title: Turner Classic Movies

text: Another is called "Summer Under the Stars", aired during August which features entire daily schedules devoted to the work of a particular actor, with movies and specials that pertain to the star of the day. In the summer of 2007, the channel debuted "Funday Night at the Movies", a block hosted by actor Tom Kenny (best known as the voice of SpongeBob SquarePants). This summer block featured classic feature films (such as "The Wizard of Oz", "Sounder", "Bringing Up Baby", "Singin' in the Rain", "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington", "The Adventures of Robin Hood", and "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea") aimed at introducing these movies to new generations of children, and their families.


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: "Funday Night at the Movies" was replaced in 2008 by "Essentials Jr.", a youth-oriented version of its weekly series, "The Essentials" (originally hosted by actors Abigail Breslin, and Chris O'Donnell, then by John Lithgow from 2009 to 2011, and then by Bill Hader, starting with the 2011 season), which included such family-themed films as "National Velvet", "Captains Courageous", and "Yours, Mine and Ours", as well as more eclectic selections, such as "Sherlock Jr.", "The Music Box", "Harvey", "Mutiny on the Bounty", and "The Man Who Knew Too Much".


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: In 2014, the channel debuted "Treasures from the Disney Vault", hosted by Leonard Maltin. This block showcased a compilation of vintage Disney feature films, cartoons, documentaries, episodes of the "Walt Disney anthology television series", and episodes of "The Mickey Mouse Club". The last scheduled "Treasures from the Disney Vault" aired on September 2, 2019 due to the launch of Disney+ in November of that year.


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: In addition to films, Turner Classic Movies also airs original content, mostly documentaries about classic movie personalities, the world of filmmaking and particularly notable films. An occasional month-long series, "Race and Hollywood", showcases films by and about people of non-white races, featuring discussions of how these pictures influenced white people's image of said races, as well as how people of those races viewed themselves. Previous installments have included "Asian Images on Film" in 2008, "Native American Images on Film" in 2010, "Black Images on Film" in 2006 "Latino Images on Film" in 2009 and "Arab Images on Film" in 2011. The network aired the film series "Screened Out" (which explored the history and depiction of homosexuality in film) in 2007 and "Religion on Film" (focusing on the role of religion in cinematic works) in 2005. In 2011, TCM debuted a new series entitled "".


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: In December 1994, Turner Classic Movies debuted "TCM Remembers", a tribute to recently deceased film personalities (including actors, producers, composers, directors, writers, and cinematographers) which occasionally airs during promotional breaks between films. The segments appear in two forms: individual tributes and a longer end-of-year compilation. Following the recent death of an especially famous film personality (usually an actor or filmmaker), the segment will feature a montage of select shots of the deceased's work.


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: Every December, a longer, more inclusive "TCM Remembers" interstitial is produced, featuring a selection of audio and video clips interspersed with scenes from settings such as an abandoned drive-in (2012) or a theatre which is closing down (2013). Since 2001, most of the soundtracks for these have been introspective melodies by indie artists such as Badly Drawn Boy (2007) or Steve Earle (2009). 2015's song, "Quickly Now", was written especially for "TCM Remembers" by Chuck Moore and Reid Hall, and sung by Eryn McHugh.


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: Turner Classic Movies received a 2008 Peabody Award for its dedication to film preservation and "a continuing, powerful commitment to a central concept—the place of film in social and cultural experience".


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: Turner Classic Movies received a 2013 Peabody Award for its presentation of Mark Cousins' "", a 15-episode documentary about the development and advancement of the medium of motion pictures. Drawing on its exhaustive film library, Turner Classic Movies complemented each episode with short films and feature films from the familiar to the little-seen. The Peabody Award praised Turner Classic Movies's "The Story of Film" "for its inclusive, uniquely annotated survey of world cinema history".


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: Turner Classic Movies is associated with parent company Warner Bros. Discovery's HBO Max streaming service. TCM has its own category on the service with select classic content.


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: The TCM Vault Collection consists of several different DVD collections of rare classic films that have been licensed, remastered and released by Turner Classic Movies (through corporate sister Warner Bros. Home Entertainment). These boxed set releases are of films by notable actors, directors or studios that were previously unreleased on DVD or VHS. The sets often include bonus discs including documentaries and shorts from the Turner Classic Movies library. The initial batch of DVDs are printed in limited quantities and subsequent batches are made-on-demand (MOD).


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: In October 2015, Turner Classic Movies announced the launch of the TCM Wine Club, in which they teamed up with Laithwaite to provide a line of mail-order wines from famous vineyards such as famed writer-director-producer Francis Ford Coppola's winery. Wines are available in 3-month subscriptions and can be selected as reds, whites, or a mixture of both. From the wines chosen, Turner Classic Movies also includes recommended movies to watch with each, such as a "True Grit" wine, to be paired with the John Wayne film of the same name.


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: In 2000, Turner Classic Movies started the annual Young Composers Film Competition, inviting aspiring composers to participate in a judged competition that offers the winner of each year's competition the opportunity to score a restored, feature-length silent film as a grand prize, mentored by a well-known composer, with the new work subsequently premiering on the network. As of 2006, films that have been rescored include the 1921 Rudolph Valentino film "Camille", two Lon Chaney films: 1921's "The Ace of Hearts" and 1928's "Laugh, Clown, Laugh", and Greta Garbo's 1926 film "The Temptress".


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: In April 2010, Turner Classic Movies held the first TCM Classic Film Festival, an event—now held annually—at the Grauman's Chinese Theater and the Grauman's Egyptian Theater in Hollywood. Initially hosted by Robert Osborne, the four-day long annual festival celebrates Hollywood and its movies and features celebrity appearances, special events, and screenings of around 50 classic movies including several newly restored by "The Film Foundation", an organization devoted to preserving Hollywood's classic film legacy. The festival was cancelled in 2020 and moved to a virtual setting in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Turner Classic Movies

text: Turner Classic Movies is available in many other countries around the world. In Canada, Turner Classic Movies began to be carried on Shaw Cable and satellite provider Shaw Direct in 2005. Rogers Cable started offering Turner Classic Movies in December 2006 as a free preview for subscribers of its digital cable tier, and was added to its analogue tier in February 2007. While the schedule for the Canadian feed is generally the same as that of the U.S. network, some films are replaced for broadcast in Canada due to rights issues and other reasons. Other versions of Turner Classic Movies are available in France, Greece, Canada, Spain, Middle East, Africa, Asia, Latin America, Nordic countries, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta. The UK version operated two channels, including a defunct spinoff called Turner Classic Movies 2.


title: Area code 917

text: Area code 917 is a telephone area code in the North American Numbering Plan for the five boroughs of New York City: The Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, Queens, and Staten Island. It is an overlay code to all numbering plan areas (NPAs) in the city, and was intended to serve cellular, pager, and voicemail applications in the city, a restriction that was subsequently ruled impermissible by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) while grandfathering that use in New York City. Area code 917 is also assigned to landlines predominantly in Manhattan, to relieve the shortage of numbers there.


title: Area code 917

text: The original area code for all of New York City's boroughs was 212, established with the North American Numbering Plan in 1947. In 1984, the numbering plan area (NPA) was divided by splitting Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island into a separate numbering plan area with area code 718, reducing 212 to only Manhattan and the Bronx.


title: Area code 917

text: In 1990, The New York Telephone Company wanted to assign a new area code (917) to all cellphones and pagers in Manhattan and all telephone lines in the Bronx, to relieve number shortages in Manhattan, but the New York Public Service Commission denied the request.


title: Area code 917

text: Instead, in 1992, numbering plan area 212 was reduced to Manhattan, with the exception of Marble Hill, which, along with the Bronx, was integrated into 718. All boroughs were provided with the additional area code 917, arranged in an overlay plan.


title: Area code 917

text: Introduced on February 4, 1992, area code 917 was the first overlay area code in the North American Numbering Plan. When it was established, all cellphones in New York City were switched to 917, freeing up telephone numbers for additional landlines.


title: Area code 917

text: Shortly after the establishment of the 917 code, the FCC ruled that restriction of area codes to particular types of service was prohibited, but the instance of 917 remained grandfathered.


title: Aanand L. Rai

text: Aanand L. Rai (born 28 June 1971) is a Hindi film director and producer known for romantic-comedy movies "Tanu Weds Manu" (2011), "Raanjhanaa" (2013), "" (2015), " Zero "(2018), " Atrangi Re " (2021) and "Raksha Bandhan" (2022).


title: Aanand L. Rai

text: Rai was born and brought up in Delhi. After his schooling in Delhi, he did his computer engineering from Aurangabad, Maharashtra.


title: Aanand L. Rai

text: His family's original surname was Raisinghani, and had shifted to Dehradun from Sindh, after partition of India in 1947.


title: Aanand L. Rai

text: Rai started his career as an engineer, but soon left it and moved to Mumbai where he started assisting his elder brother television director Ravi Rai in television series. Later he started directing his own shows.


