title: Colchester

text: Colchester has been an important military garrison since the Roman era. The Colchester Garrison is currently home to the 16th Air Assault Brigade. The Army's only military corrective training centre, known colloquially within the forces and locally as "The Glasshouse" after the original military prison in Aldershot, is in Berechurch Hall Road, on the outskirts of Colchester. The centre holds men and women from all three services who are sentenced to serve periods of detention.


title: Colchester

text: From 1998 to 2008, the garrison area of the city underwent massive redevelopment. A lot of the Ministry of Defence land was sold for private housing development and parts of the garrison were moved. Many parts of the garrison now stand empty awaiting the second phase of the development.


title: Colchester

text: Since 2006, Colchester has been one of 12 places in the UK where Royal Salutes are fired to mark Royal anniversaries and visits by foreign heads of state. From 2009, these salutes have taken place in Castle Park.


title: Colchester

text: Control of the council is currently held by a coalition of the Conservatives and Independents by just one seat. The Liberal Democrats, the Labour Party and the Green Party operate a combined opposition.


title: Colchester

text: The city is also represented on Essex County Council, containing six County electoral divisions. Villages within the borough are represented by various parish councils. The former municipal borough of Colchester contains only one parish council (Myland Community Council formed in 1999) with the rest of Colchester Town being unparished since the parish was abolished on 1 April 1974.


title: Colchester

text: The seat of local government is Colchester Town Hall, a late-Victorian baroque edifice by John Belcher. It is the latest in a series of local government buildings to have stood on the same site since the 12th century. The 162-foot clock tower was presented by James Paxman; it is topped by a figure of St Helena, who is linked by legend to the city.


title: Colchester

text: The city's former MP, Liberal Democrat Sir Bob Russell, has held the ceremonial role of High Steward of Colchester since 2015.


title: Colchester

text: Colchester houses several museums. The Castle Museum, found within Colchester Castle, features an extensive exhibit on Roman Colchester. Nearby are Hollytrees Museum, a social history museum with children's exhibits in the former home of Charles Gray, and the city's Natural History Museum, located in the former All Saints' Church. The Colchester Archaeological Trust have opened a visitor centre and museum at the former Cavalry Barracks to display finds from the Roman Circus, with replicas and models of the circus, as well as finds from the nearby Roman cemeteries. In 2014 brick and marble columns from the monumental façade of the precinct of the Temple of Claudius were discovered behind the High Street, with plans to make them visible to the public.


title: Colchester

text: Gosbecks Archaeological Park is situated south-west of the city, and consists of a preserved Roman theatre and Romano-British temple marked out on the ground. The park was the location of a large high-status late Iron Age farmstead, known as "Cunobelin's farm" after the Catuvellauni king, whose coin moulds were found in large quantities at the site. In the Roman period the site was the location of a large Romano-British temple and Britain's largest Roman theatre, twice as large as the one in the city. The park is also close to the post-conquest Stanway burials, a Roman fort and the still-extant defensive earthworks of the Iron Age fortress (the most extensive of their kind in Britain). The Iron Age earthwork ditch and bank defences are open to the public as wooded parkland.


title: Colchester

text: Opened in 1972, the Mercury Theatre is a repertory theatre. Located nearby is Colchester Arts Centre, a multi-function arts venue located in the former St Mary-at-the-Walls church, and home of the Colchester Beer Festival. The Headgate Theatre is also located in Colchester.


title: Colchester

text: Firstsite is a contemporary art organisation, based in the Visual Arts Facility, which was designed by Rafael Viñoly, and opened in September 2011, at a total cost of approximately £25.5 million, £9 million more than the original estimate.


title: Colchester

text: The Minories houses The Minories Galleries, which is managed by Colchester Institute and presents contemporary exhibitions by artists from the region. The building is owned by the Victor Batte-Lay Foundation.


title: Colchester

text: In 2009, an art collective called 'Slack Space' took up some of the closed-down shops in the city and converted them into art galleries with the hope of promoting art and design in the city. The Colchester School of Art, opened in 1885, is based in the Colchester Institute, near the centre of the city.


title: Colchester

text: A film festival, showcasing a selection of new feature and short films from around the world and centred at the VAF, was held from to 2012 to 2017 (excluding 2016).


title: Colchester

text: The city has 12 cinema screens spread across the 8 screen Odeon, 3 screen Curzon and 1 screen in the firstsite gallery.


title: Colchester

text: The city's link with football began with the amateur club Colchester Town, which was formed in 1867 and dissolved in 1937. They were succeeded by professional club Colchester United, who compete in Football League Two (as at Season 2022–23) and play home games at Colchester Community Stadium. Founded in 1937, the club entered the Football League in 1950. Colchester United Ladies play in the FA Women's Premier League Southern Division. Other sports teams based in the city include Colchester School of Gymnastics, Colchester Rugby Football Club, Colchester Gladiators American Football Club, Colchester Weight Lifting Club, Colchester Powerlifting Club (ColPower) and Colchester & East Essex Cricket Club. Essex County Cricket Club play some of their home games at Castle Park Cricket Ground, home of Colchester & East Essex.


title: Colchester

text: Sports facilities in Colchester include the sports centre, Colchester Leisure World, Colchester Garrison Athletics Stadium (a co-operative facility used by both the army and civilian population) and a skatepark.


title: Colchester

text: The centre is home to upmarket department store Fenwicks (still referred to by locals by its former name of Williams & Griffin (Willie Gees)), Primark, H&M, Boots, WH Smith and many local independent stores. The 90 year old M&S store on the High Street relocated to Stanway to the west of the city in 2022 adding to the large empty retails stores of the former co-op and Debenhams in the heart of the city


title: Colchester

text: Colchester suffered in the First World War, losing some 1,248 in the conflict. As early as 1918 prominent voices in the city were calling for a war memorial, with Councillor Edgar A. Hunt making the first formal proposition in an open letter to the press published on Christmas Day of that year. Shortly after the publication of the letter, a committee was set up to decide the form of the monument, with several practical schemes favoured by the working class of the city. The committee formed to choose a proposal decided on a sculptural monument on 16 May 1919 with a vote of 7 to 9. Following a visit to the Royal Academy's War Memorial Exhibition the sculptor Henry Charles Fehr was chosen to undertake the work, for which he was paid £3,000. The memorial consists of three human figures on a sculptural pedestal. The figures are of Saint George, an allegorical representation of peace and the Goddess Nike.


title: Colchester

text: Construction of the walls of Colchester took place between 65 and 80 AD, shortly after the destruction of the undefended "colonia" by Boudicca, and they continued in use until after the Siege of Colchester in 1648. Two large stretches of the wall are still standing on the west and north sides and a number of fragments are visible along the rest of the circuit. A notable survival is the Balkerne Gate, which is the earliest and most complete Roman gateway in the United Kingdom. A circular walk of nearly follows the course of the wall and the surviving portions.


title: Colchester

text: Completed in 1883 when the Town Council took over Colchester's water supply, the water tower was originally called the "Balkerne Water Tower", but soon became known as "Jumbo" because of its large size, which prompted the addition of an elephant-shaped weather vane at its peak. The tower was decommissioned in 1987 and has had several private owners pending redevelopment.


title: Colchester

text: The town hall is built on the site of the original moot hall, first recorded in 1277 and demolished in 1843. Replacing a Victorian town hall which had become unstable, work on the present building started in 1897 to the design of John Belcher in the Edwardian Baroque style, and was opened in 1902 by former prime minister, the Earl of Rosebery. The building dominates the High Street and the 192-foot (58.5-metre) Victoria Tower is widely visible. The tower was intended to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria and was funded by a donation from James Noah Paxman, the founder of Davey, Paxman & Co. It features four allegorical figures by L J Watts representing engineering, military defence, agriculture and fishery. At the top of the tower is a large bronze figure representing Saint Helena (the patron saint of Colchester) holding the True Cross; a local story says that a councillor was dispatched to Italy to find a statue of the saint, but could only find one of the Virgin Mary, which then had to be modified locally.


title: Colchester

text: As is the case for the rest of Essex, Colchester's state schooling operates a two-tier system. Two of the city's secondary schools are selective, Colchester Royal Grammar School and Colchester County High School for Girls, the remainder being comprehensives. Comprehensive secondary schools include The Gilberd School, Colchester Academy, Philip Morant School and College, St Helena School, St Benedict's Catholic College, Thomas Lord Audley School and the Paxman Academy.


title: Colchester

text: The University of Essex is located to the east of Colchester in Wivenhoe Park, in the civil parish of Wivenhoe. Other tertiary institutions include Colchester Sixth Form College and Colchester Institute.


title: Colchester

text: Colchester's bus services are operated primarily by First Essex and Arriva Colchester, as well as by Hedingham & Chambers, Beeston's, Ipswich Buses and Panther Travel (Essex). The bus station is located in Osborne Street, on the southern edge of the city centre. Key routes include the 71 to Chelmsford and the 74 to Clacton-on-Sea.


title: Colchester

text: Colchester railway station is located on the Great Eastern Main Line, which is operated by Abellio Greater Anglia. There are regular direct services to London Liverpool Street, Chelmsford, Clacton, Walton-on-the-Naze, Ipswich and Norwich. There are also trains to the city's secondary station, Colchester Town, and Hythe station which serve the Sunshine Coast Line.


title: Colchester

text: Colchester is linked directly to east London and East Anglia by the A12, which is the region's main trunk route.


title: Colchester

text: The Roman historian Tacitus mentions Colchester (Camulodunum) in "The Annals of Imperial Rome". In Book XIV he describes how '...the Roman ex-soldiers...had recently established a settlement at Camulodunum', later burned down in the Iceni rebellion.


