title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: The death of Li You drew out news of another plot. Li Chengqian, who had been fearful that Emperor Taizong would eventually remove him and replace him with Li Tai, had begun to conspire with Hou Junji, Li Yuanchang () the Prince of Han (Emperor Taizong's brother), the general Li Anyan (), and his brothers-in-law Zhao Jie () and Du He (, Du Ruhui's son) to overthrow Emperor Taizong. During the investigations in the aftermaths of Li You's rebellion, one of the co-conspirators, Li Chengqian's guard Gegan Chengji (), was implicated by association, and in order to save himself, he revealed Li Chengqian's plot. Emperor Taizong was shocked by the news, and he appointed Zhangsun Wuji, Fang Xuanling, Xiao Yu, and Li Shiji, along with the officials in charge of the supreme court and the legislative and examination bureaus of the government to carry out a joint investigation. At the suggestion of the mid-level official Lai Ji, Emperor Taizong deposed, but did not kill, Li Chengqian, while ordering Li Yuanchang to commit suicide and executing Hou Junji, Li Anyan, Zhao, and Du.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: Taizong's eldest son Li Chengqian chose to speak Turkic, dress in Turkic clothes and even set up a tent in his residence in imitation of a Turkic khan. Taizong removed him from the position of heir apparent and chose as his successor Li Zhi, who embraced Han Chinese cultural heritage.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: After Li Chengqian was deposed, Emperor Taizong briefly promised Li Tai that he would be made crown prince. However, as the investigations continued, Emperor Taizong came to the belief that Li Chengqian's downfall was driven by Li Tai's machinations, and therefore resolved to depose Li Tai as well. At Zhangsun's suggestion, Emperor Taizong created a younger son, Li Zhi the Prince of Jin (who, like Li Chengqian and Li Tai, were born of Empress Zhangsun), crown prince, who was considered kinder and gentler, while exiling Li Chengqian and Li Tai. However, starting later that year, Emperor Taizong began to doubt whether Li Zhi's personality was sufficiently strong to serve as emperor, and he toyed with the idea of making another son, Li Ke the Prince of Wu, a son of his concubine Consort Yang (Emperor Yang of Sui's daughter), crown prince, but did not do so due to strong opposition by Zhangsun Wuji.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: Meanwhile, coming to the belief that he made an ill-advised promise to Yinan to give him Princess Xinxing in marriage, Emperor Taizong demanded a large amount of bride price – 50,000 horses, 10,000 cows and camels, and 100,000 sheep—a price that Yinan agreed to, but could not immediately collect and deliver. Emperor Taizong used it as an excuse to cancel the marriage agreement. Meanwhile, as Wei Zheng had, prior to his death, recommended Hou Junji and Li Chengqian's staff member Du Zhenglun as chancellors, Emperor Taizong came to suspect that Wei was part of the plot as well. He destroyed the monument he had authored for Wei and cancelled the betrothal between Wei Shuyu and Princess Hengshan.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: In 644, with Yanqi's king Long Tuqizhi (), who had assisted the Tang campaign to conquer Gaochang, turning against Tang and allying with the Western Turks, Emperor Taizong sent the general Guo Xiaoke (), the commandant at Anxi (, i.e., Gaochang) to launch a surprise attack on Yanqi. Guo caught Long Tuqizhi by surprise and captured him, making his brother Long Lipozhun () regent. (The Western Turkic viceroy Ashina Quli () subsequently captured Long Lipozhun and briefly occupied Yanqi, although he then, not wanting a direct confrontation with Tang, withdrew, and the Yanqi nobles made Long Tuqizhi's cousin Long Xuepoanazhi () king.)


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: Also in 644, with Goguryeo attacking Silla and Silla requesting aid, Emperor Taizong decided to prepare for a campaign to conquer Goguryeo. He arrested the emissaries that Yeon sent to the Tang court, accusing them of disloyalty to King Yeongnyu. By winter 644, the mobilization was in full force. (Apparently because of Tang's preparation to attack Goguryeo, however, the reconstituted Eastern Turkic people, fearing an attack from Xueyantuo at a time that Tang would be ill-equipped to assist, panicked and abandoned their khan Li Simo, fleeing into Tang territory. Emperor Taizong reabsorbed the Eastern Turks into Tang, while making Li Simo a general in his army.)


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: In spring 645, Emperor Taizong departed from Luoyang and led the troops northeast, behind a vanguard of 60,000 commanded by Li Shiji and Li Daozong. At the same time, Zhang Liang led the other 40,000 from sea. By summer 645, Tang forces had captured Yodong Fortress (, in modern Liaoyang, Liaoning), and headed southeast toward the Goguryeo capital Pyongyang. Emperor Taizong personally led about 30,000 Tang and tribal forces and defeated a 150,000 force commanded by two Gogureyo generals and then put Ansi (, in modern Anshan, Liaoning) fortress under siege.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, after suffering some casualties, with winter fast approaching and his food supplies running out, Emperor Taizong withdrew. He much regretted launching the campaign and made the comment, "If Wei Zheng were still alive, he would never have let me launch this campaign." He reerected the monument he authored for Wei and summoned Wei's wife and children to meet him, treating them well.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: Meanwhile, in the aftermaths of the Goguryeo campaign, Xueyantuo's Duomi Khan Bazhuo (son of Yinan, who had died earlier in 645) launched attacks against Tang's border prefectures, with largely inconclusive results. In spring 646, the Tang generals Qiao Shiwang () and Zhishi Sili counterattacked, defeating Bazhuo's forces, causing him to flee. His vassals Huige, Pugu (), and Tongluo () tribes took the opportunity to rebel and attack him. Hearing this, Emperor Taizong launched a major attack, commanded by Li Daozong, Ashina She'er (), Zhishi Sili, Qibi Heli, Xue Wanche, and Zhang Jian, against Xueyantuo. With Xueyantuo under attack from multiple sides, Bazhuo was killed by Huige forces, and the remaining Xueyantuo people fled and supported Bazhuo's cousin Duomozhi as Yitewushi Khan, but soon offered to submit to Tang. Emperor Taizong sent Li Shiji toward Duomozhi's location, with the direction to either accept his submission or destroy him. Duomozhi surrendered and was taken to Chang'an, ending Xueyantuo's rule over the region. The other tribes formerly submissive to Xueyantuo offered Emperor Taizong the title of "Heavenly Khan" and thereafter largely became submissive to Tang. Tang nominally established seven command posts and six prefectures over the region. (Huige's khan Yaoluoge Tumidu (), while submissive to Tang, for some time tried to take control over the region himself, but was subsequently assassinated in 648, and there would be no other organized attempt by Huige to take over the region until for about another century.)


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: After the victory over Xueyantuo, Emperor Taizong again turned his attention toward to Goguryeo, cutting off relations once more and considering another campaign. Under suggestions by some of his officials, he decided to launch harassment campaigns against Goguryeo's northern region on a yearly basis, to weaken Goguryeo gradually. The first of these campaigns was launched in spring 647, with Li Shiji and Niu Jinda in command, and would reoccur. All this was in preparation of another campaign in 649 with forces totaling 300,000, but Taizong died before this campaign and the campaign was stalled into Gaozong's reign.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: In 648, Emperor Taizong launched another campaign, commanded by Ashina She'er, aimed at Qiuzi, but first attacking Yanqi and killing Long Xuepoanazhi and replacing him with his cousin Long Xiannazhun (). Ashina She'er advanced on Qiuzi and captured its king Bai Helibushibi (), making his brother king instead.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: By summer of 649, Emperor Taizong was seriously ill—with some believing that his illness was caused by his taking of pills given to him by alchemists. Believing Li Shiji to be capable but fearing that he would not be submissive to Li Zhi, he demoted Li Shiji out of the capital to be the commandant at remote Die Prefecture (, roughly modern Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu), with instructions to Li Zhi that if Li Shiji hesitated, to execute him immediately, and if he did not, to recall him after Emperor Taizong's death and make him chancellor. Li Shiji, when receiving the order and realizing that his life was at stake, immediately departed for Die Prefecture. (After Emperor Taizong's death, Li Zhi would indeed recall Li Shiji and make him chancellor.) Soon thereafter, Emperor Taizong, after entrusting Li Zhi to Zhangsun Wuji and Chu Suiliang, died at his summer palace Cuiwei Palace (). His death was initially kept a secret, and three days later, after his casket had been returned to Chang'an, his death was announced, and Li Zhi took the throne as Emperor Gaozong.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: After consolidating the Tang Empire, Emperor Taizong ordered six large stone panels, known as Zhaoling Liujun (), to be carved with the portraits of his favorite horses. These were the horses he had ridden in overcoming his rivals and securing the borders of the country.