title: Aanand L. Rai

text: Eventually he made his directorial debut with the psychological thriller "Strangers", starring Jimmy Shergill, based on the 1951 Hitchcock film "Strangers on a Train". This was followed by "Thodi Life Thoda Magic" (2008) starring Parmeet Sethi. He achieved success with the 2011 romantic hit film "Tanu Weds Manu" starring Madhavan and Kangana Ranaut. In 2013, he directed "Raanjhanaa" which featured actor Dhanush in his Bollywood debut, Sonam Kapoor and Abhay Deol. His 2015 movie "" received critical acclaim as well as box office success. His next film was Zero, a romantic drama starring Shah Rukh Khan, Anushka Sharma and Katrina Kaif. The story revolves around a dwarf man. The film, though, described as ambitious in nature, received mixed reviews from critics and audiences.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Christian fundamentalism, also known as fundamental Christianity or fundamentalist Christianity, is a religious movement emphasizing biblical literalism. In its modern form, it began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among British and American Protestants as a reaction to theological liberalism and cultural modernism. Fundamentalists argued that 19th-century modernist theologians had misinterpreted or rejected certain doctrines, especially biblical inerrancy, which they considered the fundamentals of the Christian faith.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Fundamentalists are almost always described as upholding beliefs in biblical infallibility and biblical inerrancy. In keeping with traditional Christian doctrines concerning biblical interpretation, the role of Jesus in the Bible, and the role of the church in society. Fundamentalists usually believe in a core of Christian beliefs, typically called the "Five Fundamentals," this arose from the Presbyterian Church issuance of "The Doctrinal Deliverance of 1910." Topics included are statements on the historical accuracy of the Bible and all of the events which are recorded in it as well as the Second Coming of Jesus Christ.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Fundamentalism manifests itself in various denominations which believe in various theologies, rather than a single denomination or a systematic theology. The ideology became active in the 1910s after the release of "The Fundamentals", a twelve-volume set of essays, apologetic and polemic, written by conservative Protestant theologians in an attempt to defend beliefs which they considered Protestant orthodoxy. The movement became more organized within U.S. Protestant churches in the 1920s, especially among Presbyterians, as well as Baptists and Methodists. Many churches which embraced fundamentalism adopted a militant attitude with regard to their core beliefs. Reformed fundamentalists lay heavy emphasis on historic confessions of faith, such as the Westminster Confession of Faith, as well as uphold Princeton theology. Since 1930, many fundamentalist churches in the Baptist tradition (who generally affirm dispensationalism) have been represented by the Independent Fundamental Churches of America (renamed IFCA International in 1996), while many theologically conservative connexions in the Methodist tradition (who adhere to Wesleyan theology) align with the Interchurch Holiness Convention; in various countries, national bodies such as the American Council of Christian Churches exist to encourage dialogue between fundamentalist bodies of different denominational backgrounds. Other fundamentalist denominations have little contact with other bodies.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: A few scholars label Catholics who reject modern Christian theology in favor of more traditional doctrines as fundamentalists.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The term "fundamentalism" entered the English language in 1922, and it is often capitalized when it is used in reference to the religious movement.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The term "fundamentalist" is controversial in the 21st century, because it connotes religious fanaticism or extremism, especially when such labeling is applied beyond the movement which coined the term and/or those who self-identify as fundamentalists today. Some who hold certain, but not all beliefs in common with the original fundamentalist movement reject the label "fundamentalism", because they consider it too pejorative, while others consider it a banner of pride. Such Christians prefer to use the term "fundamental", as opposed to "fundamentalist" (e.g., Independent Fundamental Baptist and Independent Fundamental Churches of America). The term is sometimes confused with "Christian legalism". In parts of the United Kingdom, using the term fundamentalist with the intent to stir up religious hatred is a violation of the "Racial and Religious Hatred Act" of 2006.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Fundamentalism draws from multiple traditions in British and American theologies during the 19th century. According to authors Robert D. Woodberry and Christian S. Smith,


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: However, the split does not mean that there were just two groups: modernists and fundamentalists. There were also people who considered themselves neo-evangelicals, separating themselves from the extreme components of fundamentalism. These neo-evangelicals also wanted to separate themselves from both the fundamentalist movement and the mainstream evangelical movement due to their anti-intellectual approaches.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: From 1910 until 1915, a series of essays titled "The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth" was published by the Testimony Publishing Company of Chicago.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The Northern Presbyterian Church (now Presbyterian Church in the United States of America) influenced the movement with the definition of the five "fundamentals" in 1910, namely biblical inerrancy, nature divine of Jesus Christ, his virgin birth, resurrection of Christ, and his return.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The Princeton theology, which responded to higher criticism of the Bible by developing from the 1840s to 1920 the doctrine of inerrancy, was another influence in the movement. This doctrine, also called biblical inerrancy, stated that the Bible was divinely inspired, religiously authoritative, and without error. The Princeton Seminary professor of theology Charles Hodge insisted that the Bible was inerrant because God inspired or "breathed" his exact thoughts into the biblical writers (2 Timothy 3:16). Princeton theologians believed that the Bible should be read differently than any other historical document, and they also believed that Christian modernism and liberalism led people to Hell just like non-Christian religions did.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Biblical inerrancy was a particularly significant rallying point for fundamentalists. This approach to the Bible is associated with conservative evangelical hermeneutical approaches to Scripture, ranging from the historical-grammatical method to biblical literalism.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The Dallas Theological Seminary, founded in 1924 in Dallas, will have a considerable influence in the movement by training students who will establish various independent Bible Colleges and fundamentalist churches in the southern United States.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: In the 1930s, fundamentalism was viewed by many as a "last gasp" vestige of something from the past but more recently, scholars have shifted away from that view.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The interpretations given the fundamentalist movement have changed over time, with most older interpretations being based on the concepts of social displacement or cultural lag. Some in the 1930s, including H. Richard Niebuhr, understood the conflict between fundamentalism and modernism to be part of a broader social conflict between the cities and the country. In this view the fundamentalists were country and small-town dwellers who were reacting against the progressivism of city dwellers. Fundamentalism was seen as a form of anti-intellectualism during the 1950s; in the early 1960s American intellectual and historian Richard Hofstadter interpreted it in terms of status anxiety.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Beginning in the late 1960s, the movement began to be seen as "a bona fide religious, theological and even intellectual movement in its own right." Instead of interpreting fundamentalism as a simple anti-intellectualism, Paul Carter argued that "fundamentalists were simply intellectual in a way different than their opponents." Moving into the 1970s, Earnest R. Sandeen saw fundamentalism as arising from the confluence of Princeton theology and millennialism.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: George Marsden defined fundamentalism as "militantly anti-modernist Protestant evangelicalism" in his 1980 work "Fundamentalism and American Culture". "Militant" in this sense does not mean "violent", it means "aggressively active in a cause". Marsden saw fundamentalism arising from a number of preexisting evangelical movements that responded to various perceived threats by joining forces. He argued that Christian fundamentalists were American evangelical Christians who in the 20th century opposed "both modernism in theology and the cultural changes that modernism endorsed. Militant opposition to modernism was what most clearly set off fundamentalism." Others viewing militancy as a core characteristic of the fundamentalist movement include Philip Melling, Ung Kyu Pak and Ronald Witherup. Donald McKim and David Wright (1992) argue that "in the 1920s, militant conservatives (fundamentalists) united to mount a conservative counter-offensive. Fundamentalists sought to rescue their denominations from the growth of modernism at home."


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: According to Marsden, recent scholars differentiate "fundamentalists" from "evangelicals" by arguing the former were more militant and less willing to collaborate with groups considered "modernist" in theology. In the 1940s the more moderate faction of fundamentalists maintained the same theology but began calling themselves "evangelicals" to stress their less militant position. Roger Olson (2007) identifies a more moderate faction of fundamentalists, which he calls "postfundamentalist", and says "most postfundamentalist evangelicals do not wish to be called fundamentalists, even though their basic theological orientation is not very different." According to Olson, a key event was the formation of the National Association of Evangelicals (NAE) in 1942. Barry Hankins (2008) has a similar view, saying "beginning in the 1940s...militant and separatist evangelicals came to be called fundamentalists, while culturally engaged and non-militant evangelicals were supposed to be called evangelicals."


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Timothy Weber views fundamentalism as "a rather distinctive modern reaction to religious, social and intellectual changes of the late 1800s and early 1900s, a reaction that eventually took on a life of its own and changed significantly over time."


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Fundamentalist movements existed in most North American Protestant denominations by 1919 following attacks on modernist theology in Presbyterian and Baptist denominations. Fundamentalism was especially controversial among Presbyterians.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: In Canada, fundamentalism was less prominent, but an early leader was English-born Thomas Todhunter Shields (1873–1955), who led 80 churches out of the Baptist federation in Ontario in 1927 and formed the Union of Regular Baptist Churches of Ontario and Quebec. He was affiliated with the Baptist Bible Union, based in the United States. His newspaper, "The Gospel Witness," reached 30,000 subscribers in 16 countries, giving him an international reputation. He was one of the founders of the international Council of Christian Churches.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Oswald J. Smith (1889–1986), reared in rural Ontario and educated at Moody Church in Chicago, set up The Peoples Church in Toronto in 1928. A dynamic preacher and leader in Canadian fundamentalism, Smith wrote 35 books and engaged in missionary work worldwide. Billy Graham called him "the greatest combination pastor, hymn writer, missionary statesman, an evangelist of our time".


