At the age of 18, he moved to Europe to join Swiss club Sion. He then played for Bundesliga clubs RB Leipzig and Hertha BSC, before joining Atlético in August 2021.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: Cunha won a gold medal with the Brazil under-23 team at the 2020 Summer Olympics. He made his senior international debut in September 2021.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: Cunha was born in the city of João Pessoa, Brazil. As a child he played futsal for a club in Recife, before switching to football.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: Cunha played youth football for Coritiba, before joining Swiss club Sion at the age of 18 in July 2017, after impressing scouts at the Dallas Cup youth tournament. In May 2018, he scored a hat-trick in a 4–1 victory over FC Thun.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: On 24 June 2018, Cunha joined Bundesliga club RB Leipzig on a five-year-deal. He scored his maiden Bundesliga goal against his future club Hertha BSC, to mark a 3–0 win in November 2018. He scored a goal against Bayer Leverkusen in April 2019 that won the Bundesliga Goal of the Month award, and was nominated for the FIFA Puskás Award. He finished the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League season with 6 goals.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: On 25 August 2021, he joined Atlético Madrid on a five-year contract. He scored his first goal against Levante UD to seal a 2–2 draw.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: With Brazil's under-23 team, Cunha was the top scorer of the 2019 Toulon Tournament and the 2020 CONMEBOL Pre-Olympic Tournament, winning the former and finishing as runner-up in the latter, thus securing qualification to the Olympics for the Brazil team with the latter performance. On 17 June 2021, he was named in Brazil's squad for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. In August 2021, he won a gold medal with Brazil at the Olympics, having scored 3 goals in 5 appearances at the tournament. Overall, Cunha has scored 21 goals in 24 games for the under-23 team.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: In September 2020, Cunha was called up to the senior Brazil squad for 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification matches against Bolivia and Peru on 9 and 13 October 2020, respectively.


title: Matheus Cunha

text: He made his debut for the senior national team on 2 September 2021, in a World Cup qualifier against Chile, a 1–0 away victory. He substituted Gabriel Barbosa in the 78th minute.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Chivas Regal () is a blended Scotch whisky manufactured by Chivas Brothers, which is part of Pernod Ricard. It was founded in 1786, with its home being in the Strathisla distillery at Keith, Moray in Speyside, Scotland, and is the oldest continuously operating Highland distillery.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Chivas Regal has been the market-leading Scotch whisky aged 12 years and older in Europe and Asia Pacific. Its sales grew by 61% between 2002 and 2008. In global terms, Chivas Regal recorded volume sales of 4.9 million nine-litre cases in 2012 and 2013, but sales decreased to 4.4 million cases in 2015. It has been the world's fourth best selling Scotch whiskey since 2016.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Brothers James and John Chivas, born in 1810 and 1814 respectively, were two of fourteen children born to Robert and Christian Chivas, living on a remote Strathythan farm in the Ellon Parish of Aberdeenshire. In 1836, aged 26 and 22 years, James and John decided to leave their poor rustic lifestyle in search of better prospects in Aberdeen, away.


title: Chivas Regal

text: James joined William Edwards, who in 1828 had bought a grocery, luxury goods, wines and liquor emporium from the family members of John Forrest. Forrest had opened his store in 1801, but died in 1828. James became a partner in 1838. John began working at a wholesale footwear and apparel firm, DL Shirres and Co. This firm would be awarded distribution rights of Chivas Bros from 1860 to 1886, from around John Chivas' entry until James Chivas' death and again later.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Edwards died in 1841, and Charles Stewart took over. In 1843, Stewart and Chivas was granted a Royal Warrant to supply goods to Queen Victoria. In 1850, Stewart and Chivas was appointed Royal Grocer to the queen's mother, the Duchess of Kent, and many other Royal Warrants followed over the years. The huge advantage of getting a Royal Warrant was that upper class gentry followed royalty without a second thought, to be seen as both conformal and of cognizable status. This automatically resulted in a considerably increased footfall of the wealthy.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In Scotland, distilling whisky ("uisge beatha" in Gaelic) had been legalised in 1823, leading to a proliferation in the number of brands. Some were produced at 70–72% alcohol by volume (ABV), but the majority were at 60–65% ABV, imbibed after cutting with water. Arthur Bell defined a "fine whisky" as one that was sold at ~65% ABV. These were savoured after adding soda.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Vatting of whiskies within bond warehouses was legalised in 1853 by The Forbes-Mackenzie Act, and, with blending, the number of brands made available for sale increased overnight. During this period, Stewart and James Chivas decided to respond to their affluent customers' demands for better whisky, by blending select malts to create a proprietary blend. The firm's first blended malt Scotch whisky, the Royal Glen Dee, was launched in 1854. Stewart left in 1857, making way for John and the company could now be named Chivas Brothers. In 1863, they launched a proprietary blended Scotch whisky, a smoothly crafted blend of 10-year-old malt and grain whiskies, Royal Strathythan.