title: Colchester

text: It is the only town in Britain to have been explicitly mentioned in George Orwell's novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four" as being the target of a nuclear attack. The (fictional) Atomic Wars took place during the 1950s. Colchester is the only town that was specifically mentioned as being bombed, but the book does say that many cities were destroyed in North America, Europe, and Russia.


title: Colchester

text: Colchester is reputed to be the home of three of the best known English nursery rhymes: 'Old King Cole', 'Humpty Dumpty' and 'Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star', although the legitimacy of all three claims is disputed.


title: Colchester

text: Local legend places Colchester as the seat of King Cole (or Coel) of the rhyme "Old King Cole", a legendary ancient king of Britain. The name Colchester is from Latin: the place-name suffixes "chester", "cester", and "caster" derive from the Latin word "castrum" (fortified place). In folk etymology the name Colchester was thought of as meaning Cole's Castle , though this theory does not have academic support. In the legend Helena, the daughter of Cole, married the Roman senator Constantius Chlorus, who had been sent by Rome as an ambassador and was named as Cole's successor. Helena's son became Emperor Constantine I. Helena was canonised as Saint Helena of Constantinople and is credited with finding the true cross and the remains of the Magi. She is now the patron saint of Colchester. This is recognised in the emblem of Colchester: a cross and three crowns. The Mayor's medallion contains a Byzantine style icon of Saint Helena. A local secondary school – St Helena's – is named after her, and her statue is atop the town hall, although local legend is that it was originally a statue of Blessed Virgin Mary which was later fitted with a cross.


title: Colchester

text: Colchester is a widely credited source of the rhyme Humpty Dumpty. During the siege of Colchester in the Civil War, a Royalist sniper known as One-Eyed Thompson sat in the belfry of the church of St Mary-at-the-Walls ("Humpty Dumpty sat on the wall") and was given the nickname Humpty Dumpty, most likely because of his size, "Humpty Dumpty" being a common insult for the overweight. Thompson was shot down ("Humpty Dumpty had a great fall") and, shortly after, the town was lost to the Parliamentarians ("all the king's horses and all the king's men / couldn't put Humpty together again.") Another version says that Humpty Dumpty was a cannon on the top of the church. The church of St Mary-at-the-Walls still retains its Norman tower until the top few feet, which are a Georgian repair.


title: Colchester

text: The third rhyme said to have come from Colchester is Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, which was written by Jane Taylor who lived in the city's Dutch Quarter, and published in 1806 with the title "The Star".


title: Colchester

text: Colchester has also been suggested as one of the potential sites of Camelot, on account of having been the capital of Roman Britain and its ancient name of "Camulodunum": this is not considered likely by academics, as in Arthurian times Colchester was under Saxon control.


title: Colchester

text: The "Doctor Who" episodes "The Lodger" and "Closing Time" are set in Colchester, although they were filmed in Cardiff.


title: Colchester

text: In the Asterix comic book "Asterix in Britain" the Camulodunum rugby team wins a game against Durovernum (Roman name for Canterbury). The uniforms worn during the match in the book are similar to the modern kit of Colchester United.


title: Colchester

text: Colchester appears in the video game Assassin's Creed Valhalla, with the city recreated as it was in the early medieval period.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever, is a disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. The urinary tract or the intestines may be infected. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody stool, or blood in the urine. Those who have been infected for a long time may experience liver damage, kidney failure, infertility, or bladder cancer. In children, it may cause poor growth and learning difficulty.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The disease is spread by contact with fresh water contaminated with the parasites. These parasites are released from infected freshwater snails. The disease is especially common among children in developing countries, as they are more likely to play in contaminated water. Other high-risk groups include farmers, fishermen, and people using unclean water during daily living. It belongs to the group of helminth infections. Diagnosis is by finding eggs of the parasite in a person's urine or stool. It can also be confirmed by finding antibodies against the disease in the blood.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Methods of preventing the disease include improving access to clean water and reducing the number of snails. In areas where the disease is common, the medication praziquantel may be given once a year to the entire group. This is done to decrease the number of people infected, and consequently, the spread of the disease. Praziquantel is also the treatment recommended by the World Health Organization for those who are known to be infected.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Schistosomiasis affected about 236.6 million people worldwide in 2019. An estimated 4,400 to 200,000 people die from it each year. The disease is most commonly found in Africa, Asia, and South America. Around 700 million people, in more than 70 countries, live in areas where the disease is common. In tropical countries, schistosomiasis is second only to malaria among parasitic diseases with the greatest economic impact. Schistosomiasis is listed as a neglected tropical disease.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Many individuals do not experience symptoms. If symptoms do appear, they usually take 4–6 weeks from the time of infection. The first symptom of the disease may be a general feeling of illness. Within 12 hours of infection, an individual may complain of a tingling sensation or light rash, commonly referred to as "swimmer's itch", due to irritation at the point of entrance. The rash that may develop can mimic scabies and other types of rashes. Other symptoms can occur 2–10 weeks later and can include fever, aching, a cough, diarrhea, chills, or gland enlargement. These symptoms can also be related to avian schistosomiasis, which does not cause any further symptoms in humans.<ref name="Schistosoma/Schistosomiasis"></ref>


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The manifestations of schistosomal infection vary over time as the cercariae, and later adult worms and their eggs, migrate through the body. If eggs migrate to the brain or spinal cord, seizures, paralysis, or spinal-cord inflammation are possible.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Manifestation of acute infection from schistosoma include cercarial dermatitis (hours to days) and acute schistosomiasis (2–8 weeks).


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The first potential reaction is an itchy, maculopapular rash that results from cercariae penetrating the skin within the first 12 hours to days of cercarial skin penetration. The first time a non-sensitized person is exposed, the rashes are usually mild with an associated prickling sensation that quickly disappear on its own since this is a type of hypersensitivity reaction. In sensitized people who have previously been infected, the rash can develop into itchy, red, raised lesions (papules) with some turning into fluid-filled lesions (vesicles). Previous infections with cercariae causes a faster developing and worse presentation of dermatitis due to the stronger immune response. The round bumps are usually one to three centimeters across. Because people living in affected areas have often been repeatedly exposed, acute reactions are more common in tourists and migrants. The rash can occur between the first few hours and a week after exposure, and they normally resolve on their own in around 7–10 days. For human schistosomiasis, a similar type of dermatitis called "swimmer's itch" can also be caused by cercariae from animal trematodes that often infect birds. Cercarial dermatitis is not contagious and can not be transmitted from person-to-person.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Scratching the rash can lead to secondary bacterial infection of the skin, thus it is important to refrain from scratching. Some common treatments for itching include corticosteroid cream, anti-itch lotion, application of cool compresses to rash, bathing in Epsom salts or baking soda, and in severe itching cases, prescription strength cream and lotions. Oral antihistamines can also help relieve the itching.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Acute schistosomiasis (Katayama fever) may occur weeks or months (around 2–8 weeks) after the initial infection as a systemic reaction against migrating schistosomulae as they pass through the bloodstream through the lungs to the liver and also against the antigens of eggs. Similarly to swimmer's itch, Katayama fever is more commonly seen in people with their first infection such as migrants and tourists, and it is associated with heavy infection. It is seen, however, in native residents of China infected with "S. japonicum". "S. japonicum" can cause acute schistosomiasis in chronically infected population, and it can lead to a more severe form of acute schistosomiasis.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Acute schistosomiasis usually self-resolves in 2–8 weeks in most cases., but a small proportion of people have persistent weight loss, diarrhea, diffuse abdominal pain, and rash.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: In long-established disease, adult worms lay eggs that can cause inflammatory reactions. The eggs secrete proteolytic enzymes that help them migrate to the bladder and intestines to be shed. The enzymes also cause an eosinophilic inflammatory reaction when eggs get trapped in tissues or embolize to the liver, spleen, lungs, or brain. The long-term manifestations are dependent on the species of schistosome, as the adult worms of different species migrate to different areas. Many infections are mildly symptomatic, with anemia and malnutrition being common in endemic areas.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The worms of "S. mansoni" and "S. japonicum" migrate to the veins of the gastrointestinal tract and liver. Eggs in the gut wall can lead to pain, blood in the stool, and diarrhea (especially in children). Severe disease can lead to narrowing of the colon or rectum.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: In intestinal schistosomiasis, eggs become lodged in the intestinal wall during their migration from the mesenteric venules to the intestinal lumen, and the trapped eggs cause an immune system reaction called a granulomatous reaction. They mostly affect the large bowel and rectum, and involvement of the small bowel is more rare. This immune response can lead to obstruction of the colon and blood loss. The infected individual may have what appears to be a potbelly. There is a strong correlation between morbidity of intestinal schistosomiasis and the intensities of infection. In cases of light infections, symptoms may be mild and can go unrecognized. The most common species to cause intestinal schistosomiasis are "S. mansoni" and "S. japonicum", however, "S. mekongi" and "S. intercalatum" can also cause this disease.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Approximately 10-50% of people living in endemic regions of "S. mansoni" and "S. japonicum" develop intestinal schistosomiasis. "S. mansoni" infection epidemiologically overlaps with high HIV prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa, where gastrointestinal schistosomiasis has been linked to increased HIV transmission.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Eggs also migrate to the liver leading to fibrosis in 4 to 8% of people with chronic infection, mainly those with long-term heavy infection.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Eggs can become lodged in the liver, leading to portal hypertension, splenomegaly, the buildup of fluid in the abdomen, and potentially life-threatening dilations or swollen areas in the esophagus or gastrointestinal tract that can tear and bleed profusely (esophageal varices). This condition can be separated into two distinct phases: inflammatory hepatic schistosomiasis (early inflammatory reaction) and chronic hepatic schistosomiasis. Most common species to cause this condition are "S. mansoni", "S. japonicum", and "S. mekongi".