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: A leading organizer of the fundamentalist campaign against modernism in the United States was William Bell Riley, a Northern Baptist based in Minneapolis, where his Northwestern Bible and Missionary Training School (1902), Northwestern Evangelical Seminary (1935), and Northwestern College (1944) produced thousands of graduates. At a large conference in Philadelphia in 1919, Riley founded the World Christian Fundamentals Association (WCFA), which became the chief interdenominational fundamentalist organization in the 1920s. Some mark this conference as the public start of Christian fundamentalism. Although the fundamentalist drive to take control of the major Protestant denominations failed at the national level during the 1920s, the network of churches and missions fostered by Riley showed that the movement was growing in strength, especially in the U.S. South. Both rural and urban in character, the flourishing movement acted as a denominational surrogate and fostered a militant evangelical Christian orthodoxy. Riley was president of WCFA until 1929, after which the WCFA faded in importance. The Independent Fundamental Churches of America became a leading association of independent U.S. fundamentalist churches upon its founding in 1930. The American Council of Christian Churches was founded for fundamental Christian denominations as an alternative to the National Council of Churches.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Much of the enthusiasm for mobilizing fundamentalism came from Protestant seminaries and Protestant "Bible colleges" in the United States. Two leading fundamentalist seminaries were the Dispensationalist Dallas Theological Seminary, founded in 1924 by Lewis Sperry Chafer, and the Reformed Westminster Theological Seminary, formed in 1929 under the leadership and funding of former Princeton Theological Seminary professor J. Gresham Machen. Many Bible colleges were modeled after the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago. Dwight Moody was influential in preaching the imminence of the Kingdom of God that was so important to dispensationalism. Bible colleges prepared ministers who lacked college or seminary experience with intense study of the Bible, often using the "Scofield Reference Bible" of 1909, a King James Version of the Bible with detailed notes which interprets passages from a Dispensational perspective.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Although U.S. fundamentalism began in the North, the movement's largest base of popular support was in the South, especially among Southern Baptists, where individuals (and sometimes entire churches) left the convention and joined other Baptist denominations and movements which they believed were "more conservative" such as the Independent Baptist movement. By the late 1920s the national media had identified it with the South, largely ignoring manifestations elsewhere. In the mid-twentieth century, several Methodists left the mainline Methodist Church and established fundamental Methodist denominations, such as the Evangelical Methodist Church and the Fundamental Methodist Conference (cf. "conservative holiness movement"); others preferred congregating in Independent Methodist churches, many of which are affiliated with the Association of Independent Methodists, which is fundamentalist in its theological orientation. By the 1970s Protestant fundamentalism was deeply entrenched and concentrated in the U.S. South. In 1972–1980 General Social Surveys, 65 percent of respondents from the "East South Central" region (comprising Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Alabama) self-identified as fundamentalist. The share of fundamentalists was at or near 50 percent in "West South Central" (Texas to Arkansas) and "South Atlantic" (Florida to Maryland), and at 25 percent or below elsewhere in the country, with the low of nine percent in New England. The pattern persisted into the 21st century; in 2006–2010 surveys, the average share of fundamentalists in the East South Central Region stood at 58 percent, while, in New England, it climbed slightly to 13 percent.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: In the 1920s, Christian fundamentalists "differed on how to understand the account of creation in Genesis" but they "agreed that God was the author of creation and that humans were distinct creatures, separate from animals, and made in the image of God". While some of them advocated the belief in Old Earth creationism and a few of them even advocated the belief in evolutionary creation, other "strident fundamentalists" advocated Young Earth Creationism and "associated evolution with last-days atheism". These "strident fundamentalists" in the 1920s devoted themselves to fighting against the teaching of evolution in the nation's schools and colleges, especially by passing state laws that affected public schools. William Bell Riley took the initiative in the 1925 Scopes Trial by bringing in famed politician William Jennings Bryan and hiring him to serve as an assistant to the local prosecutor, who helped draw national media attention to the trial. In the half century after the Scopes Trial, fundamentalists had little success in shaping government policy, and they were generally defeated in their efforts to reshape the mainline denominations, which refused to join fundamentalist attacks on evolution. Particularly after the Scopes Trial, liberals saw a division between Christians in favor of the teaching of evolution, whom they viewed as educated and tolerant, and Christians against evolution, whom they viewed as narrow-minded, tribal, obscurantist.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Edwards (2000), however, challenges the consensus view among scholars that in the wake of the Scopes trial, fundamentalism retreated into the political and cultural background, a viewpoint which is evidenced in the movie "Inherit the Wind" and the majority of contemporary historical accounts. Rather, he argues, the cause of fundamentalism's retreat was the death of its leader, Bryan. Most fundamentalists saw the trial as a victory rather than a defeat, but Bryan's death soon afterward created a leadership void that no other fundamentalist leader could fill. Unlike the other fundamentalist leaders, Bryan brought name recognition, respectability, and the ability to forge a broad-based coalition of fundamentalist religious groups to argue in favor of the anti-evolutionist position.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Gatewood (1969) analyzes the transition from the anti-evolution crusade of the 1920s to the creation science movement of the 1960s. Despite some similarities between these two causes, the creation science movement represented a shift from religious to pseudoscientific objections to Darwin's theory. Creation science also differed in terms of popular leadership, rhetorical tone, and sectional focus. It lacked a prestigious leader like Bryan, utilized pseudoscientific argument rather than religious rhetoric, and was a product of California and Michigan rather than the South.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Webb (1991) traces the political and legal struggles between strict creationists and Darwinists to influence the extent to which evolution would be taught as science in Arizona and California schools. After Scopes was convicted, creationists throughout the United States sought similar anti-evolution laws for their states. These included Reverends R. S. Beal and Aubrey L. Moore in Arizona and members of the Creation Research Society in California, all supported by distinguished laymen. They sought to ban evolution as a topic for study, or at least relegate it to the status of unproven theory perhaps taught alongside the biblical version of creation. Educators, scientists, and other distinguished laymen favored evolution. This struggle occurred later in the Southwest than in other US areas and persisted through the Sputnik era.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: In recent times, the courts have heard cases on whether or not the Book of Genesis's creation account should be taught in science classrooms alongside evolution, most notably in the 2005 federal court case "Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District". Creationism was presented under the banner of intelligent design, with the book "Of Pandas and People" being its textbook. The trial ended with the judge deciding that teaching intelligent design in a science class was unconstitutional as it was a religious belief and not science.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The original fundamentalist movement divided along clearly defined lines within conservative evangelical Protestantism as issues progressed. Many groupings, large and small, were produced by this schism. Neo-evangelicalism, the Heritage movement, and Paleo-Orthodoxy have all developed distinct identities, but none of them acknowledge any more than an historical overlap with the fundamentalist movement, and the term is seldom used of them. The broader term "evangelical" includes fundamentalists as well as people with similar or identical religious beliefs who do not engage the outside challenge to the Bible as actively.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The latter half of the twentieth century witnessed a surge of interest in organized political activism by U.S. fundamentalists. Dispensational fundamentalists viewed the 1948 establishment of the state of Israel as an important sign of the fulfillment of biblical prophecy, and support for Israel became the centerpiece of their approach to U.S. foreign policy. United States Supreme Court decisions also ignited fundamentalists' interest in organized politics, particularly "Engel v. Vitale" in 1962, which prohibited state-sanctioned prayer in public schools, and "Abington School District v. Schempp" in 1963, which prohibited mandatory Bible reading in public schools. By the time Ronald Reagan ran for the presidency in 1980, fundamentalist preachers, like the prohibitionist ministers of the early 20th century, were organizing their congregations to vote for supportive candidates.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Leaders of the newly political fundamentalism included Rob Grant and Jerry Falwell. Beginning with Grant's American Christian Cause in 1974, Christian Voice throughout the 1970s and Falwell's Moral Majority in the 1980s, the Christian Right began to have a major impact on American politics. In the 1980s and 1990s, the Christian Right was influencing elections and policy with groups such as the Family Research Council (founded 1981 by James Dobson) and the Christian Coalition (formed in 1989 by Pat Robertson) helping conservative politicians, especially Republicans, to win state and national elections.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: In Australia, there are a few examples of the more extreme, American-style fundamentalist cult-like forms of Pentecostalism. The counter marginal trend, represented most notably by the Logos Foundation led by Howard Carter in Toowoomba, Queensland, and later by "manifest glory" movements can be found in congregations such as the Range Christian Fellowship.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The "Logos Foundation", an influential and controversial Christian ministry, flourished in Australia in the 1970s and 1980s under the leadership of Howard Carter, originally a Baptist pastor from Auckland in New Zealand. Logos Foundation was initially a trans-denominational charismatic teaching ministry; its members were primarily Protestant but it also had some ties with Roman Catholic lay-groups and individuals.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Paul Collins established the Logos Foundation in New Zealand as a trans-denominational teaching ministry which served the Charismatic Renewal by publishing the "Logos" Magazine. Paul Collins moved it to Sydney in Australia, where it also facilitated large trans-denominational renewal conferences in venues such as Sydney Town Hall and the Wentworth Hotel. It was transferred to Howard Carter's leadership, relocating to Hazelbrook in the lower Blue Mountains of New South Wales, where it operated for a few years, and in the mid-1970s, it was transferred to Blackheath in the upper Blue Mountains. During these years the teaching ministry attracted like-minded fellowships and home groups into a loose association with it.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Publishing became a significant operation, distributing charismatic-themed and Restorationist teachings focused on Christian maturity and Christ's pre-eminence in short books and the monthly "Logos/Restore Magazine" (associated with "New Wine Magazine" in the United States). It held annual week-long conferences of over 1,000 registrants, featuring international charismatic speakers, including Derek Prince, Ern Baxter, Don Basham, Charles Simpson, Bob Mumford, Kevin Conner (Australia), Peter Morrow (New Zealand) and others.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: A Bible college was also established nearby at Westwood Lodge, Mount Victoria. At the main site in Blackheath, a Christian K-12 school, Mountains Christian Academy was established which became a forerunner of more widespread Christian independent schools and home-schooling as a hallmark of the movement. It carried over the Old Covenant practice of tithing (to the local church), and expected regular sacrificial giving beyond this.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Theologically the Logos Foundation taught orthodox Christian core beliefs – however, in matters of opinion Logos teaching was presented as authoritative, and alternative views were discouraged. Those who questioned this teaching eventually tended to leave the movement. Over time, a strong cult-like culture of group conformity developed and those who dared to question it were quickly brought into line by other members who gave automated responses which were shrouded in spiritualised expressions. In some instances the leadership enforced unquestioning compliance by engaging in bullying-type behavior. The group viewed itself as being separate from "the world" and it even regarded alternative views and other expressions, denominations or interpretations of Christianity with distrust at worst but considered most of them false at best.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: From the mid-1970s a hierarchical ecclesiology was adopted in the form of the Shepherding Movement's whole-of-life discipleship of members by personal pastors (usually their "cell group" leaders), who in turn were also accountable to their personal pastors. Followers were informed that even their leader, Howard Carter, related as a disciple to the apostolic group in Christian Growth Ministries of Bob Mumford, Charles Simpson, Ern Baxter, Derek Prince, and Don Basham, in Ft Lauderdale, US (whose network was estimated to have approx. 150,000 people involved at its peak ). Howard Carter's primary pastoral relationship was with Ern Baxter, a pioneer of the Healing Revival of the 1950s and of the Charismatic Renewal of the 1960s, 70s, and 80s. Written covenants of submission to the individual church pastors were encouraged for the members of one representative church, Christian Faith Centre (Sydney), and were said to be common practice throughout the movement at the time.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: In 1980 the Logos movement churches adopted the name "Australian Fellowship of Covenant Communities" (AFoCC), and were led through an eschatological shift in the early 1980s from the pre-millennialism of many Pentecostals (described as a theology of defeat), to the post-millennialism of the Presbyterian Reconstructionist theonomists (described as a theology of victory). A shift to an overt theological-political paradigm resulted in some senior leadership, including Pastor David Jackson of Christian Faith Centre Sydney, leaving the movement altogether. In the mid-1980s AFoCC re-branded yet again as the "Covenant Evangelical Church" (not associated with the Evangelical Covenant Church in the US). The Logos Foundation brand-name continued as the educational, commercial and political arm of the Covenant Evangelical Church.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The group moved for the final time in 1986 to Toowoomba in Queensland where there were already associated fellowships and a demographic environment highly conducive to the growth of extreme right-wing religio-political movements. This fertile ground saw the movement peak in a short time, reaching a local support base of upwards of 2000 people.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The move to Toowoomba involved much preparation, including members selling homes and other assets in New South Wales and the Logos Foundation acquiring many homes, businesses and commercial properties in Toowoomba and the Darling Downs.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: In the process of relocating the organization and most of its members, he Covenant Evangelical Church absorbed a number of other small Christian churches in Toowoomba. Some of these were house churches/groups more or less affiliated with Carter's other organizations. Carter and some of his followers attempted to make links with Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen (in office 1968–1987), a known Christian conservative, in order to further their goals.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Carter continued to lead the shift in eschatology to post-millennialism and prominently religio-political in nature. More of his leadership team left the movement as Carter's style became more authoritarian and cultish. Colin Shaw, who was a key member at this time, believed that Pastor Howard Carter was an "anointed man of God", and Shaw later became the "right-hand" man of Carter in his "outreach and missionary works" in Quezon City in the Philippines. Logos used a Filipino church, the Christian Renewal Center (a moderate Pentecostal/Charismatic church) as their base to advance and promote the teachings of the Shepherding Movement. With local assistance in the Philippines, Colin Shaw coordinated and sponsored (under the Christian Renewal Centre's name) conferences featuring Carter. Many poorly-educated and sincere Filipino pastors and locals, usually from small churches, were convinced to support the wider Logos movement with tithes that were collected from their limited funds. However, soon after the revelations of Howard Carter's scandalous immorality and corrupt lifestyle broke, the Filipino wing of Logos dissolved and its former members dispersed back into established local churches. Colin Shaw was said to have abandoned the Shepherding Movement at this time and for a time after that, he engaged in soul-searching and self-exile, fueled by severe guilt over the way the Filipino Christians were manipulated.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: In 1989 Logos controversially involved itself in the Queensland state election, running a campaign of surveys and full-page newspaper advertisements promoting the line that candidates' adherence to Christian principles and biblical ethics was more important than the widespread corruption in the Queensland government that had been revealed by the Fitzgerald Inquiry. Published advertisements in the Brisbane newspaper "The Courier-Mail" at the time promoted strongly conservative positions in opposition to pornography, homosexuality, abortion and a return to the death penalty. Some supporters controversially advocated Old Testament laws and penalties. This action backfired sensationally, with many mainstream churches, community leaders and religious organizations distancing themselves from the Logos Foundation after making public statements denouncing it. At times the death penalty for homosexuals was advocated, in accordance with Old Testament Law. "The Sydney Morning Herald" later described part of this campaign when the Logos Foundation campaigned: "Homosexuality and censorship should determine your vote, the electorate was told; corruption was not the major concern." The same article quoted Carter from a letter he had written to supporters at the time, "The greenies, the gays and the greedy are marching. Now the Christians, the conservatives and the concerned must march also." These views were not new. An earlier article published in the "Herald" quoted a Logos spokesman in reference to the call for the death penalty for homosexuals in order to rid Queensland of such people, who stated "the fact a law is on the statutes is the best safeguard for society".