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: Emperor Taizong further composed laudatory poems for each of the six horses depicted in the stone reliefs. Constructed between 636 and 649 CE, the stone reliefs "exemplify the beauty of early Tang sculpture; the images are realistic yet powerful, created with simplicity and matured craftsmanship."


title: Emperor Taizong of Tang

text: After Taizong's death, the monuments were situated along the east and west sides of the "spirit path" at the North Gate of the tomb complex named Zhaoling or Zhao Mausoleum. The six stone horse reliefs remained at the Mausoleum until the early twentieth century, when four were removed to the Beilin Museum in Xi'an, China and two were sold and subsequently donated to the Penn Museum in Philadelphia in 1921.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: Zoboomafoo is a live-action/animated children's television series that originally aired on PBS from January 25, 1999, to June 7, 2001. It was formerly shown in public television (depending on the area) and was regularly shown on Sprout until 2013. A total of 65 episodes were aired. A creation of the Kratt Brothers (Chris and Martin), it features a talking lemur (a Coquerel's sifaka) named Zoboomafoo, performed by Canadian puppeteer Gord Robertson (who had also puppeteered on Jim Henson's "Fraggle Rock"), and mainly portrayed by a lemur named Jovian, along with a collection of returned animal guests. Every episode begins with the Kratt brothers in Animal Junction, a peculiar place in which the rules of nature change and wild animals come to visit and play.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: On November 10, 2014, Jovian died in his home at the Duke Lemur Center in Durham, North Carolina at the age of 20 due to kidney failure.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: Upon their arrival at Animal Junction, the Kratt brothers (Chris and Martin Kratt) lean out the window and call Zoboomafoo ("Zoboo" and "Zob" for short), shown in a live-action segment as an actual lemur (Jovian) leaping across a field to reach them. When he comes to Animal Junction, he won't talk to the Kratt brothers until they give him a snack, generally appropriate lemur food like garbanzo beans, sweet potato, or mango slices. After he's done eating his snack, he promptly burps, saying, "Excuse me," and spins around on a turntable, shouting, ""Zoboomafoo-oo-oo-oo-oo!"" at which point he becomes a talking lemur puppet (voiced by Robertson). He then leads into the main segment of the episode by describing a "Mangatsika!" (a Malagasy word meaning "cold," but used in the series to mean "cool") animal that he saw on his way to Animal Junction. As he describes the animal, a song is played, "Who Could It Be?", while a cartoon shows the characteristics of the "mystery animal." At the end of the song, Chris and Martin try to guess the animal Zoboo has described, and the mystery is revealed when the animal or animals arrive at Animal Junction.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: Each episode has a theme. The arrival of the "mystery animal," generally used as exposition, leads Zoboo, Chris and Martin into a conversation about the animal. Once or twice every episode, Zoboo says that some event in Animal Junction reminds him of a time in Zobooland, where he tells stories about his best friends in Zobooland, such as...


title: Zoboomafoo

text: After the first Zobooland story, Zoboo singing about feeling that different creature, and the mystery animal leaving, Zoboo, Chris, and Martin received a letter from the Animal Helpers (Jackie in the first season and Amy in the second season), who show children how to help animals. This leads to Chris and Martin visiting creatures related to the theme, always beginning with the song "Going to the Closet" sung by Zoboo (and sometimes the characters from Zobooland). When Chris and Martin return to Animal Junction to see Zoboo talking to another mystery animal. At the end of each episode and after the second Zobooland story, Zoboo and the brothers sign off by singing "Animal Friends," which tells us why animals are friends to everyone, despite being different species. Finally, Zoboo turns back into a normal lemur and returns to Madagascar while saying goodbye to Chris and Martin. Chris and Martin also leave Animal Junction to better demonstrate the day's theme, traveling to a region, often in India or Africa, to visit the creatures there.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: Before the credits of each episode, kids show and tell the viewers about all kinds of animals and pets they have, and a disclaimer is played telling the viewers that they should be careful with the animals they meet. Then Chris and Martin mention animal facts that lead Zoboo to a joke. Example: "Knock knock! Who's there? Panther. Panther, who? Panther no pants, I'm going swimming!" The disclaimer and joke were edited out for non-PBS airings (except for On-Demand viewings and Universal Kids).


title: Zoboomafoo

text: The series has some forms of slapstick and situation comedy as well. It starts when Zoboo burps after eating a snack, saying, "Excuse me," and spins around on a turntable, shouting, ""Zoboomafoo-oo-oo-oo-oo!"" Running gags of the series include Chris and Martin (and sometimes, Zoboo) falling into a swimming pool, a mud puddle and even simply falling. The most prominent of these recurring jokes is the "closet" gag, reminiscent of Fibber McGee and Molly, only it involves a crammed closet that Chris and Martin open to gather needed items for exploration. As Zoboo sings a song about the brothers' preparations for a trip, Chris and Martin open the door. An avalanche of outdoor items and clothes fall on them, knocking them over and resulting in laughter. Then they emerge from the pile of gear, fully equipped for their trip. In the episode "Running," Chris and Martin open the closet, expecting to be buried under its contents, only to find it clean and organized. A form of slapstick comedy shown is when Zoboo or the brothers get hit by flying items, such as pies, balls, and even yarn thrown by animals. Also, just before the trip, there is always a bird that flies down towards Animal Junction, making Chris and Martin yell, "Incoming! Duck!" Very rarely is the bird an actual duck. Often it's a peregrine falcon named Sticky Feet or a barn owl named Moon Face. Some of Zoboo's catchphrases include "Mangatsika!" (a Malagasy phrase meaning "cold" which was mistakenly used instead of "Milay" which is the Malagasy version of the English word "Cool!"), "I meant to do that!", "I can't believe my mind!", "I'm voky!" and "Hey! Hoo! Hubba hubba!".


title: Zoboomafoo

text: Another segment of the series features a group of kids known as the "Animal Helpers," who send messages to the Kratt brothers at Animal Junction through a series of birds: a turkey vulture (named Tomatohead), an barn owl (called Moonface), a lanner falcon (named Sandstorm), a peregrine falcon (named Stickyfeet), a great horned owl (called Blink), a saker falcon, a golden eagle (named Talon), a duck, a snowy owl, a crow and several others.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: The letters lead into short stories illustrating the Animal Helpers' interactions with the animals in their environments, performing small tasks such as placing a baby bird back in its nest or leading a calf back to a mother cow. Samantha Tolkacz appeared on the series as Jackie from its introduction on January 25, 1999, until April 27, 2000. Genevieve Farrell replaced her, appearing as Amy for the rest of the series.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: Zoboomafoo would also give the animals interesting names that have to do with their appearance, behavior, or personality. Examples include a baby Indian elephant named "Toothbrush" because of his bristly hair; a young female chimpanzee named "Brainiac" because chimps are very intelligent; and two sloths named "Slow" and "Slower."


title: Zoboomafoo

text: "Zoboomafoo" was produced by PBS KIDS, CINAR Corporation (now WildBrain), and the Kratt brothers' Earth Creatures Company.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: Partial filming for the series took place on location at the Duke Lemur Center in Durham, North Carolina. Although the last new episode aired on PBS Kids in November 2001, most PBS stations continued to rerun "Zoboomafoo" episodes in syndication until January 2004. In addition, Sprout aired reruns until August 2013.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: After production on the series ended, in 2003, the Kratt Brothers began another series titled "Be the Creature" on the National Geographic Channel. In 2011, they would create"Wild Kratts" an animated series, which currently airs on PBS Kids and TVOntario.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: Jovian (a captive Coquerel's sifaka housed at the Duke Lemur Center) portrayed Zoboomafoo in the live-action segments (along with stand-ins). On November 10, 2014, he died of kidney failure in his home at age 20.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: The show was first premiered on PBS on January 25, 1999 and ended on June 7, 2001. It is formerly shown in public television (depending on the area). After the series ended, reruns aired on selected PBS stations until 2017. In addition, Sprout aired reruns until February 2012. The show is/was broadcast in the United States, Canada, Latin America, Brazil, Australia, New Zealand, Europe, Middle East, and India.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: "Zoboomafoo" received the 2001 Emmy for Outstanding Directing in a Children's Series and a Parents' Choice Award for Spring 2001 and Silver Honor for Fall 2001.


title: Zoboomafoo

text: There are also several video games for the PC based on "Zoboomafoo", where children learn the alphabet and animals that correlate to each letter. Some of the letters have interactive games to go with them, such as a coloring page.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: In physics, the observer effect is the disturbance of an observed system by the act of observation. This is often the result of instruments that, by necessity, alter the state of what they measure in some manner. A common example is checking the pressure in an automobile tire; this is difficult to do without letting out some of the air, thus changing the pressure. Similarly, seeing non-luminous objects requires light hitting the object, and causing it to reflect that light. While the effects of observation are often negligible, the object still experiences a change. This effect can be found in many domains of physics, but can usually be reduced to insignificance by using different instruments or observation techniques.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: A notable example of the observer effect occurs in quantum mechanics, as demonstrated by the double-slit experiment. Physicists have found that observation of quantum phenomena can change the measured results of this experiment. Despite the "observer effect" in the double-slit experiment being caused by the presence of an electronic detector, the experiment's results have been misinterpreted by some to suggest that a conscious mind can directly affect reality. The need for the "observer" to be conscious is not supported by scientific research, and has been pointed out as a misconception rooted in a poor understanding of the quantum wave function and the quantum measurement process.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: An electron is detected upon interaction with a photon; this interaction will inevitably alter the velocity and momentum of that electron. It is possible for other, less direct means of measurement to affect the electron. It is also necessary to distinguish clearly between the measured value of a quantity and the value resulting from the measurement process. In particular, a measurement of momentum is non-repeatable in short intervals of time. A formula (one-dimensional for simplicity) relating involved quantities, due to Niels Bohr (1928) is given by


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: The "measured" momentum of the electron is then related to , whereas its momentum "after" the measurement is related to . This is a best-case scenario.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: In electronics, ammeters and voltmeters are usually wired in series or parallel to the circuit, and so by their very presence affect the current or the voltage they are measuring by way of presenting an additional real or complex load to the circuit, thus changing the transfer function and behavior of the circuit itself. Even a more passive device such as a current clamp, which measures the wire current without coming into physical contact with the wire, affects the current through the circuit being measured because the inductance is mutual.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: In thermodynamics, a standard mercury-in-glass thermometer must absorb or give up some thermal energy to record a temperature, and therefore changes the temperature of the body which it is measuring.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: The theoretical foundation of the concept of measurement in quantum mechanics is a contentious issue deeply connected to the many interpretations of quantum mechanics. A key focus point is that of wave function collapse, for which several popular interpretations assert that measurement causes a "discontinuous change" into an eigenstate of the operator associated with the quantity that was measured, a change which is not time-reversible.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: More explicitly, the superposition principle ( of quantum physics dictates that for a wave function , a measurement will result in a state of the quantum system of one of the possible eigenvalues , of the operator which in the space of the eigenfunctions .