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Portal hypertension secondary to hepatosplenic schistosomiasis can cause vessel connections between the portal (liver and gut) circulation and systemic circulation to develop, which creates a pathway for the eggs and worms to travel to the lungs. The eggs can be deposited around the alveolar capillary beds and causes granulomatous inflammation of the pulmonary arterioles followed by fibrosis. This leads to high blood pressure in the pulmonary circulation system (pulmonary hypertension), increased pressure in the right heart, enlargement of the pulmonary artery and right atria, and thickening of the right ventricular wall.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The worms of "S. haematobium" migrate to the veins around the bladder and ureters where they reproduce. "S. haematobium" can produce up to 3000 eggs per day, these eggs migrate from the veins to the bladder and ureter lumens, but up to 50 percent of them can become trapped in the surrounding tissues causing granulomatous inflammation, polyps formation, and ulceration of bladder, ureter, and genital tract tissues. This can lead to blood in the urine 10 to 12 weeks after infection. Over time, fibrosis can lead to obstruction of the urinary tract, hydronephrosis, and kidney failure. Bladder cancer diagnosis and mortality are generally elevated in affected areas; efforts to control schistosomiasis in Egypt have led to decreases in the bladder cancer rate. The risk of bladder cancer appears to be especially high in male smokers, perhaps due to chronic irritation of the bladder lining allowing it to be exposed to carcinogens from smoking.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: In women, genitourinary disease can also include genital lesions that may lead to increased rates of HIV transmission. If lesions involve the fallopian tubes or ovaries, it may lead to infertility. If the reproductive organs in male are affected, there could be blood in the sperm.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Kidney function is unaffected in many cases, and the lesions are reversible with proper treatment to eliminate the worms.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Central nervous system lesions occur occasionally due to inflammation and granuloma development around eggs or worms that find their way to the brain or spinal cord through the circulatory system, and they can potentially develop irreversible scarring without proper treatment. Cerebral granulomatous disease may be caused by "S. japonicum" eggs in the brain during both the acute and chronic phase of the disease. Communities in China affected by "S. japonicum" have rates of seizures eight times higher than baseline. Cerebral granulomatous infection may also be caused by "S. mansoni". "In situ" egg deposition following the anomalous migration of the adult worm, which appears to be the only mechanism by which "Schistosoma" can reach the central nervous system in people with schistosomiasis. The destructive action on the nervous tissue and the mass effect produced by a large number of eggs surrounded by multiple, large granulomas in circumscribed areas of the brain characterize the pseudotumoral form of neuroschistosomiasis and are responsible for the appearance of clinical manifestations: headache, hemiparesis, altered mental status, vertigo, visual abnormalities, seizures, and ataxia. Similarly, granulomatous lesions from "S. mansoni" and "S. haematobium" eggs in the spinal cord can lead to transverse myelitis (inflammation of the spinal cord) with flaccid paraplegia. In cases with advanced hepatosplenic and urinary schistosomiasis, the continuous embolization of eggs from the portal mesenteric system ("S. mansoni") or portal mesenteric-pelvic system ("S. haematobium") to the brain, results in a sparse distribution of eggs associated with scant periovular inflammatory reaction, usually with little or no clinical significance.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Corticosteroids is used to prevent permanent neurological damage from the inflammatory response to the eggs, and sometimes anticonvulsant is needed to stop the seizures. Corticosteroid is given prior to administration of praziquantel.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Infected "Schistosoma" individuals release eggs into water via their fecal material or urine. After larvae hatch from these eggs, the larvae infect a very specific type of freshwater snail. For example, in "S. haematobium" and "S. intercalatum" it is snails of the genus "Bulinus", in "S. mansoni" it is "Biomphalaria", and in "S. japonicum" it is "Oncomelania". The schistosome larvae undergo the next phase of their lifecycles in these snails, spending their time reproducing and developing. Once this step has been completed, the parasite leaves the snail and enters the water column. The parasite can live in the water for only 48 hours without a mammalian host. Once a host has been found, the worm enters its blood vessels. For several weeks, the worm remains in the vessels, continuing its development into its adult phase. When maturity is reached, mating occurs and eggs are produced. Eggs enter the bladder/intestine and are excreted through urine and feces and the process repeats. If the eggs do not get excreted, they can become engrained in the body tissues and cause a variety of problems such as immune reactions and organ damage. While transmission typically occurs only in countries where the freshwater snails are endemic, a case in Germany was reported where a man got schistosomiasis from an infected snail in his aquarium.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Humans encounter larvae of the schistosome parasite when they enter contaminated water while bathing, playing, swimming, washing, fishing, or walking through the water.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Schistosomes can live an average of 3–5 years, and the eggs can survive for more than 30 years after infection.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Schistosomiasis is also a concern of cattle husbandry and mice. O-methyl-threonine is weakly effective in mouse schistosomiasis but is not in use.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The infectious stage starts when the free-swimming larval form of the schistosome, cercariae, penetrates the human skin using their suckers, proteolytic enzymes, and tail movements; the cercariae transformed into schistosomulae by losing its tail and subsequently travels to the heart and lungs through venous system until it eventually reach the liver where it will mature into the adult form. The diseases caused by the schistomes are characterized into acute schistosomiasis and chronic schistosomiasis, and they can vary dependent on the species of schistosome.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The clinical manifestations of chronic infection is mainly caused by immune reaction to the eggs entrapment within tissues resulting in granuloma formation and chronic inflammation. Adult worms live together in pairs (one male and female), sexually reproduce, and lay eggs in the veins around the intestines and bladder depending on the species, and these eggs can rupture the wall of the veins to escape to the surrounding tissues. The eggs make their way through the tissues to the intestinal or bladder lumen with help of proteolytic enzymes, however, a large amount of eggs are unable to finish their journey and remained stuck within the tissues where they can elicit an immune response. The miracidia in these eggs can then release antigens that stimulate an inflammatory immune response. The miracidia within the eggs live for around 6–8 weeks before they die and stop releasing the antigens. The granulomatous response is a cellular immune response mediated by CD4 T cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, macrophages, and monocytes, and this chronic inflammatory response elicited by the eggs can cause fibrosis, tissue destruction, and granuloma nodules that disrupt the functions of the organs involved. Th1 helper cell response is prominent releasing cytokines such as IFN-γ during the early phases of infection, and it transitions to Th2 response leading to increase in level of IgE, IL-4, and eosinophils as egg production progresses. In chronic infections, the Th2 response shifts to increasing the level of IL-10, IL-13, and IgG4, which reverses the progression of the granulomas and lead to collagen deposition at the sites of the granulomas. The specific clinical symptoms and severity of the disease this causes depends on the type of schistosome infection, duration of infection, number of eggs, and the organ at which the eggs are deposited. The amount of eggs entrapped in the tissues will continue to increase if the schistosoma are not eliminated.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Diagnosis of infection is confirmed by the identification of eggs in stools. Eggs of "S. mansoni" are about 140 by 60 µm in size and have a lateral spine. The diagnosis is improved through the use of the Kato-Katz technique, a semiquantitative stool examination technique. Other methods that can be used are enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, circumoval precipitation test, and alkaline phosphatase immunoassay.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Microscopic identification of eggs in stool or urine is the most practical method for diagnosis. Stool examination should be performed when infection with "S. mansoni" or "S. japonicum" is suspected, and urine examination should be performed if "S. haematobium" is suspected. Eggs can be present in the stool in infections with all "Schistosoma" species. The examination can be performed on a simple smear (1 to 2 mg of fecal material). Because eggs may be passed intermittently or in small numbers, their detection is enhanced by repeated examinations or concentration procedures, or both. In addition, for field surveys and investigational purposes, the egg output can be quantified by using the Kato-Katz technique (20 to 50 mg of fecal material) or the Ritchie technique. Eggs can be found in the urine in infections with "S. haematobium" (recommended time for collection: between noon and 3 PM) and with "S. japonicum". Quantification is possible by using filtration through a nucleopore filter membrane of a standard volume of urine followed by egg counts on the membrane. Tissue biopsy (rectal biopsy for all species and biopsy of the bladder for "S. haematobium") may demonstrate eggs when stool or urine examinations are negative.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Identification of microhematuria in urine using urine reagent strips is more accurate than circulating antigen tests in the identification of active schistosomiasis in endemic areas.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Antibody detection can be useful to indicate schistosome infection in people who have traveled to areas where schistosomiasis is common and in whom eggs cannot be demonstrated in fecal or urine specimens. Test sensitivity and specificity vary widely among the many tests reported for the serologic diagnosis of schistosomiasis and are dependent on both the type of antigen preparations used (crude, purified, adult worm, egg, cercarial) and the test procedure.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: At the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, a combination of tests with purified adult worm antigens is used for antibody detection. All serum specimens are tested by FAST-ELISA using "S. mansoni" adult microsomal antigen. A positive reaction (greater than 9 units/µl serum) indicates infection with "Schistosoma" species. Sensitivity for "S. mansoni" infection is 99%, 95% for "S. haematobium" infection, and less than 50% for "S. japonicum" infection. Specificity of this assay for detecting schistosome infection is 99%. Because test sensitivity with the FAST-ELISA is reduced for species other than "S. mansoni", immunoblots of the species appropriate to the person's travel history are also tested to ensure detection of "S. haematobium" and "S. japonicum" infections. Immunoblots with adult worm microsomal antigens are species-specific, so a positive reaction indicates the infecting species. The presence of antibody is indicative only of schistosome infection at some time and cannot be correlated with clinical status, worm burden, egg production, or prognosis. Where a person has traveled can help determine which "Schistosoma" species to test for by immunoblot.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: In 2005, a field evaluation of a novel handheld microscope was undertaken in Uganda for the diagnosis of intestinal schistosomiasis by a team led by Russell Stothard from the Natural History Museum of London, working with the Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, London.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based testing is accurate and rapid. However, it is not frequently used in countries where the disease is common due to the cost of the equipment and the technical expertise required to run the tests. Using a microscope to detect eggs costs about US$0.40 per test whereas PCR is about $US 7 per test as of 2019. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification are being studied as they are lower cost. LAMP testing is not commercially available as of 2019.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: "S. haematobium" screening in the community can be done by using urine dip-stick to check for hematuria, and the stool guaiac test can be used to test for blood in the stool for potential "S. mansoni" and "S. japonicum" infection. For travelers or migrants in endemic regions, complete blood count with differential can be used to identify a high level of eosinophil in the blood, which could be indicative of an acute infection. Liver function test can be ordered if hepatosplenic schistosomiasis is suspected, and a subsequent hepatitis test panel can be ordered if liver function test is abnormal.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: If other diagnostic methods of schistosomiasis have failed to detect the infection, but there is still a high suspicion for schistosomiasis, tissue biopsy from the rectum, bladder, and liver can be obtained to look for schistosome eggs within the tissue samples.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Imaging modalities such as X-rays, ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be utilized to evaluate for severity of schistosomiasis and damages of the infected organs. For example, X-ray and CT scans of the chest can be used to detect lesions in the lungs from pulmonary schistosomiasis, and pelvic X-ray can reveal calcification of the bladder in chronic urinary schistosomiasis. Ultrasound may be used to look for abnormalities in the liver and spleen in hepatosplenic schistosomiasis, and CT scan of the liver is a good tool to look for calcification in the liver associated with "S. japonicum" infection. CT scan can also be used to assess damages from the schistosomiasis infection in the intestinal, urogenital, and central nervous system. MRI is used to evaluate schistosomiasis of the central nervous system, liver, and genital.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: PET/CT scan that identifies tissues with higher metabolic activity have been used to help diagnose schistosomiasis in rare cases. This is due to the high level of inflammation caused by the schistosomal eggs, which increases the metabolic rate of the surrounding tissues.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Many countries are working towards eradicating the disease. The World Health Organization is promoting these efforts. In some cases, urbanization, pollution, and the consequent destruction of snail habitat have reduced exposure, with a subsequent decrease in new infections. The elimination of snail populations using molluscicides had been attempted to prevent schistosomiasis in the past, but it was an expensive process that often only reduce but not eliminate the snail population. The drug praziquantel is used for prevention in high-risk populations living in areas where the disease is common. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention advises avoiding drinking or coming into contact with contaminated water in areas where schistosomiasis is common.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: A 2014 review found tentative evidence that increasing access to clean water and sanitation reduces schistosome infection.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Other important preventive measures include hygiene education leading to behavioral change and sanitary engineering to ensure safe water supply.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: For schistosomiasis control, World Health Organization recommends preventive chemotherapy, which is treatment of entire affected population and periodic treatment of all groups at high-risk at acquiring schistosomiasis with use of Praziquantel. In 2019, 44.5% of people with schistosomiasis was treated globally, and 67.2% of school-aged children needed preventive chemotherapy received treatment.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: For many years from the 1950s onwards, vast dams and irrigation schemes were constructed, causing a massive rise in water-borne infections from schistosomiasis. The detailed specifications laid out in various United Nations documents since the 1950s could have minimized this problem. Irrigation schemes can be designed to make it hard for the snails to colonize the water and to reduce the contact with the local population. Even though guidelines on how to design these schemes to minimise the spread of the disease had been published years before, the designers were unaware of them. The dams appear to have reduced the population of the large migratory prawn "Macrobrachium", which eats the snails. After the construction of fourteen large dams, greater increases in schistosomiasis occurred in the historical habitats of native prawns than in other areas. Further, at the 1986 Diama Dam on the Senegal River, restoring prawns upstream of the dam reduced both snail density and the human schistosomiasis reinfection rate.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: In China, the national strategy for schistosomiasis control has shifted three times since it was first initiated: transmission control strategy (from mid-1950s to early 1980s), morbidity control strategy (from mid-1980s to 2003), and the "new integrated strategy" (2004 to present). The morbidity control strategy focused on synchronous chemotherapy for humans and bovines and the new strategy developed in 2004 intervenes in the transmission pathway of schistosomiasis, mainly including replacement of bovines with machines, prohibition of grazing cattle in the grasslands, improving sanitation, installation of fecal-matter containers on boats, praziquantel drug therapy, snail control, and health education. A 2018 review found that the "new integrated strategy" was highly effective to reduce the rate of "S. japonicum" infection in both humans and the intermediate host snails and reduced the infection risk by 3–4 times relative to the conventional strategy.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Two drugs, praziquantel and oxamniquine, are available for the treatment of schistosomiasis. They are considered equivalent in relation to efficacy against "S. mansoni" and safety. Because of praziquantel's lower cost per treatment, and oxaminiquine's lack of efficacy against the urogenital form of the disease caused by "S. haematobium", in general praziquantel is considered the first option for treatment. Praziquantel can be safely used in pregnant women and young children. The treatment objective is to cure the disease and to prevent the evolution of the acute to the chronic form of the disease. All cases of suspected schistosomiasis should be treated regardless of presentation because the adult parasite can live in the host for years.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Praziquantel only eliminates the adult schistosomes, but it is not effective in killing the eggs and immature worms. Live eggs can be excreted by the infected individuals for weeks after treatment with praziquantel. The immature worms can survive and grow up to be adult schistosomes after praziquantel therapy. Thus, it is important to have repeated schistosomiasis testing of the stool and/or urine around 4–6 weeks after praziquantel therapy. Treatment of praziquantel may be repeated to ensure complete elimination of the parasite.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The WHO has developed guidelines for community treatment based on the impact the disease has on children in villages in which it is common:


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Other possible treatments include a combination of praziquantel with metrifonate, artesunate, or mefloquine. A Cochrane review found tentative evidence that when used alone, metrifonate was as effective as praziquantel. Mefloquine, which has previously been used to treat and prevent malaria, was recognised in 2008–2009 to be effective against schistosomes.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Historically, antimony potassium tartrate remained the treatment of choice for schistosomiasis until the development of praziquantel in the 1980s.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Osteopontin (OPN) is a promising tool for monitoring praziquantel efficacy and post-treatment fibrosis regression as (OPN) expression is modulated by "S. mansoni" egg antigens and its levels correlate with severity of schistosomiasis fibrosis and portal hypertension in mice and humans. Praziquantel pharmacotherapy reduces systemic OPN levels and liver collagen content in mice.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The disease is found in tropical countries in Africa, the Caribbean, eastern South America, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. "S. mansoni" is found in parts of South America and the Caribbean, Africa, and the Middle East; "S. haematobium" in Africa and the Middle East; and "S. japonicum" in the Far East. "S. mekongi" and "S. intercalatum" are found locally in Southeast Asia and central West Africa, respectively.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The disease is endemic in about 75 developing countries and mainly affects people living in rural agricultural and peri-urban areas.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: In 2010, approximately 238 million people were infected with schistosomiasis, 85 percent of whom live in Africa. An earlier estimate from 2006 had put the figure at 200 million people infected. As of the latest WHO record, 236.6 million people were infected in 2019. In many of the affected areas, schistosomiasis infects a large proportion of children under 14 years of age. An estimated 600 to 700 million people worldwide are at risk from the disease because they live in countries where the organism is common. In 2012, 249 million people were in need of treatment to prevent the disease. This likely makes it the most common parasitic infection with malaria second and causing about 207 million cases in 2013.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: "S. haematobium", the infectious agent responsible for urogenital schistosomiasis, infects over 112 million people annually in Sub-Saharan Africa alone. It is responsible for 32 million cases of dysuria, 10 million cases of hydronephrosis, and 150,000 deaths from kidney failure annually, making "S. haematobium" the world's deadliest schistosome.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Estimates regarding the number of deaths vary. Worldwide, the Global Burden of Disease Study issued in 2010 estimated 12,000 direct deaths while the WHO in 2014 estimated more than 200,000 annual deaths related to schistosomiasis. Another 20 million have severe consequences from the disease. It is the most deadly of the neglected tropical diseases.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The most ancient evidence of schistosomiasis dates back to more than 6000 years ago. Studies conducted on human skeletal remains found in northern Syria (5800–4000 BC), demonstrated the evidence of a terminal spined schistosome from the pelvic sediment of skeletal remains. Even if these evidence comes from Syria, it has been suggested that the 'cradle' of schistosomes lies in the region of African Great Lakes, an area in which both the parasites and their intermediate hosts are in an active state of evolution. Subsequently, it is believed that schistosomiasis have spread to Egypt as a result of the importation of monkeys and slaves during reign of the fifth dynasty of Pharaohs (~ 2494–2345 BC).