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Although similar behaviors had existed previously, these last years in Queensland saw Logos Foundation increasingly developing cult-like tendencies. This authoritarian environment degenerated into a perverse and unbiblical abuse of power. Obedience and unhealthy submission to human leaders was cult-like in many ways and the concept of submission for the purpose of "spiritual covering" became a dominant theme in Logos Foundation teaching. The idea of spiritual covering soon degenerated into a system of overt abuse of power and excessive control of people's lives. This occurred despite growing opposition to the Shepherding movement from respected Evangelical and Pentecostal leaders in the United States, beginning as early as 1975. However, in Australia, through the Logos Foundation and Covenant Evangelical Church, this movement flourished beyond the time when it had effectively entered a period of decline in North America. Carter effectively quarantined followers in Australia from the truth of what had begun to play out in the U.S.A.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The movement had ties to a number of other groups including World MAP (Ralph Mahoney), California; Christian Growth Ministries, Fort Lauderdale; and Rousas Rushdoony, the father of Christian Reconstructionism in the United States. Activities included printing, publishing, conferencing, home-schooling and ministry-training. Logos Foundation (Australia) and these other organizations at times issued theological qualifications and other apparently academic degrees, master's degrees and doctorates following no formal process of study or recognized rigor, often under a range of dubious names that included the word "University". In 1987 Carter conferred on himself a Master of Arts degree which was apparently issued by the "Pacific College Theological", an institution whose existence investigating journalists have failed to verify. Carter frequently gifted such "qualifications" to visiting preachers from the United States - including a PhD purportedly issued by the "University of Oceania Sancto Spiritus'. The recipient thereafter used the title of "Doctor" in his itinerant preaching and revival ministry throughout North America.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The Shepherding Movement worldwide descended into a cult-like movement characterized by manipulative relationships, abuse of power and dubious financial arrangements. It had been an attempt by mostly sincere people to free Christianity of the entrenched reductions of traditional and consumerist religion. However, with its emphasis on authority and submissive accountability, the movement was open to abuse. This, combined with spiritual hunger, an early measure of success and growth, mixed motives, and the inexperience of new leaders all coalesced to form a dangerous and volatile mix. Howard Carter played these factors skillfully to entrench his own position.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The Logos Foundation and Covenant Evangelical Church did not long survive the scandal of Howard Carter's standing down and public exposure of adultery in 1990. Hey (2010) has stated in his thesis: "Suggested reasons for Carter's failure have included insecurity, an inability to open up to others, arrogance and over confidence in his own ability". As with many modern evangelists and mega-church leaders, followers within the movement placed him on a pedestal. This environment where the leader was not subject to true accountability allowed his deception and double life to flourish unknown for many years. In the years immediately prior to this scandal, those who dared to question were quickly derided by other members or even disciplined, thus reinforcing a very unhealthy environment. When the scandal of Carter's immorality was revealed, full details of the lavish lifestyle to which he had become accustomed were also exposed. Carter's frequent travel to North America was lavish and extravagant, utilizing first-class flights and five-star hotels. The full financial affairs of the organization prior to the collapse were highly secretive. Most members had been unaware of how vast sums of money involved in the whole operation were channeled, nor were they aware of how the leaders' access to these funds was managed.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: A significant number of quite senior ex-Logos members found acceptance in the now-defunct Rangeville Uniting Church. The congregation of the Rangeville Uniting Church left the Uniting Church to become an independent congregation known as the Rangeville Community Church. Prior to the Rangeville Uniting Church closing, an earlier split resulted in a significant percentage of the total congregation contributing to the formation of the Range Christian Fellowship in Blake Street in Toowoomba.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The Range Christian Fellowship in Blake Street, Toowoomba, has a reputation for exuberant worship services and the public manifestation of charismatic phenomena and manifestations that place it well outside of mainstream Pentecostal church expression. It is possibly one of the prime Australian examples of churches which are associated with the New Apostolic Reformation, a fundamentalist Pentecostal religious right wing movement which American journalist Forrest Wilder has described as follows: "Their beliefs can tend toward the bizarre. Some prophets even claim to have seen demons at public meetings. They've taken biblical literalism to an extreme". It operates in a converted squash-centre and was established on 9 November 1997 as a group which broke away from the Rangeville Uniting Church in Toowoomba over disagreements with the national leadership of the Uniting Church in Australia. These disagreements predominantly related to the ordination of homosexual people into ministry. The Range Christian Fellowship's diverse origins resulted in a divergent mix of worship preferences, expectations and issues. The church initially met in a Seventh-day Adventist Church hall before purchasing the property in Blake Street, leaving the congregation heavily indebted, often close to bankruptcy, and with a high turnover of congregants. The congregation attributes their continued avoidance of financial collapse to God's blessing and regards this as a miracle.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Whilst adhering to Protestant beliefs, the church supplements these beliefs with influences from the New Apostolic Reformation, revivalism, Dominion theology, Kingdom Now theology, Spiritual Warfare Christianity and Five-fold ministry thinking. Scripture is interpreted literally, though selectively. Unusual manifestations attributed to the Holy Spirit or the presence of "the anointing" include women (and at times even men) moaning and retching as though experiencing child birth, with some claiming to be having actual contractions of the womb (known as "spiritual birthing"). Dramatic and apocalyptic predictions regarding the future were particularly evident during the time leading up to Y2K, when a number of prophecies were publicly shared, all of which were proven false by subsequent events. Attendees are given a high degree of freedom, influenced in the church's initial years by the promotion of Jim Rutz's publication, "The Open Church", resulting in broad tolerance of expressions of revelation, a "word from the Lord" or prophecy.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: At times, people within the fellowship claim to have seen visions - in dreams, whilst in a trance-like state during worship, or during moments of religious ecstasy - with these experiences frequently conveying a revelation or prophecy. Other occurrences have included people claiming to have been in an altered state of consciousness (referred to as "resting in the Lord" and "slain in the spirit" - among other names), characterized by reduced external awareness and expanded interior mental and spiritual awareness, often accompanied by visions and emotional (and sometimes physical) euphoria. The church has hosted visits from various Christian leaders who claim to be modern-day Apostles as well as from many others who claim to be prophets or faith healers. Perhaps surprisingly, speaking in tongues, which is common in other Pentecostal churches, also occurs but it is not frequent nor is it promoted; and it is rarely witnessed in public gatherings. Neo-charismatic elements are rejected elsewhere in classical Pentecostalism, such as the Prayer of Jabez, prosperity theology, the Toronto Blessing (with its emphasis on strange, non-verbal expressions), George Otis' Spiritual Warfare, the Brownsville Revival (Pensacola Outpouring), Morningstar Ministries, the Lakeland Revival, and the Vineyard group of churches, have been influential. The church has always been known for its vibrant and occasionally euphoric and ecstatic worship services, services featuring music, song, dancing, flags and banners. Range Christian Fellowship is part of the church unity movement in Toowoomba, with other like-minded churches (mainstream traditional denominations have a separate ecumenical group). This group, known as the Christian Leaders' Network, aspires to be a Christian right-wing influence group within the city, at the centre of a hoped-for great revival during which they will "take the city for the Lord". The Range Christian Fellowship has wholeheartedly thrown itself into citywide events that are viewed as a foundation for stimulating revival, which have included Easterfest, "Christmas the Full Story", and continuous 24-hour worship-events.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: The church retains an impressive resilience which it has inherited from its Uniting Church, which has seen it weather difficult times. Its beliefs and actions, which place it on the fringes of both mainstream and Pentecostal Christianity, are largely confined to its Sunday gatherings and gatherings which are privately held in the homes of its members. Criticism of the church is regarded as a badge of honor by some of its members, because they view it in terms of the expected persecution of the holy remnant of the true church in the last days. The church continues to be drawn to, and to associate itself with fringe Pentecostal and fundamentalist movements, particularly those which originated in North America, most recently with Doug Addison's.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Addison has become known for delivering prophecies through dreams and unconventionally through people's body tattoos, and he mixes highly fundamentalist Christianity with elements of psychic spirituality.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Fundamental Methodism includes several connexions, such as the Evangelical Methodist Church and Fundamental Methodist Conference. Additionally, Methodist connexions in the conservative holiness movement herald the beliefs of "separation from the world, from false doctrines, from other ecclesiastical connections" as well as place heavy emphasis on practicing holiness standards.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: In nondenominational Christianity of the evangelical variety, the word "biblical" or "independent" often appears in the name of the church or denomination. The independence of the church is claimed and affiliation with a Christian denomination is infrequent, although there are fundamentalist denominations.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Reformed fundamentalism includes those denominations in the Reformed tradition (which includes the Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, Reformed Anglican and Reformed Baptist Churches) who adhere to the doctrine of biblical infallibility and lay heavy emphasis on historic confessions of faith, such as the Westminster Confession.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Examples of Reformed fundamentalist denominations include the Orthodox Presbyterian Church and the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster.