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: Once one has measured the system, one knows its current state; and this prevents it from being in one of its other states — it has apparently decohered from them without prospects of future strong quantum interference. This means that the type of measurement one performs on the system affects the end-state of the system.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: An experimentally studied situation related to this is the quantum Zeno effect, in which a quantum state would decay if left alone, but does not decay because of its continuous observation. The dynamics of a quantum system under continuous observation are described by a quantum stochastic master equation known as the Belavkin equation. Further studies have shown that even observing the results after the photon is produced leads to collapsing the wave function and loading a back-history as shown by delayed choice quantum eraser.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: When discussing the wave function which describes the state of a system in quantum mechanics, one should be cautious of a common misconception that assumes that the wave function amounts to the same thing as the physical object it describes. This flawed concept must then require existence of an external mechanism, such as a measuring instrument, that lies outside the principles governing the time evolution of the wave function , in order to account for the so-called "collapse of the wave function" after a measurement has been performed. But the wave function is "not a physical object" like, for example, an atom, which has an observable mass, charge and spin, as well as internal degrees of freedom. Instead, is an "abstract mathematical function" that contains all the "statistical" information that an observer can obtain from measurements of a given system. In this case, there is no real mystery in that this mathematical form of the wave function must change abruptly after a measurement has been performed.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: A consequence of Bell's theorem is that measurement on one of two entangled particles can appear to have a nonlocal effect on the other particle. Additional problems related to decoherence arise when the observer is modeled as a quantum system, as well.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: The uncertainty principle has been frequently confused with the observer effect, evidently even by its originator, Werner Heisenberg. The uncertainty principle in its standard form describes how precisely we may measure the position and momentum of a particle at the same time – if we increase the precision in measuring one quantity, we are forced to lose precision in measuring the other.


title: Observer effect (physics)

text: An alternative version of the uncertainty principle, more in the spirit of an observer effect, fully accounts for the disturbance the observer has on a system and the error incurred, although this is not how the term "uncertainty principle" is most commonly used in practice.


title: Nespresso

text: Nestlé Nespresso S.A., trading as Nespresso, is an operating unit of the Nestlé Group, based in Lausanne, Switzerland. Nespresso machines brew espresso and coffee from coffee capsules (or "pods" in machines for home or professional use), a type of pre-apportioned single-use container, or reusable capsules (pods), of ground coffee beans, sometimes with added flavorings. Once inserted into a machine, the capsules are pierced and processed, water is then forced against a heating element at high pressure meaning that only the quantity for a single cup is warmed. Nespresso is a premium price coffee, and by 2011 had annual sales in excess of 3 billion Swiss francs. The word Nespresso is a portmanteau of "Nestlé" and "Espresso", a common mechanic used across other Nestlé brands (Nescafé, BabyNes, Nesquik).


title: Nespresso

text: All Nespresso coffee is roasted, ground and encapsulated in one of three factories in Switzerland (Avenches, Orbe and Romont), but the company sells its system of machines and capsules worldwide, as well as the VertuoLine system in North America and certain other countries.


title: Nespresso

text: In 1975 Eric Favre, an employee of Nestlé, noticed that a coffee bar near the Pantheon in Rome, Italy had a disproportionately large number of customers. He found that the only difference between that bar and the many others using the same machines was that operators pumped the piston many times before releasing the coffee, while others did so only once. Oxidization occurs as the pumping action pushes water and air into the ground coffee. This increases the flavor in the coffee and creates the foam you see on top which is called crema.


title: Nespresso

text: Favre invented the Nespresso system. The pod containing the coffee was sealed, keeping it fresh. In use it ensured greater aeration, like the repeated pumping Favre had noticed. In operation, a sharp-pointed spout would pierce the capsule and inject pressurised hot water, forcing the foil against a spiked plate which burst it inwards, letting the espresso flow out of the spout.


title: Nespresso

text: The system was patented by Nestlé in 1976. Early prototypes were complicated machines with large tanks and pumps and tubes; the machine was not ready for the market for a decade. It was introduced to the Swiss market, looking like large traditional commercial espresso machines, initially without significant success. Nespresso first tested its new concept in Japan in 1986, and rolled it out to consumers in Switzerland, France, Italy and Japan the same year. A decade later, in part due to the efforts of Jean-Paul Gaillard, who introduced the "Le Club" community—providing Nestlé with a large database of customers and their preferences—reduced prices of machines but increased capsule prices, changed the machine from an office machine into a luxury brand now available to consumers, and licensed production by other companies, the product became more successful. In 1990, Nestlé signed a contract with Turmix, which started to sell Nespresso machines in Switzerland. Thereafter, other contracts were signed with Krups, Magimix, Alessi, Philips, Siemens and De'Longhi. Starting out as an e-commerce business, Nespresso only opened their first boutique in Paris in 2000 as a concept store. Today, Nespresso has a global network of more than 700 boutiques in 68 countries.


title: Nespresso

text: In later years there was friction between Favre—who came up with the concept and developed the first machines—and Gaillard, who made the machine a commercial success. Favre resigned in 1990 after personality clashes, and the two men were critical of each other. Gaillard left Nestlé in 1997 after falling out with CEO Peter Brabeck-Letmathe. He claimed that the original idea for Nespresso was bought by Nestlé in 1973, and did not come from Favre, though Nespresso denies this. In 2008 Gaillard launched a company that sold biodegradable capsules for Nespresso machines, competing with Nespresso. In 2022, the company became a certified B Corporation.


title: Nespresso

text: Nespresso sells or licenses a number of different machines mostly made in Europe. The machines carry well-known kitchen-equipment manufacturers' names such as Krups, Breville, and DeLonghi, but are mostly manufactured by Eugster/Frismag, a Swiss company that is one of the world's largest coffee-machine producers. DeLonghi manufactures the "Lattissima" models in Italy exclusively. Eugster/Frismag is strictly an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) and does not sell under its own brand. In 2000 Nespresso began distributing machines bearing the "Nespresso" brand. There are numerous models that range in complexity and price, from the entry level Inissia, U and Pixie ranges.


title: Nespresso

text: Nespresso capsules were sold exclusively by Nespresso while the machines were under patent, and are significantly more expensive than an equivalent quantity of "loose" ground coffee. Because of the hermetically sealed capsule, however, the coffee aroma does not degrade with time like coffee in a pack that has been opened. Nespresso currently sells 28 different Original Line arabica and robusta capsules. Limited Edition are released seasonally.


title: Nespresso

text: As the system is no longer under patent, more and more third-party and refillable capsules can now be purchased in some grocery stores and shops.


title: Nespresso

text: Each capsule contains 5–7 grams of ground coffee and makes one serving of coffee. Depending on the length of the pour, the capsule can produce a 40 ml Espresso shot, or a 110 ml Lungo (long) pour. Nespresso-supplied capsule bodies and perforated tops are both made of aluminium, while third-party capsules are made from a variety of materials, including plastic and aluminium. To assuage some concerns on potential aluminium health effects, most of the capsule interior of Nespresso capsules is lined with food-grade lacquer.


title: Nespresso

text: For the professional market, a different system of Nespresso pods exists. These pad-shaped capsules are not interchangeable with the consumer capsules.


title: Nespresso

text: Nespresso's hermetically sealed capsules are made of aluminum. Depending on the Nespresso system being used, the flat top or the pointed end of the capsule is pierced when inserted into the machine and the compartment lever is lowered. Some machines make a single large hole, and others make three smaller holes. When the machine is activated it pumps hot water under high pressure into injector holes poked into the narrow end of the capsule upon insertion. This causes the flat bottom of the capsule to rupture, as it is made of thinner foil than the rest of the capsule. The base of the capsule holder (on which the capsule sits) has a number of raised squares which cause the foil to rupture at these points. The brewed coffee exits the capsule through these rupture holes and flows through a funnel nozzle into the coffee cup. As in pressure cookers, a safety pressure release valve inside the brewing chamber prevents an explosion from occurring if the normal coffee exhaust path becomes blocked. This process produces a crema which is micro air bubbles that are mixed with the coffee’s natural soluble oils. The crema resembles a tan colored froth that floats at the top of the coffee.


title: Nespresso

text: To appeal to the demand by North Americans for larger servings of coffee than the original Nespresso machine produces, in February 2014 Nespresso launched a new "Vertuoline" system of machines and capsules in the United States and Canada. The system produces Espresso (40ml/1.35oz), Double Espresso (80ml/2.7oz), Gran Lungo (150ml/5oz), Mug/Coffee (230ml/8oz) and Alto/Alto XL (414ml/14oz) cup sizes that characterises espresso coffees and the original line of Nespresso coffees. Nespresso simultaneously uses over 25 blends in specially-designed VertuoLine capsules. The VertuoLine capsules cannot be used in the original line of Nespresso machines (now branded "OriginalLine" in North America). Nespresso continues to sell both OriginalLine and VertuoLine machines and capsules in the United States and Canada, targeting different market segments with the two systems.


title: Nespresso

text: The VertuoLine system uses two technologies not found in the OriginalLine. First, the system uses "centrifusion" (a term created by Nespresso, being a portmanteau of centrifugal force and infusion), whereby it spins the capsule around in the machine at up to 7,000 rpm to blend the ground coffee and hot water. Second, each capsule has a barcode embedded on the rim, and the barcode laser scanning system reads 5 different parameters: rotational speed, temperature, infusion time, volume and flow of water. Some critics claim that the VertuoLine technology, particularly the use of bar codes, is an attempt by Nestlé to create a new proprietary Nespresso system which excludes compatible capsules from other companies.


title: Nespresso

text: The VertuoLine system was intended to expand Nespresso's product line to offer coffee closer to the American style of filtered coffee, and thus expand Nespresso's market share in North America. In the United States, Nespresso had only a 3% share of the single-serve coffee market in the year before the introduction of VertuoLine (compared with 72% for Green Mountain's Keurig system), while in Canada Nespresso had 4 to 5% of the single-serve market in 2013 (compared to approximately 53% for Keurig and 40% for Tassimo). In comparison, Nestlé had 70% of the single-serve market in Europe in 2013.