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Schistosomiasis is known as bilharzia or bilharziosis in many countries, after German physician Theodor Bilharz, who first described the cause of urinary schistosomiasis in 1851.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: The first physician who described the entire disease cycle was the Brazilian parasitologist Pirajá da Silva in 1908. The earliest known case of infection was discovered in 2014, belonging to a child who lived 6,200 years ago.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: In 2016 more than 200 million people needed treatment but only 88 million people were actually treated for schistosomiasis.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Schistosomiasis is named for the genus of parasitic flatworm "Schistosoma", whose name means 'split body'. The name Bilharzia comes from Theodor Bilharz, a German pathologist working in Egypt in 1851 who first discovered these worms.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Schistosomiasis is endemic in Egypt, exacerbated by the country's dam and irrigation projects along the Nile. From the late 1950s through the early 1980s, infected villagers were treated with repeated injections of tartar emetic. Epidemiological evidence suggests that this campaign unintentionally contributed to the spread of hepatitis C via unclean needles. Egypt has the world's highest hepatitis C infection rate, and the infection rates in various regions of the country closely track the timing and intensity of the anti-schistosomiasis campaign. From ancient times to the early 20th century, schistosomiasis' symptom of blood in the urine was seen as a male version of menstruation in Egypt and was thus viewed as a rite of passage for boys.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: Among human parasitic diseases, schistosomiasis ranks second behind malaria in terms of socio-economic and public health importance in tropical and subtropical areas.


title: Schistosomiasis

text: A proposed vaccine against "S. haematobium" infection called "Bilhvax" underwent a phase 3 clinical trial among children in Senegal. The results, reported in 2018, showed that it was not effective despite provoking some immune response. Using CRISPR gene editing technology, researchers decreased the symptoms due to schistosomiasis in an animal model.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mike Mentzer (November 15, 1951 – June 10, 2001) was an American IFBB professional bodybuilder, businessman and author.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mike Mentzer was born on November 15, 1951, in Ephrata, Pennsylvania. In grammar school and Ephrata High School, he received "all A's", He credits his 12th grade teacher, Elizabeth Schaub, for his love "of language, thought, and writing." In 1975, he started attending the University of Maryland as a pre-med student where his hours away from the gym were spent in the study of "genetics, physical chemistry, and organic chemistry." After three years he left the university. He said his ultimate goal during that period was to become a psychiatrist.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mentzer started bodybuilding when he was 12 years old at a body weight of after seeing the men on the covers of several muscle magazines. His father had bought him a set of weights and an instruction booklet. The booklet suggested that he train no more than three days a week, so Mike did just that. By age 15, his body weight had reached , at which Mike could bench press . Mike's goal at the time was to look like his bodybuilding hero, Bill Pearl. After graduating high school, Mentzer served four years in the United States Air Force. It was during this time he started working out over three hours a day, six days a week.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mentzer started competing in local physique contests when he was 18 years old and attended his first contest in 1969. In 1971, Mentzer entered and won the Mr. Lancaster contest. In 1971 he suffered his worst defeat, placing 10th at the AAU Mr. America, which was won by Casey Viator. Mentzer considered his presence at this contest important later on, as he met Viator, who gave Mentzer the contact information for his trainer Arthur Jones. Due to a severe shoulder injury, he was forced to quit training from 1971 to 1974. In early 1975, however, he resumed training and returned to competition in 1975 at the Mr. America contest, placing third behind Robby Robinson and Roger Callard. Mentzer went on to win that competition the next year, in 1976. He won the 1977 North America championships in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and competed a week later at the 1977 Mr. Universe in Nîmes, France, placing second to Kal Szkalak. In 1978, Mentzer won the Mr. Universe in Acapulco, Mexico with the first and only perfect 300 score. He became a professional bodybuilder after that 1978 Universe win.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: In late 1979, Mentzer won the heavyweight class of the Mr. Olympia, again with a perfect 300 score, but he lost in the overall to Frank Zane who was awarded the title for a third time that year. In the 1980 Mr. Olympia he placed fourth (in a tie with Boyer Coe) behind Arnold Schwarzenegger, Chris Dickerson and Frank Zane.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: He retired from competitive bodybuilding after that show at the age of 29. He maintained that the contest was rigged until the day he died. While he never said he thought that he should have won, he maintained that Arnold should not have, though he eventually got on good terms with Schwarzenegger.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: In 2002, Mentzer was inducted into the IFBB Hall of Fame. He appears in the music video for the Nantucket's cover of "It's a Long Way to the Top".


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mentzer was an Objectivist and insisted that philosophy and bodybuilding are one and the same. He said "Man is an indivisible entity, an integrated unit of mind and body." Thus, his books contain as much philosophy as they do bodybuilding information.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mentzer took the bodybuilding concepts developed by Arthur Jones and attempted to perfect them. Through years of study, observation, knowledge of stress physiology, the most up-to-date scientific information available, and careful use of his reasoning abilities, Mentzer devised and successfully implemented his own theory of bodybuilding. Mentzer's theories are intended to help a drug-free person achieve his or her full genetic potential within the shortest amount of time.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: "High-Intensity Training the Mike Mentzer Way" was Mentzer's final work. In it, he detailed the principles of high intensity weight training. Weight training, he insisted, had to be brief, infrequent, and intense, to attain the best results in the shortest amount of time. "Heavy Duty II" also espouses critical thinking. In this book, Mentzer shows why people need to use their reasoning ability to live happy, mature, adult lives, and he shows readers how to go about doing so. Bodybuilding was endorsed as only one potential component of an individual's existence, encouraging many other worthwhile pursuits throughout his books.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Diet has always been as important, if not more, than weight-training for bodybuilders. However, in his book "Heavy Duty Nutrition", Mentzer demonstrated that nutrition for athletes did not need to be nearly as extreme as the bodybuilding industry would lead one to believe. His recommended diets were well balanced, and he espoused eating from all four food groups, totaling four servings each of high-quality grains and fruits, and two each of dairy and protein daily, all year-round.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mentzer believed that carbohydrates should make up the bulk of the caloric intake, 50–60%, rather than protein as others preferred. Mentzer's reasoning was simple: to build 10 pounds of muscle in a year, a total of 6000 extra calories needed to be ingested throughout the year, because one pound of muscle contains 600 calories. That averages 16 extra calories per day, and only four of them needed to be from protein—because muscle is 22% protein, about one quarter.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: While Mike Mentzer served in the US Air Force, he worked 12-hour shifts, and then followed that up with 'marathon workouts' as was the accepted standard in those days. In his first bodybuilding contest, he met the winner, Casey Viator. Mentzer learned that Viator trained in very high intensity (heavy weights for as many repetitions as possible, to total muscle fatigue), for very brief (20–45 minutes per session) and infrequent training sessions. Mentzer also learned that Viator almost exclusively worked out with the relatively new Nautilus machines, created and marketed by Arthur Jones in DeLand, Florida. Mentzer and Jones soon met and became friends.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Jones pioneered the principles of high-intensity training in the late 1960s. He emphasized the need to maintain perfectly strict form, move the weights in a slow and controlled manner, work the muscles to complete failure (positive and negative), and avoid overtraining. Casey Viator saw fantastic results training under the direction of Jones, and Mentzer became very interested in this training philosophy. Eventually, however, Mentzer concluded that even Jones was not completely applying his own principles, so Mentzer began investigating a more full application of them. He began training clients in a near-experimental manner, evaluating the perfect number of repetitions, exercises, and days of rest to achieve maximum benefits.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: For more than ten years, Mentzer's Heavy Duty program involved 7–9 sets per workout on a three-day-per-week schedule. With the advent of "modern bodybuilding" (where bodybuilders became more massive than ever before) by the early 1990s, he ultimately modified that routine until there were fewer working sets and more days of rest. His first breakthrough became known as the 'Ideal (Principled) Routine', which was a fantastic step in minimal training. Outlined in "High-Intensity Training the Mike Mentzer Way", fewer than five working sets were performed each session, and rest was emphasized, calling for 4–7 days of recovery before the next workout. According to Mentzer, biologists and physiologists since the nineteenth century have known that hypertrophy is directly related to intensity, not duration, of effort (Mentzer 2003;39). Most bodybuilding and weightlifting authorities do not take into account the severe nature of the stress imposed by heavy, strenuous resistance exercise carried to the point of positive muscular failure.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mentzer's training courses (books and audio tapes), sold through bodybuilding magazines, were extremely popular, beginning after Mentzer won the 1978 IFBB Mr. Universe contest. This contest gathered a lot of attention, because at it he became the first bodybuilder ever to receive a perfect 300 score from the judges. Some time later, Mentzer attracted more attention when he introduced Dorian Yates to high-intensity training, and put him through his first series of workouts in the early '90s. Yates went on to win the Mr. Olympia six consecutive times, from 1992 to 1997.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mentzer was an atheist, and stated in the last interview before his death that he did not believe in God, heaven, hell, or any kind of afterlife.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: While in school, Mentzer's father motivated his academic performance by providing him with various kinds of inducements, from a baseball glove to hard cash. Years later, Mike said that his father "unwittingly ... was inculcating in me an appreciation of capitalism."


title: Mike Mentzer

text: According to David M. Sears, a friend of Mentzer and an editor and publisher of his "Muscles in Minutes" book, he stated that:


title: Mike Mentzer

text: In his last interview before his death, Mentzer said he was delighted to get so many phone clients and close personal bodybuilding friends, such as Markus Reinhardt, who had been influenced by him to become Objectivists. He described Objectivism as the best philosophy ever devised. He also criticized the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, which he described as an "evil philosophy," because according to him Kant set out to destroy man's mind by undercutting his confidence in reason. He also criticized the teaching of Kantianism in schools and universities and said it's very difficult for an Objectivist philosopher with a PhD to get a job in any of the universities.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: In the late '80s, Mentzer returned to training bodybuilders and writing for "Iron Man" magazine and spent much of the 1990s regaining his stature in the bodybuilding industry. Mike had met Dorian Yates in the 1980s and made an impression on Dorian's bodybuilding career. Years later when Yates won Joe Weider's "Mr. Olympia", he credited Mike's "Heavy Duty" principles for his training. Mike, his brother Ray, and Dorian formed a clothing company called "MYM" for Mentzer Yates Mentzer, also known as "Heavy Duty Inc", in 1994. MYM was based on the success of Don Smith's "CrazeeWear" bodybuilding apparel. The three principals wanted to capitalize on the physically fit lifestyle, which today has gone mainstream. With the blessing and promotion of Joe Weider, the trio manufactured and distributed their own line of cut-and-sew sportswear.


title: Mike Mentzer

text: Mentzer died on June 10, 2001, in Rolling Hills, California. He was found dead in his apartment, due to heart complications, by his younger brother and fellow bodybuilder Ray Mentzer. Two days later, Ray died from complications from his long battle with Berger's disease.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: Ajmer Sharif Dargah (also Ajmer Dargah, Ajmer Sharif or Dargah Sharif) is a Sufi tomb ("dargah") of the revered Sufi saint, Moinuddin Chishti, located at Ajmer, Rajasthan, India. The shrine has Chishti's grave (Maqbara).