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Fundamentalists' literal interpretation of the Bible has been criticized by practitioners of biblical criticism for failing to take into account the circumstances in which the Christian Bible was written. Critics claim that this "literal interpretation" is not in keeping with the message which the scripture intended to convey when it was written, and it also uses the Bible for political purposes by presenting God "more as a God of judgement and punishment than as a God of love and mercy".


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Christian fundamentalism has also been linked to child abuse and mental illness as well as to corporal punishment, with most practitioners believing that the Bible requires them to spank their children. Artists have addressed the issues of Christian fundamentalism, with one providing a slogan "America's Premier Child Abuse Brand".


title: Christian fundamentalism

text: Fundamentalists have attempted and continue to attempt to teach intelligent design, a hypothesis with creationism as its base, in lieu of evolution in public schools. This has resulted in legal challenges such as the federal case of "Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District" which resulted in the United States District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania ruling the teaching of intelligent design to be unconstitutional due to its religious roots.


title: West Francia

text: In medieval history, West Francia (Medieval Latin: ) or the Kingdom of the West Franks () refers to the western part of the Frankish Empire established by Charlemagne. It represents the earliest stage of the Kingdom of France, lasting from about 840 until 987. West Francia emerged from the partition of the Carolingian Empire in 843 under the Treaty of Verdun following the death of Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious. It is considered the first polity in French history.


title: West Francia

text: West Francia extended further north and south than modern France, but it did not extend as far east. It did not include such future French holdings as Lorraine, the County and Kingdom of Burgundy (the duchy was already a part of West Francia), Alsace and Provence in the east and southeast for example. It also did not include the Brittany peninsula in the west. In addition, by the 10th century the authority of the West Frankish monarchs was greatly reduced. This was contrasted by the evergrowing power of their vassals over their large and usually territorially contiguous fiefs.


title: West Francia

text: The power vacuum left by a weak royal authority meant wars between fiefs were rampant, and so were conflicts between the vassals and the Frankish monarchs themselves. The period was also marked by endless Viking raids on the kingdom and clashes between the West Franks and the Norsemen. This eventually led to the establishment of the Duchy of Normandy, which was granted to the Norseman Rollo and his men following their unsuccessful siege at Chartres in 911 in exchange for an oath of fealty to King Charles the Simple. The fiefdom of Normandy was first a county then a duchy, and like other great fiefs of West Francia became largely autonomous, with magnates even more powerful than their monarch.


title: West Francia

text: In Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the West Frankish king was barely felt. West Frankish kings were elected by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, and for the half-century between 888 and 936 candidates from the Carolingian and Robertian houses were alternately chosen as monarchs. By this time the power of king became weaker and more nominal, as the regional dukes and nobles became more powerful in their semi-independent regions. The Robertians, after becoming counts of Paris and dukes of France, became kings themselves and established the Capetian dynasty after 987, which is, although arbitrary, generally defined as the gradual transition towards the Kingdom of France.


title: West Francia

text: In August 843, after three years of civil war following the death of Louis the Pious on 20 June 840, the Treaty of Verdun was signed by his three sons and heirs. The youngest, Charles the Bald, received western Francia. The contemporary West Frankish "Annales Bertiniani" describes Charles arriving at Verdun, "where the distribution of portions" took place. After describing the portions of his brothers, Lothair the Emperor (Middle Francia) and Louis the German (East Francia), he notes that "the rest as far as Spain they ceded to Charles". The "Annales Fuldenses" of East Francia describe Charles as holding the western part after the kingdom was "divided in three".


title: West Francia

text: Since the death of King Pippin I of Aquitaine in December 838, his son had been recognised by the Aquitainian nobility as King Pippin II of Aquitaine, although the succession had not been recognised by the emperor. Charles the Bald was at war with Pippin II from the start of his reign in 840, and the Treaty of Verdun ignored the claimant and assigned Aquitaine to Charles. Accordingly, in June 845, after several military defeats, Charles signed the Treaty of Benoît-sur-Loire and recognised his nephew's rule. This agreement lasted until 25 March 848, when the Aquitainian barons recognised Charles as their king. Thereafter Charles's armies had the upper hand, and by 849 had secured most of Aquitaine. In May, Charles had himself crowned "King of the Franks and Aquitainians" in Orléans. Archbishop Wenilo of Sens officiated at the coronation, which included the first instance of royal unction in West Francia. The idea of anointing Charles may be owed to Archbishop Hincmar of Reims, who composed no less than four "ordines" describing appropriate liturgies for a royal consecration. By the time of the Synod of Quierzy (858), Hincmar was claiming that Charles was anointed to the entire West Frankish kingdom. With the Treaty of Mersen in 870 the western part of Lotharingia was added to West Francia. In 875 Charles the Bald was crowned Emperor of Rome.


title: West Francia

text: The last record in the "Annales Bertiniani" dates to 882, and so the only contemporary narrative source for the next eighteen years in West Francia is the "Annales Vedastini". The next set of original annals from the West Frankish kingdom are those of Flodoard, who began his account with the year 919.


