title: Khrushchyovka

text: The panel buildings called 'Khrushchyovka' are found in great numbers all over the former Soviet Union. They were originally considered to be temporary housing until the housing shortage could be alleviated by mature Communism, which would not have any shortages. Khrushchev predicted the achievement of Communism in 20 years (by the 1980s). Later, Leonid Brezhnev promised each family an apartment "with a separate room for each person plus one room extra", but many people continue to live in Khrushchyovkas today.Khrushchyovka standard types are classified into "disposable", with a planned 25-year life (сносимые серии) and "permanent" (несносимые серии). This distinction is important in Moscow and other affluent cities, where disposable Khrushchyovkas are being demolished to make way for new, higher-density construction. The City of Moscow had planned to complete this process by 2015. More than 1,300 out of around 1,700 buildings had been already demolished by 2012. In 2017, Moscow city authorities announced that some 8,000 Khrushchyovkas would be torn down, a move that would cause 1.6 million people to lose their homes. The announcement came after the completion of a smaller demolition project in which 1,700 buildings were torn down.


title: Khrushchyovka

text: In some parts of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries, efforts to renovate and beautify Khrushchyovkas have been made, such as in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Belarus. In many cities, Khrushchyovkas have been transformed from drab, gray buildings to colorful housing blocks through series of renovations. In addition, efforts to improve the quality of the buildings have been made. In Tartu, Estonia, the European Union-funded SmartEnCity turned three Khrushchyovka blocks into energy efficient "smart homes." The renovations are usually heavily subsidized by the state, and in many cases, by the European Union if the country is a member state of the EU. In Russia, Belarus, and Central Asia these same styles of renovations have not taken place, resulting in further dilapidation of the buildings or, in some cases, the demolition of many Krushchyovkas. In these parts of the former Soviet Union, private renovation has been the norm, explaining the difference in the conditions of the buildings.


title: Khrushchyovka

text: In English-speaking countries, Khrushchyovka are often referred to by the slang term "commieblock". Sometimes, this is sarcastically be applied to any apartment complex which is perceived as overly austere in appearance or run down regardless of whether it is located in a previously Communist country or not.


title: Ages of consent by country

text: The age of consent is the age at which a person is considered to be legally competent to consent to sexual acts and is thus the minimum age of a person with whom another person is legally permitted to engage in sexual activity. The distinguishing aspect of the age of consent laws is that the person below the minimum age is regarded as the victim, and his or her sex partner is regarded as the offender, unless both are underage.


title: Ages of consent by country

text: Different jurisdictions express these definitions differently, like Argentina, may say the age of consent is 18, but an exception is made down to 13 years of age, if the older partner is not in a position of authority over the younger one. The data below reflects what each jurisdiction's legislation actually means, rather than what it states on the surface.


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: Floyd Joy Mayweather (born October 19, 1952) is an American boxing trainer and former professional boxer who competed from 1973 to 1990. Fighting at welterweight during the 1970s and 1980s, Mayweather Sr. was known for his defensive abilities and overall knowledge of boxing strategy. He is the father and former trainer of undefeated five-division boxing champion Floyd Mayweather, and also father to Justin Mayweather, an American boxer residing in Las Vegas.


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: Mayweather Sr.'s boxing record was 28–6–1 (18 TKOs), and he won the U.S. Championship Tournament in 1977 against Miguel Barreto.


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: Floyd Mayweather Sr. taught Mayweather Jr. to punch when he was still a toddler in Grand Rapids, Michigan. When Mayweather Jr. was a year old, his maternal uncle shot Floyd Sr. in the leg. Prior to his breakup with his son Floyd Mayweather Jr., he served as his manager.


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: As a trainer, Mayweather preaches defense and a stiff jab. He teaches many of his boxers a defensive technique known as the shoulder roll, in which the fighter uses his front shoulder to deflect blows and limit their impact. He has on many occasions, including HBO's "Mayweather-Hatton 24/7", claimed to be Floyd Mayweather Sr., 'The Greatest Dog of All Time'".


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: He is the former trainer of top light heavyweight Chad Dawson, former two-division champion Joan Guzmán and women's champion Laila Ali. He is well known for his stint as Oscar De La Hoya's trainer from 2001 through 2006. He said he would train De La Hoya for his May 5, 2007, fight against his son, but demanded a $2 million fee to do so. After considerable deliberation, De La Hoya opted not to hire Mayweather Sr. and announced on January 30, 2007, he would use Freddie Roach instead.


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: The snub briefly reunited father and son, with Floyd Sr. turning up at the Mayweather Jr. boxing gym, while Roger (who had been banned from being in the corner at boxing matches for 12 months for starting a riot during Floyd Jr.'s bout against Zab Judah on April 8, 2006, when he attacked Judah) served six months in jail for a domestic assault. But when Roger was released, the situation became awkward because of the brothers’ rivalry. He also spent five years in federal prison for convictions for violating drug trafficking laws.


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: Floyd Jr. chose Roger as his trainer and Floyd Sr. left again, claiming that the father-son relationship was "back to square one" for choosing Roger over his own father again. Floyd Sr. agreed to once again train De La Hoya in anticipation for Mayweather Jr. – De La Hoya II presented by Golden Boy Promotions. However, due to disagreements with how revenues would be divided amongst the two fighters, the bout was canceled. Mayweather Sr. trained Manchester's Ricky Hatton for seven weeks prior to his bout against Paulie Malignaggi on November 22, 2008, at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas.


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: Hatton retained his IBO light welterweight title with a technical knockout in the 11th round. However, Hatton lost only his second fight under Mayweather Sr. with a second-round knockout by Manny Pacquiao. The famous feud between Floyd Mayweather Sr. and Floyd Mayweather Jr. finally came to an end as father and son made up before Jr.'s return to the ring after a 21-month layoff. However Jr.'s uncle Roger Mayweather still trained Jr. On the HBO 24/7 program, Floyd Mayweather Sr. was quoted as saying 'I don't need to train my son, I need a relationship with my son."


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: A proposed March 2010 fight between Mayweather Jr. and Manny Pacquiao fell by the wayside in January 2010 when the camps representing both fighters could not agree on a timeline for drug testing for the fight. A more stringent drug test was sought by Mayweather Jr.'s representatives due to inadequacies in the current testing standards and a suspicion that Pacquiao might be utilizing banned performance enhancers in his training regimen. Mayweather Sr. had been very vocal about his theory that Manny Pacquiao's impressive displays as a welterweight were aided by performance-enhancing drugs for several months prior to the negotiation for a fight between his son and Pacquiao. On March 21, 2011, U.S. District Judge Larry Hicks said Pacquiao had sufficient evidence to continue his lawsuit that alleged Floyd Sr., Floyd Jr., and Roger acted with malice by accusing the Filipino boxer, and as of December 2011 Floyd Jr. had been deposed and the case was continuing seeking damages of $10 million.


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: In May 2013, for the first time in 13 years, Floyd Jr. announced that Floyd Sr. would return as his trainer against Robert Guerrero. While some speculated this was because of the bloody nose Jr. got in an otherwise dominant performance against Miguel Cotto (a change to the more defensive-oriented


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: Floyd Sr. over the offensive Roger was seen as logical), Floyd Jr. cited his uncle Roger's health issues, diabetes, and poor vision as rationale for the change. Sr. has remained the trainer of Jr. ever since and trained him to victory in his fight over Manny Pacquiao.


title: Floyd Mayweather Sr.

text: Floyd’s younger brother, Roger was WBC super featherweight and super lightweight champion and was known for his defensive skills. The youngest brother, Jeff, held the IBO super featherweight title.


title: Domestication

text: Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which humans assume a significant degree of control over the reproduction and care of another group of organisms to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that group. A broader biological definition is that it is a coevolutionary process that arises from a mutualism, in which one species (the domesticator) constructs an environment where it actively manages both the survival and reproduction of another species (the domesticate) in order to provide the former with resources and/or services. The domestication of plants and animals by humans was a major cultural innovation ranked in importance with the conquest of fire, the manufacturing of tools, and the development of verbal language.


title: Domestication

text: Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding (i.e. artificial selection) in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations.


title: Domestication

text: The dog was the first domesticated species, and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals. The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long-term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks – including donkeys, horses, New and Old World camelids, goats, sheep, and pigs – was common. Given its importance to humans and its value as a model of evolutionary and demographic change, domestication has attracted scientists from archaeology, paleontology, anthropology, botany, zoology, genetics, and the environmental sciences.


title: Domestication

text: Among birds, the major domestic species today is the chicken, important for meat and eggs, though economically valuable poultry include the turkey, guineafowl and numerous other species. Birds are also widely kept as cagebirds, from songbirds to parrots. The longest established invertebrate domesticates are the honey bee and the silkworm. Land snails are raised for food, while species from several phyla are kept for research, and others are bred for biological control.


title: Domestication

text: The domestication of plants began at least 12,000 years ago with cereals in the Middle East, and the bottle gourd in Asia. Agriculture developed in at least 11 different centres around the world, domesticating different crops and animals.