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: Ajmer Sharif Dargah is away from the main central Ajmer Railway station and 500 metres away from the Central Jail and is situated at the foot of the Taragarh hill.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: Moinuddin Chishti was a 13th-century Sufi saint and philosopher. Born in Sanjar (of modern-day Iran), or in Sijistan, he arrived in Delhi during the reign of the Sultan Iltutmish (d. 1236). Moinuddin moved from Delhi to Ajmer shortly thereafter, at which point he became increasingly influenced by the writings of the famous Sunni Hanbali scholar and mystic ʿAbdallāh Anṣārī (d. 1088), whose famous work on the lives of the early Islamic saints, the "Ṭabāqāt al-ṣūfiyya", may have played a role in shaping Moinuddin's worldview. It was during his time in Ajmer that Moinuiddin acquired the reputation of being a charismatic and compassionate spiritual preacher and teacher; and biographical accounts of his life written after his death report that he received the gifts of many "spiritual marvels ("karāmāt"), such as miraculous travel, clairvoyance, and visions of angels" in these years of his life.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: Moinuddin seems to have been unanimously regarded as a great saint after his passing. The tomb ("dargāh") of Muʿīn al-Dīn became a deeply venerated site in the century following the preacher's death in March 1236. Honoured by members of all social classes, the tomb was treated with great respect by the era's most important Sunni rulers. The 13th-century Sultan of Delhi Iltutmish paid a famous visit to the tomb in 1232 to commemorate the memory of the saint. In a similar way, the later Mughal Emperor Akbar (d. 1605) visited the shrine no less than fourteen times during his reign. He also made a pilgrimage to this tomb in 1566, with his Hindu consort, Mariam-uz-Zamani barefoot in the hopes of having sons born to them. He also reconstructed the tomb's sanctum sanctorum in 1579. Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Jahanara later renovated the structure. An elegant covering over the "dargah" was constructed in 1800 by the Maharaja of Baroda.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: Local and national rulers came to pray here, the "dargah" grew in popularity and size over the years. Razia Sultana, Nasiruddin Mahmud, Muhammad bin Tughluq, Sher Shah Suri, and Akbar, Mariam-uz-Zamani and his descendants Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb, Dara Shikoh and Jahanara Begum were known to have visited the shrine.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: In the present day, the tomb of Moinuddin Chishti continues to be one of the most popular sites of religious visitation for Sunni Muslims in the Indian subcontinent, with over "hundreds of thousands of people from all over the Indian sub-continent assembling there on the occasion of [the saint's] "ʿurs" or death anniversary." Additionally, the site also attracts many Hindus, who have also venerated the Islamic saint since the medieval period.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: In 2019, the Hindustan Zinc Limited decided to renovate the complex under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, including many plans specifically targeted at sanitation and hygiene.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: The white marble dome of Chishti's shrine, as seen today, was built in 1532. This date is inscribed in golden letters on the Northern wall of the dargah. It is an example of Indo-Islamic architecture and the dome features a lotus and a crown of gold, donated by Rampur's Nawab Haider Ali Khan. It is located in the Ihaata Noorani () of the complex. Materials used to build it include marble, brick and sandstone. The dargah has a royal darbar, Mehfil Khana, that was constructed in 1888. It is a square structure and has a patterned ceiling. Jahanara Begum donated the dargah's left facet (Begumi Dalaan), the railing around the dargah and also constructed a small platform, the Begumi Chabutra. The sanctum of the dargah has two doors. The canopy made of mother-of-pearl and silver was commissioned by Jahangir and is visible from the cenotaph's four silver posts. The ceiling is etched with gold and in 1888, the walls were gilded.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: The complex has multiple structures and has eight entrance gates. However, only three of these are in use. The Nizam Gate, a yellow structure with floral designs, is the main gate and was donated by the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad Mir Osman Ali Khan in 1911. An older gate, the Shahjahani Gate, was donated by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. It marked the expansion of the shrine complex beyond the Buland Darwaza, built by Sultan Mahmud Khalji. Other gates include the Madar Gate and the Delhi Gate. The Jannati Darwaza is a door made of silver that is used only on rare occasions. It is also referred to as the Bihisti Darwaza.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: The complex has eight tombs besides that of Chishti, belonging to members of his family. Some of these include Chishti's daughter Bibi Hafiza Jamal and Nizam Sikka, who was a water-carrier who saved Humayun's life. A huge chandelier, Sahn Chirag, was commissioned by Akbar. The "Ahaat-e-Noor" is a large courtyard where religious functions are held and "qawwalis" are sung. Near the Nizam Gate is the "Naqqar Khana" () where music was once played from to greet visitors. A large silver chandelier was donated by the Golden Temple. The Akbari Mosque is made of red sandstone and was probably commissioned by Akbar. A more elegant mosque was commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1637 and is called the Jami Masjid. It is made of white marble. The Sandali Masjid was constructed by Aurangzeb. The complex also has a Langar Khana and a Mahfil Khana (assembly hall for "qawwals", opened only during the urs). The Jhalara is a natural tank of water that is used by pilgrims. Other tanks were donated by Shah Jahan and Queen Mary of Teck in 1911.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: The Jami Masjid is located to the west of the dargah, while the large marble courtyard is located on its eastern side. The Arhat-i-Noor is an enclosure restricted to women that is located on the southern side and houses the tombs of Chishti's daughter and granddaughter. More than 40 graves lie behind the Jami Masjid.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: In 1568, Akbar donated a deeg (cauldron) to the dargah since he made a wish to donate it after winning the battle of Chittorgarh. The deeg was made of an alloy of seven metals, one of which was brought from Colombo, Sri Lanka. The diameter of the deeg is 20 feet. The rim of the deeg was made in such a way that it never gets hot even while the bottom of the deeg is ignited and the food is being cooked. The deeg was brought on elephants as three separate parts and the three parts were reassembled there. This deeg is the biggest deeg in the world. Akbar himself prepared the first dish in this deeg, tasted it and shared it with other fakirs near the dargah. The smaller deeg was donated by Jahangir as a part of family tradition.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: The dargah has been a site for pilgrims venerated by followers of Hinduism and Islam since medieval. Pilgrims come here from around the world and offer "chaddars" (sacred sheets) to the shrine. Pilgrims also offer rose petals, which total up to seven tonnes per day. Women are allowed to enter the dargah. It has been estimated that around 20,000 pilgrims visit the site every day. After pilgrims exit the shrine, photographers from photo studios offer professional photos of the pilgrims at rates as cheap as 20. Most of these photographers are Hindus who migrated to Ajmer during the Partition of India.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: For the langar of the shrine, Akbar and Jahangir donated "degh" () in 1568 and 1614, respectively. These two "degh" are in use even today, as the "dargah" is known for its "degh ka khana" (). This is made of rice, ghee, cashew nuts, almonds and raisins. People undergo the Islamic ritual purification of "wudu", in which pilgrims wash their face, hands and feet prior to offering "namaz". The street approaching the dargah is well-known for its food, craft items and gota work.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: The daily rituals at the "dargah" are mainly the five mandatory prayers of Muslims, the "namaz". At sunset, there is the ceremony of the "Dua-e-Roshni" (), in which large yellow candles are carried to the darbar by the khadims. Following the prayers at night, "qawwalis" are sung, after which all visitors are asked to leave. Three khadims then clean the durbar with brooms made of peacock feathers. After the last person is out of the shrine, the qawwals recite the Karka, which is a musical verse in Sanskrit, Brij and Persian. The dargah is then locked and reopened only for the next day's pre-dawn prayer.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: Some attribute the influence of Islam on Indian culture to have begun from the dargah, including in Tansen's music; the tolerance practiced by Salim Chishti, Abul Fazl and Abul Faizi; and in Indo-Saracenic architecture. It has been the tradition to source the incense, sandalwood paste and ittar used in the "dargah" from a Brahmin family, right from the times of Chishti. One shrine in the "dargah" complex is revered by Sikhs.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: The death anniversary of Moinuddin Chishti, the urs, is not mourned and is celebrated since it is the day the disciple is reunited with his maker (Allah). The celebrations begin with the end of the Islamic month of Jumada al-Thani and conclude on the sixth day of the month of Rajab, a total of six days. Members of Bhilwara's Gori family march through the city towards the Nizam gate and hoist the flag on the Buland Darwaza, marking the beginning of the festival. Following this, the urs rituals begin with the sighting of the moon. This is followed by the Aser ki Namaz. Every night a mehfil-i-sama takes place at the Mahfil Khana of the complex, in which women are allowed to participate (which is not common in a dargah). The urs end with the Qul, the final prayer. During this period, pilgrims attempt to enter the dargah as many times as possible and make their prayers. The Bihisti Darwaza is made of silver and it is washed with rose water by pilgrims in the afternoon. It is believed that touching it guarantees one a place in Heaven. It is believed that roses offered to the dargah during the festival are sourced from Pushkar, a site deemed holy for Hindus.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: About five lakh people, the approximate population of the city of Ajmer, come to attend the urs. About 2700 buses of pilgrims enter the city. The Indian Railways launches a special train service, the Garib Nawaz trains, to facilitate transport for pilgrims around the country. Vishram Sthali in the Kayad locality of Ajmer serves as a place for lakhs of pilgrims to stay during this time, although every kind of accommodation is occupied with the sheer number of pilgrims. In March 2020, it was announced that a large guest house, Rubath, would be constructed in Ajmer for the same.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: On 11 October 2007, an explosion occurred in Dargah Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti's courtyard in Ajmer in Rajasthan. It was the holy fasting period of Ramazan and evening prayers had just ended. A crowd had gathered at the courtyard to break their fast. A bomb was placed inside a tiffin carrier went off. Reports said the blast claimed 7 lives and injured 17.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: Special Judge Dinesh Gupta's nearly 500-page judgment was based on testimonies of 149 witnesses and 451 document submitted to his court.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: On 22 March 2017, the National Investigation Agency (NIA) Special Court, sentenced two murderers named Bhavesh Patel and Davendra Gupta to life imprisonment, who were convicted along with Sunil Joshi, all of them ex-"pracharaks" of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. Those convicted were held guilty under the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, Explosives Act and various sections of Indian Penal Code.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: On 5 July 2022, Salman Chishti, a cleric at the Dargah, was arrested after he allegedly called for the beheading of suspended Bharatiya Janata Party spokesperson Nupur Sharma for her remarks against Muhammad.