title: Nespresso

text: At the time of the introduction of the VertuoLine system in 2014, there were no plans to launch the system in markets outside Canada and the United States. However, sales of the VertuoLine system were expanded beyond North America in 2016, first with the launch of the system in France in 2016 under the name "Vertuo" (with the original line branded "Original"), and with later roll outs in other countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland and Australia. As of 2018, Nespresso aimed to introduce the Vertuoline system in eight additional European markets by the end of the year. In September 2019, the VertuoLine system launched in the Middle East in Kuwait, UAE, and KSA under the name "Vertuo".


title: Nespresso

text: In 2010 the concept (machine, capsule, service) was still subject to 1,700 patents which protected Nespresso's ownership of the concept until their expiry, leading to comparisons of Nespresso with printer manufacturers that block the sale of generic ink cartridges to achieve a vendor lock-in effect. This contrasts with some other prepackaged coffee preparation systems.


title: Nespresso

text: Nespresso's patents began to expire in 2012, gradually allowing competitors to offer capsules and machines compatible with the Nespresso system. By 2010, Nestlé was working on ways to prevent competitors from doing this. The service part of Nespresso's business model—the Nespresso Club and Nespresso stores and cafes—was aimed to be a long-term defense for the brand, its elevated image and premium pricing. Beyond attentive customer service and being the only places where most customers can replenish their 'pods', the brand has been able to maintain images of exclusivity and suave connoisseur-ship. Actor George Clooney appeared in ads for Nespresso, with company representatives insisting that he had been elected by Club members to become the brand's ambassador (vs the brand 'buying his sponsorship'), in a form of celebrity advertising that emphasizes the status of the brand over that of the endorsing star.


title: Nespresso

text: Packaged portions of espresso coffee, like those from Nespresso, has become one of the fastest growing segments of the coffee market, accounting for 20 to 40 percent of the value of ground coffee sales in the US$17 billion European coffee market. In August 2010, it was reported that Nespresso sales had been growing at an average of 30 percent per year over the previous 10 years, and more than 20 billion capsules had been sold since 2000 at a selling price equivalent to about US$0.43 to US$0.62 per capsule.


title: Nespresso

text: Nespresso sources most of its coffee through the Nespresso AAA Sustainable Quality Program. In 2017 the company reported that 82% of beans were sourced through the scheme. In the US, the price of capsules ranges from a standard US$0.70 to US$2.40 for limited editions. In Europe, capsule prices were around €0.35 in the Netherlands.


title: Nespresso

text: In May 2022, more than 500 kilograms of cocaine have been seized after the drug was found in a shipment of coffee beans delivered to a Nespresso factory in Switzerland.


title: Nespresso

text: Workers alerted authorities in Fribourg of bags of white powder they found while unloading bags of coffee beans.


title: Nespresso

text: Police determined the substance was cocaine. They then searched five maritime containers "delivered the same day by train" where 500 kg of the drug was found. The haul is estimated to have a street value of more than €48 million. In a statement, Nespresso said the substance did not come into contact with any of their coffee or equipment and that all their production was safe to consume.


title: Nespresso

text: Unless the capsule is recycled, each capsule produces 1g of aluminum waste. Recycling aluminum uses as little as 5% of the energy needed to produce aluminum from ore. Initially, Nestlé did not implement any recycling programs outside a few areas of Switzerland. This led to a large amount of waste generation, which was criticized by user groups. As of 2017, Nespresso has set up capsule-collection systems in 36 countries. France and Switzerland are some of Nespresso's biggest buyers so the recycling facilities are more accessible in these countries.


title: Nespresso

text: Only 24.6% of Nespresso capsules are recycled globally, but the company states that it has the capacity to recycle 100% of its capsules through its recycling program. The proportion of recycled aluminum in the capsules is not known, but is estimated to be greater than 80% of capsules produced (per annum) as of 2015. The company has launched a program called "écolaboration" to try to remedy the problem. The program set out with goals around recycling and sustainability. The program targets were met in 2014, and a new sustainability program, "The Positive Cup", was launched. It includes goals on sustainable coffee sourcing under the Nespresso AAA Sustainable Quality Program, which was developed with the Rainforest Alliance. Nespresso claims to do this by teaching farmers best business and growing practices. Nespresso has claimed that it offers up to a 40% premium on the price of beans, and some 75,000 farmers from 12 countries are participating in the program.


title: Nespresso

text: In 2019 Nespresso partnered with Swedish company Vélosophy to create a commercially available bicycle out of recycled Nespresso pods. Other projects also include collaborating with Caran Dache to create a ball point pen out of recycled coffee pods.


title: Nespresso

text: Nespresso Pro, OriginalLine, and VertuoLine capsules can be recycled at one of Nespresso's recycling facilities.


title: Nespresso

text: Recycling bags are provided to customers free of charge. They are available in-store and are provided with online orders of capsules. When sealed, one recycling bag can hold up to 100 Vertuo Line capsules and up to 200 Original Line capsules. The capsules do not need to be rinsed or emptied before sealing the bag. In the United States, customers can provide their filled bags to the same postman who delivers their order of Nespresso capsules. Or, they can bring the full bags to a UPS store, a Nespresso store and other drop off locations at retail partner stores. Since June 2018, Canadian customers from all provinces and territories except British Columbia and Quebec, can mail-in their full recycling bags at no extra cost through Canada Post. The residents of British Columbia and Quebec can place their full bags in their recycle bin to be picked up at their curbside with all their other household recyclables.


title: Nespresso

text: George Clooney is considered the "face of Nespresso" and has been starring in Nespresso's ad campaigns since 2006, first in European and international campaigns and since 2015 in US market ones as well. In these campaigns Clooney has paired with actors such as John Malkovich, Danny DeVito and Matt Damon, who reportedly received $3 million for his participation.


title: Nespresso

text: In the summer of 2020 amid the global COVID-19 pandemic, Nespresso released an Internet ad on their YouTube channel that focused on sustainability.


title: Nespresso

text: In August 2011 the Australian company Kogan announced the development of the "Ez-press", a coffee machine compatible with Nespresso pods.


title: Nespresso

text: In 2008 Jean-Paul Gaillard, a former CEO at Nespresso, started a rival firm, Ethical Coffee Company SA (ECC), to make compatible biodegradable capsules for the Nespresso machine, withdrawing from this "loss-making" market in 2017.


title: Nespresso

text: In March 2016, Starbucks announced that it would sell Nespresso-compatible capsules in Europe. These were launched with four core pods including three single origin pods, and are compatible with all consumer Nespresso machines, but not those such as a commercial Nespresso machine or in a Miele integrated unit.


title: Nespresso

text: In March 2011 the Swiss discount supermarket, Denner, won a court battle with Nestlé over the sale of plastic Nespresso-compatible capsules, at about half the retail price of Nespresso capsules.