title: Domestication

text: Domestication, from the Latin "", 'belonging to the house', is "a sustained multi-generational, mutualistic relationship in which one organism assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another organism in order to secure a more predictable supply of a resource of interest, and through which the partner organism gains advantage over individuals that remain outside this relationship, thereby benefitting and often increasing the fitness of both the domesticator and the target domesticate." Another related definition is that domestication "is a coevolutionary process that arises from a mutualism, in which one species (the domesticator) constructs an environment where it actively manages both the survival and reproduction of another species (the domesticate) in order to provide the former with resources and/or services. This allows for increased fitness for the interacting organisms within the mutualistic relationship, leading to the evolution of traits that ensures the stable association of domesticator and domesticate across generations." These definitions recognize both the biological and the cultural components of the human-associated domestication process and the impacts on both humans and the domesticated animals and plants. All past definitions of domestication have included a relationship between humans with plants and animals, but their differences lay in who was considered as the lead partner in the relationship. These new definitions recognize a mutualistic relationship in which both partners gain benefits. Domestication has vastly enhanced the reproductive output of crop plants, livestock, and pets far beyond that of their wild progenitors. Domesticates have provided humans with resources that they could more predictably and securely control, move, and redistribute, which has been the advantage that had fueled a population explosion of the agro-pastoralists and their spread to all corners of the planet.


title: Domestication

text: Houseplants and ornamentals are plants domesticated primarily for aesthetic enjoyment in and around the home, while those domesticated for large-scale food production are called crops. Domesticated plants deliberately altered or selected for special desirable characteristics are cultigens. Animals domesticated for home companionship are called pets, while those domesticated for food or work are known as livestock.


title: Domestication

text: This biological mutualism is not restricted to humans with domestic crops and livestock but is well-documented in nonhuman species, especially among a number of social insect domesticators and their plant and animal domesticates, for example the ant–fungus mutualism that exists between leafcutter ants and certain fungi.


title: Domestication

text: Domestication syndrome is the suite of phenotypic traits arising during domestication that distinguish crops from their wild ancestors. The term is also applied to vertebrate animals, and includes increased docility and tameness, coat color changes, reductions in tooth size, changes in craniofacial morphology, alterations in ear and tail form (e.g., floppy ears), more frequent and no seasonal estrus cycles, alterations in adrenocorticotropic hormone levels, changed concentrations of several neurotransmitters, prolongations in juvenile behavior, and reductions in both total brain size and of particular brain regions.


title: Domestication

text: The domestication of animals and plants was triggered by the climatic and environmental changes that occurred after the peak of the Last Glacial Maximum around 21,000 years ago and which continue to this present day. These changes made obtaining food difficult. The first domesticate was the wolf ("Canis lupus") at least 15,000 years ago. The Younger Dryas that occurred 12,900 years ago was a period of intense cold and aridity that put pressure on humans to intensify their foraging strategies. By the beginning of the Holocene from 11,700 years ago, favorable climatic conditions and increasing human populations led to small-scale animal and plant domestication, which allowed humans to augment the food that they were obtaining through hunter-gathering.


title: Domestication

text: The Neolithic transition led to agricultural societies emerging in locations across Eurasia, North Africa, and South and Central America. In the Fertile Crescent 10,000-11,000 years ago, zooarchaeology indicates that goats, pigs, sheep, and taurine cattle were the first livestock to be domesticated. Two thousand years later, humped zebu cattle were domesticated in what is today Baluchistan in Pakistan. In East Asia 8,000 years ago, pigs were domesticated from wild boar that were genetically different from those found in the Fertile Crescent. The horse was domesticated on the Central Asian steppe 5,500 years ago. Both the chicken in Southeast Asia and the cat in Egypt were domesticated 4,000 years ago.


title: Domestication

text: The sudden appearance of the domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris") in the archaeological record then led to a rapid shift in the evolution, ecology, and demography of both humans and numerous species of animals and plants. It was followed by livestock and crop domestication, and the transition of humans from foraging to farming in different places and times across the planet. Around 10,000 YBP, a new way of life emerged for humans through the management and exploitation of plant and animal species, leading to higher-density populations in the centers of domestication, the expansion of agricultural economies, and the development of urban communities.


title: Domestication

text: The domestication of animals is the relationship between animals and humans who have influence on their "care" and reproduction. Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits.


title: Domestication

text: There is a difference between domestic and wild populations, though studies suggest domestication as a form of survival for most animals under human care. There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations.


title: Domestication

text: "Domestication" of animals should not be confused with "taming". Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of an individual animal, to reduce its natural avoidance of humans, and to tolerate the presence of humans. Domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition to respond calmly to human presence.


title: Domestication

text: Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication merely for their inability to defend themselves. These animals exhibit certain behavioral characteristics:


title: Domestication

text: The beginnings of animal domestication involved a protracted coevolutionary process with multiple stages along different pathways. There are three proposed major pathways that most animal domesticates followed into domestication:


title: Domestication

text: The dog was the first domesticant, and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals. Humans did not intend to domesticate animals from either the commensal or prey pathways, or at least they did not envision a domesticated animal would result from it. In both of those cases, humans became entangled with these species as the relationship between them intensified, and humans' role in their survival and reproduction led gradually to formalised animal husbandry. Although the directed pathway proceeded from capture to taming, the other two pathways are not as goal-oriented, and archaeological records suggest that they took place over much longer time frames.


title: Domestication

text: Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long-term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks – including donkeys, horses, New and Old World camelids, goats, sheep, and pigs – was common. One study has concluded that human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars into pigs and created domestication islands in the genome. The same process may also apply to other domesticated animals.


title: Domestication

text: Domesticated birds principally mean poultry, raised for meat and eggs: some Galliformes (chicken, turkey, guineafowl) and Anseriformes (waterfowl: duck, goose, swan). Also widely domesticated are cagebirds such as songbirds and parrots; these are kept both for pleasure and for use in research.


title: Domestication

text: The domestic pigeon has been used both for food and as a means of communication between far-flung places through the exploitation of the pigeon's homing instinct; research suggests it was domesticated as early as 10,000 years ago.


title: Domestication

text: Chicken fossils in China were dated 7,400 years ago. The chicken's wild ancestor is "Gallus gallus", the red junglefowl of Southeast Asia. It appears to have been kept initially for cockfighting rather than for food.


title: Domestication

text: Two insects, the silkworm and the western honey bee, have been domesticated for over 5,000 years, often for commercial use. The silkworm is raised for the silk threads wound around its pupal cocoon; the western honey bee, for honey, and, lately, for pollination of crops.


title: Domestication

text: Several other invertebrates have been domesticated, both terrestrial and aquatic, including some such as "Drosophila melanogaster" fruit flies and the freshwater cnidarian "Hydra" for research into genetics and physiology. Few have a long history of domestication. Most are used for food or other products such as shellac and cochineal. The phyla involved are Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes (for biological control), Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda (marine crustaceans as well as insects and spiders), and Echinodermata. While many marine molluscs are used for food, only a few have been domesticated, including squid, cuttlefish and octopus, all used in research on behaviour and neurology. Terrestrial snails in the genera "Helix" and "Murex" are raised for food. Several parasitic or parasitoidal insects including the fly "Eucelatoria", the beetle "Chrysolina", and the wasp "Aphytis" are raised for biological control. Conscious or unconscious artificial selection has many effects on species under domestication; variability can readily be lost by inbreeding, selection against undesired traits, or genetic drift, while in "Drosophila", variability in eclosion time (when adults emerge) has increased.


title: Domestication

text: The initial domestication of animals impacted most on the genes that controlled their behavior, but the initial domestication of plants impacted most on the genes that controlled their morphology (seed size, plant architecture, dispersal mechanisms) and their physiology (timing of germination or ripening).


title: Domestication

text: The domestication of wheat provides an example. Wild wheat shatters and falls to the ground to reseed itself when ripe, but domesticated wheat stays on the stem for easier harvesting. This change was possible because of a random mutation in the wild populations at the beginning of wheat's cultivation. Wheat with this mutation was harvested more frequently and became the seed for the next crop. Therefore, without realizing, early farmers selected for this mutation. The result is domesticated wheat, which relies on farmers for its reproduction and dissemination.


title: Domestication

text: The earliest human attempts at plant domestication occurred in the Middle East. There is early evidence for conscious cultivation and trait selection of plants by pre-Neolithic groups in Syria: grains of rye with domestic traits dated 13,000 years ago have been recovered from Abu Hureyra in Syria, but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication.


title: Domestication

text: The bottle gourd ("Lagenaria siceraria") plant, used as a container before the advent of ceramic technology, appears to have been domesticated 10,000 years ago. The domesticated bottle gourd reached the Americas from Asia by 8,000 years ago, most likely due to the migration of peoples from Asia to America.


title: Domestication

text: Cereal crops were first domesticated around 11,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. The first domesticated crops were generally annuals with large seeds or fruits. These included pulses such as peas and grains such as wheat. The Middle East was especially suited to these species; the dry-summer climate was conducive to the evolution of large-seeded annual plants, and the variety of elevations led to a great variety of species. As domestication took place humans began to move from a hunter-gatherer society to a settled agricultural society. This change would eventually lead, some 4000 to 5000 years later, to the first city states and eventually the rise of civilization itself.