title: West Francia

text: After the death of Charles's grandson, Carloman II, on 12 December 884, the West Frankish nobles elected his uncle, Charles the Fat, already king in East Francia and Kingdom of Italy, as their king. He was probably crowned "King in Gaul" ("rex in Gallia") on 20 May 885 at Grand. His reign was the only time after the death of Louis the Pious that all of Francia would be re-united under one ruler. In his capacity as king of West Francia, he seems to have granted the royal title and perhaps regalia to the semi-independent ruler of Brittany, Alan I. His handling of the Viking siege of Paris in 885–86 greatly reduced his prestige. In November 887 his nephew, Arnulf of Carinthia revolted and assumed the title as King of the East Franks. Charles retired and soon died on 13 January 888.


title: West Francia

text: In Aquitaine, Duke Ranulf II may have had himself recognised as king, but he only lived another two years. Although Aquitaine did not become a separate kingdom, it was largely outside the control of the West Frankish kings.


title: West Francia

text: Odo, Count of Paris was then elected by nobles as the new king of West Francia, and was crowned the next month. At this point, West Francia was composed of Neustria in the west and in the east by Francia proper, the region between the Meuse and the Seine.


title: West Francia

text: After the 860s, Lotharingian noble Robert the Strong became increasingly powerful as count of Anjou, Touraine and Maine. Robert's brother Hugh, abbot of Saint-Denis, was given control over Austrasia by Charles the Bald. Robert's son Odo was elected king in 888. Odo's brother Robert I ruled between 922 and 923 and was followed by Rudolph from 923 until 936. Hugh the Great, son of Robert I, was elevated to the title "duke of the Franks" by king Louis IV. In 987 his son Hugh Capet was elected king and the Capetian dynasty began. At this point they controlled very little beyond the Île-de-France.


title: West Francia

text: Outside the old Frankish territories and in the south local nobles were semi-independent after 887 as duchies were created: Burgundy, Aquitaine, Brittany, Gascony, Normandy, Champagne and the County of Flanders.


title: West Francia

text: The power of the kings continued to decline, together with their inability to resist the Vikings and to oppose the rise of regional nobles who were no longer appointed by the king but became hereditary local dukes. In 877 Boso of Provence, brother-in-law of Charles the Bald, crowned himself as the king of Burgundy and Provence. His son Louis the Blind was king of Provence from 890 and Emperor between 901 and 905. Rudolph II of Burgundy established the Kingdom of Burgundy in 933.


title: West Francia

text: After the death of East Francia's last Carolingian king Louis the Child, Lotharingia switched allegiance to the king of West Francia, Charles the Simple. After 911 the Duchy of Swabia extended westwards and added lands of Alsace. Baldwin II of Flanders became increasingly powerful after the Odo's death in 898, gaining Boulogne and Ternois from Charles. The territory over which the king exercised actual control shrank considerably, and was reduced to lands between Normandy and river Loire. The royal court usually stayed in Rheims or Laon.


title: West Francia

text: Norsemen began settling in Normandy, and from 919 Magyars invaded repeatedly. In the absence of strong royal power, invaders were engaged and defeated by local nobles, like Richard of Burgundy and Robert of Neustria, who defeated Viking leader Rollo in 911 at Chartres. The Norman threat was eventually ended, with the last Danegeld paid in 924 and 926. Both nobles became increasingly opposed to Charles, and in 922 deposed him and elected Robert I as the new king. After Robert's death in 923 nobles elected Rudolf as king, and kept Charles imprisoned until his death in 929. After the rule of king Charles the Simple, local dukes began issuing their own currency.


title: West Francia

text: King Rudolf was supported by his brother Hugh the Black and son of Robert I, Hugh the Great. Dukes of Normandy refused to recognise Rudolf until 933. The King also had to move with his army against the southern nobles to receive their homage and loyalty, however, the count of Barcelona managed to avoid this completely.


title: West Francia

text: After 925 Rudolf was involved in a war against the rebellious Herbert II, Count of Vermandois, who received support from kings Henry the Fowler and Otto I of East Francia. His rebellion continued until his death in 943.


title: West Francia

text: King Louis IV and Duke Hugh the Great were married to sisters of East Frankish king Otto I who after the deaths of their husbands managed Carolingian and Robertine rule together with their brother Bruno the Great, archbishop of Cologne, as regent.


title: West Francia

text: After further victories by Herbert II, Louis was rescued only with the help of the large nobles and Otto I. In 942 Louis gave up Lotharingia to Otto I.


title: West Francia

text: Succession conflict in Normandy led to a new war in which Louis was betrayed by Hugh the Great and captured by Danish prince Harald who eventually released him to the custody of Hugh, who freed the king only after receiving town of Laon as a compensation.


title: West Francia

text: The 13-year old Lothair of France inherited all the lands of his father in 954. By this time they were so small that the Carolingian practice of dividing lands among the sons was not followed and his brother Charles received nothing. In 966 Lothair married Emma, stepdaughter of his maternal uncle Otto I. Despite this, in August 978 Lothair attacked the old imperial capital Aachen. Otto II retaliated by attacking Paris, but was defeated by the combined forces of king Lothar and nobles and peace was signed in 980, ending the brief Franco-German war.


title: West Francia

text: Lothar managed to increase his power, but this was reversed with the coming of age of Hugh Capet, who began forming new alliances of nobles and eventually was elected as king in 987 after Lothair and his son and successor Louis V of France had both died prematurely, traditionally marking the end of the French branch of Carolingian dynasty as well as the end of West Francia as a kingdom. Hugh Capet would be the first ruler of a new royal house, the House of Capet, who would rule France through the High Middle Ages.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: The marriage age in the United States is the minimum age at which a person can marry in the United States as a right, or with parental consent or other authorization. This age is set by each state and territory, either by statute or where the common law applies. The general marriage age (lacking authorization for an exception) is 18 years of age in all states except Nebraska, where the general marriage age is 19, and Mississippi, where the general marriage age is 21. The general marriage age is commonly the age of majority, though in Alabama the general marriage age is 18 while the age of majority is 19.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In recent years, the trend has been to adjust the general marriage age downward and to raise the age for women to that of men. Until 1971, approximately 80% of states had a general marriage age of 18 for women, while for men the general marriage age was 21 in approximately 85% of states.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: When at least one of the marriage partners is under the general marriage age, the marriage is considered underage. Seven states completely ban underage marriage: Delaware, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. The other states may require the underage partner to obtain either parental consent, judicial authorization, or both, or rely on "exceptional circumstances". The minimum underage marriage age, when all mitigating circumstances are taken into account, commonly ranges from 15 to 17. Nine states do not allow a person over 21 to marry an underage person. As of November 2022, eight states do not set any minimum age for marriage.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In many states, a minor's marriage automatically emancipates the minor, or increases their legal rights beyond allowing the minor to consent to certain medical treatments.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: The minimum marriage age was 12 years for females and 14 years for males under English civil law until 1753. By default, these provisions became the minimum marriage ages in colonial America. The English Marriage Act 1753 required a marriage to be covered by a license (requiring parental consent for those under 21) or the publication of banns (which parents of those under 21 could forbid). Additionally, the Church of England dictated that both the bride and groom must be at least 21 years of age to marry without the consent of their families. English common law inherited from England remained in force in the United States unless and until a specific state enacted a law to replace or modify it.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In 1275, in England, as part of the rape law, the Statute of Westminster 1275, it was a misdemeanor to "ravish" a "maiden within age", whether with or without her consent. The phrase "within age" was interpreted by jurist Sir Edward Coke to mean the age of marriage, which at the time was 12 years. A 1576 law imposed more severe punishments for ravishing a girl for which the age of consent was set at 10 years. Jurist Sir Matthew Hale stated that both rape laws were valid at the same time. Under English common law the age of consent, apart of the law of rape, was 10 or 12 years and rape was defined as forceful sexual intercourse with a woman against her will. To convict a man of rape, both force and lack of consent had to be proven, except in the case of a girl who was under the age of consent. Since the age of consent applied in all circumstances, not just in physical assaults, the law also made it impossible for a girl under 12 years to consent to sexual activity. There was one exception: a man's acts with his wife (females over 12 years), to which rape law did not apply.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: English common law applied in each the United States jurisdiction unless and until a state statute replaced or modified it. In the United States, especially in recent years, the general marriage age has been revised downward so that they are now between 18 and 21 years of age.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: There are three sets of marriage ages: 1) general marriage age, 2) the minimum marriage age set by statute and 3) minimum marriage age set by the common law. There are three sets of laws specifying minimum age requirements for marriage: 1) the minimum age with parental "and" judicial or court consent, 2) the minimum age with parental consent, and 3) the minimum age without parental consent.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: There is little variation over time or across states in the laws without parental consent. Prior to 1971, approximately 80% of states specified an age of 18 for marriage without parental consent for women, and approximately 85% specified an age of 21 for men.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In states without a legislated minimum, common law (which specifies a minimum of 12 years old for females and 14 years old for males) prevails; the estimated effect of a common law is similar to a legislated minimum of 13 or less.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In California, the governing law is found in California Family Code sections 302 and 304 (2019): "An unmarried person under 18 years of age may be issued a marriage license upon obtaining a court order granting permission to the underage person or persons to marry, in accordance with the requirements described in Section 304." Historically, Section 56 of the California Civil Code (1872) fixed 15 as the age at which a female could marry without parental consent. In 1921, the age was raised to 18.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In Delaware, the age of consent was 10 years until 1871 when it was lowered to 7 years. Under the 1871 law, the penalty for sex with a girl below the age of consent was death.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In 1880, 37 states set the age of consent at 10 years, 10 states set an age of consent at 12 years, and Delaware had an age of consent of 7 years.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In California, early statutes forbade sexual intercourse with females under the age of 10, following the English statute of 1576. In 1889, the California statute was amended to raise the age to 14 years and the age was raised to 16 in 1897.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In the late-19th century, a "social purity movement" composed of Christian feminist reform groups began advocating a raise in the age of consent to 16, with the goal of raising it ultimately to 18. By 1920, 26 states had an age of consent of 16, 21 states had an age of consent of 18, and one state (Georgia) had an age of consent of 14.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: Alaska became the 49th state in 1959, with the age of consent being 16 years. Hawaii became the 50th state in 1959, with the age of consent being 14 years.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: Georgia raised its age of consent from 14 to 16 in 1995 as did Hawaii in 2001. Colorado lowered its age of consent to 15 in 1971, after it lowered the age of majority from 21 to 18 years.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: As of August 1, 2018, the age of consent in each state in the United States was either 16 years, 17 years, or 18 years.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: When at least one of the marriage partners is under the general marriage age, the marriage is considered underage and may require parental consent and/or judicial authorization. Also, adolescents can marry in "exceptional circumstances”.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: Delaware, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Rhode Island, New York, and New Jersey do not allow underage marriage. The other states allow an underage person to marry in the following circumstances:


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In 6 states, a person who is 21 years old cannot marry a person under 18 years old: Missouri, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Louisiana, Nevada. In one state, Florida, a person who is 20 cannot marry a person under 18 years old. In 3 states – Georgia, Tennessee and Ohio – a person who is 22 cannot marry a person under 18 years old. Indiana is nearly the same, although a person who is 21 can marry a person who is 17 years old.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: From 2017 to 2022, several states changed their law to set a minimum age, or to raise their minimum age.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: In Massachusetts, the minimum marriage age is 18. Prior to July 29, 2022, adolescents could be married with judicial consent. Unlike many other states, in Massachusetts an adolescent's marriage did not automatically emancipate the minor, or increase his or her legal rights beyond allowing the minor to consent to certain medical treatments.


title: Marriage age in the United States

text: Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States, and its people are American citizens. In Puerto Rico, the general marriage age is 21 as that is the age of majority. The general marriage age in Puerto Rico is 21 or 18 with parental consent. In Guam, the general age is 18, but 16-year-olds can get married with the consent of at least one parent or guardian. In American Samoa, since September 2018, the marriage age has been 18 for both sexes. Previously, the marriage age for females was 14. American Samoa does not allow underage marriages. In the District of Columbia, the general age is 18, but 16-year-olds may marry with exceptions. In the U.S. Virgin Islands, since January 2020, the marriage age has been 18 for both sexes. Prior to January 2020, the marriage age was 14 for females and 16 for males. In the Northern Mariana Islands, males must be 18 to marry, while females can marry at 16 with parental consent.


title: George Saunders

text: George Saunders (born December 2, 1958) is an American writer of short stories, essays, novellas, children's books, and novels. His writing has appeared in "The New Yorker", "Harper's", "McSweeney's", and "GQ". He also contributed a weekly column, "American Psyche", to the weekend magazine of "The Guardian" between 2006 and 2008.


title: George Saunders

text: A professor at Syracuse University, Saunders won the National Magazine Award for fiction in 1994, 1996, 2000, and 2004, and second prize in the O. Henry Awards in 1997. His first story collection, "CivilWarLand in Bad Decline", was a finalist for the 1996 PEN/Hemingway Award. In 2006 Saunders received a MacArthur Fellowship. In 2006 he won the World Fantasy Award for his short story "CommComm".


title: George Saunders

text: His story collection "In Persuasion Nation" was a finalist for the Story Prize in 2007. In 2013, he won the PEN/Malamud Award and was a finalist for the National Book Award. Saunders's "" won the 2013 Story Prize for short-story collections and the inaugural (2014) Folio Prize. His novel "Lincoln in the Bardo" (Bloomsbury Publishing) won the 2017 Booker Prize.


title: George Saunders

text: Saunders was born in Amarillo, Texas. He grew up in Oak Forest, Illinois near Chicago, attended St. Damian Catholic School and graduated from Oak Forest High School in Oak Forest, Illinois. He spent some of his early 20s working as a roofer in Chicago, doorman in Beverly Hills, as well as a slaughterhouse knuckle-puller. In 1981, he received a B.S. in geophysical engineering from Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado. Of his scientific background, Saunders has said, "... any claim I might make to originality in my fiction is really just the result of this odd background: basically, just me working inefficiently, with flawed tools, in a mode I don't have sufficient background to really understand. Like if you put a welder to designing dresses."


title: George Saunders

text: In 1988, he was awarded an M.A. in creative writing from Syracuse University, where he worked with Tobias Wolff. While there, he met Paula Redick, a fellow writer, who would become his wife. Saunders recalled, "we [got] engaged in three weeks, a Syracuse Creative Writing Program record that, I believe, still stands."


title: George Saunders

text: From 1989 to 1996, Saunders worked as a technical writer and geophysical engineer for Radian International, an environmental engineering firm in Rochester, New York. He also worked for a time with an oil exploration crew in Sumatra in the early 1980s.


title: George Saunders

text: Since 1997, Saunders has been on the faculty of Syracuse University, teaching creative writing in the school's MFA program while continuing to publish fiction and non-fiction. In 2006, he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship and a $500,000 MacArthur Fellowship. He was a Visiting Writer at Wesleyan University and Hope College in 2010 and participated in Wesleyan's Distinguished Writers Series and Hope College's Visiting Writers Series. His non-fiction collection, "The Braindead Megaphone", was published in 2007.


title: George Saunders

text: Saunders's fiction often focuses on the absurdity of consumerism, corporate culture, and the role of mass media. While many reviewers mention his writing's satirical tone, his work also raises moral and philosophical questions. The tragicomic element in his writing has earned Saunders comparisons to Kurt Vonnegut, whose work has inspired him.


title: George Saunders

text: The film rights to "CivilWarLand in Bad Decline" were purchased by Ben Stiller in the late 1990s; , the project was in development by Stiller's company, Red Hour Productions. Saunders has also written a feature-length screenplay based on his short story "Sea Oak".


title: George Saunders

text: Saunders considered himself an Objectivist in his twenties but now views the philosophy unfavorably, likening it to neoconservatism. He is now a student of Nyingma Buddhism.


title: George Saunders

text: Saunders has won the National Magazine Award for Fiction four times: in 1994, for "The 400-Pound CEO" (published in "Harper's"); in 1996, for "Bounty" (also published in "Harper's"); in 2000, for "The Barber's Unhappiness" (published in "The New Yorker"); and in 2004, for "The Red Bow" (published in "Esquire"). Saunders won second prize in the 1997 O. Henry Awards for his short story "The Falls", initially published in the January 22, 1996 issue of "The New Yorker".


title: George Saunders

text: His first short-story collection, "CivilWarLand in Bad Decline", was a finalist for the 1996 PEN/Hemingway Award.


title: George Saunders

text: In 2006, he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship from the Guggenheim Foundation. That same year, he received a MacArthur Fellowship. His short-story collection "In Persuasion Nation" was a finalist for The Story Prize in 2006. In 2006, he also won the World Fantasy Award for Best Short Story for his short story "CommComm", first published in the August 1, 2005 issue of "The New Yorker".


title: George Saunders

text: In 2009, Saunders received an award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In 2014, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.


title: George Saunders

text: In 2013, Saunders won the PEN/Malamud Award for Excellence in the Short Story. His short-story collection "" won the 2013 Story Prize. The collection also won the inaugural Folio Prize in 2014, "the first major English-language book prize open to writers from around the world." The collection was also a finalist for the National Book Award, and was named one of the "10 Best Books of 2013" by the editors of the "New York Times Book Review".


title: George Saunders

text: In a January 2013 cover story, "The New York Times Magazine" called "Tenth of December" "the best book you'll read this year." One of the stories from the collection, "Home", was a 2011 Bram Stoker Award finalist.


title: George Saunders

text: In 2017, Saunders published his first novel, "Lincoln in the Bardo", which won the Booker Prize and was a "New York Times "bestseller.


title: Erotic photography

text: Erotic photography is a style of art photography of an erotic, sexually suggestive or sexually provocative nature.


title: Erotic photography

text: Erotic photography is often distinguished from nude photography, which contains nude subjects not necessarily in an erotic situation, and pornographic photography, which is of a sexually explicit nature. Pornographic photography is generally defined as "obscene" and lacking in artistic/aesthetic value. However, the line between art and pornography has been both socially and legally debated, and many photographers have created work that intentionally ignores these distinctions.


title: Erotic photography

text: Erotic photographs are normally intended for commercial use, including mass-produced items such as decorative calendars, pinups and for men's magazines, such as "Penthouse" and "Playboy", but many art photographers have also dabbled in explicit or erotic imagery. Additionally, sometimes erotic photographs are intended to be seen only by a subject's partner.


title: Erotic photography

text: The subjects of erotic photographs include professional models, celebrities and amateurs. Well-known entertainers do not generally pose nude for photographs. The first entertainer to pose nude for photographs was the stage actress Adah Isaacs Menken (1835–1868). However, a number of well-known film stars have posed as pin-up models and been promoted in photography and other media as sex symbols. The majority of erotic photographs are of female subjects, but erotic images of men are also published.