title: Nespresso

text: By 2014 Nespresso had been involved in further legal disputes about pods with competitors in the UK, Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands; one media report said "Nestlé has lost in just about every one of those conflicts." In France—Nespresso's largest market, which made a quarter of its global sales at the time—the antitrust watchdog Autorité de la concurrence stated that "it appears that Nespresso may have abused its dominant position by tying the purchase of its capsules to that of its coffee machines, with no fair justification, de facto ousting rival capsule makers". The company agreed to cease making the guarantee on its single-serving coffee machines conditional on using only Nespresso pods, and to remove warnings against the use of third-party pods.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DDR SDRAM) is a double data rate (DDR) synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) class of memory integrated circuits used in computers. DDR SDRAM, also retroactively called DDR1 SDRAM, has been superseded by DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM, DDR4 SDRAM and DDR5 SDRAM. None of its successors are forward or backward compatible with DDR1 SDRAM, meaning DDR2, DDR3, DDR4 and DDR5 memory modules will not work in DDR1-equipped motherboards, and vice versa.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: Compared to single data rate (SDR) SDRAM, the DDR SDRAM interface makes higher transfer rates possible by more strict control of the timing of the electrical data and clock signals. Implementations often have to use schemes such as phase-locked loops and self-calibration to reach the required timing accuracy. The interface uses double pumping (transferring data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal) to double data bus bandwidth without a corresponding increase in clock frequency. One advantage of keeping the clock frequency down is that it reduces the signal integrity requirements on the circuit board connecting the memory to the controller. The name "double data rate" refers to the fact that a DDR SDRAM with a certain clock frequency achieves nearly twice the bandwidth of a SDR SDRAM running at the same clock frequency, due to this double pumping.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: With data being transferred 64 bits at a time, DDR SDRAM gives a transfer rate (in bytes/s) of (memory bus clock rate) × 2 (for dual rate) × 64 (number of bits transferred) / 8 (number of bits/byte). Thus, with a bus frequency of 100 MHz, DDR SDRAM gives a maximum transfer rate of 1600 MB/s.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: In the late 1980s IBM had built DRAMs using a dual-edge clocking feature and presented their results in the International Solid-State Circuits Convention in 1990.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: Samsung demonstrated the first DDR memory prototype in 1997, and released the first commercial DDR SDRAM chip (64Mbit) in June 1998, followed soon after by Hyundai Electronics (now SK Hynix) the same year. The development of DDR began in 1996, before its specification was finalized by JEDEC in June 2000 (JESD79). JEDEC has set standards for data rates of DDR SDRAM, divided into two parts. The first specification is for memory chips, and the second is for memory modules. The first retail PC motherboard using DDR SDRAM was released in August 2000.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: To increase memory capacity and bandwidth, chips are combined on a module. For instance, the 64-bit data bus for DIMM requires eight 8-bit chips, addressed in parallel. Multiple chips with the common address lines are called a memory rank. The term was introduced to avoid confusion with chip internal rows and banks. A memory module may bear more than one rank. The term sides would also be confusing because it incorrectly suggests the physical placement of chips on the module. All ranks are connected to the same memory bus (address + data). The chip select signal is used to issue commands to specific rank.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: Adding modules to the single memory bus creates additional electrical load on its drivers. To mitigate the resulting bus signaling rate drop and overcome the memory bottleneck, new chipsets employ the multi-channel architecture.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: Note: All above listed are specified by JEDEC as JESD79F. All RAM data rates in-between or above these listed specifications are not standardized by JEDEC – often they are simply manufacturer optimizations using tighter tolerance or overvolted chips. The package sizes in which DDR SDRAM is manufactured are also standardized by JEDEC.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: There is no architectural difference between DDR SDRAM modules. Modules are instead designed to run at different clock frequencies: for example, a PC-1600 module is designed to run at , and a PC-2100 is designed to run at . A module's clock speed designates the data rate at which it is guaranteed to perform, hence it is guaranteed to run at lower ("underclocking") and can possibly run at higher ("overclocking") clock rates than those for which it was made.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: DDR SDRAM modules for desktop computers, dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs), have 184 pins (as opposed to 168 pins on SDRAM, or 240 pins on DDR2 SDRAM), and can be differentiated from SDRAM DIMMs by the number of notches (DDR SDRAM has one, SDRAM has two). DDR SDRAM for notebook computers, SO-DIMMs, have 200 pins, which is the same number of pins as DDR2 SO-DIMMs. These two specifications are notched very similarly and care must be taken during insertion if unsure of a correct match. Most DDR SDRAM operates at a voltage of 2.5 V, compared to 3.3 V for SDRAM. This can significantly reduce power consumption. Chips and modules with DDR-400/PC-3200 standard have a nominal voltage of 2.6 V.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: JEDEC Standard No. 21–C defines three possible operating voltages for 184 pin DDR, as identified by the key notch position relative to its centreline. Page 4.5.10-7 defines 2.5V (left), 1.8V (centre), TBD (right), while page 4.20.5–40 nominates 3.3V for the right notch position. The orientation of the module for determining the key notch position is with 52 contact positions to the left and 40 contact positions to the right.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: Increasing operating voltage slightly can increase maximum speed, at the cost of higher power dissipation and heating, and at the risk of malfunctioning or damage.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: Total module capacity is a product of one chip's capacity and the number of chips. ECC modules multiply it by because they use 1 bit per byte (8 bits) for error correction. A module of any particular size can therefore be assembled either from 32 small chips (36 for ECC memory), or 16(18) or 8(9) bigger ones.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: DDR memory bus width per channel is 64 bits (72 for ECC memory). Total module bit width is a product of bits per chip and number of chips. It also equals number of ranks (rows) multiplied by DDR memory bus width. Consequently, a module with a greater number of chips or using ×8 chips instead of ×4 will have more ranks.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: This example compares different real-world server memory modules with a common size of 1 GB. One should definitely be careful buying 1 GB memory modules, because all these variations can be sold under one price position without stating whether they are ×4 or ×8, single- or dual-ranked.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: There is a common belief that number of module ranks equals number of sides. As above data shows, this is not true. One can also find 2-side/1-rank modules. One can even think of a 1-side/2-rank memory module having 16(18) chips on single side ×8 each, but it is unlikely such a module was ever produced.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: From Ballot JCB-99-70, and modified by numerous other Board Ballots, formulated under the cognizance of Committee JC-42.3 on DRAM Parametrics.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: "This comprehensive standard defines all required aspects of 64Mb through 1Gb DDR SDRAMs with X4/X8/X16 data interfaces, including features, functionality, ac and dc parametrics, packages and pin assignments. This scope will subsequently be expanded to formally apply to x32 devices, and higher density devices as well."


title: DDR SDRAM

text: PC3200 is DDR SDRAM designed to operate at 200 MHz using DDR-400 chips with a bandwidth of 3,200 MB/s. Because PC3200 memory transfers data on both the rising and falling clock edges, its effective clock rate is 400 MHz.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: 1 GB PC3200 non-ECC modules are usually made with 16 512 Mbit chips, 8 on each side (512 Mbits × 16 chips) / (8 bits (per byte)) = 1,024 MB. The individual chips making up a 1 GB memory module are usually organized as 2 8-bit words, commonly expressed as 64M×8. Memory manufactured in this way is low-density RAM and is usually compatible with any motherboard specifying PC3200 DDR-400 memory.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: DDR (DDR1) was superseded by DDR2 SDRAM, which had modifications for higher clock frequency and again doubled throughput, but operates on the same principle as DDR. Competing with DDR2 was Rambus XDR DRAM. DDR2 dominated due to cost and support factors. DDR2 was in turn superseded by DDR3 SDRAM, which offered higher performance for increased bus speeds and new features. DDR3 has been superseded by DDR4 SDRAM, which was first produced in 2011 and whose standards were still in flux (2012) with significant architectural changes.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: DDR's prefetch buffer depth is 2 (bits), while DDR2 uses 4. Although the effective clock rates of DDR2 are higher than DDR, the overall performance was not greater in the early implementations, primarily due to the high latencies of the first DDR2 modules. DDR2 started to be effective by the end of 2004, as modules with lower latencies became available.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: Memory manufacturers stated that it was impractical to mass produce DDR1 memory with effective transfer rates in excess of 400 MHz (i.e. 400 MT/s and 200 MHz external clock) due to internal speed limitations. DDR2 picks up where DDR1 leaves off, utilizing internal clock rates similar to DDR1, but is available at effective transfer rates of 400 MHz and higher. DDR3 advances extended the ability to preserve internal clock rates while providing higher effective transfer rates by again doubling the prefetch depth.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: The DDR4 SDRAM is a high-speed dynamic random-access memory internally configured as 16 banks, 4 bank groups with 4 banks for each bank group for ×4/×8 and 8 banks, 2 bank groups with 4 banks for each bank group for ×16 DRAM.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: The DDR4 SDRAM uses an 8"n" prefetch architecture to achieve high-speed operation. The 8"n" prefetch architecture is combined with


title: DDR SDRAM

text: an interface designed to transfer two data words per clock cycle at the I/O pins. A single read or write operation for the DDR4 SDRAM consists of a single 8"n"-bit-wide 4-clock data transfer at the internal DRAM core and 8 corresponding "n"-bit-wide half-clock-cycle data transfers at the I/O pins.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: RDRAM was a particularly expensive alternative to DDR SDRAM, and most manufacturers dropped its support from their chipsets. DDR1 memory's prices substantially increased from Q2 2008, while DDR2 prices declined. In January 2009, 1 GB DDR1 was 2–3 times more expensive than 1 GB DDR2.


title: DDR SDRAM

text: MDDR is an acronym that some enterprises use for Mobile DDR SDRAM, a type of memory used in some portable electronic devices, like mobile phones, handhelds, and digital audio players. Through techniques including reduced voltage supply and advanced refresh options, Mobile DDR can achieve greater power efficiency.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Manipulation in psychology is a behavior designed to exploit, control, or otherwise influence others to one’s advantage. Definitions for the term vary in which behavior is specifically included, influenced by both culture and whether referring to the general population or used in clinical contexts. Manipulation is generally considered a dishonest form of social influence as it is used at the expense of others.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Manipulative tendencies may derive from personality disorders such as borderline personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, or antisocial personality disorder. Manipulation is also correlated with higher levels of emotional intelligence, and is a chief component of the personality construct dubbed Machiavellianism.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Manipulation differs from general influence and persuasion. Influence is generally perceived to be harmless and it is not seen as unduly coercive to the individual's right of acceptance or rejection of influence. Persuasion is the ability to move others to a desired action, usually within the context of a specific goal. Persuasion often attempts to influence ones beliefs, religion, motivations, or behavior. Influence and persuasion are neither positive nor negative, unlike manipulation which is strictly negative. We are led to believe that manipulation is negative and this blinds us from the positives. Positive manipulation is a form of practice where an individual can turn any aspect that may not be going well into a positive experience. Ultimately, one's goal is to not be manipulated but if the situation does arise, the individual is able to manifest for the best. Creating the best version of yourself allows you to grow, and help influence the behaviors of others as well. Individuals who behave in prosocial behavior manners can be manipulated to have positive mood reactions. Alongside showing encouragement during a time where an individual is feeling down can result in improvements in mood.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: The motivation for manipulation can be self-serving or it can be intended to help or benefit others. Anti-social manipulation is using "skills to advance personal agendas or self-serving motives at the expense of others", pro-social behavior is a voluntary act intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals and is an important part of empathy.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Studies of the predictors of emotional manipulation indicate that the mechanisms behind emotional manipulation differ as a function of gender:


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Deceitfulness and exceptional manipulative abilities are the most common traits among antisocial personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorder. It is the major feature found in the dark triad personality traits, particularly Machiavellianism.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Antisocial personality disorder or sociopathy refers to individuals who will not realize the rights and wrongs of their action and the ability to neglect others (emotionally). People with this disorder may not feel that they are doing anything wrong and therefore manipulate others for their own pleasure. This mental disorder relies on features of deceitfulness and arrogance acts.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Borderline Personality Disorder is unique in the grouping as "borderline" manipulation is characterized as unintentional and dysfunctional manipulation. Marsha M. Linehan has stated that people with borderline personality disorder often exhibit behaviors which are not truly manipulative, but are erroneously interpreted as such. According to Linehan, these behaviors often appear as unthinking manifestations of intense pain, and are often not deliberate as to be considered truly manipulative. In the DSM-V, manipulation was removed as a defining characteristic of borderline personality disorder.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Conduct disorder is where behavioral and age appropriate actions are taken advantage of, primarily occurring in children and adolescents. Individuals with this are characterized as "lack of empathy, sense of guilt, and shallow emotion". These behaviors are shown in connection to manipulation by tying in narcissistic traits. Aggression and violence are two factors pursued by individuals with this disorder. In order for this disorder to be consistent and shown, the progression must be made for at least 12 months.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Factitious disorder is geared towards mentally ill individuals whom purposely forge symptoms, physically or psychologically. Fabricating illness's allows individuals to feel a thrill and receive free aid in hospital admissions and treatment. Feelings of persistence, abuse in early childhood, and excessive thoughts were common for these individuals who connected to Borderline Personality Disorder.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Histrionic personality disorder foresee individuals who seek scrutinizing behaviors, inappropriate alluring tactics, and irregular emotional patterns. Histrionic symptoms are geared to this disorder if "seeking reassurance, switching emotional, and feeling uncomfortable." Narcissists and Histrionic Personality Disorders overlap because decisions are sporadic and unreliable. These individuals can experience these symptoms from failed attempts of depression like symptoms.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Narcissistic personality disorder is characterized as feelings of superiority, a sense of grandiosity, exhibitionism, charming but also exploitive behaviors in the interpersonal domain, success, beauty, feelings of entitlement and a lack of empathy. Narcissists employ two strategies to maintain their grandiose self: assertive self enhancement (self promotion) and antagonistic self protection (self defense). All of these factors can lead an individual with narcissistic personality disorder to manipulate others.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: The emotional manipulation scale is a ten-item questionnaire developed in 2007 through factor analysis, primarily to measure the capability of manipulative behavior and the Machiavellianism personality trait. At the time of publication, emotional intelligence assessments did not specifically examine manipulative behavior or Machiavellianism and were instead predominantly focussed on Big Five personality trait assessment.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: The Managing the emotions of others scale (MEOS) was developed in 2013 through factor analysis to measure the ability to change emotions of others. The survey questions measure six categories: mood (or emotional state) enhancement, mood worsening, concealing emotions, capacity for inauthenticity, poor emotion skills, and using diversion to enhance mood. The enhancement, worsening and diversion categories have been used to identify the ability and willingness of manipulative behavior. The MEOS has also been used for assessing emotional intelligence, and has been compared to the HEXACO model of personality structure, for which the capacity for inauthenticity category in the MEOS was found to correspond to low honesty-humility scores on the HEXACO.


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: According to Braiker, manipulators exploit the following vulnerabilities (buttons) that may exist in victims:


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: According to psychology author George K. Simon, successful psychological manipulation primarily involves the manipulator:


title: Manipulation (psychology)

text: Kantor advises in his 2006 book "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: How Antisocial Personality Disorder Affects All of Us" that vulnerability to psychopathic manipulators involves being too:


title: Green sea turtle

text: The green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), also known as the green turtle, black (sea) turtle or Pacific green turtle, is a species of large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae. It is the only species in the genus Chelonia. Its range extends throughout tropical and subtropical seas around the world, with two distinct populations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, but it is also found in the Indian Ocean. The common name refers to the usually green fat found beneath its carapace, not to the color of its carapace, which is olive to black.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The dorsoventrally flattened body of "C. mydas" is covered by a large, teardrop-shaped carapace; it has a pair of large, paddle-like flippers. It is usually lightly colored, although in the eastern Pacific populations, parts of the carapace can be almost black. Unlike other members of its family, such as the hawksbill sea turtle, "C. mydas" is mostly herbivorous. The adults usually inhabit shallow lagoons, feeding mostly on various species of seagrasses. The turtles bite off the tips of the blades of seagrass, which keeps the grass healthy.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Like other sea turtles, green sea turtles migrate long distances between feeding grounds and hatching beaches. Many islands worldwide are known as Turtle Island due to green sea turtles nesting on their beaches. Females crawl out on beaches, dig nests, and lay eggs during the night. Later, hatchlings emerge, and scramble into the water. Those that reach maturity may live to 90 years in the wild.


title: Green sea turtle

text: "C. mydas" is listed as endangered by the IUCN and CITES and is protected from exploitation in most countries. It is illegal to collect, harm, or kill them. In addition, many countries have laws and ordinances to protect nesting areas. However, turtles are still in danger due to human activity. In some countries, turtles and their eggs are still hunted for food. Pollution indirectly harms turtles at both population and individual scales. Many turtles die after being caught in fishing nets. In addition, real estate development often causes habitat loss by eliminating nesting beaches.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The green sea turtle is a member of the tribe Cheloniini. A 1993 study clarified the status of genus "Chelonia" with respect to the other marine turtles. The carnivorous "Eretmochelys" (hawksbill), "Caretta" (loggerhead) and "Lepidochelys" (ridley) were assigned to the tribe Carettini. Herbivorous "Chelonia" warranted their status as a genus, while "Natator" (flatback) was further removed from the other genera than previously believed.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The species was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of "Systema Naturae" as "Testudo mydas". In 1868, Marie Firmin Bocourt named a particular species of sea turtle "Chelonia agassizii", in honor of Swiss-American zoologist Louis Agassiz. This "species" was referred to as the "black sea turtle". Later research determined Bocourt's "black sea turtle" was not genetically distinct from "C. mydas", and thus taxonomically not a separate species. These two "species" were then united as "Chelonia mydas" and populations were given subspecies status: "C. mydas mydas" referred to the originally described population, while "C. mydas agassizi" referred only to the Pacific population known as the Galápagos green turtle. This subdivision was later determined to be invalid and all species members were then designated "Chelonia mydas". The oft-mentioned name "C. agassizi" remains an invalid junior synonym of "C. mydas".


title: Green sea turtle

text: The species' common name does not derive from any particular green external coloration of the turtle. Its name comes from the greenish color of the turtles' fat, which is only found in a layer between their inner organs and their shell. As a species found worldwide, the green turtle has many local names. In the Hawaiian language it is called "honu", and it is locally known as a symbol of good luck and longevity.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Its appearance is that of a typical sea turtle. "C. mydas" has a dorsoventrally flattened body, a beaked head at the end of a short neck, and paddle-like arms well-adapted for swimming. Adult green turtles grow to long. The average weight of mature individuals is and the average carapace length is . Exceptional specimens can weigh or even more, with the largest known "C. mydas" having weighed and measured in carapace length.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Anatomically, a few characteristics distinguish the green turtle from the other members of its family. Unlike its close relative the hawksbill turtle, the green turtle's snout is very short and its beak is unhooked. The neck cannot be pulled into the shell. The sheath of the turtle's upper jaw possesses a denticulated edge, while its lower jaw has stronger, serrated, more defined denticulation. The dorsal surface of the turtle's head has a single pair of prefrontal scales. Its carapace is composed of five central scutes flanked by four pairs of lateral scutes. Underneath, the green turtle has four pairs of inframarginal scutes covering the area between the turtle's plastron and its shell. Mature "C. mydas" front appendages have only a single claw (as opposed to the hawksbill two), although a second claw is sometimes prominent in young specimens.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The carapace of the turtle has various color patterns that change over time. Hatchlings of "Chelonia mydas", like those of other marine turtles, have mostly black carapaces and light-colored plastrons. Carapaces of juveniles turn dark brown to olive, while those of mature adults are either entirely brown, spotted or marbled with variegated rays. Underneath, the turtle's plastron is hued yellow. "C. mydas" limbs are dark-colored and lined with yellow, and are usually marked with a large dark brown spot in the center of each appendage.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The range of the green sea turtle extends throughout tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide. The two major subpopulations are the Atlantic and the eastern Pacific subpopulations. Each population is genetically distinct, with its own set of nesting and feeding grounds within the population's known range. One of the genetic differences between the two subpopulations is the type of mitochondrial DNA found in individual's cells. Individuals from rookeries in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea have a similar type of mitochondrial DNA, and individuals from the Pacific and Indian Oceans have another type of mitochondrial DNA. Their native range includes tropical to subtropical waters along continental coasts and islands between 30°N and 30°S. Since green sea turtles are a migrating species, their global distribution spans into the open ocean. The differences in mitochondrial DNA more than likely stems from the populations being isolated from each other by the southern tips of both South America and Africa with no warm waters for the green sea turtles to migrate through. The green sea turtle is estimated to inhabit coastal areas of more than 140 countries, with nesting sites in over 80 countries worldwide throughout the year. In the United States Atlantic coast, green sea turtles can be found from Texas and north to Massachusetts. In the United States Pacific coast, they have been found from southern California north to the southernmost tip of Alaska. The largest populations of green sea turtles within the United States coastline are in the Hawaiian Islands and Florida. Globally, the largest populations of sea turtles are in the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, and the Caribbean Sea.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The green sea turtle can generally be found throughout the Atlantic Ocean. Although the species is most abundant in tropical climates, green sea turtles can also be found in temperate climates, and individuals have been spotted as far north as Canada in the western Atlantic, and the British Isles in the east. The subpopulation's southern range is known until past the southern tip of Africa in the east and Argentina in the western Atlantic. The major nesting sites can be found on various islands in the Caribbean, along the Atlantic coast of Florida in the United States, the eastern coast of the South American continent and most notably, on isolated North Atlantic islands.


title: Green sea turtle

text: In the Caribbean, major nesting sites have been identified on Aves Island, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Costa Rica. In recent years, there are signs of increased nesting in the Cayman Islands. One of the region's most important nesting grounds is in Tortuguero in Costa Rica. In fact, the majority of the Caribbean region's "C. mydas" population hails from a few beaches in Tortuguero. Within United States waters, minor nesting sites have been noted in the states of Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Florida's east coast is the largest nesting site in the United States. Hutchinson Island in particular is a major nesting area in Florida waters. Florida has several annual nesting periods when local beaches are closed or cordoned off to protect nesting sites. According to Green Sea Turtle Watch, in 2015 more than 37,000 green sea turtle nests were documented in Florida, a record number. In addition to sporadic distribution of nesting sites, feeding grounds are much more widely distributed throughout Florida. Important feeding grounds in Florida include Indian River Lagoon, the Florida Keys, Florida Bay, Homosassa, Crystal River, and Cedar Key.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Notable locations in South America include secluded beaches in Suriname and French Guiana. In the Southern Atlantic Ocean, the most notable nesting grounds for "Chelonia mydas" are found on the island of Ascension, hosts 6,000–13,000 turtle nests.