title: Domestication

text: Continued domestication was gradual, a process of intermittent trial and error, and often resulted in diverging traits and characteristics. Over time perennials and small trees including the apple and the olive were domesticated. Some plants, such as the macadamia nut and the pecan, were not domesticated until recently.


title: Domestication

text: In other parts of the world very different species were domesticated. In the Americas squash, maize, beans, and perhaps manioc (also known as cassava) formed the core of the diet. In East Asia millet, rice, and soy were the most important crops. Some areas of the world such as Southern Africa, Australia, California and southern South America never saw local species domesticated.


title: Domestication

text: The microbiome, defined as the collection of microorganisms inhabiting the surface and internal tissue of plants, has been shown to be affected by plant domestication and breeding. This includes variation the microbial community composition to change in the number of microbial species associated with plants, i.e., species diversity. Evidence also show that plant lineage, including speciation, domestication, and breeding have shaped the plant endophytes in similar patterns as plant genes. Such patterns are also known as phylosymbiosis which have been observed in several animal and plant lineages.


title: Domestication

text: There are many challenges facing modern farmers, including climate change, pests, soil salinity, drought, and periods with limited sunlight.


title: Domestication

text: Drought is one of the most serious challenges facing farmers today. With shifting climates comes shifting weather patterns, meaning that regions that could traditionally rely on a substantial amount of precipitation were, quite literally, left out to dry. In light of these conditions, drought resistance in major crop plants has become a clear priority. One method is to identify the genetic basis of drought resistance in naturally drought resistant plants, i.e. the Bambara groundnut. Next, transferring these advantages to otherwise vulnerable crop plants. Rice, which is one of the most vulnerable crops in terms of drought, has been successfully improved by the addition of the Barley hva1 gene into the genome using transgenetics. Drought resistance can also be improved through changes in a plant's root system architecture, such as a root orientation that maximizes water retention and nutrient uptake. There must be a continued focus on the efficient usage of available water on a planet that is expected to have a population in excess of nine-billion people by 2050.


title: Domestication

text: Another specific area of genetic improvement for domesticated crops is the crop plant's uptake and utilization of soil potassium, an essential element for crop plants yield and overall quality. A plant's ability to effectively uptake potassium and use it efficiently is known as its potassium utilization efficiency. It has been suggested that first optimizing plant root architecture and then root potassium uptake activity may effectively improve plant potassium utilization efficiency.


title: Domestication

text: Cereals, rice, wheat, corn, sorghum and barley, make up a huge amount of the global diet across all demographic and social scales. These cereal crop plants are all autogamous, i.e. self-fertilizing, which limits overall diversity in allelic combinations, and therefore adaptability to novel environments. To combat this issue the researchers suggest an "Island Model of Genomic Selection". By breaking a single large population of cereal crop plants into several smaller sub-populations which can receive "migrants" from the other subpopulations, new genetic combinations can be generated.


title: Domestication

text: The Bambara groundnut is a durable crop plant that, like many underused crops, has received little attention in an agricultural sense. The Bambara Groundnut is drought resistant and is known to be able to grow in almost any soil conditions, no matter how impoverished an area may be. New genomic and transcriptomic approaches are allowing researchers to improve this relatively small-scale crop, as well as other large-scale crop plants. The reduction in cost, and wide availability of both microarray technology and Next Generation Sequencing have made it possible to analyze underused crops, like the groundnut, at genome-wide level. Not overlooking particular crops that don't appear to hold any value outside of the developing world will be key to not only overall crop improvement, but also to reducing the global dependency on only a few crop plants, which holds many intrinsic dangers to the global population's food supply.


title: Domestication

text: The semi-arid tropics, ranging from parts of North and South Africa, Asia especially in the South Pacific, all the way to Australia are notorious for being both economically destitute and agriculturally difficult to cultivate and farm effectively. Barriers include everything from lack of rainfall and diseases, to economic isolation and environmental irresponsibility. There is a large interest in the continued efforts, of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRSAT) to improve staple foods. some mandated crops of ICRISAT include the groundnut, pigeonpea, chickpea, sorghum and pearl millet, which are the main staple foods for nearly one billion people in the semi-arid tropics. As part of the ICRISAT efforts, some wild plant breeds are being used to transfer genes to cultivated crops by interspecific hybridization involving modern methods of embryo rescue and tissue culture. One example of early success has been work to combat the very detrimental peanut clump virus. Transgenetic plants containing the coat protein gene for resistance against peanut clump virus have already been produced successfully. Another region threatened by food security are the Pacific Island Countries, which are disproportionally faced with the negative effects of climate change. The Pacific Islands are largely made up of a chain of small bodies of land, which obviously limits the amount of geographical area in which to farm. This leaves the region with only two viable options 1.) increase agricultural production or 2.) increase food importation. The latter of course runs into the issues of availability and economic feasibility, leaving only the first option as a viable means to solve the region's food crisis. It is much easier to misuse the limited resources remaining, as compared with solving the problem at its core.


title: Domestication

text: Work has also has been focusing on improving domestic crops through the use of crop wild relatives. The amount and depth of genetic material available in crop wild relatives is larger than originally believed, and the range of plants involved, both wild and domestic, is ever expanding. Through the use of new biotechnological tools such as genome editing, cisgenesis/intragenesis, the transfer of genes between crossable donor species including hybrids, and other omic approaches.


title: Domestication

text: Wild plants can be hybridized with crop plants to form perennial crops from annuals, increase yield, growth rate, and resistance to outside pressures like disease and drought. Importantly, these changes take significant lengths of time to achieve, sometimes even decades. However, the outcome can be extremely successful as is the case with a hybrid grass variant known as "Kernza." Over the course of nearly three decades, work was done on an attempted hybridization between an already domesticated grass strain, and several of its wild relatives. The domesticated strain as was more uniform in its orientation, but the wild strains were larger and propagated faster. The resulting "Kernza" crop has traits from both progenitors: uniform orientation and a linearly vertical root system from the domesticated crop, along with increased size and rate of propagation from the wild relatives.


title: Domestication

text: Several species of fungi have been domesticated for use directly as food, or in fermentation to produce foods and drugs. The white button mushroom "Agaricus bisporus" is widely grown for food. The yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" have been used for thousands of years to ferment beer and wine, and to leaven bread. Mould fungi including "Penicillium" are used to mature cheeses and other dairy products, as well as to make drugs such as antibiotics.


title: Domestication

text: Selection of animals for visible "desirable" traits may have undesired consequences. Captive and domesticated animals often have smaller size, piebald color, shorter faces with smaller and fewer teeth, diminished horns, weak muscle ridges, and less genetic variability. Poor joint definition, late fusion of the limb bone epiphyses with the diaphyses, hair changes, greater fat accumulation, smaller brains, simplified behavior patterns, extended immaturity, and more pathology are among the defects of domestic animals. All of these changes have been documented by archaeological evidence, and confirmed by animal breeders in the 20th century. In 2014, a study proposed the theory that under selection, docility in mammals and birds results partly from a slowed pace of neural crest development, that would in turn cause a reduced fear–startle response due to mild neurocristopathy that causes domestication syndrome. The theory was unable to explain curly tails nor domestication syndrome exhibited by plants.


title: Domestication

text: A side effect of domestication has been zoonotic diseases. For example, cattle have given humanity various viral poxes, measles, and tuberculosis; pigs and ducks have given influenza; and horses have given the rhinoviruses. Many parasites have their origins in domestic animals. The advent of domestication resulted in denser human populations which provided ripe conditions for pathogens to reproduce, mutate, spread, and eventually find a new host in humans.


title: Domestication

text: Paul Shepard writes "Man substitutes controlled breeding for natural selection; animals are selected for special traits like milk production or passivity, at the expense of overall fitness and nature-wide relationships...Though domestication broadens the diversity of forms – that is, increases visible polymorphism – it undermines the crisp demarcations that separate wild species and cripples our recognition of the species as a group. Knowing only domestic animals dulls our understanding of the way in which unity and discontinuity occur as patterns in nature, and substitutes an attention to individuals and breeds. The wide variety of size, color, shape, and form of domestic horses, for example, blurs the distinction among different species of "Equus" that once were constant and meaningful."


title: Domestication

text: Jared Diamond in his book "Guns, Germs, and Steel" describes the universal tendency for populations that have acquired agriculture and domestic animals to develop a large population and to expand into new territories. He recounts migrations of people armed with domestic crops overtaking, displacing or killing indigenous hunter-gatherers, whose lifestyle is coming to an end.


title: Domestication

text: Some anarcho-primitivist authors describe domestication as the process by which previously nomadic human populations shifted towards a sedentary or settled existence through agriculture and animal husbandry. They claim that this kind of domestication demands a totalitarian relationship with both the land and the plants and animals being domesticated. They say that whereas, in a state of wildness, all life shares and competes for resources, domestication destroys this balance. Domesticated landscape (e.g. pastoral lands/agricultural fields and, to a lesser degree, horticulture and gardening) ends the open sharing of resources; where "this was everyone's", it is now "mine". Anarcho-primitivists state that this notion of ownership laid the foundation for social hierarchy as property and power emerged. It also involved the destruction, enslavement, or assimilation of other groups of early people who did not make such a transition.