title: Ajmer Sharif Dargah

text: The 1973 Indian film "Mere Gharib Nawaz", directed by G. Ishwar, centres around a family who overcomes adversities through their piety at the shrine of Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer. Other Indian films revolving around the dargah and the saint include "Sultan E Hind" (1973) by K. Sharif, "Mere Data Garib Nawaz" (1994) by M Gulzar Sultani.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The National Defence Academy (NDA) is the joint defence service training institute of the Indian Armed Forces, where cadets of the three services i.e. the Indian Army, the Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force train together before they go on to respective service academy for further pre-commission training. The NDA is located in Khadakwasla, Pune, Maharashtra. It is the first tri-service academy in the world.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The alumni of NDA include 3 Param Vir Chakra recipients and 12 Ashoka Chakra recipients. NDA has also produced 27 service Chiefs of Staff till date. The current Chiefs of Staff of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force are all NDA alumni from the same course. The 137th course graduated on 30 November 2019, consisting of 188 Army cadets, 38 Naval cadets, 37 Air Force cadets and 20 cadets from friendly foreign countries. The Supreme Court of India passed an order in August 2021 that allowed female candidates to appear for the all upcoming NDA entrance examination.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: At the end of the World War II, Field Marshal Claude Auchinleck, then Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, drawing on experiences of the army during the war, led a committee around the world and submitted a report to the Government of India in December 1946. The committee recommended the establishment of a Joint Services Military Academy, with training modelled on the United States Military Academy at West Point.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: After the independence of India in August 1947, the Chiefs of Staff Committee immediately implemented the recommendations of the Auchinleck report. The committee initiated an action plan in late 1947 to commission a permanent defence academy and began the search for a suitable site. It also decided to set up an interim training academy, known as the "Joint Services Wing" (JSW), which was commissioned on 1 January 1949 at the "Armed Forces Academy" (now known as the Indian Military Academy) in Dehradun. Initially, after two years of training at the JSW, Army cadets went on to the Military wing of the "Armed Forces Academy" for two years of further pre-commission training, while the Navy and Air Force cadets were sent to Britannia Royal Naval College Dartmouth and Royal Air Force College Cranwell in the United Kingdom for further training.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: In 1941, Lord Linlithgow, the then Viceroy of India, received a gift of £100,000 from a grateful Sudanese Government towards building a war memorial in recognition of the sacrifices of Indian troops in the liberation of Sudan in the East African campaign during World War II. Following partition, India's share amounted to £70,000 (Rs 14 Lakh at the time; the remaining £30,000 went to Pakistan). The Indian Army decided to use these funds to partly cover the cost of construction of the NDA. The foundation stone for the academy was laid by then Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru on 6 October 1949. Construction started in October 1949. The revised estimated cost for the whole project was Rs 6.45 crores respectively. The National Defence Academy was formally commissioned on 7 December 1954, with an inauguration ceremony held on 16 January 1955. The 10th JSW program was transferred from Clement Town, Dehradun to NDA Khadagwasla.It is the first tri-service academy in the world.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The NDA campus is located about 17 km south-west of Pune city, north-west of Khadakwasla Lake with the Sinhagad Fort providing a panoramic backdrop. It spans of the donated by the Government of former Bombay State. While many states had offered land for a permanent place for the Academy, Bombay got the honour, donating the most land including a lake and neighboring hilly terrain. The site was also chosen for its proximity to the Arabian Sea and other military establishments, an operational air base nearby at Lohagaon as well as the salubrious climate. The existence of an old combined-forces training center and a disused "mock" landing ship, "HMS Angostura", on the north bank of the Khadakwasla lake which had been used to train troops for amphibious landings, lent additional leverage for the selection of the site.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The administrative headquarters of the NDA was named the "Sudan Block", in honour of the sacrifices of Indian soldiers in the Sudan theatre during the East African campaign. It was inaugurated by then Ambassador of Sudan to India, Rahmatullah Abdulla, on 30 May 1959. The building is a 3-storey basalt and granite structure constructed with Jodhpur red sandstone. Its architecture features an exterior design comprising a blend of arches, pillars and verandahs, topped by a dome. The foyer has white Italian marble flooring and panelling on the interior walls.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: NDA has an excellent infrastructure for all-round training of cadets and a vast array of facilities like spacious and well-maintained classrooms, well-equipped labs, three Olympic size swimming pools, gymnasiums, 32 football fields, two polo grounds, a cricket stadium and a number of squash and tennis courts. The academic year is divided into two terms, viz. Spring (January to May) and Autumn (July to December). A cadet must undergo training for a total of six terms before graduating from the NDA.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The Commandant of the National Defence Academy is the head and overall in-charge of the academy. The Commandant is a three-star rank officer from the three Services in rotation. Major General Thakur Mahadeo Singh, DSO was the first commandant of JSW at IMA. Major General E Habibullah was the last head of the JSW and the First Commandant of NDA at Pune. Vice Admiral Ajay Kochhar, AVSM, NM is the present commandant.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: Applicants to the NDA are selected via a written exam conducted by the UPSC every year, followed by extensive interviews by the Services Selection Board covering general aptitude, psychological testing, team skills, leadership qualities as well as physical and social skills, along with medical tests. Incoming classes are accepted twice a year for semesters starting in July and January. About 4,00,000 applicants sit for each written exam every year. Typically, about 6,300 of these are invited to interview and finally 300-350 are selected to attend the course. The minimum age should be 16 and half years and maximum age should be 19 and half years. The number of students who were admitted to the Joint Services Wing of the National Defence Academy during 1953-54 is 572. Total application received in UPSC 6,061.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: Applicants who join the Air Force through the flying branch also go through a test called Computerized Pilot Selection System or CPSS for short.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: Cadets who are accepted and successfully complete the program are sent to their respective training academies for one year of training before granting of commission: army cadets go to Indian Military Academy (IMA) at Dehradun, air force cadets to Air Force Academy (AFA) at Dundigal, Hyderabad, and naval cadets to Indian Naval Academy (INA) at Ezhimala, Kerala.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: Each squadron has approximately 100 to 120 cadets drawn from senior as well as junior courses under training in the Academy.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: As the number of cadets joining the NDA increased annually, the Defence Ministry of India sanctioned the raising of 16th, 17th and 18th squadrons in 2012, with the initial letter of their names being "P", "Q" and "R" respectively.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The prestigious Inter Squadron Championship Trophy is awarded to the best Squadron. The champion squadron has the proud tradition of possession of the Champion banner for one term, which is carried during the parade and other sports meets. Each Squadron has its own nickname, an individual identity with a richly textured history and mascot. The rudimentary import of the NDA's motto "Service before Self" is first taught in the environs of the Squadron, where a cadet learns the importance of putting the Squadron's requirements well above his own.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The cadets in the NDA live by a strict honour code which guides them through their rigorous training schedule.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The NDA Prayer is religion agnostic. Rather than praying to God of any specific religion, the prayer has been modeled to seek blessings for performing duty to the country and remain morally straight. The prayer also seeks blessings for granting opportunities of service to the country and the men the cadets would go on to lead and over all to place 'service before self'.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The NDA offers only a full-time, residential undergraduate program. Cadets are awarded a Baccalaureate degree (a "Bachelor of Arts" or a "Bachelor of Science)" and a "Bachelor of Technology" degree for Naval Cadets after 3 years of study. Naval cadets complete their fourth year of B.Tech from Indian Naval Academy, while Air Force cadets complete their fourth year of B.Tech from the Indian Air Force Academy. Further, the Cadets have a choice of two streams of study. The "Science" stream offers studies in physics, chemistry, mathematics and computer science. The "Humanities" (Liberal Arts) stream offers studies in history, economics, political science, geography and languages.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: Cadets spend the first four semesters on the "Compulsory Course" and the "Foundation Course". They take the "Optional Course" during the fifth and sixth semesters. They may transfer to other Service academies for the optional courses.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: All the cadets joining the NDA after their 10+2 Examination are trained in the Academy for three years culminating in graduation with BA(or)BSc or BCs (Computer Science) degree of Jawaharlal Nehru University & University of Delhi; the first course to be awarded degrees was the 46th course in 1974. Apart from academic training they are also trained in outdoor skills, like Drill, PT and games; apart from one of the foreign languages up to the lower B1 level (according to the international standards).