title: Chivas Regal

text: The May 8, 1890, edition of "Scotland Magazine" described Chivas Brothers as "undoubtedly the finest purveying business in the north of Scotland".


title: Chivas Regal

text: The last Chivas family member involved in the business, Alexander, son of James, died in 1893. Control of the company thenceforth was exercised by the board of trustees; Alexander Smith, the right-hand man of Alexander Chivas; and their Master Blender, Charles Stewart Howard. In 1895, Smith and Howard offered to buy out the board of trustees and the female side of the family, removing any residual trace of Chivas family members. This proposal was accepted with the proviso that the company name would remain Chivas Brothers forever.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Chivas had agents assess market conditions in the US in the 1890s. The marketing team reported a booming economy which was looking for luxury. In 1900, Howard decided to create a new blend in memory of the founding brothers, James and John. Using the best malt and grain whiskies available in the market and inhouse, Howard blended a malt-dominated recipe. Introducing the term 'Regal', Howard created a 25 year old whisky in 1909 called Chivas Regal, the oldest Blended Scotch Whisky of its era, and launched it in the US, establishing it as the world's first and oldest luxury whisky.


title: Chivas Regal

text: It was all one way street then for Chivas Regal, from 1909 till mid 1915, during which period World War I started and became a sluggish, long-drawn affair (1914–18). Existing stocks were depleted quickly as demand outstripped supply. Shipping lanes to USA closed down, and Chivas Bros switched to building reserves at home.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Whisky Brokers Morrison & Lundie bought the company in 1936, and decided that it was far too onerous to maintain aged barrels of whisky. They wound up the 20 YO Loch Nevis and reduced the production of the Chivas 25 drastically, resulting in its withdrawal as their standard-bearer and ultimate demise. They switched focus to a 12 YO heavily marketed 'premium' brand, a decision that would be seen as wise a five years later, when World War II (1939-1945) broke out in Europe. 1939 saw the debut and continued success of Chivas Regal 12 YO Blended Scotch in the US at what was to become a global standard proof value of 75 degrees, i.e., 42.8% ABV. (The Americans mark it as 86 proof as they double the ABV to arrive at proof value.) Henceforth, quality, age (generally 12 years), cost (high), popularity (sales) and demography (high-end) would define a 'Premium' Scotch Whisky.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Chivas Regal was purchased by Seagrams in 1949, which enabled much wider distribution and marketing. Seagrams was owned by a Canadian Jew, Samuel Bronfman. When the Middle East opened up as a market post oil domination/OPEC, Seagrams' products, including Chivas Regal, were banned in the entire Arab controlled area in the early 1960s. Chivas would limp back nearly four decades later, when under Pernod Ricard, but rise rapidly thereafter to its leading position in the Asia Pacific area.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In 1950, the firm bought Milton (Miltown) distillery, renaming it Strathisla, which is the brand's home in Keith to this day. Its product, Strathisla single malt, is a key malt component of the blend.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In 1997, the Chivas Regal range was expanded with the launch of much older whiskies like the Chivas Regal 18 year old, and in 2007 the new Chivas Regal 25. Other expressions followed, like the Mizunara in 2014, The Icon in 2015 and the XV in 2018.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Strathisla distillery in Speyside is home to Chivas Regal and its visitor centre. Founded in 1786 as Milton/Miltown distillery, it is the oldest working distillery in the Highlands of Scotland. The Strathisla single malt is the core malt whisky in all Chivas Regal blends, buttressed by malts from Longmorn, The Glenlivet, Allt-a-Bhainne, Miltonduff Distillery and Braes of Glenlivet (now Braeval) among other distilleries, and grain from Strathclyde distilleries in the Lowlands.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Chivas Regal whiskies have performed well at international spirit ratings competitions. In 2013, the San Francisco World Spirits Competition jury awarded its Double Gold Medals to the Chivas Regal 18yr, 21yr and 25yr whiskies.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In the 1973 film "The Exorcist", the character Father Dyer brings this whisky for Father Karass to drink after the death of his mother. They share it and he remarks "Chivas Regal! Where'd you get the money for it—out of the poor box?"