title: Domestication

text: Under the framework of Dialectical naturalism, Murray Bookchin has argued that the basic notion of domestication is incomplete: That, since the domestication of animals is a crucial development within human history, it can also be understood as the domestication of humanity itself in turn. Under this dialectical framework, domestication is always a 'two-way street' with both parties being unavoidably altered by their relationship with each other.


title: Domestication

text: David Nibert, professor of sociology at Wittenberg University, posits that the domestication of animals, which he refers to as "domesecration" as it often involved extreme violence against animal populations and the devastation of the environment, resulted in the corruption of human ethics, and helped pave the way for societies steeped in "conquest, extermination, displacement, repression, coerced and enslaved servitude, gender subordination and sexual exploitation, and hunger."


title: Domestication

text: In 2016, a study found that humans have had a major impact on global genetic diversity as well as extinction rates, including a contribution to megafaunal extinctions. Pristine landscapes no longer exist and have not existed for millennia, and humans have concentrated the planet's biomass into human-favored plants and animals. Domesticated ecosystems provide food, reduce predator and natural dangers, and promote commerce, but have also resulted in habitat loss and extinctions commencing in the Late Pleistocene. Ecologists and other researchers are advised to make better use of the archaeological and paleoecological data available for gaining an understanding the history of human impacts before proposing solutions.


title: 22 July (film)

text: 22 July is a 2018 American crime drama film about the 2011 Norway attacks and their aftermath, based on the book "One of Us: The Story of a Massacre in Norway — and Its Aftermath" by Åsne Seierstad. The film was written, directed and produced by Paul Greengrass and features a Norwegian cast and crew. It stars Anders Danielsen Lie, Jon Øigarden, Thorbjørn Harr, Jonas Strand Gravli, Ola G. Furuseth, Ulrikke Hansen Døvigen, Isak Bakli Aglen, Maria Bock, and Seda Witt. The film had its world premiere on 5 September 2018 in the main competition section of the 75th Venice International Film Festival. and was released online and in select theaters on 10 October 2018, by Netflix.


title: 22 July (film)

text: On July 22, 2011, Anders Behring Breivik dresses in a police uniform, loads a van with home-made explosives, and drives to Regjeringskvartalet, the executive government quarter in Oslo, Norway. He leaves the van outside the office of Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg. Moments later, it explodes, causing several casualties.


title: 22 July (film)

text: On the island of Utøya in Tyrifjorden, Buskerud, teenagers have arrived for Workers' Youth League (AUF) summer camp, organised by the ruling Labour Party. When they learn of the bombing, one student, Viljar Hanssen, calls his parents to make sure they are unhurt.


title: 22 July (film)

text: Breivik arrives at the ferry landing and informs staff that he is a police officer, sent to secure the island following the attack in Oslo. The camp director transports him to the island by boat. Breivik instructs the staff to gather the children in one location. When the head of security asks for ID, Breivik shoots him and the director dead. The children flee as Breivik opens fire, murdering dozens.


title: 22 July (film)

text: Viljar and his brother Torje hide on a rocky embankment on the beach. Viljar calls his mother to tell her a shooting is in progress. Breivik finds the group and starts shooting. Viljar is shot multiple times, but Torje escapes unharmed. Breivik surrenders to a tactical team, and is brought inland for interrogation.


title: 22 July (film)

text: Breivik claims he is the leader of a white nationalist group called the Knights Templar and that more attacks will happen on his signal. He requests the aid of lawyer Geir Lippestad, who defended a Neo-Nazi. Lippestad is morally conscientious of his client and professionally bonded by his ethics as a lawyer. Lippestad tries to argue an insanity defense for Breivik, which draws criticism as it means he will be institutionalized instead of imprisoned. With the help of various psychiatrists and psychologists, Breivik is initially diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. Breivik tells Lippestad he wants to be declared competent to legitimize his attacks.


title: 22 July (film)

text: Viljar wakes from a coma with life-changing injuries and returns home with his family. He learns to walk again, but is haunted by memories of the attack. With the support of his mother, and another survivor of the attack on Utøya, he appears in court as a witness and delivers an account of the massacre. Breivik is sentenced to 21 years, that can be extended by a court if it is deemed he is still a danger to society.


title: 22 July (film)

text: On August 21, 2017, Paul Greengrass announced that he was working on a new Netflix movie focused on the 2011 Norway attacks and aftermath. The production began at the end of 2017. The trailer of the film was released on 4 September 2018. Greengrass revealed that he used Norwegian actors and crew for the film, because he considered that the film should be identified like a Norwegian film. He also revealed that he didn’t use the Norwegian language for the film, because he didn’t speak Norwegian, so he looked for actors who can speak English.


title: 22 July (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the 75th Venice International Film Festival on 5 September 2018. The film was also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival on 10 September 2018, it also had a special presentation in Scandinavian theaters on 4 October 2018. The film was released on 10 October 2018 on Netflix and in select theaters. It was originally scheduled to be released on 2 November 2018, under the title "Norway".


title: 22 July (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of , based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""22 July" offers a hard-hitting close-up look at the aftereffects of terrorism, telling a story with a thriller's visceral impact and the lingering emotional resonance of a drama." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 69 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Blue-water navy

text: A blue-water navy is a maritime force capable of operating globally, essentially across the deep waters of open oceans. While definitions of what actually constitutes such a force vary, there is a requirement for the ability to exercise sea control at long range.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The term "blue-water navy" is a maritime geographical term in contrast with "brown-water navy" (river and near to shore) and "green-water navy" (near to shore).


title: Blue-water navy

text: The Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency of the United States has defined the blue-water navy as "a maritime force capable of sustained operation across the deep waters of open oceans. A blue-water navy allows a country to project power far from the home country and usually includes one or more aircraft carriers. Smaller blue-water navies are able to dispatch fewer vessels abroad for shorter periods of time."


title: Blue-water navy

text: In public discourse, blue-water capability is identified with the operation of capital ships such as battleships/battlecruisers, aircraft carriers, and nuclear submarines. For instance, during the debate in the 1970s whether Australia should replace , a former chief of navy claimed that if Australia did not replace her last aircraft carrier, she "would no longer have a blue-water navy". In the end Australia did not buy a new carrier, but former Parliamentary defence advisor Gary Brown could still claim in 2004 that her navy remained "an effective blue-water force". The Soviet Navy towards the end of the Cold War is another example of a blue-water navy that had minimal carrier aviation, relying instead on submarines, missile-carrying surface ships, and long-range bombers based on land.


title: Blue-water navy

text: A blue-water navy implies force protection from sub-surface, surface and airborne threats and a sustainable logistic reach, allowing a persistent presence at long range. A hallmark of a true blue-water navy is the ability to conduct replenishment at sea (RAS), and the commissioning of underway replenishment ships is a strong sign of a navy's blue-water ambitions. While a blue-water navy can project sea control power into another nation's littoral, it remains susceptible to threats from less capable forces (asymmetric warfare). Maintenance and logistics at range have high costs, and there might be a saturation advantage over a deployed force through the use of land-based air or surface-to-surface missile assets, diesel-electric submarines, or asymmetric tactics such as Fast Inshore Attack Craft. An example of this vulnerability was the October 2000 USS "Cole" bombing in Aden.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The term 'blue-water navy' should not be confused with the capability of an individual ship. For example, vessels of a green-water navy can often operate in blue water for short periods of time. A number of nations have extensive maritime assets but lack the capability to maintain the required sustainable logistic reach. Some of them join coalition task groups in blue-water deployments such as anti-piracy patrols off Somalia.


title: Blue-water navy

text: According to a dictionary definition, blue-water capability refers to an oceangoing fleet able to operate on the high seas far from its nation's home ports. Some operate throughout the world.


title: Blue-water navy

text: In their 2012 publication, ""Sea Power and the Asia-Pacific"", professors Geoffrey Till and Patrick C. Bratton outlined what they termed as "concise criteria" with regard to the definitions of brown, green and blue-water navies. Quote; ""...a brown-water navy standing for a navy capable of defending its coastal zones, a green-water navy for a navy competent to operate in regional sea and finally [a] blue-water navy described as a navy with capability to operate across the deep waters."" They go on to say that even with such a definition and understanding of naval hierarchy, it is still "ambiguous". For example, while France and the United States may be considered blue-water navies, he states that the "operational capability and geographic reach of both navies are definitely different."


title: Blue-water navy

text: Another definition states that 'brown-water' refers to the littoral areas within 100 nautical miles of the coastline. 'Green-water' begins from 100 nautical miles out to the next major land formation, while 'blue-water' is the ability to project force out to at least 1,500 nautical miles beyond the coast. Traditionally a distinction used to be made between a coastal brown-water navy operating in the littoral zone to 200 nautical miles (or 370 kilometres) and an oceangoing blue-water navy. However, the United States Navy created a new term, green-water navy, to replace the term 'brown-water navy' in US Navy parlance. Today, a brown-water navy has become to be known as a predominantly riverine force.