title: Erotic photography

text: Before 1839, depictions of nudity and erotica generally consisted of paintings, drawings and engravings. In that year, Louis Daguerre presented the first practical process of photography to the French Academy of Sciences. Unlike earlier photograph methods, his daguerreotypes had stunning quality and did not fade with time. Artists adopted the new technology as a new way to depict the nude form, which in practice was the feminine form. In so doing, at least initially, they tried to follow the styles and traditions of the art form. Traditionally, in France, an académie was a nude study done by a painter to master the female (or male) form. Each had to be registered with the French government and approved or they could not be sold. Soon, nude photographs were being registered as académie and marketed as aids to painters. However, the realism of a photograph as opposed to the idealism of a painting made many of these intrinsically erotic.


title: Erotic photography

text: In "Nude Photography, 1840–1920", Peter Marshall notes: "In the prevailing moral climate at the time of the invention of photography, the only officially sanctioned photography of the body was for the production of artist's studies. Many of the surviving examples of daguerreotypes are clearly not in this genre but have a sensuality that clearly implies they were designed as erotic or pornographic images".


title: Erotic photography

text: The daguerreotypes were not without drawbacks, however. The main difficulty was that they could only be reproduced by photographing the original picture since each image was an original and the all-metal process does not use negatives. In addition, the earliest daguerreotypes had exposure times ranging from three to fifteen minutes, making them somewhat impractical for portraiture. Unlike earlier drawings, action could not be shown. The poses that the models struck had to be held very still for a long time. Another limitation was the monochrome image that the technology could produce. Because of this, the standard pornographic image shifted from one of two or more people engaged in sex acts to a solitary woman exposing her genitals. The cost of the process also limited the spread of the technology. Since one picture could cost a week's salary, the audience for nudes mostly consisted of artists and the upper echelon of society.


title: Erotic photography

text: Stereoscopy was invented in 1838 and became extremely popular for daguerreotypes, including the erotic images. This technology produced a type of three dimensional view that suited erotic images quite well. Although thousands of erotic daguerreotypes were created, only around 800 are known to survive; however, their uniqueness and expense meant that they were once the toys of rich men. Due to their rarity, the works can sell for more than £GB 10,000.


title: Erotic photography

text: In 1841, William Fox Talbot patented the calotype process, the first negative-positive process, making possible multiple copies. This invention permitted an almost limitless number of prints to be produced from a glass negative. The technology also reduced the exposure time and made possible a true mass market for low cost commercial photography. The technology was immediately employed to reproduce nude portraits, classified by the standards of the time as pornographic. Paris soon became the centre of this trade. In 1848 only thirteen photography studios existed in Paris; by 1860, there were over 400. Most of them made income from the sale of illicit nude images to the masses who could now afford it. The pictures were also sold near train stations, by traveling salesmen and women in the streets who hid them under their dresses. They were often produced in sets (of four, eight or twelve), and exported internationally, mainly to England and the United States. Both the models and the photographers were commonly from the working class, and the artistic model excuse was increasingly hard to use. By 1855, no more photographic nudes were being registered as académie, and the business had gone underground to escape prosecution.


title: Erotic photography

text: The Victorian pornographic tradition in Britain had three main elements: French photographs, erotic prints (sold in shops in Holywell Street, a long vanished London thoroughfare, swept away by the Aldwych), and printed literature. The ability to reproduce photographs in bulk assisted the rise of a new business individual, the porn dealer. Many of these dealers used the postal system to distribute erotic photography, sending the photographic cards to subscribers in plain wrappings. Victorian pornography had several defining characteristics. It reflected a very mechanistic view of the human anatomy and its functions. Science, the new obsession, was invoked to ostensibly study the nude human body. Consequently, the sexuality of the subject is often depersonalised, and is without any passion or tenderness. At this time, it also became popular to depict nude photographs of women of exotic ethnicities, under the umbrella of science.


title: Erotic photography

text: Studies of this type can be found in the work of Eadweard Muybridge. Although he photographed both men and women, the women were often given props like market baskets and fishing poles, making the images of women thinly disguised erotica.


title: Erotic photography

text: Parallel to the British printing history, photographers and printers in France frequently turned to the medium of postcards, producing great numbers of them. Such cards came to be known in the US as "French postcards".


title: Erotic photography

text: The initial appearance of picture postcards (and the enthusiasm with which the new medium was embraced) raised some legal issues that can be seen as precursors to later controversies over the Internet. Picture postcards allowed and encouraged many individuals to send images across national borders, and the legal availability of a postcard image in one country did not guarantee that the card would be considered "proper" in the destination country, or in the intermediate countries that the card would have to pass through. Some countries refused to handle postcards containing sexual references (such as of seaside scenes) or images of full or partial nudity (including images of classical statuary or paintings). Many French postcards featured naked women in erotic poses. These were described as postcards but whose primary purpose was not for sending by post because they would have been banned from delivery. Street dealers, tobacco shops, and a variety of other vendors bought the photographs for resale to tourists. The sale of erotica was banned, and many of these postcards were sold "under the counter".


title: Erotic photography

text: Instead, nude and erotic photographs were marketed in a monthly magazine called "La Beauté" that was ostensibly targeted for artists looking for poses. Each issue contained 75 nude images which could be ordered by mail, in the form of postcards, hand-tinted or sepia toned.


title: Erotic photography

text: The early 1900s saw several important improvements in camera design, including the 1913 invention of the 35 mm or "candid" camera by Oskar Barnack of the Ernst Leitz company. The Ur-Leica was a compact camera based on the idea of reducing the format of negatives and enlarging them later, after they had been exposed. This small, portable device made nude photography in secluded parks and other semi-public places easier, and represented a great advance for amateur erotica. Artists were enamored with their new ability to take impromptu photos without carrying around a clunky apparatus.


title: Erotic photography

text: Early 20th century artist E. J. Bellocq, who made his best known images with the older style glass plate negatives, is best remembered for his down-to-earth pictures of prostitutes in domestic settings in the Storyville red light district of New Orleans. In contrast to the usual pictures of women awkwardly posed amid drapery, veils, flowers, fruit, classical columns and oriental braziers, Bellocq's sitters appear relaxed and comfortable. David Steinberg speculates that the prostitutes may have felt at ease with Bellocq because he was "so much of a fellow outcast."


title: Erotic photography

text: Other photographers of nude women of this period include Alexandre-Jacques Chantron, Jean Agélou and Alfred Cheney Johnston. Chantron was already an established painter before experimenting with photography, while Agélou and Johnston made their career in photography.


title: Erotic photography

text: Julian Mandel (possibly a pseudonym) became known in the 1920s and 1930s for his exceptional photographs of the female form. Participating in the German "new age outdoor movement," Mandel took numerous pictures in natural settings, publishing them through the Paris-based studios of Alfred Noyer and P-C Paris, Les Studios and the Neue Photographische Gesellschaft. The models often are found in highly arranged classical poses, photographed both in-studio and outdoors. The images are composed artfully, with exquisite tones and soft use of lighting—showing a particular texture created by light rather than shadow.


title: Erotic photography

text: Another noteworthy photographer of the first two decades of the 20th century was the naturist photographer Arundel Holmes Nicholls (1923-2008). His work, featured in the archives of the Kinsey Institute, is artistically composed, often giving an iridescent glow to his figures. Following in Mandel's footsteps, Nicholls favored outdoor shots.


title: Erotic photography

text: Many photographs from this era were intentionally damaged. Bellocq, for instance, frequently scratched out the faces of his sitters to obscure their identities. Some of his other sitters were photographed wearing masks. Peter Marshall writes, "Even in the relatively bohemian atmosphere of Carmel, California in the 1920s and '30s, Edward Weston had to photograph many of his models without showing their faces, and some 75 years on, many communities are less open about such things than Carmel was then."


title: Erotic photography

text: In France, the tolerance of nude photography in the early 20th century coincided with the popularity of stereo photography. Stereo photography experienced a revival with the introduction of the compact and affordable Vérascope stereo camera by Jules Richard in 1893. Viewing erotic stereoscopic images through a stereoscope provided an intimate viewing experience.


title: Erotic photography

text: Jules Richard published more than 7.000 glass stereoviews in the 45x107mm format, shot in a classic Atrium. Jean Agélou published more than 40 series of paper card stereoviews. During a single posing session with a model, he used a stereo camera for the stereoviews and a normal camera for the French postcards.


title: Erotic photography

text: Nude photographers of the mid-20th century include Walter Bird, John Everard, Horace Roye, Harrison Marks and Zoltán Glass. Roye's photograph "," depicting a model wearing a gas mask while on a crucifix caused much controversy when published in the English Press in 1938. The image is now considered one of the major pre-war photographs of the 20th century.


title: Erotic photography

text: "Playboy" magazine, founded in 1953, achieved great popularity and soon established the market for men's and lifestyle magazines. Erotic photography soon became closely associated with it and gained increasing public attention.


title: Erotic photography

text: Founded in 1965, "Penthouse" magazine went a step further than "Playboy" and was the first to clearly display genitals, initially covered with pubic hair. The models looked usually directly into the camera, as if they would enter into relationship with the mostly male viewers.


title: Erotic photography

text: In the 1970s, in the mood of feminism, gender equality and light humour, magazines such as "Cleo" included male nude centrefolds.


title: Erotic photography

text: Unlike the traditional erotic photographs, which use any attractive female subjects, the male nude photographs are usually of celebrities.


title: Erotic photography

text: The spread of the Internet in the 1990s and increasing social liberalization brought a renewed upsurge of erotic photography. There are a variety of print and online publications, which now compete against the major magazines ("Playboy", "Penthouse") and cater for the diverse tastes. There are a large number of online erotic photography sites, some of which describe themselves or are so described by others as pornography.