title: Green sea turtle

text: In the Pacific, its range reaches as far north as the southern coast of Alaska and as far south as Chile in the east. The turtle's distribution in the western Pacific reaches north to Japan and southern parts of Russia's Pacific coast, and as far south as the northern tip of New Zealand and a few islands south of Tasmania. Significant nesting grounds are scattered throughout the entire Pacific region, including Mexico, the Hawaiian Islands, the South Pacific, the northern coast of Australia, and Southeast Asia. Major Indian Ocean nesting colonies include India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and other coastal countries.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The turtles can also be found throughout the Indian Ocean; the east coast of the African continent hosts a few nesting grounds, including islands in the waters around Madagascar.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Nesting grounds are found all along the Mexican coast. These turtles feed in seagrass pastures in the Gulf of California. Green turtles belonging to the distinct Hawaiian subpopulation nest at the protected French Frigate Shoals some west of the Hawaiian Islands.


title: Green sea turtle

text: In the Philippines, green turtles nest in the Turtle Islands along with closely related hawksbill turtles.


title: Green sea turtle

text: In December 2007, fishermen using a "hulbot-hulbot" (a type of fish net) accidentally caught an , long and wide turtle off Barangay Bolong, Zamboanga City, Philippines. December is breeding season near the Bolong beach.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Off the north-eastern and northern coasts of Australia, the Great Barrier Reef has two genetically distinct populations; one north and one south. Within the reef, 20 separate locations consisting of small islands and cays were identified as nesting sites for either population of "C. mydas". Of these, the most important is on Raine Island. In the Torres Strait there is a large rookery on Bramble Cay. The Coral Sea has nesting areas of world significance.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Major nesting sites are common on either side of the Arabian Sea, both in Ash Sharqiyah, Oman, and along the coast of Karachi, Pakistan. Some specific beaches there, such as Hawke's Bay and Sandspit, are common to both "C. mydas" and "L. olivacea" subpopulation. Sandy beaches along Sindh and Balochistan are nesting sites. Some off the Pakistani coast, Astola island is another nesting beach.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The population that has often been known as the Galápagos green turtle have been recorded and observed in the Galápagos as far back as the 17th century by William Dampier. Not much attention has been paid to them due to the overwhelming research done on the Galápagos giant tortoises. Only over the last 30 years have extensive studies been performed covering the behaviors of the Galápagos green turtles. Much of the debate that has surrounded them recently is over the binomial classification of the species. At one point the name "Chelonia agassizii" was applied to this population as a separate species. Analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA of 15 nesting beaches, however, has demonstrated that there is not only no significant distinction of this population but that it would be paraphyletic to recognise it. As such the species name "Chelonia agassizzii" is considered a junior synonym of "Chelonia mydas" as such it is considered as a local variant of the populations of the East Pacific waters and those of other nesting areas.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The morphological distinctiveness of the Galápagos green turtle has given rise to the debate, but evidence of taxonomic distinctiveness is best served using the combination of multiple datasets. The two most notable morphological distinctions are the considerably smaller adult size and the much darker pigmentation of the carapace, plastron, and extremities. Other distinctions are the curving of the carapace above each hind flipper, the more dome-shaped carapace, and the very long tail of adult males.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Three possibilities have arisen from their unique characteristics: "agassizii" is a separate species from "C. mydas", it is a subspecies of green sea turtle, or it is simply a color mutation. These facts have led to the debate over binomial separation however due to the significance of the DNA testing results there have been no distinctions made at this time. At a meeting for sea turtle scientists and their collaborators in 2000, the evidence for the taxonomic position of the Galápagos green turtle was reviewed and a majority among the participants supported treating it as a population or subspecies of the green turtle (instead of a separate species). However, this is possibly a case of political taxonomy. As such the three major international checklists that cover turtles of the world Reptile Database the checklist of Fritz and Havas (2007) and the IUCN Checklist (TTWG 2017) all consider this a junior synonym.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Green sea turtles move across three habitat types, depending on their life stage. They lay eggs on beaches. Mature turtles spend most of their time in shallow, coastal waters with lush seagrass beds. Adults frequent inshore bays, lagoons, and shoals with lush seagrass meadows. Entire generations often migrate between one pair of feeding and nesting areas. Green sea turtles, "Chelonia mydas", are classified as an aquatic species and are distributed around the globe in warm tropical to subtropical waters. The environmental parameter that limits the distribution of the turtles is ocean temperatures below 7 to 10 degrees Celsius. Within their geographical range, the green sea turtles generally stay near continental and island coastlines. Near the coastlines, the green sea turtles live within shallow bays and protected shores. In these protected shores and bays, the green sea turtle habitats include coral reefs, salt marshes, and nearshore seagrass beds. The coral reefs provide red, brown, and green algae for their diet and give protection from predators and rough storms within the ocean. The salt marshes and seagrass beds contain seaweed and grass vegetation, allowing ample habitat for the sea turtles.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Turtles spend most of their first five years in convergence zones within the bare open ocean that surround them. These young turtles are rarely seen as they swim in deep, pelagic waters. Green sea turtles typically swim at .


title: Green sea turtle

text: As one of the first sea turtle species studied, much of what is known of sea turtle ecology comes from studies of green turtles. The ecology of "C. mydas" changes drastically with each stage of its life history. Newly emerged hatchlings are carnivorous, pelagic organisms, part of the open ocean mininekton. In contrast, immature juveniles and adults are commonly found in seagrass meadows closer inshore as herbivorous grazers.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The diet of green turtles changes with age. Juveniles are carnivorous, but as they mature they become omnivorous. Young sea turtles eat fish eggs, sea hare eggs, hydrozoans, bryozoans, molluscs, jellyfish, small invertebrates, worms, sponges, algae, and crustaceans. Green sea turtles have a relatively slow growth rate because of the low nutritional value of their diet. Body fat turns green because of the consumed vegetation. This diet shift has an effect on the green turtle's skull morphology. Their serrated jaw helps them chew green and red algae (such as filamentous red alga ("Bostrychia"), red moss ("Caloglossa"), freshwater red algae ("Compsopogon"), lobster horns ("Polysiphonia"), sea lettuce ("Ulva lactuca"), green seaweed ("Gayralia"), and crinkle grass ("Rhizoclonium")) and sea grasses. They also consume large quantities of wetland plants such as "Avicennia schaueriana" and "Sporobolus alterniflorus", which are commonly found in salt marshes. Most adult sea turtles are strictly herbivorous.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Only human beings and the larger sharks feed on "C. mydas" adults. Specifically, tiger sharks ("Galeocerdo cuvier") hunt adults in Hawaiian waters. Juveniles and new hatchlings have significantly more predators, including crabs, small marine mammals and shorebirds. Additionally, their eggs are vulnerable to predation by scavengers like red foxes and golden jackals.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Green sea turtles have a variety of parasites including barnacles, leeches, protozoans, cestodes, and nematodes. Barnacles attach to the carapace, and leeches to the flippers and skin of the turtles, causing damage to the soft tissues and leading to blood loss. Protozoans, cestodes and nematodes lead to many turtle deaths because of the infections in the liver and intestinal tract they cause. The greatest disease threat to the turtle population is fibropapilloma, which produces lethal tumor growth on scales, lungs, stomach, and kidneys. Fibropapilloma is caused by a herpesvirus that is transmitted by leeches such as "Ozobranchus branchiatus", a species of leech which feeds almost entirely on green sea turtles.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Green sea turtles migrate long distances between feeding sites and nesting sites; some swim more than to reach their spawning grounds. Beaches in Southeast Asia, India, islands in the western Pacific, and Central America are where green sea turtles breed. Mature turtles often return to the exact beach from which they hatched. Females usually mate every two to four years. Males, on the other hand, visit the breeding areas every year, attempting to mate. Mating seasons vary between populations. For most "C. mydas" in the Caribbean, mating season is from June to September. The French Guiana nesting subpopulation nests from March to June. In the tropics, green turtles nest throughout the year, although some subpopulations prefer particular times of the year. In Pakistan, Indian Ocean turtles nest year-round, but prefer the months of July to December.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Sea turtles return to the beaches on which they were born to lay their own eggs. The reason for returning to native beaches may be that it guarantees the turtles an environment that has the necessary components for their nesting to be successful. These include a sandy beach, easy access for the hatchlings to get to the ocean, the right incubation temperatures, and low probability of predators that may feed on their eggs. Over time these turtles have evolved these tendencies to return to an area that has provided reproductive success for many generations. Their ability to return to their birthplace is known as natal homing. The males also return to their birthplaces in order to mate. These males that return to their homes know they will be able to find mates because the females born there also return to breed. By doing this, the green sea turtles are able to improve their reproductive success and is why they are willing to expend the energy to travel thousands of miles across the ocean in order to reproduce.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Mating behaviour is similar to other marine turtles. Female turtles control the process. A few populations practice polyandry, although this does not seem to benefit hatchlings. After mating in the water, the female moves above the beach's high tide line, where she digs a hole 11-22 inches in depth with her hind flippers and deposits her eggs. The hole is then covered up again. Clutch size ranges between 85 and 200, depending on the age of the female. This process takes about an hour to an hour and a half. After the nest is completely covered, she returns to the sea. The female will do this 3 to 5 times in one season.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The eggs are round and white, and about 45 mm in diameter. The hatchlings remain buried for days until they all emerge together at night. The temperature of the nest determines the sex of the turtles at around the 20-40 day mark. At around 50 to 70 days, the eggs hatch during the night, and the hatchlings instinctively head directly into the water. This is the most dangerous time in a turtle's life. As they walk, predators, such as gulls and crabs, feed on them. A significant percentage never make it to the ocean. Little is known of the initial life history of newly hatched sea turtles. Juveniles spend three to five years in the open ocean before they settle as still-immature juveniles into their permanent shallow-water lifestyle. It is speculated that they take twenty to fifty years to reach sexual maturity. Individuals live up to eighty years in the wild. It is estimated that only 1% of hatchlings reach sexual maturity.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Each year on Ascension Island in the South Atlantic, "C. mydas" females create 6,000 to 25,000 nests. They are among the largest green turtles in the world; many are more than a metre in length and weigh up to .