title: Blue-water navy

text: There have been many attempts by naval scholars and other authorities to classify world navies, including; Michael Morris, British naval historians Eric Grove and Professor Geoffrey Till, French strategist Hervé Coutau-Bégarie and professors Daniel Todd and Michael Lindberg. All identify a basic common criteria for gauging the capability of navies, such as; total displacement and number of ships; modernity and power of weapons and systems; logistical and geographic reach with capacity for sustained operations; and the professional qualifications/disposition of sailors.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The table below shows the world naval hierarchy according to the classification system by professors Daniel Todd and Michael Lindberg. Their system originates from 1996 and outlines ten ranks, distinguished by capability. Since then it has been used by various other experts to illustrate the subject. According to Todd and Lindberg, a "blue-water navy" is one that can project any sort of power beyond its own territorial waters. However they used the principle of loss of strength gradient and other criteria to distinguish navies by capability under the four "blue-water" ranks. The six ranks of "Non blue-water navies" can be further broken down into "green-water" and "brown-water navies", and according to Todd and Lindberg, these are navies only capable of operating as coastal defence forces, coast guards or riverine forces.


title: Blue-water navy

text: Historically, and to present day, blue-water navies have tended to establish overseas bases to extend the reach of supply lines, provide repair facilities and enhance the "effective striking power" of a fleet beyond the capabilities provided by the nation's homeports. Generally, these overseas bases are located within areas where potential conflicts or threats to the nation's interests may arise. For example, since World War II the Royal Navy and later the United States Navy have continued to base forces in Bahrain for operations in the Persian Gulf. The military importance and value of overseas basing is primarily dependent on geographical location. A base located at choke points in narrow or enclosed seas can be of high value, especially if positioned near, or within striking distance of an enemy's sea lines of communications. However advanced operating bases ("or" forward operating bases) can be equally as valuable. Naval Station Pearl Harbor acts as a "gateway" for the US Navy to "operate forward" in the Pacific Ocean.


title: Blue-water navy

text: These are examples of navies that have been described by various defense experts or academics as being blue-water navies. Some have successfully used their blue-water capabilities to exercise control on the high seas and from there have projected power into other nations' littoral waters. However, there is no agreed upon definition among authorities as to what constitutes a blue-water navy.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The People's Liberation Army Navy is subject to a variety of assessments regarding its capabilities. Writing for the US Naval Institute in 2012, Dr James Mulvenon believes that "the Chinese navy is still primarily a brown and green-water navy", highlighting problems with replenishment and logistics as key shortcomings in PLAN ambitions of becoming a blue-water capable fleet. This line of thinking has also been held by a number of academics throughout the years, including Dr Peter Howarth, Professor Timo Kivimäki, Dr Denny Roy, and Professor Bart Dessein.


title: Blue-water navy

text: China's ambition towards blue-water capability has received much attention, particularly from the United States Congress and Department of Defense, with both acknowledging that China's primary aim is to project power in the First and Second island chains. In a 2013 report to Congress, defense experts also assert that over the coming decades, China will gain the capability to project power across the globe – similar to Britain's 1982 Falklands War. In addition, there are those who think China already has a blue-water navy, such as British naval historian and professor Geoffrey Till, and also, Professor David Shambaugh who believes that the PLAN has transitioned from a green-water navy to that of a "limited" blue-water navy. According to Todd and Lindberg's classification system, the PLAN is a rank four "regional power projection navy". The PLA Navy has 70 per cent stake in Kyaukpyu port in Myanmar, which sits in the Bay of Bengal, Hambantota port in South Sri Lanka dominates the Indian Ocean, Gwadar port in Pakistan sits on the mouth of Gulf of Oman and the port of Jask in Iran is located on the edge of Persian Gulf.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The French Navy is recognised as being a blue-water navy by various experts and academics. According to professors Daniel Todd and Michael Lindberg, the French Navy is a rank two "limited global-reach power projection navy".


title: Blue-water navy

text: The navy operates a single nuclear-powered aircraft carrier () which forms the centrepiece of the Navy's principal expeditionary task group (known as the Aeronaval Group). In addition to this, the navy maintains a secondary Amphibious Group (known as Le Groupe Amphibie) based around the s. Both these formations are part of the Force d'action navale (or Naval Action Force). The '"Forces sous-marines"' operates four nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines and six nuclear-powered fleet submarines. France retains a network of overseas naval facilities around the world; from Fort de France in the Caribbean, to Le Port, Réunion in the Indian Ocean, Papeete in the Pacific and in several other parts of the world too, including the Gulf, South Atlantic and the Western Pacific.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The navy's operational duties include the protection of French interests abroad and the security of the nation's many overseas departments and territories, as such the Navy undertakes a number of standing commitments worldwide.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The Indian Navy is unique among Asian navies due to its long experience in carrier power projection since 1961. This, according to Dr. George J. Gilboy and political scientist Eric Heginbotham, gives the Indian Navy the "leading power projection capability in the region". The Indian Navy is also the only Asian navy considered to be a rank three "multi-regional power projection navy" per Todd and Lindberg's classification system. In his discussion paper for Consultancy Africa Intelligence, Greg Ryan asserts that in recent years, the Indian Navy has emerged as a "global power in the blue water sense".


title: Blue-water navy

text: India initially outlined its intentions of developing blue-water capabilities under the 2007 "Maritime Capabilities Perspective Plan", with the navy's priority being the projection of "power in India's area of strategic interest", the Indian Ocean Region. Since 2007 the navy has increased its presence in the Persian Gulf and the Horn of Africa to the Strait of Malacca, and routinely conducts anti-piracy operations and partnership building with other navies in the region. It also conducts routine two to three month-long deployments in the South and East China seas as well as the western Mediterranean simultaneously. The navy has a listening post in Madagascar.


title: Blue-water navy

text: India inducted its first aircraft carrier in 1961, and the navy has ever since operated two independent carrier task forces. After and were decommissioned, the country’s strike force currently centers on the two carrier battle groups: , and a new indigenous aircraft carrier, commissioned in September 2022, restoring India's two-carrier capability. The Indian Navy also possesses an amphibious transport dock, , and currently operates 2 "Arihant"-class indigenously developed nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine with two more under construction, along with leasing one nuclear-powered attack submarine, and has many more ships of different types planned or under construction.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The Italian Navy was categorised as a "regional blue-water navy" in Liu Huaqing's Memoirs (1994), and as a rank three "multi regional power projection navy" by Professors Daniel Todd and Michael Lindberg in 1996. In the former 1989 publication ""The Atlantic Alliance and the Middle East"", Joseph I. Coffey asserted that Italy's blue-water capabilities didn't extend beyond the Mediterranean sea. Today the navy possesses two aircraft carriers ( and ), a third one to be commissioned in 2023, as well as a modern fleet of surface combatants and submarines. The Marina Militare routinely deploys to the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf as part of multinational anti-piracy missions such as Operation Ocean Shield and Operation Atalanta, and is capable of deploying a carrier battle group in support of NATO or EU operations such as during Operation Enduring Freedom (2001) and EU Navfor Med (European migrant crisis). Recently, in 2015, scholar Sarah Kirchberger has mentioned Italy as a blue-water navy capable of operate in the high seas far from its home.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The Soviet Navy maintained naval forces able to rival those of the United States; however, following the end of the Cold War and dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Russian Navy experienced a severe decline due to lack of funding. By the late 1990s, there was little tangible evidence of Russian blue-water capability. It wasn't until 2007, under President Vladimir Putin, that "naval ambition broadened in scope and aimed at re-creating a large blue-water navy". Today, the Russian Navy is considered to be a rank 3 "multi-regional power projection navy" by Todd and Lindberg's classification system. The Russian Navy has also been described as a blue-water navy by British naval historian Professor Geoffrey Till.


title: Blue-water navy

text: Analysts have mentioned that as opposed to the focus on submarine operations in the North Atlantic during the Cold War era, Russia's strategic emphasis has shifted towards the Pacific regions where a rising China and the United States "Asia-Pacific Pivot" are potential threats.


title: Blue-water navy

text: Russia maintains a single overseas naval facility in Tartus, Syria, which hosts a Soviet-era naval supply and maintenance facility. The facility provides technical maintenance and logistical support to Russian warships deployed in the Mediterranean. Since 2008, there has been a notable increase in Russian naval activity, primarily in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, Caribbean and Indian Ocean.


title: Blue-water navy

text: Since 2018 Russia's only aircraft carrier has been out of service for repairs and after several accidents while it was dry docked, it is not expected to begin sea trials until 2024.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The Royal Navy is considered to be a blue-water navy by naval experts and academics. This position is likely to be further cemented with the introduction of two new s, eighteen new frigates (8 Type 26, 5 Type 31, and 5 Type 32), and other warships currently being procured. A term used commonly in the United Kingdom is that the Royal Navy maintains a maritime expeditionary capability. According to Todd and Lindberg's classification system, the Royal Navy is a rank two "limited global-reach power projection navy".