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The Air Force Training Team (AFTT) aims at training Air Force cadets in the basics of military aviation through ground training and flying training. Ground training is conducted with the help of modern training aids, aircraft models, and cross-sectional models of aero-engines and ng consists of a minimum of eight sorties on the Super Dimona aircraft. Cadets also get exposure to deflection firing through Skeet shooting. Visits to key Air Force training establishments, Air Force Stations, and civil aviation centers are also undertaken to give cadets first-hand experience of aviation activities. Visits to Air Force Academy, Air Wing at Indian Armament Technology, Air Base at Pune, and College of Military Engineering are organized to enable the Air Force cadets to appreciate the Air Force aspects. Flying training at the AFTT is fully backed by an Automatic Weather Station, Air Traffic Control Station, a paved runway, and dispersal for six aircraft.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The AFTT was formed towards the end of 1956. The aim of the AFTT is to introduce the VI Term cadets to gliding and allied professional subjects, which in turn prepares them for their professional training in the Air Force flying establishments. Over the last 60 years, gliding training has evolved into flying training. Five different classes of gliders were acquired by the Academy since 1957. They are Sedberg T-21B, Baby Eon, Eon Olympica, Rohini and Ardhra gliders. All these gliders with the exception of the Baby Eon and Eon Olympics were utilized in the flying training of the cadets.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The Sedberg T-21B was the mainstay of the AFTT in glider flying with each cadet being permitted a total of 60 training launches, after which 2-3 mandatory Solo Check launches were flown with the Chief Flying Instructor (CFI). Cadets cleared for solo flying flew one solo trip on the glider and were then formally awarded their 'Wings', exactly half the size of the official Indian Air Force wings, which were worn above the left shirt pocket of their formal uniforms. Sandbags were used as ballast in place of the absent instructor.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The cadet who went solo with the lowest number of launches was usually awarded the Best In Gliding Trophy on the Guest Dining-in Night, one night prior to the Passing Out Parade. The Air Force cadet who stood first in Ground Subjects was awarded the Sqn Ldr Vasudev Memorial Book Prize that same night.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The induction of Super Dimona in 2001 is a watershed moment in the history of AFTT introducing a huge jump in the quality of training. A "gliderdrome" runway was widened to 100’ and extended to 5000’ from earlier dimensions of 50’X 3000’ which is maintained within the premises of the NDA by the AFTT. The Air Force cadets of the academy now learn the basics of flying training at this facility on the Diamond Super Dimona HK36 aircraft.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: Cadets are imparted with basic military skills of weapon handling, firing, field engineering, tactics and map reading. The learning imparted acts as a foundation for the army cadets for their further training at IMA and various service courses. The method of training imparted is both theoretical and practical which includes classes, lectures and demonstrations and exercises for further application of acquired knowledge on the ground.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: Camp Green Horn is conducted during the second term for cadets. Camp Rover is conducted during the fourth term for cadets.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: In the sixth term Camp Torna, ""recalling the first victory of Shivaji, a teenager"" is conducted, where practical aspects are reinforced in simulated field conditions. The cadets are provided with opportunities to demonstrate leadership qualities in various tactical situations.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The Naval Training Team (NTT) is the oldest of the Training Teams at the NDA. The main task of the Naval Training Team is to train V and VI term naval cadets on Specialist Service Subjects both theoretical and practical. Naval cadets on completion of their 3 years of training go to Indian Naval Academy (INA) as their finishing academy for 1 year, where they commence their M.Sc degree along with cadets of INA who will be doing B.Tech. From 2015 army and air force cadets get naval training as well.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: The major emphasis is laid on Navigation, Seamanship and Communication. A total of 328 theoretical classes are conducted for VI term naval cadets. Theoretical instructions are imparted in the class room at NTT and Peacock Bay by using modern teaching methodology where-in 3D models, Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) and Computer Based Training (CBT) packages, scaled down models are used. Practical instructions are imparted in the Watermanship Training Centre at Peacock bay during regular periods and during club days. TS Ronnie Pereira, the in-house scale model of a warship helps in imparting training.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: In order to orient the cadets to the navy, an orientation visit to Mumbai is conducted prior to the commencement of service training; during which the cadets visit various class of ships, submarines, shop floors, repair facilities etc. As part of the visit the naval cadets are sent to NBCD School to acquaint with fire fighting, damage control aspects. Further, to inculcate competitive spirit and adventurism amongst the cadets, VI term naval cadets are sent to Naval Academy, Ezhimala to take part in Open Sea Whaler Sailing Expedition and interact with their counterparts at the INA.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: Camp Varuna during the middle of the term to get a first-hand experience on board during sailing and Camp Varuna II at the end of the term to put the theoretical knowledge acquired at NTT into practical use during the three days' sailing. Watermanship Training Centre includes Yachting, Kayaking, Windsurfing, Rowing, Water-skiing, Ship Modeling.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: On 29 May 2021, the passing-out parade of the 140th course of the Academy was held with cadets graduating. chief of naval staff of India, Admiral Karambir Singh was the chief guest for the occasion.


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: Alumni of the academy have led and fought in every major conflict in which India has participated since the academy was established. They have an illustrious record of numerous gallantry awards and achieving 3 Param Vir Chakras, 31 Maha Vir Chakras, 160 Vir Chakra, 11 Ashok Chakras, 40 Kirti Chakras and 135 Shaurya Chakras. 11 Chiefs of Army Staff, 10 Chiefs of Naval Staff and 4 Chiefs of Air Staff of the Indian Armed Forces have been NDA alumni .


title: National Defence Academy (India)

text: "The Standard Bearers", a documentary directed and written by Dipti Bhalla and Kunal Verma provides an inside look into the history and operations of the NDA. Another documentary film, "My Flag, My Life", written by Ambarnath Sinha and directed by Nandan Khuhyadi and Sanjay Dabke, provides details about the life of NDA cadets, and is intended to create awareness about a career in the armed forces among the young generation. Books depicting NDA include the fictional ""Boots Belts Berets"" by Tanushree Podder, which is also being adapted into a web series. Outlook reported that over 1200 cadets quit NDA in ten years between January 2008 and November 2017.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: Sodomy laws in the United States, which outlawed a variety of sexual acts, were inherited from colonial laws in the 17th century. While they often targeted sexual acts between persons of the same sex, many statutes employed definitions broad enough to outlaw certain sexual acts between persons of different sexes, in some cases even including acts between married persons.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: Through the 20th century, the gradual decriminalization of American sexuality led to the elimination of sodomy laws in most states. During this time, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of sodomy laws in "Bowers v. Hardwick" in 1986. However, in 2003, the Supreme Court reversed the decision with "Lawrence v. Texas", invalidating sodomy laws in the remaining 14 states mapped as of April 2022 (Florida, Kansas, Kentucky, Georgia, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Minnesota, Maryland, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina and Texas).


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: Colin Talley argues that the sodomy statutes in colonial America in the 17th century were largely unenforced. The reason he argues is that male-male eroticism did not threaten the social structure or challenge the gendered division of labor or the patriarchal ownership of wealth. There were gay men on General Washington's staff and among the leaders of the new republic, even though in Virginia there was a maximum penalty of death for sodomy. In 1779, Thomas Jefferson tried to reduce the maximum punishment to castration. It was rejected by the Virginia legislature. Justice Anthony Kennedy authoring the majority opinion in "Lawrence v. Texas" stated that American laws targeting same-sex couples did not develop until the last third of the 20th century and also wrote that:


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: Prior to 1962, sodomy was a felony in every state, punished by a lengthy term of imprisonment and/or hard labor. In that year, the Model Penal Code (MPC) — developed by the American Law Institute to promote uniformity among the states as they modernized their statutes — struck a compromise that removed consensual sodomy from its criminal code while making it a crime to solicit for sodomy. In 1962, Illinois adopted the recommendations of the Model Penal Code and thus became the first state to remove criminal penalties for consensual sodomy from its criminal code, almost a decade before any other state. Over the years, many of the states that did not repeal their sodomy laws had enacted legislation reducing the penalty. At the time of the "Lawrence" decision in 2003, the penalty for violating a sodomy law varied very widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction among those states retaining their sodomy laws. The harshest penalties were in Idaho, where a person convicted of sodomy could earn a life sentence. Michigan followed, with a maximum penalty of 15 years' imprisonment while repeat offenders got life.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: By 2002, 36 states had repealed their sodomy laws or their courts had overturned them. By the time of the 2003 Supreme Court decision, the laws in most states were no longer enforced or were enforced very selectively. The continued existence of these rarely enforced laws on the statute books, however, are often cited as justification for discrimination against gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: On June 26, 2003, the U.S. Supreme Court in a 6–3 decision in "Lawrence v. Texas" struck down the Texas same-sex sodomy law, ruling that this private sexual conduct is protected by the liberty rights implicit in the due process clause of the United States Constitution. This decision invalidated all state sodomy laws insofar as they applied to noncommercial conduct in private between consenting civilians and reversed the Court's 1986 ruling in "Bowers v. Hardwick" that upheld Georgia's sodomy law.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: Before that 2003 ruling, 27 states, the District of Columbia, and 4 territories had repealed their sodomy laws by legislative action; 9 states had had them overturned or invalidated by state court action; 4 states still had same-sex sodomy laws; and 10 states, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. military had anti-sodomy laws applying to all regardless of sex or gender.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: In 2005, Puerto Rico repealed its sodomy law, and in 2006, Missouri repealed its law against "homosexual conduct". In 2013, Montana removed "sexual contact or sexual intercourse between two persons of the same sex" from its definition of deviate sexual conduct, Virginia repealed its lewd and lascivious cohabitation statute, and sodomy was legalized in the US armed forces.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: In 2005, basing its decision on "Lawrence", the Supreme Court of Virginia in "Martin v. Ziherl" invalidated § 18.2-344, the Virginia statute making fornication between unmarried persons a crime.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: Louisiana's statutes still include "unnatural carnal copulation by a human being with another of the same sex" in their definition of "crimes against nature", punishable (in theory) by a fine of up to $2,000 or a prison sentence of up to five years, with or without hard labor; however, this section was further mooted by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in 2005 in light of the "Lawrence" decision.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

text: In "State v. Whiteley" (2005), the North Carolina Court of Appeals ruled that the crime against nature statute, N.C. G.S. § 14-177, is not unconstitutional on its face because it may properly be used to criminalize sexual conduct involving minors, non-consensual or coercive conduct, public conduct, and prostitution.