title: Chivas Regal

text: 1975 film The Prisoner of Second Avenue, Jack Lemmon orders a bottle of Chivas Regal in a liquor store after having his apartment robbed.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In "Only Fools And Horses" Series 2, episode 3, A Losing Streak, first broadcast in 1982 Delboy asks for a 'Large Chivas Regal' at the bar to try and impress Boycie.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In "Risky Business" (1983) Joel Goodson (played by Tom Cruise) pours a glass of Chivas Regal and Coca-Cola after returning home from dropping his parents off at the airport.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Players of Dungeons and Dragons and other Role Playing Games have long favored the cloth bag that Chivas Regal comes in for carrying polyhedral dice.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In "Working Girl", from 1988, savvy New York City receptionist Tess McGill played by Melanie Griffith orders a "Chivas" during an engagement party for her friend Cynthia (Joan Cusack), immediately prior to a proposal from her boyfriend Mick Dugan played by Alec Baldwin.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In the 1993 film "Mrs. Doubtfire", Daniel and Jonathan drink shots of Chivas during their business dinner at Bridges.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Kelly Clarkson's 2007 album "My December" includes a hidden track entitled "Chivas". The track is about an ex she ran into at a bar while drinking Chivas.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In the "Mad Men" season 6 episode, "The Better Half", Ted Chaough compares Fleishchmann's margarine to Chivas Regal (because it's a relatively expensive brand of margarine), while Don Draper compares it to Budweiser (because he compares margarine to butter).


title: Chivas Regal

text: In the "American Dad!" season 6 episode, "Spring Break-Up", Roger (as "Scotch Bingington") invites Spring Breakers to party at the Smith household. As the self-proclaimed "King of Spring Break," he has a staff that dispenses Chivas Regal.


title: Chivas Regal

text: In the House of Cards season 3 episode "Chapter 29", First Lady Claire Underwood orders "Two Chivas, neat" during a scene in the White House.


title: Chivas Regal

text: British rapper M.I.A. namedrops Chivas Regal in her song "Teqkilla". At the time, M.I.A.'s fiance was Benjamin Bronfman, who belonged to the family that owned Seagrams.


title: Chivas Regal

text: Chivas Regal signed a three-year sponsorship deal with the British Premier League football team Manchester United in August 2018. As a follow up in October 2019, it created a special Manchester United-themed 13-year-old blended Scotch whisky in honour of former team manager Sir Alex Ferguson. Partly matured in ex-rye casks, this expression was created exclusively for the US where Manchester United reportedly has over eight million fans.


title: Chivas Regal

text: The launch of Chivas 13 Manchester United edition follows that of a similar release in Australia in August 2019, viz., Chivas Extra 13 American Rye, a 13-year-old Australia-exclusive blend finished in ex-rye whisky casks.


title: Chivas Regal

text: The Chivas Regal Ultis 1999 Victory Edition: a 20 year old Blended Malt bottled in 2019, using single malts of 1999 vintage from the Strathisla, Longmorn and Braeval distilleries, in tribute to Manchester United winning The Treble (the Premier League, FA Cup and the European Cup in the same season) in 1999.


title: Iqra Aziz

text: Iqra Aziz Hussain (born 24 November 1997) is a Pakistani actress who primarily works in Urdu television. She made her acting debut in 2014 with a supporting role shanzey in "Kissey Apna Kahein". Aziz is widely recognized for portraying the role of Ajiya in Momina Duraid's comedy "Suno Chanda" (2018), for which she received critical acclaim and won several awards including Lux Style Awards and Hum Awards for Best Actress.


title: Iqra Aziz

text: Aziz first auditioned as a television commercial model and was picked by Citrus Talent Agency. She had her first lead role with the 2015 romantic drama series "Muqaddas". Subsequently, she is known for her main portrayals in shows like "Choti Si Zindagi" (2016), "Qurban" (2018), "Suno Chanda" (2018), "Tabeer" (2018), "Ranjha Ranjha Kardi" (2018) and "Jhooti" (2020). Aziz was last seen in Geo TV's romantic series "Khuda Aur Muhabbat 3" portraying Mahi Shah opposite Feroze Khan (2021).


title: Iqra Aziz

text: Aziz was born on 24 November 1997 in Karachi. She mentioned in interviews about her mother's struggles being a single parent. Iqra finished college while working but eventually left her studies to focus on acting. In 2018, she talked about her plans to resume education in the next couple of years.


title: Iqra Aziz

text: Aziz started her career when she was 14. She dabbled into acting with the help of her elder sister. She first auditioned as a television commercial model and was picked by Talent agency Citrus. Aziz continues to appear in television commercials till date. Later she was noticed by Hum TV's co producer Momina Duraid who offered her a role in her series "Kissey Apna Kahein". She acted along with Arij Fatyma, Danish Taimoor, Shabbir Jan and other senior actors in the series.


title: Iqra Aziz

text: She followed her acting career with a leading role in another Hum TV's drama series "Muqaddas", an adaptation of Adeel Razzak's novel of the same name. The series proved to be the break-through for her and she received Hum Award for Best Television Sensation female. The series also received mix reviews and was nominated for Best Television Play at annual Lux Style Awards. In the same year she appeared as a parallel lead in Ilyas Kashmiri's directorial "Mol".