title: Blue-water navy

text: The Royal Navy supports a number of standing commitments worldwide on a continuous basis and maintains an expeditionary task force known as the Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime) (JEF (M)). The Royal Navy Submarine Service operates four nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines and seven nuclear-powered and fleet submarines which operate globally. The Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) maintains a number of ships which support Royal Navy operations globally by resupplying personnel, food, water, armament and fuel to their ships. The RFA also augment the Royal Navy's amphibious landing capabilities by operating the . The United Kingdom maintains five overseas naval facilities, including a naval support facility, named the British Defence Singapore Support Unit, in Sembawang, Singapore in the Far East.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The U.S. Naval War College identifies the Royal Navy's tasks as fighting wars, conducting distant expeditions, maintaining good order at sea and preventing and deterring conflict. As such, the Navy views the retention of its "world-class" high-end disciplines in anti-air and anti-submarine warfare as strategically important. The Royal Navy has shown many examples of its expeditionary capabilities since World War II, such as the Korean War, the 1982 Falklands War, the 1990–91 Gulf War, Sierra Leone, the War in Afghanistan, the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and during the 2011 military intervention in Libya.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The United States Navy is considered a blue-water navy by experts and academics. It is distinguished from other power projection navies in that it is considered a global blue-water navy, able to operate in the deep waters of every ocean simultaneously. According to Todd and Lindberg's classification system, the United States Navy is a rank one "global-reach power projection navy", and the only navy to occupy this rank.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The USN maintains ten carrier strike groups (centered on the and s), of which six are deployed or ready for deployment within 30 days, and two ready for deployment within 90 days under the Fleet Response Plan (FRP). The USN also maintains a continuous deployment of nine expeditionary strike groups that embark a Marine Expeditionary Unit with an Aviation Combat Element on amphibious warfare ships. The US Military Sealift Command is the largest of its kind in the world and is responsible for delivering military transport and ship replenishment around the globe.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The US Navy has shown countless examples of its blue-water combat capabilities and has the ability to project force onto the littoral regions of the world, engage in forward areas during peacetime, and rapidly respond to regional crises. Some examples of such are World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Persian Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The United States Coast Guard, while not technically a navy, is also a blue-water naval force capable of deploying to waters throughout the world.


title: Blue-water navy

text: While considered to be a green-water navy, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force is undergoing transition to develop blue-water capabilities. It began in 1981 when Prime Minister Zenkō Suzuki put forward a new doctrine requiring the JMSDF to expand its operations by 1,000 miles for defense of the nation's sea lines of communication. To respond to the growing blue-water requirements, the JMSDF has been developing impressive capabilities, most notably the creation of destroyer flotillas centered on large helicopter destroyers (such as the "Hyūga"-class helicopter carrier) and large AEGIS-equipped destroyers. The first Japanese post-WWII overseas naval air facility was established next to Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport; it supports a number of Lockheed P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft. It was then decided to operate F-35B fighters on board the "Izumo"-class, a development of the "Hyūga"-class, and by July 2021 JS "Izumo" had completed modifications for this purpose, followed by an operational test using the U.S. Marine Corps F-35B in October.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The Republic of Korea Navy also has ambitions to develop blue-water capabilities. In 2001, the South Korean President, Kim Dae-jung, announced plans to build a "Strategic Mobile Fleet". The plan includes the construction of up to three s, with a ski-jump for the operation of V/STOL jet fighters being considered for the second vessel currently under construction. On 3 December 2021 the National Assembly passed the budget to fund a fixed-wing aircraft carrier tentatively named CVX-class aircraft carrier capable of operating F35B, expected to enter operations possibly as early as 2033.


title: Blue-water navy

text: The Brazilian Navy is experiencing a "shift in maritime priorities" with ambitions of developing a blue-water navy. While the navy maintains a mix of capabilities enabling it to operate in the wider South Atlantic Ocean, the Brazilian government wishes to be recognized as "the leading maritime power in the Southern Hemisphere" and is seeking to develop a modern naval shipbuilding industry.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: Dark Matter is a science fiction series started in 2015 that was developed by Prodigy Pictures in association with the Space channel and the Syfy channel. The concept was created by Joseph Mallozzi and Paul Mullie while they were working on the "Stargate" franchise, and was originally published as a comic book series in 2012.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: An order for 13 episodes was placed for the first season of the series, which premiered on June 12, 2015, on both Space and Syfy. On September 5, 2015, the series was renewed for a second season. "Dark Matter" was renewed for a third season in September 2016, which premiered on June 9, 2017. On September 1, 2017, Syfy canceled the series.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: A group of people in stasis pods awaken with amnesia aboard the starship "Raza". They have no memories of who they are or their lives before awakening, so they assume the names One through Six in the order in which they left stasis and set about trying to uncover their identities and what happened to them. Also onboard is a female-looking android who possesses a wireless neural link to the ship.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: At the end of the pilot episode, the crew discover that they are a band of mercenaries who are ranked among the worst criminals in the galaxy, leaving them with the dilemma of continuing their original selves' violent path or seeking redemption. Their lives are frequently complicated by secrets from their forgotten pasts.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: Principal photography for the first season began in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, on January 9, 2015, and concluded May 20, 2015.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: On September 1, 2015, Syfy renewed "Dark Matter" for a second season. Chris Regina, Syfy's senior VP of program strategy, said that "With its mysterious premise and fascinating characters, "Dark Matter" has built an incredibly loyal, passionate and engaged fan base. We look forward to another out-of-this-world season from this talented creative team." Production on the second season began on December 9, 2015, and concluded May 6, 2016.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: The third season began production on November 18, 2016. "Dark Matter"'s third season would be its last and the show's cancellation was announced in September 2017. According to Mallozzi in various interviews, the show was picked up by Syfy's acquisition division in New York, but it wasn't well received by the network's original programming division in Los Angeles. In addition, while the series was outperforming several Syfy first-run programs, the network wasn't able to monetize the show because it was an acquisition.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: "Dark Matter" premiered on Syfy in the United States on the same day as Canada. Within the following week, the series premiered on Syfy Australia and Syfy UK – on June 13 and 16, 2015, respectively.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: As of 21 March 2022, review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave season 1 an approval rating of 68%, with an average rating of 5/10 based on reviews from 19 critics. The sites consensus statement says: "... [the] premiere benefits from likable characters and a concluding twist, but its gaping plot holes and worn premise add up to an aimless episode." Metacritic gave the series an average score of 58 out of 100, based on reviews from 5 critics, indicating "Mixed or average reviews". On Rotten Tomatoes season 2 received a 100% rating based on 7 reviews, and season 3 also received a 100% rating based on 7 reviews.


title: Dark Matter (TV series)

text: The series premiere pulled 273,000 overnight viewers on the Space channel in Canada, and 1.28 million viewers for its premiere on the Syfy channel in the U.S.


title: High five

text: The high five is a hand gesture that occurs when two people simultaneously raise one hand each, about head-high, and push, slide, or slap the flat of their palm against the flat palm of the other person. The gesture is often preceded verbally by a phrase like "Give me five", "High five", "Up high", or "Slap hands." Its meaning varies with the context of use but can include as a greeting, congratulations, or celebration.


title: High five

text: There are many origin stories of the high five, but the two most documented candidates are Dusty Baker and Glenn Burke of the Los Angeles Dodgers professional baseball team on October 2, 1977, and Wiley Brown and Derek Smith of the Louisville Cardinals men's college basketball team during the 1978–1979 season.


title: High five

text: The use of the phrase as a noun has been part of the "Oxford English Dictionary" since 1980 and as a verb since 1981. The phrase is related to the slang "give me five" which is a request for some form of handshake – variations include "slap me five", "slip me five", "give me (some) skin" – with "five" referring to the number of fingers on a hand. The "high five" originated from the "low five", which has been a part of African-American culture since the 1920s. The exact transition from a low five to a high is unknown, though many theories exist about its inception. Magic Johnson once suggested that he invented the high five at Michigan State, presumably in the late 1970s. Others have suggested it originated in the women's volleyball circuit of the 1960s.


title: High five

text: For decades, the "conventional wisdom" has been that the origin of the high five occurred between Dusty Baker and Glenn Burke of the Los Angeles Dodgers at Dodger Stadium on October 2, 1977, the last day of the regular season. In the sixth inning, Dusty Baker hit a home run off Houston Astros pitcher J. R. Richard. It was Baker's 30th home run, making the Dodgers the first team in history to have four hitters with at least 30 home runs each in a single season. As journalist Jon Mooallem tells the story:


title: High five

text: This story regarding the origin of the high five can be found in the written news as early as September 1982 and is featured in the ESPN "30 for 30" film "The High Five" directed by Michael Jacobs. After retiring from baseball, Burke, who was one of the first openly gay professional athletes, used the high five with other gay residents of the Castro district of San Francisco, where for many it became a symbol of gay pride and identification.


title: High five

text: Another origin story, first reported in 1980, places it at a University of Louisville Cardinals basketball practice during the 1978–1979 season. Forward Wiley Brown went to give a low five to his teammate Derek Smith, but suddenly Smith looked Brown in the eye and said, "No. Up high." Brown thought, "Yeah, why are we staying down low? We jump so high," raised his hand and the high five was supposedly born. High fives can be seen in highlight reels of the 1978–1979 Louisville team. During a telecast of a 1980 game, announcer Al McGuire shouted: "Mr. Brown came to play! And they're giving him the high-five handshake. High five!"


title: High five

text: In a 2007 press release, two comedy writers and founders of the "National High Five Day" claimed that a late 1970s and early '80s basketball player from Murray State University had invented the gesture. They also concocted an elaborate and involved story about this player as a young boy learning the gesture from his father. But in a 2013 "ESPN" article, the pair admitted that it had been a publicity stunt. Per the article, the two had "scoured college basketball rosters to plug in a name."