title: Green sea turtle

text: Sea turtles spend almost all their lives submerged, but must breathe air for the oxygen needed to meet the demands of vigorous activity. With a single explosive exhalation and rapid inhalation, sea turtles can quickly replace the air in their lungs. The lungs permit a rapid exchange of oxygen and prevent gases from being trapped during deep dives. Sea turtle blood can deliver oxygen efficiently to body tissues even at the pressures encountered during diving. During routine activity, green and loggerhead turtles dive for about four to five minutes, and surface to breathe for one to three seconds.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Turtles can rest or sleep underwater for several hours at a time, but submergence time is much shorter while diving for food or to escape predators. Breath-holding ability is affected by activity and stress, which is why turtles quickly drown in shrimp trawlers and other fishing gear. During the night while sleeping and to protect themselves from potential predators, the adults wedge themselves under rocks below the surface and under ledges in reefs and coastal rocks. Many green sea turtles have been observed in returning to the same sleeping location night after night.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Green sea turtles tend to have good vision, well adapted to a life at sea. The turtles can see many colors, but are most sensitive to light from violet to yellow or wavelengths of 400 to 600 nanometers. They do not see many colors in the orange to red portion of the light spectrum. On land, however, the sea turtles are nearsighted because the lenses in the eyes are spherical and adjusted to refraction underwater. Sea turtles have no external ear and only one ear bone, called the columella. With one ear bone, the turtles can hear only low frequency sounds, from 200 to 700 Hz. Sounds can also be detected through vibrations of the head, backbone, and shell. The nose of the turtle has two external openings and connects to the roof of the mouth through internal openings. The lower surface of the nasal passage has two sets of sensory cells called the Jacobson's organ. The turtle can use this organ to smell by pumping water in and out of its nose.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Since green sea turtles migrate long distances during breeding seasons, they have special adaptive systems in order to navigate. In the open ocean, the turtles navigate using wave directions, sun light, and temperatures. The sea turtles also contain an internal magnetic compass. They can detect magnetic information by using magnetic forces acting on the magnetic crystals in their brains. Through these crystals, they can sense the intensity of Earth's magnetic field and are able to make their way back to their nesting grounds or preferred feeding grounds.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Natal homing is an animal's ability to return to its birthplace in order to reproduce. Natal homing is found in all species of sea turtles and in other animals such as salmon. How these turtles are able to return to their birthplace is an interesting phenomenon. Many researchers believe that sea turtles use a process called imprinting, which is a special type of learning that occurs when turtles first hatch that allows them to recognize their native beach. There are two types of imprinting that are thought to be the reason turtles can find these beaches. The first is the chemical imprinting hypothesis. This hypothesis states that much like salmon, sea turtles are able to use olfactory cues and senses to smell their way home. However, a problem with this hypothesis is that some turtles travel thousands of miles to return to their native beaches, and the scents from that area aren't likely to travel and be distinguishable from that distance.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The second hypothesis is the geomagnetic. This hypothesis states that as it hatches, a young turtle will imprint on the magnetic field of the beach they are born on. This hypothesis strongly correlates to the method which sea turtles use to navigate the earth.


title: Green sea turtle

text: In order to tolerate the constant heat loss in the water, sea turtles have the ability to shunt blood away from tissues that are tolerant of low oxygen levels toward the heart, brain, and central nervous system. Other mechanisms include basking on warm beaches and producing heat through their activity and movements of their muscles. Basking turtles sometimes look like they are crying because behind the turtles eye is the lachrymal gland which stores excess salt from the sea water, which then expels through the turtles eye. In the winter months, turtles living at higher latitudes can hibernate for a short period in the mud.


title: Green sea turtle

text: The green sea turtles exhibit sex differences by their development and appearance. As adult turtles, males are easily distinguishable from the females by having a longer tail (visibly extending past the shell) and longer claws on the front flippers. The hatching time and sex of the turtles are determined by the incubation temperature of the nest. Hatchings occur more quickly in nests that are warmer than nests that are in cooler conditions. Warm nesting sites above 30 degrees Celsius favor the development of females, whereas nesting sites below 30 degrees Celsius produce males. The position of the egg in the nest also affects sex-determination. Eggs in the center tend to hatch as females due to the warmer conditions within the nest.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Green sea turtles play an essential role in the ecosystem in which they live. In the seagrass beds, the turtles feed on the seagrass by trimming only the top and leaving the roots of the plant. Through their feeding technique, the turtles help to improve the health and growth of the seagrass beds. The healthy seagrass beds that the turtles provide give habitat and feeding grounds for many species of fish and crustaceans. On the nesting beaches, the green sea turtles provide key nutrients for the ecosystem through their hatched egg shells. In their coral reef habitat, the green sea turtles have a symbiotic interaction with reef fish, including the yellow tang. The yellow tang fish swims along with the turtle and feeds on the algae, barnacles, and parasites on its shell and flippers. This species interaction provides food for the yellow tang and provides a necessary cleaning and smoothing of the turtle's shell. This cleaning helps the turtles swim by reducing the amount of drag and improves their health.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Historically, the turtles' skin was tanned and used to make handbags, especially in Hawaii. Ancient Chinese considered the flesh of sea turtles a culinary delicacy, including and especially "C. mydas". Particularly for this species, the turtle's fat, cartilage, and flesh, known as calipee, are sought as ingredients for making turtle soup, a popular 19th-century English and American dish.


title: Green sea turtle

text: In Java, Indonesia, sea turtle eggs were a popular delicacy. However, the turtle's flesh is regarded as "ḥarām" or "unclean" under Islamic law (Islam is Java's primary religion). In Bali, turtle meat was a prominent feature at ceremonial and religious feasts. Turtles were harvested in the remotest parts of the Indonesian archipelago. Bali has been importing sea turtles since the 1950s, as its own turtle supplies became depleted. The mostly Hindu Balinese do not eat the eggs, but sell them instead to local Muslims.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Commercial farms, such as the Cayman Turtle Farm in the West Indies, once bred them for commercial sale of turtle meat, turtle oil (rendered from the fat), turtle shell, and turtle leather made from the skin. The farm's initial stock was in large part from "doomed" eggs removed from nests threatened by erosion, flooding, or in chemically hostile soil. The farms held as many as 100,000 turtles at any one time. When the international markets were closed by regulations that did not allow even farm-bred turtle products to be exported internationally, the surviving farm became primarily a tourist attraction, supporting 11,000 turtles. Initially started as Mariculture Ltd., then Cayman Turtle Farm Ltd and subsequently branded Boatswain's Beach, in 2010 the farm's brandname was changed to Cayman Turtle Farm: Island Wildlife Encounter.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Sea turtles are integral to the history and culture of the Cayman Islands. When the islands were first discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1503, he named them "Las Tortugas" because of the abundance of sea turtles in the waters around the islands. Many of the earliest visitors came to the Cayman Islands to capture the turtles as a source of fresh meat during long voyages. The green turtle is a national symbol displayed as part of the coat of arms of the Cayman Islands, which also forms part of the national flag of the Cayman Islands. The country's currency uses a turtle as the watermark in its banknotes. A stylised sea turtle nicknamed "Sir Turtle" is the mascot of the national airline Cayman Airways and is part of the livery of its aircraft.


title: Green sea turtle

text: A ki'i pōhaku (petroglyph) of a green sea turtle (or honu) can be found on the Big Island of Hawaii in the Pu'u Loa lava fields. The green sea turtle has always held a special meaning for Hawaiians and this petroglyph shows its importance; it may date to when the Hawaiian Islands first became populated. The turtle symbolizes a navigator that can find his way home time after time. This symbol mirrors the real life of the green Hawaiian turtle as it will swim hundreds of miles to lay its eggs at its own place of birth. Though there are other myths as well, some Hawaiian legends say the honu were the first to guide the Polynesians to the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaiians revere the turtle and the legend of Kailua, a turtle who could take the form of a girl at will. In human form, she looked after the children playing on Punalu'u Beach.


title: Green sea turtle

text: In recent decades, sea turtles have moved from unrestricted exploitation to global protection, with individual countries providing additional protection, although serious threats remain unabated.


title: Green sea turtle

text: Human action presents both intentional and unintentional threats to the species' survival. Intentional threats include continued hunting, poaching and egg harvesting. More dangerous are unintentional threats, including boat strikes, fishermen's nets that lack turtle excluder devices, pollution and habitat destruction. Chemical pollution may create tumors; effluent from harbors near nesting sites may create disturbances; and light pollution may disorient hatchlings. With chemical pollution present, there is a development of tar balls that is often eaten by green sea turtles in a confusion of their food. Tar balls cause the green sea turtle to intake toxins that can block their guts, displace the liver and intestines causing swelling of the tissue. Habitat loss usually occurs due to human development of nesting areas. Beach-front construction, land "reclamation" and increased tourism are examples of such development. An infectious tumor-causing disease, fibropapillomatosis, is also a problem in some populations. The disease kills a sizeable fraction of those it infects, though some individuals seem to resist the disease. In addition, at least in the Southwestern Atlantic (Río de la Plata, Uruguay), exotic invasive species such as the rapa whelk Rapana venosa, were reported massively bio-fouling immature green turtles, reducing buoyancy, increasing drag, and causing severe injuries to the carapace. Because of these threats, many populations are in a vulnerable state.