title: High five

text: Antecedents of the physical gesture of slapping palms together predate the 1970s, when the high five is believed to have been coined. For example, it can be seen in the 1960 French Nouvelle vague movie "Breathless". These earlier cases were never called "high fives," however, because the term had not yet been coined and they lacked the cultural context and meaning surrounding the gesture that originated in the United States during the late 1970s and 1980s independent of usage elsewhere.


title: High five

text: Conventional wisdom holds that the Tokyo district of Roppongi earned the slogan of "High Touch Town" after residents noticed World War II American soldiers walking the streets giving each other high-fives; when the Japanese asked about the gesture it was mistranslated as "hai tatchi" or "high touch". This story is possibly apocryphal, as Hiroyuki Usui, a representative of the Roppongi Shopkeepers Promotion Association explains, "There is no deep meaning in 'High Touch Town'. People don't know what it means." The term "high touch town" may have originated before the high five and had a different meaning, or 'high touch' may mean "high class", a play on the town's reputation for nightlife activity among off-duty military personnel.


title: High five

text: If one initiates a high five (or any variation thereof) by offering a hand(s), and no reciprocal hand appears to consummate the gesture, the initiator is said to have been "". This could be interpreted as an insult, friendly joke or form of enlightenment, depending on the context of its use.


title: High five

text: Another variation is the "self high five." The action consists of raising one hand, generally the right hand, and tagging it with the other. It was often used by Diamond Dallas Page as part of his persona, such as in his WCW theme song "Self High Five." A variation of this variation was explored by Turkish artist Deniz Ozuygur who built a "Self High-five Machine," which was exhibited in New York City in 2010. It is a robotic arm that spins in circles striking another robotic arm, both of which are rubber casts of Ozuygur's own arms.


title: High five

text: A hand grab is when one or both parties grab and hold, sometimes even shaking around the opposing parties hand while still up high. The variation can be used to indicate friendship and/or personal swagger. A two-handed high five is as the name suggests the same as a high five but two handed. A back end is when a normal high is followed through by swinging the arms around to slap together down low. Some will pass through a gauntlet while giving two hand high fives through a line of people.


title: High five

text: The "too slow" variation is a sequence of high five and low five, often accompanied by a rhyme such as "Up High. Down Low ..." During the down low sequence, the initiator will surprise the counter-party by pulling their hand back at the last moment, tricking the other person into swiping at empty air, completing the rhyme with "Too slow!" There are variations on this theme, with additions of "to the side" and other hand positions for the partner to contact the initiator's hand.


title: High five

text: The origin of the too slow variation has not been established, but notable sources have made reference to it; for example a 1983 journal is quoted as saying, "Whether we hammer, or hoe, whoop or holler, as they say, slap five up high, down low, you're too slow, we do it with the rhythmic motif that leads to harmony." The title song for "Lay on Five", a BBC children's television programme broadcast in 1985–86 featuring Floella Benjamin, ended "..too slow to Lay on Five." The too slow variation is in the 1987 film "The Principal" in a scene where Principal Rick Latimer (James Belushi) does it to Arturo Diego (Jacob Vargas). In the "New York Times" archives, the earliest reference is from 1993 when Arnold Schwarzenegger did it with the son of a film-crew member while on the set of "Last Action Hero", saying: "Let's have five. Five high. Five low," at which point Schwarzenegger pulled his hand away saying "Too slow." The boy reportedly laughed. Schwarzenegger did it originally in the 1991 film "", when John Connor (Edward Furlong) teaches the Terminator (Schwarzenegger) to "Gimme five. Up high, down low, too slow." In 2008, They Might Be Giants released the song "High Five!" on an album for children titled "Here Come the 123s", with lyrics "High five! Low five! Slap me five! Down low! Too slow!," a gesture described in the song as "old school" a slang term usually meaning something from a prior generation.


title: High five

text: The rhyme bears a striking resemblance to a very old rhyme, possibly medieval, used by blacksmiths to teach apprentices how to best operate a bellows in a way that maximized its efficiency by opening it fully and quickly, while closing it slowly. The didactic rhyme is "Up high. Down low. Up quick. Down slow; And that's the way to blow."


title: High five

text: An air five is a variation where the hands of the participants never actually touch, needing only line of sight to make the gesture. It has an advantage for participants who are otherwise too far apart to achieve physical contact at the moment of the gesture. The participants may simply pretend to high five, or add an imitation sound of hand slapping. Also known as the "wi-five", a mix of "wireless" and "high five" with a pun on wi-fi, a wireless computer technology.


title: High five

text: National High Five Day is a project to give out high fives and is typically held on the third Thursday in April. According to the National High Five Project, the event began in 2002 at the University of Virginia after a group of students set up a booth and gave out high-fives and lemonade. The project has held events where participants take part in a "high-five-a-thon" to raise funds for charity.


title: High five

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the high-five was "singled out, stigmatized and fraught with anxiety", being replaced by gestures such as knocking elbows, tapping forearms, or clicking cleats. For example, college conferences banned the high-five; the Yankees informally resolved to bump elbows instead of slapping hands; the Minnesota Twins banned physical contact with fans. Outside of sports, individuals reported avoiding the high-five in their daily lives. Dusty Baker, the presumed originator of the gesture, advocated for contactless high-fives.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is any of several painful conditions that are characterized by a continuing (spontaneous and/or evoked) regional pain that is seemingly disproportionate in time or degree to the usual course of any known trauma or other lesion. Usually starting in a limb, it manifests as extreme pain, swelling, limited range of motion, and changes to the skin and bones. It may initially affect one limb and then spread throughout the body; 35% of affected people report symptoms throughout their whole bodies. Two types exist: reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD) and causalgia. Having both types is possible.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: The classification system in use by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) divides CRPS into two types. It is recognised that people may exhibit both types of CRPS.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Clinical features of CRPS have been found to be inflammation resulting from the release of certain proinflammatory chemical signals from the nerves, sensitized nerve receptors that send pain signals to the brain, dysfunction of the local blood vessels' ability to constrict and dilate appropriately, and maladaptive neuroplasticity.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: The signs and symptoms of CRPS usually manifest near the injury site. The most common symptoms are extreme pain, including burning, stabbing, grinding, and throbbing. The pain is out of proportion to the severity of the initial injury. Moving or touching the limb is often intolerable. With diagnosis of either CRPS types I or II, patients may develop burning pain and allodynia. Both syndromes are also characterized by autonomic dysfunction, which presents with temperature changes (usually localized, but can be global), cyanosis, and/or edema.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: The patient may also experience localized swelling; extreme sensitivity to nonpainful stimuli such as wind, water, noise, and vibrations; extreme sensitivity to touch (by themselves, other people, and even light clothing or bedding/blankets); abnormally increased sweating (or absent sweating); changes in skin temperature (alternating between overly warm and cold); changes in skin colouring (from white and mottled to bright red or reddish-violet); changes in skin texture (waxy, shiny, thin, tight skin); softening and thinning of bones; joint tenderness or stiffness; changes in nails and hair (delayed or increased growth, brittle nails/hair that easily break); muscle spasms; muscle loss (atrophy); tremors; dystonia; allodynia; hyperalgesia; and decreased/restricted ability and painful movement of affected body part. Drop attacks (falls), almost fainting, and fainting spells are infrequently reported, as are visual problems.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: The symptoms of CRPS vary in severity and duration. Since CRPS is a systemic problem, potentially any organ can be affected. Symptoms may change over time, and they can vary from person to person. The more dynamic symptoms, especially vascular aspects (edema, temperature) and location of pain, can change numerous times a day.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Previously, CRPS was considered to have three stages however more recent studies suggest people affected by CRPS do not progress through sequential stages and the staging system is no longer in wide use. Growing evidence instead points towards distinct sub-types of CRPS.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Complex regional pain syndrome is uncommon, and its cause is not clearly understood. CRPS typically develops after an injury, surgery, heart attack, or stroke. Investigators estimate that 2–5% of those with peripheral nerve injury, and 13-70% of those with hemiplegia (paralysis of one side of the body) will develop CRPS. In addition, some studies have indicated that cigarette smoking was strikingly present in patients and is statistically linked to RSD. This may be involved in its pathology by enhancing sympathetic activity, vasoconstriction, or by some other unknown neurotransmitter-related mechanism. This hypothesis was based on a retrospective analysis of 53 patients with RSD, which showed that 68% of patients and only 37% of controls were smokers. The results are preliminary and are limited by their retrospective nature. 7% of people who have CRPS in one limb later develop it in another limb.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Inflammation and alteration of pain perception in the central nervous system are proposed to play important roles. The persistent pain and the perception of nonpainful stimuli as painful are thought to be caused by inflammatory molecules (IL-1, IL2, TNF-alpha) and neuropeptides (substance P) released from peripheral nerves. This release may be caused by inappropriate cross-talk between sensory and motor fibers at the affected site. CRPS is not a psychological illness, yet pain can cause psychological problems, such as anxiety and depression. Often, impaired social and occupational function occur.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Complex regional pain syndrome is a multifactorial disorder with clinical features of neurogenic inflammation (swelling in the central nervous system), nociceptive sensitisation (which causes extreme sensitivity or allodynia), vasomotor dysfunction (blood flow problems which cause swelling and discolouration) and maladaptive neuroplasticity (where the brain changes and adapts with constant pain signals); CRPS is the result of an "aberrant [inappropriate] response to tissue injury". The "underlying neuronal matrix" of CRPS is seen to involve cognitive and motor as well as nociceptive processing; pinprick stimulation of a CRPS affected limb was painful (mechanical hyperalgesia) and showed a "significantly increased activation" of not just the S1 cortex (contralateral), S2 (bilateral) areas, and insula (bilateral) but also the associative-somatosensory cortices (contralateral), frontal cortices, and parts of the anterior cingulate cortex. In contrast to previous thoughts reflected in the name RSD, it appears that there is reduced sympathetic nervous system outflow, at least in the affected region (although there may be sympatho-afferent coupling). Wind-up (the increased sensation of pain with time) and central nervous system (CNS) sensitization are key neurologic processes that appear to be involved in the induction and maintenance of CRPS.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Compelling evidence shows that the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor has significant involvement in the CNS sensitization process. It is also hypothesized that elevated CNS glutamate levels promote wind-up and CNS sensitization. In addition, there exists experimental evidence demonstrating the presence of NMDA receptors in peripheral nerves. Because immunological functions can modulate CNS physiology, a variety of immune processes have also been hypothesized to contribute to the initial development and maintenance of peripheral and central sensitization. Furthermore, trauma-related cytokine release, exaggerated neurogenic inflammation, sympathetic afferent coupling, adrenoreceptor pathology, glial cell activation, cortical reorganisation, and oxidative damage (e.g., by free radicals) are all factors which have been implicated in the pathophysiology of CRPS. In addition, autoantibodies are present in a wide number of CRPS patients and IgG has been recognized as one of the causes of hypersensitivity that stimulates A and C nociceptors, attributing to the inflammation.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: The mechanisms leading to reduced bone mineral density (up to overt osteoporosis) are still unknown. Potential explanations include a dysbalance of the activities of sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous system and mild secondary hyperparathyroidism. However, the trigger of secondary hyperparathyroidism has not yet been identified.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: In summary, the pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome has not yet been defined; CRPS, with its variable manifestations, could be the result of multiple pathophysiological processes.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Diagnosis is primarily based on clinical findings. The original diagnostic criteria for CRPS adopted by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) in 1994 have now been superseded in both clinical practice and research by the "Budapest Criteria" which were created in 2003 and have been found to be more sensitive and specific. They have since been adopted by the IASP. The criteria require there to be pain as well as a history and clinical evidence of Sensory, Vasomotor, Sudomotor and Motor or Trophic changes. It is also stated that it is a diagnosis of exclusion.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: No specific test is available for CRPS, which is diagnosed primarily through observation of the symptoms. However, thermography, sweat testing, X-rays, electrodiagnostics, and sympathetic blocks can be used to build up a picture of the disorder. Diagnosis is complicated by the fact that some patients improve without treatment. A delay in diagnosis and/or treatment for this syndrome can result in severe physical and psychological problems. Early recognition and prompt treatment provide the greatest opportunity for recovery.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Presently, established empirical evidence suggests against thermography's efficacy as a reliable tool for diagnosing CRPS. Although CRPS may, in some cases, lead to measurably altered blood flow throughout an affected region, many other factors can also contribute to an altered thermographic reading, including the patient's smoking habits, use of certain skin lotions, recent physical activity, and prior history of trauma to the region. Also, not all patients diagnosed with CRPS demonstrate such "vasomotor instability" — particularly those in the later stages of the disease. Thus, thermography alone cannot be used as conclusive evidence for—or against—a diagnosis of CRPS and must be interpreted in light of the patient's larger medical history and prior diagnostic studies.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: In order to minimise the confounding influence of external factors, patients undergoing infrared thermographic testing must conform to special restrictions regarding the use of certain vasoconstrictors (namely, nicotine and caffeine), skin lotions, physical therapy, and other diagnostic procedures in the days prior to testing. Patients may also be required to discontinue certain pain medications and sympathetic blockers. After a patient arrives at a thermographic laboratory, he or she is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in a 16–20 °C, draft-free, steady-state room wearing a loose fitting cotton hospital gown for approximately twenty minutes. A technician then takes infrared images of both the patient's affected and unaffected limbs, as well as reference images of other parts of the patient's body, including his or her face, upper back, and lower back. After capturing a set of baseline images, some labs further require the patient to undergo cold-water autonomic-functional-stress-testing to evaluate the function of their autonomic nervous system's peripheral vasoconstrictor reflex. This is performed by placing a patient's unaffected limb in a cold water bath (approximately 20 °C) for five minutes while collecting images. In a normal, intact, functioning autonomic nervous system, a patient's affected extremity will become colder. Conversely, warming of an affected extremity may indicate a disruption of the body's normal thermoregulatory vasoconstrictor function, which may sometimes indicate underlying CRPS.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Scintigraphy, plain radiographs, and magnetic resonance imaging may all be useful diagnostically. Patchy osteoporosis (post-traumatic osteoporosis), which may be due to disuse of the affected extremity, can be detected through X-ray imagery as early as two weeks after the onset of CRPS. A bone scan of the affected limb may detect these changes even sooner and can almost confirm the disease. Bone densitometry can also be used to detect changes in bone mineral density. It can also be used to monitor the results of treatment since bone densitometry parameters improve with treatment.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Ultrasound-based osteodensitometry (ultrasonometry) may be potential future radiation-free technique to identify reduced bone mineral density in CRPS. Additionally, this method promises to quantify the bone architecture in the periphery of affected limbs. This method is still under experimental development.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Electromyography (EMG) and nerve conduction studies (NCS) are important ancillary tests in CRPS because they are among the most reliable methods of detecting nerve injury. They can be used as one of the primary methods to distinguish between CRPS types I and II, which differ based on evidence of actual nerve damage. EMG and NCS are also among the best tests for ruling in or out alternative diagnoses. CRPS is a "diagnosis of exclusion", which requires that no other diagnosis can explain the patient's symptoms. This is very important to emphasise because patients otherwise can be given a wrong diagnosis of CRPS when they actually have a treatable condition that better accounts for their symptoms. An example is severe carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), which can often present in a very similar way to CRPS. Unlike CRPS, CTS can often be corrected with surgery to alleviate the pain and avoid permanent nerve damage and malformation.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Both EMG and NCS involve some measure of discomfort. EMG involves the use of a tiny needle inserted into specific muscles to test the associated muscle and nerve function. Both EMG and NCS involve very mild shocks that in normal patients are comparable to a rubber band snapping on the skin. Although these tests can be very useful in CRPS, thorough informed consent must be obtained prior to the procedure, particularly in patients experiencing severe allodynia. In spite of the utility of the test, these patients may wish to decline the procedure to avoid discomfort.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Patients are frequently classified into two groups based upon temperature: "warm" or "hot" CRPS in one group and "cold" CRPS in the other group. The majority of patients (about 70%) have the "hot" type, which is said to be an acute form of CRPS. Cold CRPS is said to be indicative of a more chronic CRPS and is associated with poorer McGill Pain Questionnaire scores, increased central nervous system involvement, and a higher prevalence of dystonia. Prognosis is not favourable for cold CRPS patients; longitudinal studies suggest these patients have "poorer clinical pain outcomes and show persistent signs of central sensitisation correlating with disease progression".


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Vitamin C may be useful in prevention of the syndrome following fracture of the forearm or foot and ankle.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Physical and occupational therapy have low-quality evidence to support their use. Physical therapy interventions may include transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, progressive weight bearing, graded tactile desensitization, massage, and contrast bath therapy. In a retrospective cohort (unblinded, non-randomised and with intention-to-treat) of fifty patients diagnosed with CRPS, the subjective pain and body perception scores of patients decreased after engagement with a two-week multidisciplinary rehabilitation programme. The authors call for randomised controlled trials to probe the true value of multidisciplinary programs for CRPS patients.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Mirror box therapy uses a mirror box, or a stand-alone mirror, to create a reflection of the normal limb such that the patient thinks they are looking at the affected limb. Movement of this reflected normal limb is then performed so that it looks to the patient as though they are performing movement with the affected limb. Mirror box therapy appears to be beneficial at least in early CRPS. However, beneficial effects of mirror therapy in the long term is still unproven.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Graded motor imagery appears to be useful for people with CRPS-1. Graded motor imagery is a sequential process that consists of (a) laterality reconstruction, (b) motor imagery, and (c) mirror therapy.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) is a therapy that uses low voltage electrical signals to provide pain relief through electrodes that are placed on the surface of the skin. Evidence supports its use in treating pain and edema associated with CRPS although it does not seem to increase functional ability in CRPS patients.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Tentative evidence supports the use of bisphosphonates, calcitonin, and ketamine. Nerve blocks with guanethidine appear to be harmful. Evidence for sympathetic nerve blocks generally is insufficient to support their use. Intramuscular botulinum injections may benefit people with symptoms localized to one extremity.


title: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Ketamine, a dissociative anesthetic, appears promising as a treatment for CRPS. It may be used in low doses if other treatments have not worked. No benefit on either function or depression, however, has been seen.